https://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/en-USTelligent Community 13https://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/206/south-americaSat, 19 Sep 2026 12:50:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:b85e65a1-7938-4b14-9f4d-e8452085a20bJonathan EichholzTable of Contents South America Chile Argentina Other Countries of South America South America Winemaking arrived in the New World with Spanish conquistadores in the 16th century. From Mexico, where viticulture was first established in the Americas, the vine spread southward through other Spanish colonies, from Peru to Chile and Argentina by 1560. The Portuguese brought the vine to Brazil as early as 1532. Whether Spanish Catholics and missionaries hold responsibility for propagation of the vine, or colonists were simply interested in preserving a staple of their old lives, viticulture flourished in most of South America. However, despite promising early origins, South American viticulture suffered under a prohibitive 17th century Spanish law that restricted wine production (unrelated to the Church) in the New World in favor of Iberian producers. While some nascent wine-producing colonies were hindered by Spanish calls to uproot their vineyards, others, such as Chile, did their best to ignore the ban on production. The matter was settled definitively as the early 1800s brought a new era of political autonomy to former colonies, and Argentina, Chile, and Brazil (South America’s three leading wine producers) gained independence, though not without a great degree of turbulence and strife. An influx of European immigration in the 19th century, along with the development of a national rail system, resulted in a rapid expansion of viticulture in Argentina. Chile also benefited from European expertise: in 1830 the Frenchman Claudio Gay set up a Chilean repository of pre-phylloxera Vitis vinifera vines at the University of Chile’s Quinta Normal department. These vine specimens served Chile well; its geographic isolation, due to the Andes, prevented phylloxera from entering the country. Today, Chile is the only major winemaking country to remain totally phylloxera-free; in the late 1800s the country was able to capitalize on Europe’s vineyard devastation and a large domestic consumption to advance its own industry. The 20th century in South America was plagued by political and economic difficulties, and wine industries in both Chile and Argentina faced a number of challenges. The extraordinarily high domestic consumption of the early 20th century in both countries fell throughout the second half of the century; Argentineans were drinking nearly 90 liters of wine per person annually in the early 1970s, but by the late 1990s consumption dropped by over half. Throughout much of the 20th century, protective state policies prevented Chilean wine producers from participating in an international market, but foreign investment began to pour in during the 1980s, and Chile began to aggressively export its wines. Argentinean winemakers, beleaguered by economic woes, hyperinflation, and a sudden drop in domestic demand in the 1980s, looked to Chile’s recent success for inspiration, and began to focus on quality wine production meant for international markets. Chile has developed a reputation for quality varietal wines at value prices, as well as a number of super-premium red blends—often the product of joint projects between Chile’s great domestic houses and some of the more lauded names of Bordeaux and California. Argentina, meanwhile, touts its status as the world’s fifth largest wine-producing country, and owes a great deal of its successes to the appeal of the Malbec grape. One of the earliest grapes to arrive in the Americas was the black Mission grape. While it is often suggested that the Spanish planted this vine from seed, modern DNA research has revealed that Mission is identical to a grape found in the Canary Islands, Listán Prieto, and that it originated in Spain itself. Various offshoots from the grape provided early viticultural material for Central and South America, and even California. Until the 21st century, País (the Chilean synonym for the Mission grape) was the most planted grape in Chile. The grape, known as Criolla Chica in Argentina, played a similarly important role in historical viticulture, although plantings are not prevalent today. Two related grapes, the pink-skinned Cereza and Criolla Grande, while on the decline, still account for huge swaths of vineyard—Cereza was, until very recently, Argentina’s most planted grape. International varieties in both countries are rapidly increasing, led by Cabernet Sauvignon in Chile and Malbec in Argentina. Argentina successfully forged an international reputation for red varietal wines produced from Malbec, a previously overlooked Bordeaux blending variety introduced into the country in 1860. The country’s winemakers hope for similar success with Torrontés Riojano, a unique, highly aromatic crossing of Criolla Chica x Muscat of Alexandria. Two other varieties, Torrontés Mendocino and Torrontés Sanjuanino, may be labeled as "Torrontés" but they tend to produce lower quality wines. Torrontés Sanjuanino is also a Criolla Chica x Muscat of Alexandria crossing, and Torrontés Mendocino is a crossing of Muscat and an as-yet-unidentified other grape. Chile, on the other hand, has had mixed success with the development of a similarly popular and distinctive variety with which it can be readily identified. Part of the problem may stem from Chile’s own confusion over what is actually planted in the nation’s vineyards: ampelographical research determined that much of Chile’s Sauvignon Blanc was actually Sauvignon Vert, or Friulano, and a significant portion of the country’s Merlot turned out to be Carmenère, the sixth “lost” grape of Bordeaux. Many Chilean producers consider Carmenère to be the nation’s claim to a unique varietal expression, but the grape’s tendency to show pronounced green flavors has heretofore prevented it from capturing the public imagination to the same degree as Argentinean Malbec. BACK TO TOP Chile Chile stretches for nearly 3,000 miles up the west coast of South America, separated from the remainder of the continent by the Andes Mountains. Viticulture occupies around 800 of these coastal miles, with most major regions of production to the south of the capital city, Santiago. From north to south, the six regional Denominations of Origin (DOs) in Chile are Atacama, Coquimbo, Aconcagua, the Valle Central (Central Valley), Sur (the Southern Regions), and a new area at the southernmost limit of grapegrowing in the country, the Austral Region . Even with moderating maritime influence, Chile’s climate varies enormously from the northern to southern latitudes. The northernmost regions of Atacama and Coquimbo are dry and desert-like, with grapes historically destined for Pisco production or the table. The country’s most suitable vineyards for fine wine are mostly situated in the Central Valley to the south of Santiago, where the proximity of the Andes cools nighttime temperatures, and along the coast, where the cold, maritime Humboldt Current cools the vines. Although the Coastal Mountains (between the Central Valley and the Pacific) provide some shelter, the Humboldt Current forces cool sea air inland through the river valleys to affect the Central Valley vineyards during the day. While neither zone is as dry as the deserts to the north, irrigation is still essential in both the Central Valley and Aconcagua. In the country’s southernmost areas of viticulture, rainfall is higher and the overall growing season is cooler and shorter. Significant variations in altitude exist in most of Chile’s major regions, as vineyard plantings climb from the coast into the Coastal Ranges, and from the valleys into the Andean foothills. Chilean wine law, established in 1995, instituted the 75% rule: vintage, variety, and denomination of origin must, if listed on the bottle, comprise a minimum 75% of the blend. Many wineries observe an 85% minimum for all three categories, in order to comply with EU standards for export. Only permitted varieties may be used, and hybrid grapes are forbidden. Chilean law requires all wines to show a minimum alcohol content of 11.5%. Wines labeled Reserva and Reserva Especial must have a minimum 12% abv, and wines labeled Reserva Privada and Gran Reserva require a minimum 12.5% abv. In addition, Reserva Especial and Gran Reserva wines spend mandatory time in oak. Leading grape varieties in Chile after Cabernet Sauvignon include Sauvignon Blanc (and Sauvignon Vert), Merlot, Chardonnay, Carmenère, and Syrah. Muscat of Alexandria retains a large share of plantings, but the grape is used chiefly for distillation. Red grapes account for over 70% of the total acreage in Chile. In Atacama , the northernmost winegrowing region in Chile, viticulture is only possible through irrigation, and the region’s wines are generally distilled. Pisco and table grape production is also prominent in Coquimbo , but the region’s two northern valleys—Elqui and Limarí—are starting to develop a reputation for their wines, and vineyard acreage devoted to wine grapes has dramatically increased since the 1990s. Syrah is gaining attention in the Elqui’s cool, high-altitude vineyards, while the limestone soils and cooler climate of coastal Limarí are proving to be a match for Chardonnay. Coquimbo's third subregion, Choapa, is located in a narrow area to the south, where the Andes and Coastal Mountains converge. The Aconcagua DO takes its name from the Aconcagua River, rather than the nearby Argentinean peak—the highest mountain in the Americas. The sunny, dry Aconcagua Valley subregion follows the river as it flows from the Andes to the Pacific. Soils in the Aconcagua Valley are generally alluvial, and red grapes dominate the valley’s vineyards, particularly Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot. Although much of the valley is distressingly hot for grape-growing, the commune of Panquehue, home to Errázuriz, one of Chile’s most prominent estates and winemaking families, experiences a more moderate climate. Errázuriz’s “Seña,” an iconic Bordeaux-style blend and one of the premier reds of Chile, placed ahead of both Château Lafite and Château Margaux in the 2004 Berlin Tasting—a milestone for the Chilean wine industry likened to the famous 1976 Judgment of Paris. Aconcagua's other subregions—Casablanca and San Antonio—are located along the coast, and are among Chile’s coolest new winemaking zones, in stark contrast to the heat of the interior Aconcagua Valley. With a relatively short history, Casablanca has become the Aconcagua DO’s most prominent zone of production and one of Chile’s most exciting areas for fresh, crisp and fruity Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay. The emerging area of San Antonio, directly south of Casablanca, has the DO zone of Leyda Valley and five DO areas. Like Casablanca, San Antonio is predominantly a white wine region, with Pinot Noir also showing promising results. The Central Valley DO , located between the Andes and the hills and ranges along the coast, is Chile’s oldest and most established winemaking region. From north to south, the DO’s subregions are Maipo Valley, Rapel Valley, Curicó, and Maule Valley. The warm Maipo Valley is Chile’s most famous winemaking area, and the classic region in the country for Cabernet Sauvignon. Over 50% of the region’s more than 10,000 hectares are devoted to the grape, followed by Merlot, Syrah and Carmenère. Due to its proximity to Santiago, many of Chile’s established houses are based in the region, including Concha y Toro (Chile’s largest producer), Santa Rita, and Cousiño Macul. Cabernet thrives on the well-drained, low slopes of the Andes, and some of Chile’s most premium red wines issue from the subregion of Puente Alto, such as Concha y Toro’s “Don Melchor” and Errázuriz’s “Viñedo Chadwick” Cabernet Sauvignon varietal wines, and “Almaviva”, a joint project between Baron Philippe de Rothschild (Mouton-Rothschild) and Concha y Toro. The 2000 “Viñedo Chadwick” took first place in the 2004 Berlin Tasting. The Rapel Valley, divided into Cachapoal and Colchagua, is located to the south of Maipo. Although Cabernet Sauvignon’s position as the leading grape in both regions is firmly secure, Carmenère is growing in importance, and may soon eclipse Merlot as the valley’s second most cultivated grape. Colchagua is the larger, central portion of the valley, and is characterized by a warm climate and fertile soils. Although Colchagua is historically a bulk wine region, producers are finding success with premium wines sourced from higher-altitude eastern subregions with greater diurnal variation, such as San Fernando and Chimbarongo. Two areas were elevated to DO status in 2018: Los Lingues and Apalta. The latter, in eastern Colchagua, is the source of Casa Lapostolle’s “Clos Apalta” and Viña Montes “Alpha M,” two of Chile’s iconic Bordeaux-style blends. Viña Montes also produces “Purple Angel,” one of Chile’s highest-profile Carmenère varietal wines, from Colchagua fruit. Colchagua Chile. The Maule Valley and Curicó comprise the remainder of the Central Valley DO. Maule, one of Chile’s largest regions, has much more vineyard acreage than the Maipo Valley, but the quality is variable. Although Cabernet recently overtook País as the region’s most planted grape, bulk wines meant for local consumption still comprise a large share of the Maule Valley’s output. Curicó, with its two DO zones of Lontué and Teno, achieved some international recognition when Miguel Torres set up Chilean operations here in the late 1970s. Cabernet Sauvignon again dominates the vineyards, but a range of red and white grapes are represented, including Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay. Chile’s Southern Regions DO (Sur) contains three valleys: Itata, Bío Bío, and the southernmost Malleco. Cultivation is sparser in these southern valleys, and País and Muscat de Alexandria are the most planted grapes in both Itata and Bío Bío—nearly 6,000 acres of the Muscat variety in the Southern Regions, while on the decline, account for its status as Chile’s third most planted white variety, after Sauvignon (Blanc and Vert) and Chardonnay. Malleco is a tiny region, with just a few hectares of Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. In 2024, Chile continues to push the boundaries of viticulture as they approved two DOs in new portions of the country. Rapa Nui DO in the Pacific Ocean and Chiloé DO in Patagonia. All of the aforementioned DOs have a north-south orientation. In 2012, the Chilean Ministry of Agriculture amended wine law to support three new geographic terms: Costa, Entre Cordilleras, and Andes. On labels, producers may now append pre-existing DOs with one of these three new designations, which signify the proximity of a vineyard to the coast (Costa) or to the mountains (Andes). Entre Cordilleras ("between mountains") describes the valley areas between the coastal range and the Andes, a region in which over three-quarters of Chilean wine grapes are grown. In order for a wine to qualify for one of the new designations, at least 85% of the grapes must be harvested in the appropriate region. The enormous influence wielded by the sea and Chile's mountains upon viticulture is thrust into the limelight with these new geographic indications, but, as with most changes to appellation systems, early criticism of its meaningfulness to the consumer is robust. BACK TO TOP Argentina As of 2018, Argentina is the world’s fifth largest wine producer in the world and the tenth largest wine exporter. The country’s vineyards are mostly confined to the western sector of the country, in the plains and foothills near the Andes, where they experience a continental climate. In the rain shadow of the Andes, Argentina’s wine producing regions are very dry, a condition exacerbated by the Zonda, a fierce, dusty, hot afternoon wind that blows down from the mountains in the late spring and early summer, sometimes adversely affecting flowering. The general lack of humidity in most Argentinean winegrowing regions keeps vineyards free of fungal problems, and snowmelt provides plentiful water for irrigation—in those years that the Andes receive heavy winter snowfall. Unfortunately, the little moisture that does precipitate in the vineyards often comes in the form of dangerous spring and summer hail. As expected in a continental climate, summer temperatures can reach 100° F and above, although the country’s higher elevation vineyards—some of the world’s highest vines (3,000 meters above sea level) are located in Salta, at Donald Hess’ Colomé estate—serve to mitigate such extreme highs and prolong the growing season. As Argentinean vineyards are generally situated on the slopes of the Andean foothills and plains, the average national elevation for vineyards is approximately 900 meters above sea level. The lack of major nearby urban centers keeps Argentinean vineyards rather free from the effects of pollution; the Maipo, just across the mountains, is covered in Santiago’s smog by comparison. In descending order of importance, the country’s most important red grapes include the flagship Malbec, Bonarda, Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Merlot, and Tempranillo. Argentina ’ s Bonarda, the country ’ s second most planted red grape, is genetically distinct from the Northern Italian grape of the same name, but recent DNA studies have identified it as Savoie's Corbeau—a variety known as Charbono in the United States. The country’s most planted white grape is Pedro Giménez, a variety unrelated to Spain’s Pedro Ximénez, a blending grape often mainly suitable for bulk wines or grape concentrate. The distinctive, floral Torrontés is second among white grapes, followed by Chardonnay and Chenin Blanc. The Mendoza Chardonnay clone, developed at the University of California at Davis, has become popular throughout the country; despite being prone to millerandage the resulting grapes have a greater skin-to-juice ratio . Pink-skinned varieties, including Cereza, Criolla Chica, and Criolla Grande, occupy nearly 30% of the nation’s vineyard acreage. When working with premium wine grapes (such as Malbec or Gewürztraminer, but not Cereza, winemakers have the option of labeling both red and white wines as Reserva or Gran Reserva . Reserva implies a minimum 6 months of aging for white wines and one year for reds; Gran Reserva indicates at least one year for whites and two for reds. These two new designations, introduced in 2008, also limit maximum yields. The winemaking areas of Argentina are divided among the northwestern provinces, the central provinces of Cuyo, and the southern provinces of Patagonia. Approximately three-quarters of the country’s entire wine production occurs in the province of Mendoza in Cuyo, where more than 150,000 hectares are cultivated. To the north, the province of Salta, despite fewer than 3,000 total hectares under vine, is gaining a reputation for high-altitude Torrontés—a variety prone to high alcohol levels at lower, hotter elevations. Red grapes, such as Malbec and Cabernet Sauvignon, are also successful in the cooler mountain climate. Cafayate is a promising department within Salta, and is increasingly appearing on bottles of Torrontés—Susana Balbo’s “Crios” is a widely exported hallmark of the style. Etchart, the winery that first brought Michel Rolland to Argentina, and Yacochuya, Arnaldo Etchart's new project, are two prominent producers based in Cafayate. In the province of Catamarca, located directly south of Salta, Torrontés, Syrah, Malbec, and Cabernet Sauvignon lead in acreage. Cuyo comprises the wine-producing provinces of Mendoza, La Rioja, and San Juan. La Rioja is the northernmost of the three provinces; its most famous wine region is the Famatina Valley. Torrontés is again the most cultivated grape, followed by Malbec. Although production is significantly higher than in the northern provinces, La Rioja’s output is dwarfed by the massive production of Mendoza and San Juan to the south. San Juan, Argentina’s second-largest wine-producing province, has more than 45,000 hectares under vine in the Tulum, Zonda, Ullum, Jáchal, Calingasta, Pedernal and Fértil Valleys. Much of this acreage has historically been devoted to Argentina’s pink-skinned varieties, although Syrah and Bonarda—sometimes confusingly called Barbera Bonarda—are capturing critical attention. San Juan’s hot summer climate is ideal for grapes destined for brandy and vermouth production, and the region’s sherry-style wines are reasonably good in quality. Mendoza, the center of the Argentinean wine industry, is broadly divided into North, Central (Primera Zona), South, and East sectors, and the Uco Valley—a western subregion and home to the province’s highest vineyards. Soils in the region are generally comprised of loose, alluvial sand over clay, a structure that, when coupled with the gale-force Zonda wind, helps to keep phylloxera and other diseases at bay. As in Chile, almost all vines in Mendoza are planted on their own rootstock. The climate is desert-like, and irrigation is absolutely necessary, whether in the traditional form of furrow irrigation—a technique developed centuries ago by the Incas, in which the rivers' water, swelled by Andes snowmelt, is directed through the vineyards in channels—or by more modern methods of drip irrigation. Red grapes account for over half of the entire province’s acreage; Malbec, the most planted grape, covers around 35,000 hectares of vineyard. Despite being planted in Cahors, Bordeaux, and the Loire Valley, the grape achieves its most classic and identifiable varietal expression in Mendoza, offering brambly black and red mountain fruit tones, rich and robust texture, and sweet floral tones. The wines usually undergo some degree of French and/or American oak treatment, with some of the more serious examples, such as the single-vineyard Achaval Ferrer wines, spending over a year in 100% new barrels. In some applications, such as the blended Cheval des Andes, Malbec may convey a texture and style reminiscent of velvety Pomerol; other offerings are simpler, fresher, and best enjoyed in youth. The departments of Luján de Cuyo (one of Argentina’s two DOCs, authorized only for Malbec wines) and Maipú, in Central Mendoza, provide some of the best traditional sites for the grape. Highly regarded estates include Catena, Susana Balbo’s Dominio del Plata, Bressia, and Achával Ferrer. In addition to Malbec, Cabernet Sauvignon is finding complexity and popularity here at roughly 7% of the acreage. While white grapes, such as Chardonnay and Sémillon, are cultivated with success in the high elevation vineyards of Uco Valley and its Tupungato department. In Southern Mendoza's department of San Rafael DOC, Malbec is the principal grape. Southern Mendoza is also home to General Alvear, which focuses on the Criolla varieties and is not known for fine wines. Criolla Grande and Cereza still account for about 20% of the plantings in Mendoza, but they are relegated to bulk wine and grape concentrate production, and are losing acreage to a plethora of international and Italian varieties. South of Mendoza, the winemaking provinces of Patagonia are Río Negro, Neuquén, and Chubut. These are smaller regions of production, and markedly cooler than those to the north. White grapes, such as Torrontés and Sémillon, perform well in the provinces’ chalky soils and longer growing seasons, although cool-climate, elegant versions of Malbec, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Pinot Noir are promising. Bodegas Chacra, spearheaded by the family behind Tuscany’s Sassicaia, rapidly emerged as Patagonia’s most famous estate in the mid-2000s, selling super-premium Río Negro Pinot Noir. Bodega Noemía de Patagonia, another premier producer in the province, is winning acclaim for Malbec. La Pampa, an adjacent province to the north of Río Negro, is an emerging area for wine. BACK TO TOP Other Countries of South and Central America Beyond Chile and Argentina, viticulture is gaining steam in Brazil and Uruguay. Brazil’s production is predominantly red, although nearly a quarter of the country’s output is sparkling, and the country has attracted significant foreign investment, including the Champagne firm Moët et Chandon. Most of the country’s viticultural activity takes place in the southern state of Rio Grande do Sul, on the Argentinean border. Within Rio Grande do Sul, Serra Gaúcha is the country's most developed viticultural region and accounts for approximately 90% of Brazilian wine. Other southern regions include São Joaquim, Serra do Sudeste, and Campanha. São Francisco Valley is a tropical winegrowing region in the northern part of the country, where growers are able to harvest twice a year. A new system of Origin Indications in Brazil is unique among New World countries; both yields and grape varieties are restricted in the manner of European appellations. Vale dos Vinhedos , a subregion within Serra Gaúcha, received Brazil’s first Origin Indication in 2002. Bordeaux and other international grapes are planted in Brazil, alongside Iberian varieties like Aragonez and Touriga Nacional. Uruguay, South America’s fourth largest producer, exports over half of its production to Brazil. Tannat—rechristened Harriague, after Don Pascual Harriague, the Frenchman who introduced the grape to Uruguay—is the dominant red variety for quality wines. Smaller wine industries exist in Paraguay, Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador. BACK TO TOPPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/210/portugalSun, 13 Sep 2026 22:37:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:3877e90a-b14d-4210-bd78-bd470ce3d33cJonathan EichholzTable of Contents Portugal The History of Port, Madeira and Portuguese Wine Portuguese Wine Classifications and Grape Varieties Minho and Vinho Verde Transmontano Duriense: Douro and Porto Beiras Lisboa Península de Setúbal Tejo and Alentejano Algarve Açores Terras Madeirenses Portugal Portugal ranks as the world’s 10th largest producer of wine; the country is 1st in the world in per capita consumption. Although its fame in the world of wine rests squarely on the shoulders of two great fortified wines, the country is rapidly developing an arsenal of modern table wines, sourced from a diverse array of over 250 unique native varieties. Worldwide decline in the sales (and interest) of fortified wines has prompted Portuguese producers to look beyond Port and Madeira in an effort to compete, but years of geographical and—until the last decades of the 20th century—political isolation have left an inscrutable, perplexing vineyard terrain. Rather than adopt the same international varieties that characterize newer winemaking regions worldwide, Portuguese producers instead look to their own bounty of grapes and traditions. New research continues to identify the best indigenous varieties and clonal selections for quality table wines, and technological advancements in the winery allow Portugal’s table wines to overcome past criticisms of rapid oxidation and rusticity. BACK TO TOP The History of Port, Madeira, and Portuguese Wine The history of wine in Portugal closely parallels that of its Iberian neighbor Spain through the Age of Exploration. Wine in Portugal predates the Phoenicians, Greeks, Celts, and Romans, each of whom arrived in turn prior to the Common Era. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the ensuing Germanic and Moorish conquests of the region frustrated—but did not eradicate—viticulture. Portugal expelled the Moors and affirmed its national identity by 1250, over two centuries before Spain would conclude its Reconquista . In 1386, Portugal signed the Treaty of Windsor with England, establishing a diplomatic alliance that would pave the way for extensive trade between the two kingdoms. Portugal emerged from the Middle Ages with great interest in maritime trading routes and exploration, and developed the first great navy in modern Europe. At Prince Henry the Navigator’s instigation, Portuguese sailors explored the African Coast and discovered the Madeira archipelago in 1419, nearly 625 miles from the Portuguese mainland. The Portuguese colonized Madeira, the “isle of woods,” and promptly set fire to the forests to make it suitable for agriculture. Legend reports that the fires burned for seven years, consuming the entire island, although modern residents scoff at the suggestion. Madeira became an important port of call for ships heading either eastward toward India or westward toward the New World, as captains filled their ships with fresh food, sugar, and wine. In 1678, two Englishmen arrived in Lamego, a mountain town in the Douro Valley, and discovered Porto (Port), a sweet, fortified vinous concoction produced at a local monastery. The abbot of Lamego practiced mutage , arresting the fermentation of his wines with brandy while sugar was still present. The Englishmen sent the wines home to Liverpool, where the strength and richness of Port, nicknamed blackstrap, earned it wide popularity. War and trade embargoes with France at the end of the 17th century resulted in a boom for sales of Douro wines. A 1679 ban on French wines sales in England was lifted in 1685, only to be reinstated in 1688. The English replaced the total ban with heavy tariffs in 1697, and in 1703 signed the Treaty of Methuen with Portugal, establishing a long-lasting trade agreement between the two nations and preferential tariffs for Portuguese wines. The English had relied on the light reds of the Minho River Valley in northern Portugal as an alternative to claret since the early 12th century, but had always considered French wines superior. Port was, in style and strength, a wine that could rouse English tastes; the introduction of Port coincided not only with England’s difficulties with France, but also with Western Europe’s rising interest in sweetness, predicated by new trade with the West Indies. The concern over durability—a long voyage from Portugal to England created many opportunities for spoilage—led many Douro shippers to steadily adopt the practice of fortification throughout the 1700s. In 1678, the year the English discovered Port, Portuguese exports accounted for only 427 tuns (one tun equals an approximate 954 liters); in 1685 the English imported 14,000 tuns. By the mid-18th century, Portuguese wine accounted for nearly two-thirds of all imported wine in England, and Port was its most desirable product. Christiano Kopke, a German, founded the house of Kopke in 1638, four decades before the first recorded shipment of Porto to England, but the English market drove the wine’s fame and popularity. The English had established the Douro houses Warre & Co., Croft and Taylor’s by 1700, and in the decades after the Treaty of Methuen the English appetite for Douro wines grew rapaciously. The houses in Douro simply could not meet demand and many resorted to fraudulent practices to satisfy English thirsts: merchants aromatized wines, added excessive amounts of sugar and alcohol, and achieved deeper color with the addition of elderberry—a technique perhaps borrowed from the Champenoise. The English reacted with their wallets, and in the 1740s and 1750s the price of Port in England dropped precipitously. To restore English confidence and protect its own economic interests, the Portuguese government created the Companhia Geral dos Vinhos do Alto Douro, or Douro Wine Company. Charged with eliminating fraud and installing regulatory measures, the Douro Wine Company formally established the boundaries and practices of the Douro appellation in 1756. The Douro Wine Company developed a methodology for grading Port vineyards and authorized each individual farmer’s production allotment relative to the vineyard’s grade. Between 1758 and 1761, the 335 best vineyards were classified as feitoria and marked with stones, signifying fruit reserved for the English market. Lesser vineyards ( rama ) provided domestic wines. Although the reputation of the wine was saved, the British merchants—many of whom were responsible for perpetrating fraud in the first place—forfeited a measure of control over the trade. The Douro Wine Company now regulated grape prices, fixed pricing on the finished wines, managed exports and monopolized the sale of Portuguese brandy ( aguardente ) used in the fortification process. The company, whose dual role as a regulator and a shipper of wine caused stern criticism, survives as the Royal Oporto Wine Company, but its regulatory functions were lost over time. Today, the government-run Douro Port Wine Institute (IVDP) manages the appellation and its regulations. As Port became the favored Portuguese wine in England, Madeira’s British wine merchants developed a prosperous colonial trade—particularly with the English North American colonies and Brazil. By the middle of the 18th century, most Madeira wine was fortified to sustain its character over the long passage at sea, but a curious transformation occurred: as the pipes of Madeira completed their transatlantic voyage through the tropics, they were subject to wide temperature fluctuations, which heated and oxidized the contents, resulting in a distinctive character. Ship captains were even persuaded to use Madeira pipes as ballast, and Vinhos ao Roda —wines that had undergone the torna viagem (round trip) across the Atlantic, or to the East Indies and back—sold for much higher prices than Vinhos Canteiro , the wines that matured on the island. Although the estufagem process began to replace the lengthy voyage in the early 1800s, a few wines were deliberately, if impractically, matured at sea until the 1900s. Attributed by Shakespeare as the liquid in which the Duke of Clarence was sentenced to be drowned in, in 1478, fulfilling his sentence for treason against the King of England, a glass of Madeira was raised to commemorate both the signing of the Declaration of Independence and George Washington’s inauguration. The first President supposedly drank a pint of Madeira daily, and as colonial troops and Americans loyal to the crown fled the newborn country after the Revolutionary War, they took their love of the wine to England with them. Madeira, Port—which provided half of England’s wine in 1800—and the wines of Portugal in general reached their apex in the marketplace by the first decade of the 19th century. The French and Spanish invaded Portugal in 1807 to disrupt the country’s trade with England, and although vineyards themselves sustained relatively little damage, the production quality and prices were greatly affected, signaling new doubts abroad about the integrity of the wines. After Napoleon’s defeat and exile, Britain reopened trade with the European Continent and Portuguese wines steadily lost market share to French and Spanish wines, and even beer. Spanish Sherry replaced Port as England’s fortified wine of choice by the late 1800s. Portuguese producers attempted to replace losses in the waning British market with monopolistic controls over Portugal’s New World colonies, but these markets were steadily lost to independence movements. The American Civil War of 1861-1865 portended a significant decline in imports of Madeira wines—and a newly energized Russian market would provide only a temporary respite, reduced by revolution in the early 20th century. Powdery and downy mildew both struck Portugal in the 1850s, and phylloxera entered the Douro in 1867. The cumulative effect was devastative—only Colares, near Lisboa, was spared from the root louse. Portugal turned inward. Many vineyards were not replanted in the wake of phylloxera; during this time the cork industry took root in Portugal, and the country remains one of the foremost suppliers of cork closures for the wine industry. In the early 20th century, Portugal moved to protect its wine-producing regions, establishing Região Demarcada status for Madeira, Dão, Vinho Verde, and other areas by 1929. However, Portugal experienced great political upheaval throughout the early 20th century, silenced in 1932 by the inception of nearly four decades of authoritarian, right-wing rule. In 1937, the Junta Nacional do Vinhos was founded, revamping the Portuguese wine industry and consolidating small vineyards into a network of larger co-operatives. As under other European autocratic regimes, the quality of wine suffered. Alongside Port, two commercial brands of sweet, semi-sparkling rosé—Mateus and Lancers—became the face of Portuguese wine worldwide after World War II. Portugal finally began to transition to democracy with a left-leaning military coup in 1974, followed by its admission into the EU in 1986. With EU membership, Portugal’s co-operatives lost their monopolistic power, and government grants and foreign investment began to pour into the country. Many small estates ( quintas) severed their ties with co-operatives and started making their own wines. Portugal devised a new appellation system in line with EU standards, designating Regiões Demarcadas as Denominação de Origem Controlada (DOC). In late 2009, the DOCs were additionally classified as Denominação de Origem Protegida (DOP), in order to maintain EU protection. Port remains the world’s most prestigious fortified wine, yet Portugal’s producers, in the Douro and elsewhere, have a number of distinctive, native varieties to explore and refine for table wines. Like Spain, many of Portugal’s wines can compete with New World examples for ripeness and fruit, yet they maintain a unique identity. Despite the country’s rich heritage of storied fortified wines, Portugal is quickly creating a new tradition of vibrant table wines. BACK TO TOP Portuguese Wine Classifications and Grape Varieties To maintain eligibility for protection in the EU, Portugal has broadly reclassified its quality wines as either Denominação de Origem Protegida (DOP) or Indicação Geogràfica Protegida (IGP). DOP is the superior classification and it includes all Denominação de Origem Controlada (DOC) wines. There are currently 31 DOPs. If the nomenclature for a DOC was altered for the coinciding DOP in order to meet EU standards, the traditional DOC may be used within Portugal. Theoretically DOP is the equivalent of the French AOP, and may apply to wines and other foods worthy of a protected designation. Individual legislation for each DOP wine prescribes allowed styles, maximum yields, minimum alcohol content, and aging requirements, if applicable. Indicação de Proveniencia Regulamentada (IPR) has been eliminated as an official category, and former IPRs have been upgraded to DOP status. The lower, or less stringent, tier of quality wines in Portugal is the Indicação Geogràfica (IG), or wines with “geographical indication”. These wines are considered IGP for the purposes of EU protection, or Vinhos Regional (VR) if traditionally labeled within Portugal. All wines in this category must include a minimum 85% of grapes grown in the stated region. A wide range of grape varieties is permitted in each IGP, and a minimum alcohol content is stipulated. IGP or VR wines are often produced in DOP regions, but fail—or their winemakers choose not—to meet all of the DOP requirements. There are fourteen IGPs in Portugal: Minho, Transmontano, Duriense, Terras do Dão, Terras de Cister, Terras da Beira, Beira Atlântico, Tejo, Lisboa, Alentejano, Península de Setúbal, Algarve, Terras Madeirenses, and Açores. Wine produced in Portugal that does not meet any of the above criteria is considered Vinhos de Mesa, or simply Vinho—table wine. If produced as vintage-dated DOP or IGP, Portuguese table wines may be labeled as garrafeira (“private wine cellar”), indicating a minimum period of aging prior to release. Tinto (red) g arrafeira wines must age for a minimum 36 months, including at least 12 months in bottle. Branco (white) and rosado garrafeira wines must age for a minimum 12 months with at least 6 in bottle. The vintage garrafeira Port style as pioneered by Niepoort has a separate connotation: Wines that are aged in cask for at least 4 years, maximum 8 years, with an additional minimum 15 years in a glass container. Still Portuguese table wines of designated origin may also be labeled reserva , indicating an alcohol content of at least 0.5% higher than the legal minimum established by the respective DOP or IGP; however, stricter requirements in individual DOPs may supersede this standard. For traditional method sparkling wines, reserva instead indicates a minimum period of 12 months on the lees prior to dégorgement . Colheita Seleccionada indicates a minimum 1% higher alcohol content than that established by the regional appellation. All of these terms may be applied to wines produced in any of Portugal’s demarcated regions. Until recently, the most widely grown red casta (“grape variety”) in Portugal was Castelão, an adaptable variety producing typically full-bodied, tannic wines with meaty, red-fruit aromas. J.M. da Fonseca, whose sister company produced the hugely popular mid-20th-century brand Lancers, brought the Castelão grape from Tejo to Terras do Sado (now the Península de Setúbal), where they began bottling the grape under the “Periquita” brand. The brand was a great success, leading other producers to adopt the “Periquita” moniker as a synonym for the grape—a convention that J.M. da Fonseca successfully contested in court. Although its cultivation is not as widespread as Castelão, Touriga Nacional is perhaps Portugal’s finest red casta . Touriga Nacional, a variety cherished for Port blends, accounts for approximately 10% of the nation’s vineyard acreage, and yields inky, full-bodied, structured wines. Despite originating in the Dão, Touriga Nacional has been supplanted by Jaen (Mencía) in plantings in the region, and it only represents a small proportion of the Douro’s total acreage. The low-yielding vine produces extremely small berries, valued for their extraction potential and concentration in the red table blends of Dão, Douro, and Alentejo. The country’s premium red table wines often contain a percentage of Touriga Nacional, lavishly treated to new French oak in the manner of Bordeaux. Synonyms include Bical Tinto and Mortágua Preto. As of 2025, Aragonez (Tinta Roriz, known as Tempranillo in Spain) has the highest acreage under vine, followed by Touriga Franca. Castelão , Touriga Nacional, Trincadeira (Tinta Amarela), and Baga are other widely cultivated and promising red grape varieties in Portugal. Fernão Pires, known as Maria Gomes in Bairrada, is the most planted white casta in the country. The early-ripening, aromatic grape is found throughout Portugal, but it is concentrated in Bairrada and the southern plains of Tejo. It is a workhorse, producing fairly simple, honeyed wines that are often prone to oxidation and low acidity. Nobler white wines are produced from the Encruzado grape in the Dão, an elegant, balanced grape yielding floral and citrusy wines that gain complex nutty, resinous aromas with age. Oak is sometimes implemented in fermentation. Arinto, one of Portugal’s oldest indigenous varieties, produces lively, mineral-tinged whites and is grown throughout the country, although its most striking examples issue from the coastal regions, and from Bucelas in particular. The aromatic, tropical Antão Vaz is one of the most important white grapes in Alentejano, and Alvarinho (Spain’s Albariño) is highly regarded by the producers of Vinho Verde. One of Portugal's most thrilling indigenous white varieties is Sercial, a highly acidic grape prized for dry Madeira and known as Esgana Cão—the “dog strangler"—on the mainland. It is often confused with its homophone Cercial, which is used in Dão, Douro and Bairrada blends, but the two white grapes are genetically distinct. BACK TO TOP Minho and Vinho Verde Located in the northwestern corner of the country, Minho IGP and Vinho Verde DOP share exact geographical boundaries. A cool, rainy, Atlantic-influenced climate prevails, and grey rot can be problematic during the damp growing season. Traditionally, vines in the region have been trained high off the ground in a system called enforcado . Vines would grow up the trunks of trees, telephone poles, and stakes, creating an overhead canopy. The probability of fungal disease in the wet climate is thus lessened, and other crops are grown beneath the grapes in the densely farmed region, yet the method has been displaced by more modern trellising systems, and fewer than 10% of vines are today trained in this fashion. Vinho Verde—“green wine,” a reference to the wines’ youthful freshness and the verdant countryside—is the largest DOP in Portugal and represents around 15% of the nation’s total vineyard acreage, producing red, white, and rosado wines from an assortment of grapes. The region’s nearly 24,000 hectares of vineyards stretch northward from the city of Oporto to the Spanish border (the Minho River), and share lush landscape features and some grape varieties with Rías Baixas, Vinho Verde’s neighbor to the north. Gentle slopes of shallow granitic soils are predominant, although steeper, terraced vineyards are common in the mountains further inland. Loureiro is the region's most heavily planted white grape and the primary component of traditional Vinho Verde blends. Other white grapes include Trajadura (Treixadura), Avesso, Pedernã (Arinto), and the Spanish Albariño. Known as Alvarinho in Portugal, the grape is chiefly bottled as a varietal wine near the northern town of Monção, situated directly across the Minho River from Rías Baixas' Condado do Tea region. Monção e Melgaço Alvarinho remains a bright spot for quality in a region driven by high yields and mass production. Red and rosado wines, produced from grapes like Vinhão, Espadeiro, Borraçal, and Alvarelhão, represent a minority of exports. The light, floral white wines of the region are more common in both Europe and the US and are marked by lively acidity and low alcohol levels, and are slightly sparkling—a result, generally, of carbon dioxide injection prior to bottling. The red wines, also pétillant , gain their sparkle from malolactic fermentation in the bottle, a process usually avoided for white wines. The wines, whether white or red, are at their best in the year after release. BACK TO TOP Transmontano Transmontano IGP is located to the east of Minho along the Spanish border to the north of Duriense. Within the region are three non-contiguous subregions of the Trás-os-Montes DOP : Chaves, Valpaços, and Planalto Mirandés. The region is dry, hot, and mountainous, and the resulting wines are typically ripe and full-bodied, although the cooler, higher-altitude vineyards can preserve acidity. Important red grapes include Touriga Nacional, Tinta Roriz, Bastardo (Trousseau), Touriga Francesa and Trincadeira. Fernão Pires, Síria, Viosinho, Gouveio, Malvasia Fina and Rabigato are the most planted white grapes. Douro and Porto were once included in the region, prior to the creation of the Duriense IGP. BACK TO TOP Duriense: Douro and Porto The Duriense IGP is a slender region that encompasses the eastern, mountainous Douro River Valley south of Transmontano. It includes the DOPs of Douro and Porto . The Douro is Portugal’s first demarcated wine region—one of the first such appellations recognized in Europe—and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The river and its tributaries carve deep valleys through the granite Marão and Montemuro Mountains, and vineyards run from the riverside up the terraced, precipitous slopes. Schist, the preferred soil type for Port, is in abundance throughout the zone, often broken up by the actions of man. The Douro Valley experiences a continental climate of severely hot summers and cold winters, when temperatures often dip below freezing. The region’s craggy mountains act as barriers to the humid Atlantic winds, and the Douro becomes progressively drier toward the Spanish border. There are three subzones in Douro; Baixo Corgo to the west has the highest density of plantings, Cima Corgo has the highest total vineyard acreage, and Douro Superior, which stretches to the Spanish border, is the largest, most arid, and most sparsely planted region in Douro. Table wines and the occasional licoroso (fortified) Moscatel do Douro are produced as Douro DOP; fortified Port from the Douro region is released as Porto DOP. Approximately 50% of the region’s wine is released as Porto. Vineyards along the Douro River. Douro table wines may be red, white, or rosado. The list of approved grape varieties of either color is extensive, but the best red wines are usually produced from Touriga Nacional, Touriga Franca, Tinta Roriz, Tinta Cão, and Tinta Barroca. These grapes are equally suited to Port production, although clonal choices and preferred mesoclimates may differ for table wines. White varieties include Malvasia Fina, Viosinho, Rabigato, and Gouveio. Both white and red wines may be simple, fruity and fresh, or subject to new oak treatment and higher degrees of sophistication and polish in the winery. Moscatel Galego is used for fortified Moscatel wines, which may carry an age designation in the manner of tawny Port. In the Douro, reserva wines must achieve a minimum alcohol of 11.5% or 12% for white and rosado wines or red wines, respectively, instead of the standard minimum 10.5% (white/rosado) or 11% (red) for the appellation. White reserva wines must be aged for six months; red reserva wines must be aged for one year. The IVDP must certify all Douro wines; those that meet reserva criteria and score exceptionally well in blind tasting analysis may use the term grande reserva . Espumanto do Douro (sparkling wines) and Colheita Tardia (late harvest wines) may be produced as Douro DOP. Although the Minho region separates the Douro DOP from seaside Oporto (Porto), the major port houses have historically used the port city as a commercial nexus for the trade. In the past, the houses would transport Port casks in Barco Rabelo ships from Pinhão in the Cima Corgo downriver to Vila Nova de Gaia, a suburb of Oporto for maturation in their lodges. Until 1986, when membership in the EU disrupted the monopolistic demands of the Port trade, all Port wines were required by law to be aged and shipped from Vila Nova de Gaia. Removing such restrictions has enabled a new generation of small quintas to produce and ship Port and table wines from their premises in the Douro. The 1990s witnessed the birth of a number of smaller estates. Nonetheless, the larger Port houses and shippers are responsible for establishing the phenomenon of dry Douro table wines. Casa Ferreirinha , a house now under the ownership of Sogrape, launched Barca Velha in 1952, pioneering the style. The Port houses of Niepoort, Quinta do Crasto and Ramos Pinto are at the forefront of the table wine revolution. The 270-hectare Douro Superior estate Quinta do Vale Meão, formerly the primary source of fruit for Barca Velha, has established itself as one of the region’s young cult stars. (For further information on the viticulture, production process, and categories of Porto DOP wines, please refer to the Compendium .) BACK TO TOP Beiras and Terras do Dão The traditional province of Beiras lies south of Duriense and Minho, spanning the entire width of Portugal, from the fertile littoral coast to the mountainous interior. Until early 2011, a single IGP represented the entire region, but Portuguese authorities dismantled the expansive zone, dividing its territory among four new IGPs: Terras do Dão, Terras de Cister, Terras da Beira, and Beira Atlântico. Dão DOP and Lafões DOP lie within the newly unveiled Terras do Dão IGP, which borders Minho IGP to the north and claims a large swath of the central, inland territory formerly assigned to Beiras IGP. Bairrada DOP is located within Beira Atlântico, a coastal IGP with one designated subzone, Terras do Sicó. Távora-Varosa DOP , a center of sparkling wine production, is a small appellation immediately south of the Douro River and north of Terras do Dão. It is located within the Terras de Cister IGP, the "land of the Cistercians," another reminder of the medieval Church's influence in spreading the vine. Beira Interior DOP is a larger appellation near the Spanish border, within the Terras da Beira IGP. Despite its size, the region has relatively few growers, and much of the winemaking is performed by cooperatives. Beira Interior contains three subzones: Beira Castelo Rodrigo, Cova da Beira, and Pinhel. Some of Portugal’s best dry reds are produced in Dão DOP. Dão’s producers have worked to emphasize freshness and fragrance from the 1990s forward. Although it has been eclipsed in volume of acreage, Touriga Nacional is a signature component of Dão blends; the wines are typically more elegant, sharper, and more floral than their counterparts in the Douro. Sheltered by three mountain ranges, the Dão is partially protected from the harsh winds of the continental interior, yet insulated from the wet, cool maritime weather systems coming in from the coast. Ultimately, the region is hot and dry in the growing season, but receives adequate rainfall in the cold winter months. Altitude helps to preserve acidity, and the best vineyards are often located between 400 and 500 meters above sea level, where the preferred granitic soils are in abundance. The Dão is not densely planted: approximately 5% of the total region is utilized for viticulture. There are seven subregions, each with distinct mesoclimates: Serra da Estrela (named for Portugal’s highest mountain range), Alva, Besteiros, Castendo, Silgueiros, Terras de Azurara, and Terras de Senhorim. Dão wines may be red, white, rosado or espumante ; but red wines account for over three-quarters of the total output. Recommended red grapes are Touriga Nacional, Jaen, Touriga Franca, Alfrocheiro, Aragonez, Bastardo, Rufete, Trincadeira, and Tinta Cão. Recommended white grapes include (but are not limited to) Encruzado, Bical, and Cercial. A number of other grapes are additionally “authorized” but not recommended. Finally, certain experimental grapes, such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Sémillon, can be utilized but may not comprise more than 40% of a blend. Dão producers may label their wines as garrafeira according to the standard aging regimen, but the minimum abv is increased to 11.5% (from 11%). Red wines may be labeled as reserva with two years of aging, whereas whites must be aged for only six months to qualify. Both red and white Dão wines may be labeled nobre (“noble”), provided certain requirements are met. Red nobre wines must contain a minimum 15% Touriga Nacional and at most 85% of combined Jaen, Rufete, Alfrocheiro, and Aragonez. Red nobre wines must undergo a minimum three years aging prior to release and contain a minimum 13% alcohol. White nobre wines must contain a minimum 15% Encruzado and a maximum 85% of Cercial, Bical, Malvasia Fina, and Verdelho. They undergo one year of aging prior to release and must contain a minimum 12% alcohol. To the west of Dão, Bairrada DOP experiences a milder, rainier climate. Like Dão, Bairrada predominantly produces red wines, although white and rosado wines are authorized. The late-ripening, notoriously astringent Baga, the main red grape of the region, thrives in the barros (clay) soils, whereas white grapes, including Maria Gomes and Arinto, are usually planted in sandier soils. Red wines are typically blends, featuring Baga along with grapes such as the native Touriga Nacional, Camarate, Castelão, Jaen, and Alfrocheiro. While a new wave of experimentation has paved the way for the incursion of many international varieties, winemakers who remain faithful to the native grapes (and provide a minimum 12.5% abv in the case of Tinto or 12% abs for Branco, rather than the 11% required by the DOP) earn the right to label their wines as Bairrada Clássico. BACK TO TOP Lisboa The coastal Lisboa IGP runs southward from Beiras to Portugal’s capital city, where the Tagus River meets the Atlantic Ocean. Lisboa contains nine individual DOPs: Bucelas , Colares , Carcavelos , Arruda , Torres Vedras , Alenquer , Óbidos , Lourinhã , and Encostas d'Aire . Encostas d'Aire overlaps Alta Estremadura and Estremadura, subzones of the northern half of Lisboa IGP. Collectively, the region releases a larger volume of wine than any other in Portugal, but it has long carried a reputation of low quality, dominated by co-operatives and Vinhos de Mesa production. However, the southern DOP zones nearest the city of Lisboa have produced exemplary wines, and Alenquer and Encostas d'Aire in the north show promise. Lourinhã produces aguardente rather than wine. The three DOPs nearest the capital—Bucelas, Colares, and Carcavelos—are slowly disappearing due to the inexorable pressures of the expanding urban population. Bucelas produces dry white wines from a minimum 75% Arinto. Colares wines may be red or white. The sandy soils of Colares provided a bulwark against phylloxera incursion, and the vines of the region were traditionally planted in trenches to protect them from the salty marine winds. The majority of Colares' red and white wines are produced, respectively, with grapes from ungrafted Ramisco and Malvasia vines. A second, harder soil type, chao rija , is located further inland in the Colares DOP, and Castelão is more frequently planted there. Carcavelos has suffered the most at the hands of suburban sprawl—only 25 hectares of vineyard remain. Red wines are produced from a combined minimum 75% Castelão and Preto Martinho, and white wines are a blend of Arinto, Galego Dourado, and Ratinho. The wines are fermented dry, then fortified and sweetened with vinho abafado , a partially fermented must preserved with alcohol. After fortification, Carcavelos wines are aged in barrel for at least two years, followed by at least six months in bottle. BACK TO TOP Península de Setúbal The Península de Setúbal IGP, formerly Terras do Sado, includes the DOP zones of Setúbal and Palmela , located across the wide Tagus estuary from the city of Lisboa. The IGP itself encompasses the peninsula, defined by the Tagus and Sado estuaries, and a section of the Atlantic Coast. The region’s climate is Mediterranean. Palmela DOP comprises two distinct areas: low-lying, sandy plains spreading eastward from the hilltop town of the same name, and the clay-limestone lower slopes of the Arrabida Mountains. The sandy plains provide the best terroir for Castelão, the region’s premier grape and dominant component of Palmela reds—a minimum 66.7% is stipulated. White wines are typically blended with a high proportion of Fernão Pires and Arinto. Rosado, espumante and licoroso wines are also authorized. The DOP’s rather liberal encépagement includes a number of international varieties for both red and white wine production, including Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Sémillon, Syrah, Sauvignon Blanc, Merlot, and Tannat. The vinhos licoroso of Setúbal gained popularity in the heyday of Portugal’s fortified wine trade, benefiting—like Madeira—from the torna viagem maturation process. The region was one of the first in Portugal to be demarcated in the early 20th century (1907). Sweet white and red fortified wines are produced, from a minimum 67% Moscatel de Setúbal (Muscat d’Alexandria) or Moscatel Roxo, respectively. In keeping with EU regulations, the wine may be labeled by variety if either grape comprises a minimum 85% of the blend. The wines have a particularly pungent, floral fragrance, developed through a lengthy maceration on Muscat skins—for up to six months—following the fermentation and fortification. The wines develop a tawny, burnt orange color and raisin spice character while maturing in large wooden casks for up to five years prior to release. Some examples age for upwards of 20 years, unfolding mature molasses and caramel tones while darkening in color. J.M. da Fonseca is the appellation’s largest and most storied producer; in the company’s cellars are stocks of wine dating to the 19th century, some of which crossed the equator at sea. BACK TO TOP Tejo and Alentejano Both Tejo and Alentejano derive their names from the Tagus, or Tejo, River. The landlocked Tejo IGP is surrounded by Lisboa to the west, Beiras to the north, Alentejano to the east, and the Península de Setúbal to the south. The Tagus River flows through the alluvial plains of the fertile region, which, like Lisboa, is characterized by bulk production and basic quality. The IGP contains the single unrestrictive DoTejo DOP (formerly Ribatejo), in which only 1850 of the IGP’s 22,300 hectares of vineyards are included. DoTejo in turn encompasses six subregions: Coruche, Chamusca, Cartaxo, Santarém, Tomar, and Almeirim. Red, white, and rosado wines are produced from a bewildering number of native and international varieties. Castelão and Fernão Pires are the dominant red and white grapes; white wines outnumber reds. The Alentejano IGP, covering 30% of Portugal’s landmass, borders the eastern edge of both Tejo and the Península de Setúbal, extending southward to the Atlantic Coast north of Algarve. Alentejano’s hot growing season manifests in the perennial problems of low acidity and high alcohol, and irrigation is absolutely necessary in the region’s arid plains. The Alentejo DOP within Alentejano highlights eight subzones: Moura, Granja-Amareleja, Évora, Vidigueira, Reguengos, Redondo, Borba, and Portalegre—the latter, located on the cooler, granitic slopes of the São Mamede Mountains in the northernmost sector of the DOP, is the most promising area in the region. Red wine production in Alentejo exceeds that of whites, and Trincadeira is the region’s most prominent grape. Large swaths of Quercus suber —cork trees—are widespread through the region. BACK TO TOP Algarve Algarve is the southernmost IGP on the Portuguese mainland. It contains four DOP zones— Lagos , Lagoa , Portimão , and Tavira —each dominated by a co-operative. Traditional grape varieties in the region include Castelão and Tinta Negra Mole for red wines, and Arinto and Síria for white wines. Algarve’s hot seaside climate is not particularly suited for the production of fine wines, and in any event resort tourism has displaced many of the region’s vineyards. BACK TO TOP Açores The volcanic Açores (Azores) islands are located in the middle of the Atlantic, nearly 1,000 miles from the coast of Portugal. Three of the nine islands—Pico, Graciosa, and Terceira—have DOP zones, although conditions in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean are not tremendously conducive to viticulture. The fortified white wines of Pico DOP are the most highly regarded wines of the archipelago, yet they are generally consumed locally and viticulture occupies only a sliver of the island. The island’s apex is its volcano—the highest point in Portugal at 7,500 feet above sea level. The island’s vineyards, sheltered from sea winds by walls hewn from the black volcanic stone, have been designated as a World Heritage Site. Pico DOP Licoroso wines must achieve a minimum 16% abv after fortification, and are aged for a minimum two years in barrel. Verdelho, Arinto and Terrantez are authorized for production. Biscoitos DOP , on the island of Terceira, and Graciosa DOP also produce fortified white wines from the same grapes, as well as unfortified, dry white table wines and sparkling wines. BACK TO TOP Terras Madeirenses The Terras Madeirenses IGP encompasses both of the inhabited isles of the subtropical Madeira archipelago: Madeira and Porto Santo. Two DOP zones, Madeira and Madeirense , cover the fortified and unfortified wines, respectively, of both islands. Madeirense wines may be red, white, or rosé. Produced from grapes as dissimilar as Verdelho, Arnsburger (a Müller-Thurgau and Chasselas crossing developed at Geisenheim), Cabernet Sauvignon, Tinta Negra, and Syrah, they are rarely exported. Madeira wine's regulatory body, the IVBAM, operates a cooperative winemaking facility for Madeirense DOP. For further information on the fortified wines of Madeira, click here BACK TO TOPPreviewPortugalhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/163/central-and-southern-italySat, 12 Sep 2026 15:08:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:cb883bf8-7135-4bdc-afb9-5271b7c39e3eJonathan EichholzTable of Contents Tuscany (Toscana) Umbria Marches (Marche) Abruzzo Latium (Lazio) Molise Campania Apulia (Puglia) Basilicata Calabria Siciliy (Sicilia) Sardinia (Sardegna) BACK TO TOP Tuscany (Toscana) On the Tyrrhenian Coast of Italy, the region of Tuscany has become a byword for Italian culture. A famous artistic legacy and rich history match the natural beauty of the Tuscan countryside, unfolding in waves of golden and green hills that ebb and flow between the Apennine Mountains and the sea. Wine is deeply embedded in Tuscany’s cultural heritage—the famous medieval Florentine poet Dante Alighieri praised the Vernaccia of San Gimignano, and legislation delimiting the Chianti zone dates to 1716. The first DOC and DOCG zones to be authorized in Italy were Tuscan. Wine and commercial agriculture are big business in Tuscany, and the hills are a patchwork of olive tree groves, vineyards, and wheat fields—a natural evolution of the “promiscuous” agriculture that ancient Romans practiced, wherein these three staple crops of Tuscany were planted side by side in the same fields. In the past, Chianti was synonymous with Italian wine—and a reminder, not unfairly, of its troubled quality. Historically bottled in a fiasco due to the inferior quality of Italian glass, the squat, straw-covered Chianti bottles came to epitomize the rustic, cheap nature of Italian wine in the late 1960s, ‘70s, and ‘80s. Tuscany’s winemakers have responded with a surge in quality over the last quarter century, slashing vineyard yields and building on the successes of the “Super-Tuscan” trailblazers Marquis Mario Rocchetta, who released the first commercial vintage of Sassicaia in 1968, and his nephew Piero Antinori, whose Tignanello bottling soon followed. While the benchmark for quality has been raised significantly, it may be at the expense of typicity—the Bordeaux grapes and model of winemaking extend great influence over the modern Tuscan estate. Nonetheless, today Tuscany stands at the forefront of both quality and large-scale commercial winemaking in Italy, producing around 2.7 million hectoliters of wine annually, about 60% of which is at the DOC/DOCG level. With 11 DOCGs Tuscany trails only Piedmont and Veneto in the number of its DOCG zones. Although Tuscany as a whole enjoys a dry, Mediterranean climate, winters can be harsh and summers can be long and hot. A wide variation in mesoclimates is present throughout the region: Montalcino in the southern province of Siena is typically more arid while Montepulciano, further inland, displays a more seasonal, continental climate. The soil structure of the region is similarly diverse, respective to the width of the region and the changing altitudes of Tuscany’s sloped vineyards. The thin-skinned Sangiovese is the main red grape of Tuscany and is, alongside Nebbiolo and Aglianico, one of the great indigenous red grapes of Italy. Typically, Sangiovese wines are light in color, naturally high in acidity, firmly tannic, and medium- to full-bodied. Sour cherry notes and herbal undertones are common. When aged, Sangiovese traditionally spends time in large European—often Slavonian—casks, but modern wines are just as likely to be aged in new barriques, which infuse both flavor and texture into the wines. In appellations where blending is allowed, grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon or the local Colorino are sometimes used to add color and power to Sangiovese, whereas the Canaiolo grape historically softened Sangiovese’s hard attack. Sangiovese, Italy’s most planted red variety, is highly subject to permutation in the vineyard, and significant energy has been devoted to clonal research, such as the Consorzio Vino Chianti Classico’s “Chianti Classico 2000 Project,” which started in 1987. Disease-resistant clones have been developed through such studies, but clones are often selected for additional properties, like the development of thicker skins with a higher proportion of anthocyanins . Even previously isolated clones such as the Brunello clone of Montalcino or the Prugnolo Gentile clone of Montepulciano have given way to a number of derivatives as research continues to refine understanding of this variable grape. Sangiovese is the principal red grape in the following DOCGs: Chianti, Chianti Classico, Carmignano, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano, Morellino di Scansano, and Montecucco Sangiovese. It is the sole red grape allowed for Brunello di Montalcino DOCG. In addition to the native Colorino and Canaiolo Nero, the international grapes Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot wield influence in Tuscan wine production. While these two Bordeaux grapes can be added in minor proportions to the Chianti formula, they are of far more vital importance to DOC and IGT “Super-Tuscan” blends, ripening easily in the Tuscan climate and providing lushness and flesh to the skeleton of Sangiovese. Syrah is gaining momentum in Tuscany, but the white international grapes Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc capture less interest than their red counterparts. The neutral Trebbiano Toscano, Italy’s most planted white grape, is regularly encountered in the region alongside its common blending partner Malvasia, whereas the local white Vernaccia grape is more or less limited to the environs of San Gimignano. In the coastal vineyards of Maremma, the Mediterranean Vermentino shows great promise, and some producers are investing heavily in plantings of the grape. Overall, however, the majority of Tuscan vineyards are devoted to the production of red wines, and more than 85% of the wine made in Tuscany is red. The large Chianti DOCG is Tuscany’s most famous wine region and one of the first delimited zones in Europe. Although Chianti was not elevated to DOCG until 1984, the limits of the modern Chianti zone were established in 1932, and seven subzones were created for the region: Classico, Rùfina, Colli Fiorentini, Colli Senesi, Colline Pisane, Colli Aretini, and Montalbano. Another subzone, Montespertoli, was added in a 1997 decree. With the exception of Classico, Rùfina—dominated by the Frescobaldi firm—is usually regarded as the most consistent in quality. Frescobaldi and the highly regarded Fattoria Selvapiana are the only producers in the tiny Pomino DOC within Rùfina, an appellation for red and white wines that permits a higher percentage of international grapes than Chianti DOCG, as well as a range of varietal bottlings. Baron Bettino Ricasoli is credited with defining the classic blend of Chianti, developed after years of experimentation and outlined in an 1872 letter to Professor Cesare Studiati at the University of Pisa. Today, the general recipe for Chianti DOCG, updated in 1996, calls for 70 to 100% Sangiovese, although wines from the Colli Senesi subzone must contain a minimum 75% of the grape. The addition of the white grapes Trebbiano Toscano and Malvasia, a practice dating to the 1870s, is now optional rather than mandatory. Other red grapes of the region comprise the remainder of the blend, although the Cabernet grapes may not exceed a maximum of 15%. (Cabernet is restricted to 10% in the subzone Colli Senesi.) The traditional practice of governo —refermentation with the juice of dried grapes, to strengthen the wine and initiate malolactic fermentation—is legally permitted. This process must be indicated on labels as Governo all’uso Toscano , although most quality-minded producers avoid it. Chianti normale may be released on March 1 of the year following the harvest; however, the Florentine subzones of Rùfina, Montespertoli, and Colli Fiorentini require additional aging. With two years of aging, Chianti may be labeled riserva . Chianti superiore wines require an additional half-degree of alcohol and lowered vineyard yields. Chianti Classico , upgraded to DOCG alongside Chianti in 1984, is the heartland of the Chianti zone and consistently provides the best examples of wine in the region. The Classico area contains the original Chianti zone delimited by Grand Duke Cosimo III de’ Medici in 1716, including the four original villages of Radda, Gaiole, Castellina, and Greve—each of which later appended “in Chianti” to their names. Although the extremely varied nature of Tuscan soils is evident within Chianti Classico, Sandstone and Marl dominate the region. Macingo and Piestraforte are the major sandstone-driven soils while Albarese is the top Marl soil. Sangiovese comprises a minimum 80% of the Chianti Classico blend. Like Chianti DOCG, Chianti Classico DOCG wines may be pure varietal Sangiovese, or they may be blended with other red grapes of the region. As of the 2006 vintage, white grapes are no longer permitted in the wine. The minimum alcohol level for Chianti Classico is 12%—compared to 11.5% for Chianti DOCG—and the wines may not be released until October 1st of the year following harvest. Riserva wines must be aged for a minimum 24 months, with at least 3 months in bottle and a minimum alcohol level of 12.5%; Gran Selezione wines—a new category approved in 2014—must come from estate grown grapes and are required to be aged for at least 30 months prior to release, also with 3 months in bottle, and an even higher minimum alcohol level: 13%. As of 2021, Gran Selezione must contain at least 90% Sangiovese. While 2010 was technically the first vintage for Gran Selezione, consideration is given to wines from earlier vintages so long as they can provide documentation proving all requirements have been met. Barrique is often the wood vessel of choice for aging riserva Chianti Classico. Whereas Chianti enjoys a legacy dating back centuries, Brunello di Montalcino DOCG —the most powerful expression of Sangiovese in Tuscany—has only recently achieved its status as one of Italy’s most profound wines. History credits Clemente Santi of Tenuta Greppo’s Biondi-Santi with the invention of the Brunello style, as the producer was the first to isolate the Brunello clone and bottle it alone in 1865. Biondi-Santi’s reputation and the style were immortalized shortly thereafter, with the release of the Brunello Riserva 1888. However, production remained minute even through the 1970s, and only recently has Brunello truly captured the public imagination. The nearly square hill of Montalcino, which overlaps Chianti Senesi in the province of Siena, is in the southern reaches of Tuscany, and encompasses 24,000 hectares—although only around 5,000 acres are authorized and planted for Brunello. Brunello di Montalcino is produced from 100% Sangiovese Grosso (Brunello), and aged in cask for a minimum two years and bottle for an additional four months—six months for riserva . The wine may not be released until January 1st of the fifth year following harvest, or until the sixth year for riserva bottlings. Soil is varied in Montalcino, with galestro characterizing the higher-altitude vineyards. Clay is predominant in the warmer southern reaches of the zone, and fossilized marine deposits are scattered throughout Montalcino. Montalcino’s frazioni (suburbs, or sub-communes) of Sant Angelo in Colle, Castelnuovo Abate and Torrenieri provide distinctions in the corresponding wines, but the individual winemaking techniques of each producer are of greater importance for the determination of the final style. Brunello is stronger, with more alcohol, extract and tannin, than Chianti. It can be so hard and unforgiving as to be nearly unapproachable upon release, leading some producers—Casanova di Neri, Mastrojanni—toward small barrels and shorter macerations, in the hope of rounding and fleshing out the wine. Others, such as Biondi-Santi, Talenti, and Soldera, remain more traditional in their approach. A “junior” version of Brunello, Rosso di Montalcino DOC , is produced in the same delimited region from 100% Sangiovese. The wines must be aged for one year prior to release, although cask aging is not required. The Sant’Antimo DOC , created in 1996, provides Montalcino producers an outlet for “Super-Tuscan” wines. Any grape authorized in Tuscany may be utilized for Sant’Antimo DOC, and the wines may be either red or white. Finally, Moscadello di Montalcino DOC exists for white wines from the region, produced from the Moscadello (Moscato Bianco) grape. Moscadello wines are often sweet, and may be still or sparkling. To the east of Montalcino, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano DOCG is produced in Montepulciano and several surrounding communes. The zone shares with Brunello di Montalcino the distinction of being one of the first DOCGs in Italy, awarded in 1980. The wines include a minimum 70% Sangiovese (Prugnolo Gentile clone) and, as of 2010, a maximum 30% other varieties of Tuscany, including no more than 5% of white varieties. Vino Nobile di Montepulciano is aged for a minimum of two years, with at least one year in wood. Riserva wines are aged for at least three years. The wines tend to be less firm than Chianti and less aggressively tannic than Brunello, striking a softer balance. The coastal Morellino di Scansano DOCG , in the southern Maremma, achieved DOCG status in 2006 for red wines based on a minimum 85% Sangiovese. Riserva wines are aged for a minimum of two years. As a newer appellation—and a newer winegrowing region in general, as much of the southern Maremma was an inhospitable swamp until Mussolini drained it in the 1930s—the territory of Scansano benefits from the reputation of nearby Bolgheri in the northern Maremma and a corresponding increase in investment and interest throughout the region. The DOCG wines are, at the time of writing, still searching for their unique voice amid the myriad Sangiovese reds of Tuscany. The red wines of Carmignano , a low-altitude territory which overlaps Chianti Montalbano, are a minimum 50% Sangiovese. Historically, winemakers in the region have added Cabernet grapes to the native grape, and 10% to 20% of Cabernet Sauvignon and/or Cabernet Franc is required in the blend. Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot may be added to Sangiovese in higher proportions in the new DOCG Rosso della Val di Cornia . A former subzone, Suvereto , was elevated to DOCG status alongside the red wines of Val di Cornia in 2011. While the Sangiovese DOCG wines of Tuscany represent the region’s greatest homegrown noble wines, the explosion of the “ Super Tuscan” style in the last 40 years is responsible for invigorating international interest. Constrained by the DOCG regulations of the time, Marquis Mario Rocchetta’s Tenuta San Guido released the 1968 Sassicaia, a barrique-aged Cabernet blend from Bolgheri in the Northern Maremma, as vino da tavola . Antinori followed with the vino da tavola Tignanello 1971, a barrique-aged red whose proportion of Sangiovese was set with the 1982 vintage at 85%. These two wines signaled an upheaval in the region’s wines—the influence of Bordeaux loomed as Tuscany’s winemakers sought to add flesh and roundness to Sangiovese, or supplant the native Sangiovese with French grapes. More “Super-Tuscan” Bordeaux-style wines followed: Antinori’s Cabernet-based Solaia, the Bordeaux blend Ornellaia and the Merlot-based Masseto, and the 100% Cabernet Franc Paleo Rosso from Le Macchiole. In contrast to those focusing on International grape varieties, some Chianti-based producers also felt stymied by the Chianti DOCG’s mandated blend, and they embraced the vino da tavola revolution precisely to emphasize Sangiovese. San Felice's Vigorello, Montevertine’s Le Pergole Torte and Isole e Olena’s Cepparello were three of the first 100% Sangiovese “Super-Tuscan” wines, released as vino da tavola before Chianti regulations permitted pure varietal bottlings. Thus, a peculiar phenomenon was occurring in Tuscany by the mid-eighties—some of the region’s most prized bottles were simple vino da tavola . This dissatisfaction with the regimented DOC laws soon spread to other regions in Italy, and was a primary motivator for the creation of the IGT category in 1992. Many great “Super-Tuscan” wines are today released as IGT, under a nome di fantasia , or fantasy name. Others carry the appellation of Bolgheri, a region in the northern Maremma that received DOC status in 1994 for red wines (white and rosato wines had been authorized as early as 1983). Following recent adjustments to the DOC disciplinare , Bolgheri may produce pure varietal examples of Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Cabernet Franc. Red wines may also be Bordeaux-style blends, and even include Syrah and Sangiovese. Bolgheri Superiore wines are aged for a minimum two years (one year in oak barrels) and show a minimum alcohol of 12.5%. Vermentino is the leading grape for white Bolgheri wines, although varietal Sauvignon Blanc is also produced in the appellation. The Bolgheri DOC surrounds Sassicaia, which earned recognition as a legal subzone (Bolgheri Sassicaia) in 1983. In 2013, the Bolgheri Sassicaia DOC officially gained separate status as an appellation—a tribute to the producer's renown and the only true monopole DOC in all of Italy. And if the march toward DOCG continues despite recent EU reforms, Bolgheri Sassicaia DOC may just be a steppingstone. About 12 miles off the coast of Maremma is the isle of Elba, notably the site of the French Emperor Napoleon’s exile in 1814. In 2011, the Elba Aleatico Passito DOCG was finalized for sweet red passito wines made from the Aleatico grape on the island. Aleatico has been genetically linked to the Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains grape; possibly it is a red-skinned mutation. The only white wine in Tuscany to enjoy DOCG status is Vernaccia di San Gimignano : a crisp, pink grapefruit-tinged white wine produced on sandy, rock-strewn soils around the hilltop town of San Gimignano in the Siena province. While Elba Aleatico Passito is the only dessert wine to reach DOCG status, vin santo is a traditional dessert bottling in Tuscany, although the difficulty and time required in its production make it increasingly rare. Vin santo , or “holy wine,” is a high alcohol, almond- and honey-toned dried grape wine produced from Trebbiano and Malvasia grapes. Grechetto is sometimes authorized, and rosé versions called “Occhio di Pernice” are produced with a minimum of 50% Sangiovese added to the white grapes. The grapes are hung from rafters to dry for a specified time set by each DOC—the grapes are usually raisinated until December 1, at least. A period of slow fermentation and aging in caratelli barrels follows, for a period of between three and eight years, depending on the style. Chestnut wood is traditionally used, allowing rapid oxidation, although many modern producers have switched to oak. The barrels are never topped—alcohol is concentrated through evaporation and the wine gains its characteristic amber hue. The final style of vin santo may be dry or sweet, depending on the length of the appassimento process. Vin santo may be fortified, and labeled liquoroso . While many Tuscan DOCs allow the production of vin santo , the majority of exported wine is Vin Santo del Chianti DOC . A less sweet dessert, such as biscotti, is usually served with the wine at a Tuscan table. BACK TO TOP Umbria Umbria, one of Italy’s few landlocked regions, has a much less illustrious reputation for wine than Tuscany, its neighbor to the west. The small region lies in the shadow of the Apennines, its climate moderated by maritime winds funneling from the Tyrrhenian Sea. The region—slow to develop and rustic in comparison to its neighbors. Orvieto DOC , a clean, light white wine produced from at least 60% Grechetto and Trebbiano Toscano (Procanico), is responsible for a majority of the region’s production. The wine suffers from overproduction and overexpansion of the DOC zone, although wines from the classico zone surrounding the medieval city of Orvieto itself can show mineral intensity and depth. Orvieto DOC wines are generally dry, although they may be sweet, and even botrytised. Within the territory of Orvieto, solid red wines are produced on the tuffeau soils of Lago di Corbara DOC . The most celebrated red wines of Umbria are the ageworthy Sagrantino di Montefalco DOCG and Torgiano Rosso Riserva DOCG . Sagrantino di Montefalco is produced from 100% Sagrantino; the resulting wines are naturally high in alcohol and tannin, and are aged for a minimum 37 months, including 12 months in wood for the dry wines. The secco style of Sagrantino di Montefalco is a recent development; historically the wines were produced as passito . The DOCG allows both styles. Marco Caprai and Paolo Bea demonstrate the high quality of the wine, in respectively modern and traditional fashion. Torgiano Rosso Riserva DOCG is produced from 70-100% Sangiovese, with a minimum three years of aging prior to release—including six months in bottle. Standard Torgiano bottlings—varietal wines, Rosso, Bianco, spumante —are simply DOC. The Lungarotti family, Torgiano’s largest producer, was instrumental in the elevation of Torgiano Rosso Riserva to DOCG in 1990. BACK TO TOP Marche The Marches, a region to the east of Umbria on the Adriatic Coast, doubled its number of DOCG wines in 2009 with the addition of Verdicchio di Matelica Riserva DOCG and Castelli di Jesi Verdicchio Riserva DOCG . Verdicchio, the most important grape of the Marches, has the capacity to produce ageworthy, focused, green-tinged white wines with a distinctive lemony, stony character and a bitter almond tang. The late-ripening Verdicchio grape is naturally high in acidity, making it suitable for spumante production—and the occasional late harvest wine—at the DOC level. The coastal Castelli di Jesi and the more inland and higher-altitude Matelica are the best zones for the wines, with normale versions released as DOC and the riserva versions, aged for a minimum of eighteen months, released as DOCG. The Matelica wines are often sharper, whereas Castelli di Jesi provides wines of a fuller, rounder character. Red wines are produced as Conero Rosso Riserva DOCG and Vernaccia di Serrapetrona DOCG . Conero Rosso Riserva is produced just south of the regional capital Ancona, and the wines are comprised of a minimum 85% Montepulciano and a maximum 15% Sangiovese. It is matured for two years prior to release, and many producers rely on a percentage of new barriques for aging rather than the traditional old botti. Surrounding the coastal Conero zone is the larger Rosso Piceno DOC, which typically offers lighter Sangiovese and Montepulciano blends. The Vernaccia grape in Marches is actually a red grape—“Vernaccia” probably derives from the Latin vernaculus (“indigenous”) and is used for a number of distinct varieties in Italy. Vernaccia di Serrapetrona DOCG wines are sparkling reds, either dry or sweet, made from a percentage of passito grapes (40%). Italian officials approved the Offida DOCG in 2011, which covers red wines produced from Montepulciano and white varietal wines produced from Pecorino and Passerina. While not at DOCG level, aromatically complex wines are being fashioned from the obscure Lacrima grape as Lacrima di Morro d’Alba DOC , and may excite interest with their heady, floral, Pinot Noir-like character in the future. BACK TO TOP Abruzzo Top Vintages from Abruzzo's benchmark producer, Emidio Pepe. Immediately south of the Marches on the Adriatic Coast, Abruzzo is a huge contributor to Italy’s lower quality wine lake. The Montepulciano grape is the region’s most cultivated variety and the second most planted red grape in Italy. It easily produces ripe, tannic and full-bodied wines of deep color. Rosato versions of the wine are called Cerasuolo in reference to the cherry red hue of the rosés. Much of the wine is forgettable, although Montepulciano d’Abruzzo DOC can be a source of good value, as prices reflect the surplus of wine and the lack of demand. While efforts to raise the region’s prestige culminated in the 2003 evolution of Colline Teramane Montepulciano d’Abruzzo DOCG —essentially the classico zone of Montepulciano d’Abruzzo—the region’s two premier producers, Edoardo Valentini and the naturalistic Emidio Pepe, release their reds simply as Montepulciano d’Abruzzo DOC. While Montepulciano d’Abruzzo requires 85% Montepulciano, the DOCG raises the minimum to 90%, and stipulates one year of aging, including two months in bottle. Riserva wines are aged for a minimum three years. Trebbiano d’Abruzzo DOC wines account for most of the region’s white wines, and may be produced from either Trebbiano Toscano or the distinct Trebbiano Abruzzese, which is also known, perhaps mistakenly, as Bombino. BACK TO TOP Latium (Lazio) Lazio, south of Tuscany and Umbria on the Tyrrhenian Coast, is, with its capital at Rome, the political center of Italy and the third most populous Italian region. Much of the region’s overwhelmingly white wine is consumed locally, in the cafes and trattorias of the capital city. Trebbiano Toscano and Malvasia are the principal grapes of the region, and are produced in mass quantities as Castelli Romani DOC , a broad zone that encompasses several smaller appellations. Among the subzones of the Castelli Romani is the Frascati DOC , a commune near Rome whose white still and sparkling wines are principally composed of Malvasia. In 2011 Italian authorities awarded Frascati Superiore and Cannellino di Frascati , a late harvest style, the increasingly dubious honor of DOCG status. The Trebbiano-based white wines of Est! Est!! Est!!! di Montefiascone DOC are routinely cited for their “creative” back-story, which is retold ad nauseam elsewhere, rather than their inherent quality. Red wines make up only 15% of the region’s typical production. The indigenous Cesanese grape takes center stage in the rosso wines of Cesanese del Piglio , the first zone in Lazio to achieve DOCG status. The variety produces spicy, peppery wines with elevated acidity and moderate to high alcohol levels. Some of Lazio's best known red wines on the international stage emerge from the Falesco estate in Montefiascone near the Umbrian border, but Falesco's successes string from polished and plush examples of Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon, not Cesanese. BACK TO TOP Molise The small, mountainous region of Molise to the south of Abruzzo produces an equally small amount of wine. Most winemaking is handled by co-operatives, and less than 5% of the region’s production is at the DOC level. Only four DOCs exist in Molise: Biferno , Molise , Tintilia del Molise and Pentro di Isernia . Biferno DOC is the most prominent, producing reds and rosatos from a blend of Montepulciano and Aglianico, and white wines based on Trebbiano. BACK TO TOP Campania At the height of the Roman Empire in the first century CE, Falernian, a Campanian wine sourced from the slopes of Monte Massico, was among the most prominent wines of the ancient world—a position it would maintain well into the fourth century. Varo in 37 BCE praised the wine’s ageworthiness in a manual on farming, the author Petronius mentioned the wine in his first century work Satyricon , and the wine sold for four times the price of ordinary wine in Pompeii. The Falernian vintage of 121 BCE remained legendary for several hundred years. The wine at the time was sweet or dry, strong enough to be flammable, and probably produced from the Aminean grape, likely a Greek import known today as Greco. The coastal Massico region in northern Campania today builds on its ancient heritage with the steadily improving wines of the Falerno del Massico DOC . On the volcanic tuff soils of the lower mountain slopes, red wines are produced from Aglianico and Primitivo, and white varietal wines are produced from the fragrant Falanghina grape. Naples, the capital of Campania, is a World Heritage Site and the largest and most important city in Southern Italy; but the region itself, like much of the southern peninsula, reflects a growing disparity of immense poverty and natural beauty. The top tier of wines in Campania has taken a huge leap forward in the last two decades; however, less than 10% of the region’s wines are at DOC level. The ancient red varieties Aglianico and Piedirosso (“red feet”) and the white Falanghina, Greco, and Fiano comprise a majority of the Campanian DOC wines. The tannic, high-acid Aglianico shares a structural similarity with Sangiovese and Nebbiolo—although it displays a darker fruit profile—and has the capacity to produce the longest-lived and noblest red wines of Southern Italy. While tempered with the lighter Piedirosso in the velvety blends of Falerno del Massico DOC, Aglianico shines as a varietal wine in Taurasi DOCG and Aglianico del Taburno DOCG , a zone promoted to DOCG in 2011. Taurasi wines are produced in the inland area of Irpinia, in the province of Avellino—a region only a scant 40 miles from the center of the Aglianico del Vulture zone in Basilicata, the grape’s other famous expression. Taurasi wines must be aged a minimum of three years prior to release, with one year in wood. The aging requirement increases to four years—and eighteen months in wood—for riserva wines. Mastroberardino, Terredora and Feudi di San Gregorio exemplify the quality of wines in the region. The white DOCG wines of Campania are Greco di Tufo and Fiano di Avellino . The Fiano di Avellino DOCG wines are produced in a number of communes adjacent to the west of the Taurasi zone, from a minimum 85% of the full-bodied, assertive, resiny Fiano grape. Greco, a lighter but more intensely aromatic grape, is grown at higher altitudes to the immediate north of Fiano di Avellino, and comprises a minimum 85% of the Greco di Tufo DOCG wine. The acidic Coda di Volpe comprises the remainder. While not at DOCG level, Falanghina produces dry and sweet passito whites in the inland Falanghina del Sannio DOC . These Falanghina-based wines were formerly labeled under Sannio DOC , until it became its own DOC in 2011. Falanghina also excels in the panoramic coastal DOCs of Campi Flegrei and Costa d'Amalfi , where it is blended with the rare white Biancolella grape to produce a mellower and lusher style of wine. As a minor component, Falanghina provides an aromatic lift to the white wines of Vesuvio DOC , produced on the slopes of Mount Vesuvius just south of Campi Flegrei and Naples, but the Coda di Volpe and Verdeca grapes constitute the majority of the blend. Vesuvio, which may be white, rosato, red, sparkling, or fortified in style, may be labeled as Lacryma Christi del Vesuvio if it achieves a minimum 12% alcohol. Alongside Forastera, the Biancolella white grape produces more delicate varietal whites in the offshore Ischia DOC , in the Bay of Naples. More prevalent on the island are the reds based on Piedirosso and Guarnaccia, a thick-skinned indigenous variety also known as Tintore di Tramonti. BACK TO TOP Apulia (Puglia) Apulia, the heel of the boot of Italy, covers a lengthy expanse of coastland on the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. Apulia is the least mountainous region in Italy—characterized by broad plains and low hills, the coastal region’s terrain stands in sharp contrast to that of its rugged neighbors Basilicata and Molise. Apulia’s flat, fertile plains provide an easy outlet for high-yielding viticulture, and much of the region’s mass production was historically devoted to base wines destined for vermouth, bulk blending material, or distillate. The EU’s vine pull scheme has made an impact on Apulia, and the region’s production is considerably down from its peak in the 1980s. At the beginning of the 21st century, Apulia struggled to release more than 2% of its wines at the DOC level. However, quality production is on the rise, and Apulia now has over two dozen DOCs and four DOCGs (all awarded in 2011) devoted to quality production, though they still only comprise about 7% of total production. In northern Apulia, Castel del Monte is home to three DOCG zones. Castel del Monte Rosso Riserva DOCG requires a minimum of 65% of the aromatic and tannic red grape Nero (Uva) di Troia, while Castel del Monte Nero di Troia Riserva DOCG requires at least 90% of the grape. Castel del Monte Bombino Nero DOCG is dedicated exclusively to rosé wine. Castel del Monte DOC can be made from a range of grapes—both varietal and blended—and includes dry whites and sparkling wines from Bombino Bianco. Negroamaro, the most cultivated red grape in the region, is prized for its powerful structure and full body, and it is encountered as the major component of nearly every rosso and rosato DOC on the Salento peninsula. Salice Salentino DOC and Brindisi DOC are two of the more prominent appellations, and top quality Negroamaro may be blended with small amounts of Malvasia Nera or other red grapes, primarily to help stabilize color. The third major red grape of Apulia is Primitivo, which is genetically identical to Zinfandel and shares a softly tannic, syrupy character with its American twin. Varietal wines are produced in Primitivo di Manduria DOC , which sits to the west of Salice Salentino DOC on the Ionian Coast. With the advent of Primitivo di Manduria Dolce Naturale DOCG , DOC wines may no longer be fully sweet, but past styles ranged from secco to dolce . The DOCG wines have a minimum 50 grams per liter of residual sugar, and may be subject to the appassimento process. Of the lesser-known red grapes, Susumaniello can be excellent, with an elegant structure and medium body. White wines are produced to a lesser extent in Apulia. Verdeca is the standout white wine and is grown primarily in the Valle d'Itria in the center of the region. Wines labeled Fiano are often Fiano Minutolo, not related to the Campanian grape of the same name. In the far northeast, small areas of limestone soil and coastal influence can produce traditional method sparkling wines of surprising quality based on Bombino Bianco and Pinot Noir. BACK TO TOP Basilicata Basilicata, Italy’s third least populous region—only Molise and the Valle d’Aosta have a smaller population—is a mountainous, poor region producing little wine. Basilicata was long characterized by a sole DOC— Aglianico del Vulture —although the number of DOCs in the region has in recent years climbed to four. Aglianico del Vulture remains the region’s only real wine of note, and arguably one of the finest expressions of the thick-skinned Aglianico grape. In 2010, Aglianico del Vulture Superiore was upgraded to DOCG. As a DOCG wine, Aglianico must show a minimum alcohol content of 13.5% and undergo three years of aging, including one in wood. If aged for a minimum five years, including two in wood, the wine may be labeled riserva . Grown on the volcanic soils of the slopes of Mount Vulture, Aglianico can develop great complexity as it slowly ripens, with harvest occurring in late October or early November. DOC wines may be released in September during the year following harvest. The wines may be dry ( asciutto ) or off-dry ( abboccato ) and still or spumante , although dry, still interpretations represent the DOC’s most serious wines. BACK TO TOP Calabria Gaglioppo growing in Cirò. Calabria is the toe of the Italian boot; like its neighbors it is covered in mountains, dividing the region climatically between the hot Mediterranean coast and the more continental, higher-altitude interior. Famous throughout antiquity and the Middle Ages, most Calabrian wine today exists at the same high alcohol but low quality level that characterizes much southern Italian wine, although a few conscientious growers are increasingly bucking the trend of indifferent wine. Calabria's production is nearly double that of neighboring Basilicata. The chief red grape of Calabria is Gaglioppo, a thick-skinned grape encountered in the reds and rosatos of Cirò DOC , on the Ionian Coast. The Gaglioppo variety was long thought to be of Greek origin, and local legend ascribes the wines of Cirò as the beverage of ancient Olympians; however, it has more recently been genetically linked to Sangiovese. White plantings are dominated by Greco, but white grapes account for less than 10% of Calabrian wine—the best examples may be found in the DOC of Melissa . Greco di Bianco DOC principally produces sweet wines from the Greco grape, which is often partially dried prior to fermentation. Calabria contains the DOCG of Cirò Classico , which was established in 2025. This appellation highlights the high-quality Gaglioppo with a 90% minimum requirement for the variety . BACK TO TOP Sicily (Sicilia) Separated from Calabria by the narrow Strait of Messina, Sicily is one of Italy’s largest producers of wine, usually surpassed in volume only by Veneto. The island has a rich culinary history; however, the table wines of Sicily have long been nondescript. Marsala is the island’s most famous vinous product—a wine from the eponymous seaport on Sicily’s western edge, famously commercialized by the Englishman John Woodhouse in 1773, who first fortified the wine to ensure safe shipment to his home country. Marsala, which fed the British thirst for fortified wine (alongside Port, Sherry, and Madeira) in an era when taxes on the beloved claret of Bordeaux were raised to a trade-stifling level, suffered in the 20th century as a result of being essentially rebranded as a cooking wine. Marsala DOC , created in 1969, struggles to find a place in a crowded marketplace shifting away from fortified wines. Sicily, like the other regions of Southern Italy, produces very little wine at the DOC level. Viticulture on the island focused on productivity in the latter half of the 20th century, creating a glut of low quality bulk wines and grape concentrate to be shipped as a blending ingredients throughout Italy and France. However, a resurgent emphasis on lower yields and quality began to take shape in the last years of the century, championed by producers like Marco de Bartoli in Marsala, the larger-sized but quality oriented Planeta, and an increasing number of small producers. Sicily is well-suited to quality winemaking: arid Mediterranean heat is countered by altitude in the better vineyards, allowing large diurnal swings to even the ripening process, and beneficial hillside exposures are common on the mountainous island. While some of Sicily’s modern success can be attributed to IGT Terre Siciliane wines produced from international varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon or Syrah, the island has a wealth of indigenous grapes uniquely suited to its warm, dry climate. White grapes include the native Catarratto, Inzolia, Grecanico, Carricante, and Grillo. Zibibbo (Muscat of Alexandria) and the ubiquitous Malvasia are also commonly encountered in Sicily. Native red grapes include Nero d’Avola (Calabrese), Frappato, Perricone, Nerello Mascalese and Nerello Cappuccio. Vines on the slopes of Mount Etna. Catarratto is the island’s most heavily planted grape and the seventh most cultivated grape in Italy, despite being found only in the vineyards of western Sicily. The grape, utilized in Marsala blends and the Alcamo Bianco DOC table wines, churns out millions of hectoliters of juice destined for grape concentrate or distillation. Inzolia and Grillo are better alternatives for Marsala and table wines. Nerello Mascalese and Carricante are the dominant varieties of the Etna DOC rosso and bianco wines, respectively. The Etna DOC is in eastern Sicily, and the vines on the Mount Etna’s slopes benefit from well-drained volcanic soils—but viticulture in the shadow of an active volcano is a risky proposition. Nerello Mascalese also dominates the blends of Faro DOC on Sicily’s extreme northeastern coast, exemplified by the wines of Palari. Nero d’Avola, crowned with the recent DOCG Cerasuolo di Vittoria , is the island’s most planted red grape. Often likened in flavor to Syrah, Nero d’Avola is blended in Cerasuolo di Vittoria DOCG wines with the lighter, grapey Frappato in a ratio of 70-50% to 30-50%, resulting in vibrant, cherry-red (Cerasuolo) colored wines. Dessert styles have always been prominent in Sicily. Beyond the sweeter versions of Marsala, the island offers several notable dessert wines produced from the Zibibbo, Moscato Bianco, and Malvasia grapes. The exceedingly rare Moscato di Noto and Moscato di Siracusa DOCs, . with 88 hectares and 37 hectares respectively, are located to the east of Vittoria in southeastern Sicily and are based on Moscato Bianco, Off the northern coast of Sicily, the Malvasia delle Lipari DOC wines are produced in purely sweet, passito , and fortified styles, although production on the island is increasingly dominated by dry wines and released as Salina IGT. Zibibbo is fashioned into sweet Moscato di Pantelleria DOC and the superior Passito di Pantelleria on the volcanic island of Pantelleria, near the African Coast. In legend, the wine possessed such character as to dupe the Greek god Apollo into assuming that he was drinking ambrosia—a beverage, reserved for gods, that confers immortality upon the imbiber. BACK TO TOP Sardinia (Sardegna) South of Corsica, the island of Sardinia owes a great debt to Spanish grape varieties. Cannonau (Garnacha, or Grenache) and Carignano (Cariñena, or Carignan) are the dominant red varieties, and the island’s dominant white grape, Vermentino, is likely of Spanish origin. These grapes were likely introduced to the island during a period of general cultural assimilation, as the Spanish Kingdom of Aragon ruled Sardinia until the early 1700s, for a period of nearly 400 years. The island’s wines easily reach high alcohol levels in the dry, hot Mediterranean climate; some historic styles, such as the rare Malvasia di Bosa DOC and Vernaccia di Oristano DOC , may even be produced in an oxidative style reminiscent of Spanish sherries. Vermentino di Gallura is the island’s sole DOCG zone. At the extreme north end of Sardinia, Gallura is a hot, high-elevation zone with poor, rocky, granitic soils—a paramount requirement for keeping the Vermentino grape’s vigorous ambitions at bay. Here, Vermentino produces aromatic and rich wines and may see oak influence, although fresher styles are more common. To be labeled superiore , the wines must show a minimum 13% alcohol instead of the base 12% required for the DOCG. While Vermentino dominates white grape plantings in the northern reaches of Sardinia, Nuragus is more common in the south. The grape tends to produce tart, appley wines; the best versions are Nuragus di Cagliari DOC . Cannonau, the island’s premier red grape, is often rustic and spicy, with a fuller body than its color would indicate—premature oxidation is especially virulent in Sardinia’s Grenache. Cannonau di Sardegna DOC covers the entire island, and is divided into three subzones: Oliena, Jerzu, and Capo Ferrato. BACK TO TOP Updated June 2024Previewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/209/champagne-and-sparkling-wineThu, 02 Jul 2026 03:31:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:82f197b3-eee7-42a5-8b7b-f72852f9a23dJonathan EichholzTable of Contents From Still to Sparkling Wine in Champagne Viticulture and Climate in Champagne The Regions of Champagne The CIVC and Échelle de Crus Types of Champagne Producers The Méthode Champenoise Styles of Champagne Still wines of Champagne Other Traditional Method Sparkling Wines Other Sparkling Winemaking Methods From Still to Sparkling Wine in Champagne The techniques of sparkling winemaking did not originate with the Benedictine monk Dom Pérignon, nor was the first purposely sparkling wine produced in the region of Champagne. Regardless, through centuries of refinement Champagne has become the world’s leading sparkling wine and the vinous embodiment of luxury and celebration. The méthode Champenoise , a complicated process involving secondary fermentation in the bottle, is at the heart of Champagne’s character and has been adopted by sparkling winemakers worldwide. The term, like “Champagne” itself, is protected by the EU, and may only be applied to sparkling wines produced according to the prescribed method within the Champagne AOP. Wines made in the fashion of Champagne but produced elsewhere may be labeled as traditional method ( méthode traditionnelle ) or classic method ( méthode classique ). Some producers, particularly in the US, continue to label their sparkling wines as Champagne, but such wines are banned from the EU. Dom Pérignon’s lasting contributions to modern Champagne lie in the techniques of assemblage (blending) and viticulture, despite the persistent myth that anoints him as the inventor of sparkling winemaking. As cellar master at the Abbey of Hautvillers from 1668 until his death in 1715, Pérignon struggled with the problem of natural refermentation. The irrepressibly cold winters of the region created a danger: as the weather cooled off in the autumn and the yeasts became dormant, fermentation would sometimes prematurely stop, and the wines would be bottled with fermentable sugars still present. With the spring thaw and rising temperatures, yeasts would awaken inside the bottle, and refermentation occurred. The resulting sparkle was a fatal flaw, as the weak, wood-fired French glass of the past could not withstand the mounting gas pressure, and bottles would explode, often causing a chain reaction throughout the cellar. In the late 17th century, the English transferred Champagne from cask to stronger, coal-fired glass that could contain the pressure, and were likely the first to enjoy true sparkling Champagne—the merits of effervescence are praised in English literary works whose publication predates Pérignon’s tenure. Pérignon and his contemporaries endeavored to lessen the probability of refermentation, rather than encourage it. Throughout the 18th century most serious producers labored to make still red and white wines that could compete with the wines of Burgundy. However, in 1724 the word mousseux— implying effervescence—appeared in connotation with the wines of Champagne, although the Champenoise may have enjoyed intentionally sparkling wines as early as 1700. With the introduction of stronger glass, some vintners purposefully produced sparkling wines, but results were mixed—many bottles continued to explode, others displayed no foam whatsoever—and the fundamental logic of the process remained mysterious. Some attributed the sparkle to the phases of the moon, and this early unpredictability created a need for additional terminology— pétillant, demi-mousseux (crémant), and grand mousseux —to define the level of effervescence, which survive today in other sparkling wine appellations. Champagne made as a still wine has enjoyed a royal reputation for a long time—Louis, son of Charlemagne, was crowned at Reims in 816, establishing a precedent for future French monarchs and a reputation for the wines of the area. Vineyards date to at least the 5th century. Gosset, the oldest Champagne house still in operation today, was founded in 1584 as a still wine producer (Ruinart, established in 1729, can claim to be the oldest sparkling Champagne house). Before bubbles became common in Champagne, producers began to produce white wines from red grapes in an effort to improve quality and their competitiveness with the wines of Burgundy—an important stylistic innovation that required exacting pressing and harvest procedures to retain a purely white must. Vestiges of vin gris Champagne production would inform sparkling winemaking: a 1718 winemaking treatise highlights the division in quality between vin de cuvée and vin de taille when pressing red grapes for white wine. Nonetheless, producers strove to produce good red wines. Throughout the 18th century, the red wines of Burgundy were generally superior to the red wines of Champagne, and—in a form of paid advertisement—doctors called into question the health benefits of pale, pinkish Champagne in comparison to the more robust and vigorous red Burgundy. The Champenoise even colored their wines with elderberry, in an attempt to achieve the deeper hues of Burgundy. The sparkling wines of Champagne, however, earned praise and, in light of their capriciousness and rarity at the time, high prices. The houses of Ruinart, Taittinger, Moët et Chandon, Delamotte and Veuve Clicquot Ponsardin were founded in the 18th century, yet sparkling Champagne production would remain problematic and imprecise until the early 1800s, when several key developments in both method and science provided a great leap forward for sparkling wines. Madame Barbe-Nicole Ponsardin, the Veuve (“widow”) Clicquot, assumed control of the house that bears her name after her husband’s death shortly after the turn of the 19th century. Under her leadership, the house pioneered the process of remuage , or riddling—a procedure that allows sediment to be easily removed from a bottle during dégorgement (disgorgement). Jean-Antoine Chaptal, the French chemist and statesman for whom the process of chaptalization is named, identified the relationship between sugar and fermentation in a seminal 1801 work. A fundamental understanding of the connection between sugar and the second fermentation, coupled with the pharmacist André François’ measurement of the precise amount of sugar required to induce it without breaking the bottle, allowed Champagne houses to produce sparkling wines with greater confidence. Improvements in both cork and glass paralleled the advancing science, and Champagne quickly evolved into a huge industry; its major brands developed international reputations. Individual growers could simply not afford the expensive process of sparkling winemaking—they would sell fruit to the larger houses, which could manage the costs of both production and marketing. Champagne production jumped from 300,000 bottles in 1800 to 20 million bottles by the 1880s. Pommery put the first brut Champagne, Pommery “Nature,” on the market in 1874. Champagne counted the royal Tsars of Russia, the kings of Belgium and Greece, and most of the English aristocracy as regular customers, and a longstanding association with French royalty served to buttress the new status of sparkling wine as a luxury product worthy of conspicuous consumption. Marketing materials in the age of poster advertising were especially flamboyant for Champagne—the wines were linked to women, leisure, sport, history, and all things celebratory. Champagne and the image of Champagne were, and still are, inseparable. Despite provocative, modern advertising imagery, many in Champagne were eager to emphasize the region’s traditions and history. In 1908, the French government delimited the Champagne region, further defining the region and its means of production and viticulture in 1927—but not without controversy. Vignerons from the southern Aube region, who had long supplied Champagne houses with base white wine, protested and nearly rioted in 1911 after being excluded from the region. The Aube was reinstated as a full region of the appellation in 1927. In 1935 the Commission de Châlons, a consortium of growers and merchants, was formed to develop quality standards and regulate pricing. In 1936, Champagne was enshrined in the new Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée system. Champagne remains the only AOC/AOP that does not need to include Appellation Contrôlée (or Protégée) on the label. A century of nearly uninterrupted growth and prestige for Champagne ended as phylloxera, fraud, and war loomed. Phylloxera struck in the 1890s, leading unscrupulous producers to import other sparkling wines and pass the product off as true Champagne. The repression of fraud became a key component of the initial delimitation of the region in 1908, and a source of great friction between merchants and growers. Collusion amongst producers to drive down Champagne grape prices was common at the turn of the century, even as they sourced fruit from the Loire, the Languedoc, and other countries. The growers finally revolted in 1911, ransacking houses and rioting in the streets until the French military stepped in to secure order. Negotiations between the parties were still underway in 1914 when the German army entered Reims. War had threatened the region before—Champagne’s vineyards were devastated in the Hundred Years’ War, 16th century religious conflicts, and the Thirty Years’ War—but the bloody, nearly immovable Western Front of World War I cut right through the region. Reims suffered constant bombardment for nearly four years; the wives, children, and those too infirm or old to fight risked life and limb to haul in the harvests. Braving artillery explosions and suffering from a lack of manpower, horses and fertilizer, the Champenoise delivered one of the finest vintages of the 20th century in 1914. After the First World War ended, stocks built up as prices rose and the lucrative German, American, and Russian export markets closed in the face of depression, Prohibition, and revolution, respectively. Champagne found itself under Nazi occupation during World War II, and producers walled up millions of bottles in their cellar networks to hide them from looting soldiers and the Nazi-appointed agent Otto Klaebisch—nicknamed the “Weinführer”—who had taken up residence at the Veuve Clicquot Ponsardin estate. Despite hidden stores and sleight of hand—such as passing off inferior wines as “Reserved for the Wehrmacht,” a stunt that landed François Taittinger in jail—Klaebisch demanded huge sums of Champagne’s wines for Germany, and the Champenoise feared for their survival. From the existing but limited framework of the Commission de Châlons, Count Robert-Jean de Vogüé of Moët et Chandon in 1941 organized a new, broader consortium of growers, producers and shippers to represent the Champagne industry and protect its interests in the face of Nazi occupation. That organization, the Comité interprofessionnel du vin de Champagne (CIVC), remains a powerful force in the complex mediation between the large Champagne houses and the numerous smaller growers from whom they source grapes. Today, merchant houses own just over 10% of Champagne’s vineyards, as the Contrôle des Structures prohibits any firm from farming more than fifteen owned or rented hectares. As a collective, the approximately 20,000 growers have a very powerful voice, despite selling under a quarter of all wine produced. In the second half of the 20th century, the popularity of Champagne propelled forward. Co-operatives, the first of which were founded in Champagne before World War I, became major suppliers to the domestic market in France. The largest houses expanded in exponential fashion, through a boom in sales, incorporation, merger, and acquisition. Following the inaugural 1921 vintage of Moët et Chandon’s “Dom Pérignon," many houses released a tête de cuvée , or prestige cuvée—a premier bottling often carrying a vintage date. From the 1970s forward, Champagne’s biggest names began establishing sparkling winemaking operations in other countries, as the limits of finite production in Champagne itself could not satisfy the world’s appetite for the wines. Champagne now accounts for only one in 12 bottles of sparkling wine produced worldwide, a statistic that supports the INAO’s decision in 2009 to meet the burden of demand and broaden the appellation’s area—the first major change since 1927. The number of villages that can grow grapes for the appellation increased from 319 to 357, although the additional acreage is not forecast to have an effect on sales until at least 2021. In 2018, there were 16,000 growers and 340 houses, which shipped 362 million bottles worldwide, up 55 million from just the year before. Of these markets, the largest are the UK, USA, Germany, and Japan, which account for half of all Champagne exports. BACK TO TOP Viticulture and Climate in Champagne The region of Champagne is located between the 48th and 49th parallels. With a mean annual temperature of only 50°F, ripening is extremely variable, and quality can differ greatly from year to year, requiring the houses of Champagne to blend between vintages to achieve a consistency in their house styles. Grape acidity usually remains markedly high—an important attribute for sparkling wines. Frost, rain, fungal disease and hail are serious concerns for growers in the cold, Atlantic-influenced climate. Rain often interrupts flowering, resulting in a bouvreux , or second crop, that rarely ripens and is left on the vine. Porous, belemnite chalk subsoil is pushed to the surface on the appellation’s slopes, absorbing heat to protect the vines at night and providing excellent drainage in the wet climate. Belemnite chalk, derived from the fossilized remains of millions of extinct cephalopods, has a high limestone content, which allows vine roots to dig deeply and is linked to increased acidity. A second layer of micraster chalk, named for an extinct sea urchin, characterizes the valley vineyards. The Champagne region is renowned for its huge network of cellars carved out of the chalk and limestone subsoil, which provides a perfect natural storage environment of 53-54° F for millions of bottles. A thin layer of clay and sand covers much of the chalk in Champagne; in the Aube to the south clay is the dominant soil type. The houses of Champagne are quick to assert the importance of the region’s soil, but slower overall to embrace the tenets of modern organic and sustainable viticulture. Visitors to the region will no doubt notice shreds of blue plastic scattered throughout many of the vineyards—remnants of bags used to ship composted trash. The Champenoise have a long history of relying on recycled Parisian garbage to fertilize their vineyards. Composting is admirable, but the portion of inorganic and toxic waste grew over time, and the practice was outlawed in 1998. Les bleus de ville remain, a reminder to a new generation of growers and caretakers. The three principal grapes authorized for the production of Champagne are Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, and the black grape Meunier (formerly Pinot Meunier—“miller’s” Pinot—named for the dusty appearance of its leaves). In 2018, Pinot Noir accounted for 38% of total plantings, Chardonnay accounted for 31%, and Meunier accounted for 31%. Larger houses will often blend Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, or all three varieties, in order to create a consistent non-vintage house style. Each grape contributes a different element: Chardonnay provides elegance and longevity, Pinot Noir supports the wine’s structure, richness and body, and Meunier lends a youthful fruitiness and approachability. In select areas, Pinot Blanc Vrai (“true” Pinot Blanc, a white form of Pinot Noir), Arbane, Pinot Gris, Chardonnay Rosé, and Petit Meslier are authorized for Champagne AOP production, but they are rare, totaling less than 0.3% of plantings. As in all French appellations, viticulture is regulated. Yields, which are often adjusted on a yearly basis, are quite high in comparison with other appellations. During the 2016 harvest, yields surpassed 100 hl/ha. Yields remain high because of the limits set to juice extraction. In 1992, the CIVC set a limit of 102 liters of must for every 160 kg of grapes, or 2,550 liters per 4,000 kg—a marc of grapes, the amount held in a traditional Coquard basket press. This restriction brings the final yield to 66 hl/ha. Only four pruning methods are permitted: Cordon de Royat, Chablis, Vallée de la Marne, and Guyot (double and simple). Average vine age hovers around twenty years, as the lowered productivity of old vines is undesirable to most houses in Champagne. BACK TO TOP The Regions of Champagne Vineyards in the village of Epernay. Many of the major commercial houses of Champagne are located in the city of Reims and the smaller towns of Épernay and Aÿ. The 357 villages authorized to grow grapes for Champagne are split between five districts: the Montagne de Reims, Vallée de la Marne, Côte des Blancs, Côte de Sézanne, and the Côte des Bar in the Aube département . Pinot Noir is the prominent grape in both Montagne de Reims and the Aube, whereas Chardonnay is dominant in the Côte de Sézanne and almost exclusively planted, as its name indicates, on the southeast- and east-facing slopes of the Côte des Blancs. Meunier is heavily cultivated in the sheltered vineyards of the frost-prone Vallée de la Marne, where its tendency to bud late and ripen early is prized by growers. The vineyards of the Montagne de Reims are, surprisingly, divided between south- and north-facing slopes. The plain beneath the northern Montagne de Reims is too cold for viticulture, but the higher slopes of the region’s plateau enjoy a pocket of warm air that allows the grapes to ripen. Cru status is awarded to entire villages in Champagne, rather than individual vineyards or properties. However, the areas authorized for cultivation within each commune are strictly defined. 17 villages have grand cru status and 42 are classified as premier cru according to their rankings in the Échelle de Crus . BACK TO TOP The CIVC and Échelle de Crus The CIVC, the regulatory body responsible for mediating relations between growers and producers, oversees the production methods and promotion of Champagne. The CIVC regulates the size of harvests, authorizes blocage and deblocage —respectively the reserve and release of wine stocks for use in future vintages—and safeguards the protected designation of Champagne. Until 1990, the CIVC set the price of grapes through the Échelle de Crus , a percentile system by which the villages, or crus, of the Champagne appellation are rated. Villages that achieved the maximum échelle (“scale”) of 100 were classified as grands crus ; villages that achieved an échelle of 90 through 99 were classified as premier cru . Mareuil-sur-Ay in the Vallée de la Marne and Tauxières in Montagne de Reims were the only premier cru villages with a 99% ranking. Villages with a rating below 90 were simply crus . Originally, the Échelle de Crus was a true percentile system; in 1985 a revision set the minimum rating of the scale at 80. Until 1990, a village’s échelle rating represented the set percentage of price that a grower could receive for fruit. Thus, growers in grand cru villages would receive the full price set by the CIVC, and other villages would receive a percentage equivalent to their échelle rating. Today, the CIVC recommends, rather than regulates pricing, and supervises the exchange between growers and Champagne houses in order to promote fairness. In the early 2000s, the CIVC abolished the system entirely, but the premier and grand cru villages retain their titles, and producers may continue to label wines from these villages as such. BACK TO TOP Types of Champagne Producers Every bottle of Champagne bears a series of digits—the matriculation number—a code assigned to each producer by the CIVC. A set of initials precedes the number, denoting the type of producer who made the wine. NM (Négociant Manipulant) : A house that purchases grapes and or base wines from growers and other smaller houses. Some NM houses own a significant portion of their own vineyards; others own none at all. Large Champagne houses with the most international presence are invariably in this category: Moët et Chandon, Louis Roederer, Veuve Clicquot Ponsardin, Billecart-Salmon, Lanson, Taittinger, Pol Roger, Perrier-Jouët, Mumm, and Laurent-Perrier. Quality varies widely, although prices are uniformly high. Many houses often fall under the same corporate parentage; for example, Moët et Chandon, Krug, Veuve Clicquot Ponsardin, and Mercier fall under the umbrella of the luxury conglomerate LVMH. RM (Récoltant Manipulant) : A grower-producer who makes Champagne from estate-grown fruit. 95% of the grapes must originate in the producer’s own vineyards. CM (Coopérative Manipulant) : A growers’ co-operative that produces the wine under a single brand. RC (Récoltant Coopérateur) : A grower whose grapes are vinified at a co-operative, but whose wines are sold under the grower's own label. SR (Société de Récoltants) : A firm, not a co-operative, set up by a union of often related growers, who share resources to make their wines and collectively market several brands. ND (Négociant Distributeur) : A middleman company that distributes Champagne it did not make. MA (Marque d’Acheteur) : A buyer’s own brand, often a large supermarket chain or restaurant, that purchases Champagne and sells it under its own label. BACK TO TOP The Méthode Champenoise Although certain standards of viticulture must be met, the méthode Champenoise truly begins in the press house. Black grapes must be pressed especially quickly after harvest, lest they color the must. As previously mentioned, extraction is limited to 102 liters from 160 kg of grapes, or 2,550 liters from 4,000 kg. The extracted juice is then divided into the vin de cuvée (the first 2,050 liters) and the vin de taille (the following 500 liters). The vin de taille is usually richer in pigment and tannin, and many producers sell off this lesser component of the must or include it in a minor proportion as a structural element in a blend. A third extraction, the rebêche , is required by law and must comprise 1-10% of the total. The rebêche is used for distillate, not Champagne. After pressing, the juice is allowed to settle ( débourbage ) at a cool temperature for eight to fifteen hours, so that remaining solids ( bourbes ) in the must can be removed by racking prior to fermentation. The must, which is often chaptalized, will then undergo primary fermentation, resulting in high-acid base wines ( vins clairs ) with an approximate alcohol content of 11%. Primary fermentation may occur in either stainless steel or oak—typically used barrels, although some producers do use a percentage of new wood. The base wines often undergo malolactic fermentation, although this is not a universal practice. After both the primary and malolactic fermentations have concluded, the base wines will generally be clarified, through fining, filtering, or centrifuge. The clarified base wines remain in either stainless steel or barrel (or, in rare cases, bottles) until late February or March of the year following the harvest. The most classic representation of Champagne is a blend, utilizing a number of grapes, growing areas, and vintages. At this stage the blender will taste the lots of base wine, and determine a house’s hallmark blend, drawing on reserve stocks from previous years to provide complexity and richness. A certain consistency in style from year to year is highly desired. For rosé wines, a small proportion of base red wine is generally added. After the assemblage and cold stabilization, the blend will be racked and bottled with the addition of liqueur de tirage , a mixture of still wine, yeasts, sugar, and fining agents that will serve to ignite the second fermentation. The second fermentation, or prise de mousse , is the heart of the méthode Champenoise . Each bottle is affixed with a crown cap (equipped with a bidule , a plastic capsule that will serve to capture the sediment during remuage ) or a cork after the liqueur de tirage is added, and yeast begins its work. The secondary fermentation lasts up to eight weeks, as the yeast slowly converts the additional sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide. The alcohol content of the wine rises approximately 1.2-1.3%, and the carbon dioxide creates a pressure inside the bottle of five to six atmospheres. During the second fermentation, the bottles are usually stored horizontally (“ sur latte” ). Autolysis, the breakdown of dead yeast cells, forms sediment, or lees, in the bottle as second fermentation occurs. The wine will be aged on the lees for an appropriate period—a minimum of 12 months is required for non-vintage wines—prior to their removal from the bottle through dégorgement. In preparation for dégorgement , the sediment must first be trapped in the neck of the bottle. Historically, producers performed an operation called pointage , in which each bottle would be briskly shaken in order to prevent the sediment from sticking to the sides of the bottle. Newer strains of yeast generally preclude the need for pointage , and most houses have abandoned the practice. Instead, producers proceed directly to remuage , or riddling, which manipulates the sediment into the neck and bidule through sharp twists and inversion of the bottle. The widow Clicquot’s breakthrough involved the development of the pupitre : two large wooden planks fastened together in an upright “A” shape, with sixty angled holes cut into each plank of wood. A remuer would fractionally turn and tilt each bottle over a period of about eight weeks, slowly inverting the bottles with the neck pointing downward. Despite the fact that a top remuer is rumored to handle upwards of 70,000 bottles a day, Champagne is an industry, and more efficient methods are required. The modern remuage operation is shortened to a week or less through the use of the gyropalette, an automated device that holds 504 bottles. The gyropalette has replaced hand-riddling at all of the major houses, although some prestige cuvée bottlings are still handled manually. Once the sediment is successfully collected in the neck of the bottle, the bottles remain in the upside-down vertical position (“ sur pointe ”) for a short period of time prior to dégorgement , although some houses will age the wine in this position for a number of years—Bollinger’s “RD” (“ Récemment Dégorgé ”) is kept sur pointe for a number of years, and only disgorged upon order. The modern method of dégorgement à la glace involves dipping the neck of the bottle in a freezing brine solution. The bottle can then be turned upright. The force of internal pressure will expel the semi-frozen sediment (and a small portion of wine) as the crown cap is removed. An older method, dégorgement à la volée, utilizes the same principle; however, without freezing the sediment excess wine is invariably lost along with it. As the wines are fully fermented to total dryness, the bottles are then topped off with dosage , or liqueur d’expédition , a liquid mixture of sugar syrup and wine. Rarely, bone-dry non-dosage styles are produced. The amount of sugar in the dosage is determined by the desired style of the wine. Brut is the most common sweetness level and the level at which most houses bottle vintage and prestige cuvées. Sweetness Levels for Champagne Designation Residual Sugar Brut Nature/Non-Dosé 0-3 grams per liter, no added dosage Extra Brut 0-6 grams per liter Brut 0-12 grams per liter Extra Dry 12-17 grams per liter Sec 17-32 grams per liter Demi-Sec 32-50 grams per liter Doux 50+ grams per liter After the addition of dosage , the bottle is secured with a cork and six half-twists of a muselet , or wire cage. The Champagne is then aged in bottle prior to release. Non-vintage styles must remain in the cellar for a total minimum of 15 months (including the period of lees aging), whereas vintage wines require 36 months in the cellar. In reality, many top vintage wines and prestige cuvées slumber in the caves of Champagne for much longer prior to appearing on the market. Some bottle aging, whether in one’s personal cellar or the cellars of a producer, is usually critical: apparent sulfur and youthful austerity can make recently bottled Champagne less rewarding. Champagne is bottled in a range of bottle sizes. The names of large bottles, from Jeroboam forward, have Biblical connotations. Bottle sizes larger than a Jeroboam and smaller than a half bottle may be filled by transversage or by the transfer method, from a tank or through the process of decanting multiple smaller bottles. Champagne Bottle Sizes Bottle Size Quarter Bottle (Piccolo) 187 ml Half Bottle (Demi) 375 ml Bottle 750 ml Magnum 1.5 L (2 bottles) Jeroboam 3 L (4 bottles) Rehoboam (discontinued in 1983) 4.5 L (6 bottles) Methuselah 6 L (8 bottles) Salmanazar 9 L (12 bottles) Balthazar 12 L (16 bottles) Nebuchadnezzar 15 L (20 bottles) Solomon 18 L (24 bottles) * Larger sizes, including the Sovereign, Primat, and Melchizedek are extraordinarily rare. Many sources cite the 18 L bottle as a Melchior, as it is called in Bordeaux. BACK TO TOP Styles of Champagne Non-Vintage (NV) : Generally brut in style, the NV cuvée represents a house’s signature style, and the blender’s job is to ensure its consistency from year to year. Non-vintage Champagne makes up at least three-quarters of the market. Vintage : 100% of the blend must come from the stated vintage, yet a maximum 80% of a year’s harvest may be sold as vintage Champagne. The better houses declare a vintage only in exceptional years. These are usually brut in style, and good examples can age for a decade or more. Blanc de Blancs : Only white grapes are permitted, but they are not always sourced from the Côte des Blancs. They may be vintage-dated or NV. The Blanc de Blancs category represents some of Champagne’s most ageworthy bottlings; while austere and often steely in youth, better examples develop an intense bouquet with maturity. Blanc de Noirs : White wine produced solely from black grapes. The wine usually displays richness, intensity, and weight, although it can lack the supreme elegance and finesse of Blanc de Blancs . Prestige Cuvée (Tête de Cuvée) : Usually the finest and most expensive bottling that a house offers, the prestige cuvée is typically (but not always) vintage-dated and aged for a number of years prior to release. Prestige Cuvées are usually only released in superior vintages, and may undergo more traditional vinification procedures, such as barrel fermentation, riddling by hand, and cork-finishing during the second fermentation. Many of the large houses produce prestige cuvées from their own vineyards—even single vineyards in exceptional cases. Prestige cuvées may be Blanc de Blancs, Blanc de Noirs or rosé in style. Not all houses produce a prestige cuvée, and some produce several. Classic examples include Moët et Chandon "Dom Pérignon," Taittinger "Comtes de Champagne," Louis Roederer "Cristal," Laurent-Perrier "Grande Siècle," Perrier-Jouët "Belle Époque" (previously bottled as "Fleur de Champagne" for the US market), Pol Roger "Cuvée Sir Winston Churchill," Ruinart "Dom Ruinart," and Veuve Clicquot-Ponsardin "La Grande Dame." For an exhaustive list, click here . Single Vineyard Champagne : Single Vineyard Champagne bottlings may be produced by a large house or a smaller grower-producer, and may or may not be advertised as a prestige cuvée. Single Vineyard wines are not required to carry a vintage date, although they invariably do, and the style represents a stark departure from the blending philosophy of the region. Philipponnat’s “Clos de Goisses,” originally released for the 1935 vintage from one of the few walled vineyards of the region, remains a benchmark bottling. Special Club Prestige Cuvée: The “Special Club” concept originated in 1971, with a dozen grower-producers. Lacking the marketing budgets of larger houses, these producers banded together to promote their prestige cuvées through identical packaging. The Club Trésors comprises 28 RM producers as members. The Special Club bottlings are estate-bottled, vintage-dated wines that represent the pinnacle of each individual grower’s style and production. Special Club bottles and labels share identical design. Current members include Marc Hébrart, Pierre Gimonnet, Paul Bara, J. Lassalle and Gaston Chiquet. For a complete membership, click here . Rosé Champagne : Vintage, NV, and prestige cuvées may also be produced in pink versions. The traditional saignée method, in which the wine gains its hue through extended skin contact, is less common than blending. Champagne is the only AOP in France that allows a rosé to be produced by blending red and white wine. A rosé prestige cuvée, a novelty in years past, is usually the most expensive and rare product a house offers. BACK TO TOP Still wines of Champagne Coteaux Champenois and Rosé de Riceys are still wine appellations within the region of Champagne. Coteaux Champenois covers still red, white, and rosé wines from the entire appellation; Rosé de Riceys is reserved for 100% Pinot Noir rosé wines produced in Les Riceys, a cru village in the Aube. BACK TO TOP Other Traditional Method Sparkling Wines While the exact aging requirements and grape varieties may change, the traditional method mirrors the méthode Champenoise and has at its heart the principle of a second fermentation in the bottle. The méthode traditionnelle has been adopted throughout France and worldwide as the most successful approach to quality, ageworthy sparkling wine production. In France, there are eight AOP regions for crémant wines produced by the traditional method: Crémant de Bordeaux , Crémant de Bourgogne , Crémant de Loire , Crémant de Limoux , Crémant de Die , Crémant du Jura , Crémant d’Alsace , and Vin de Savoie , which produces crémant under the designation Crémant de Savoie . The encépagement varies widely according to the appellation, and the limit on pressing is less strict (100 liters from 150 kg, or 2,666 liters from 4,000 kg) but otherwise the wines are produced by the method prescribed for Champagne. Other appellations in France producing traditional method sparkling wines include Vouvray , Montlouis-sur-Loire , and Saumur in the Loire; and Seyssel in Savoie. Fully sparkling wines from the aforementioned appellations will be labeled mousseux (or "crémant" in Savoie), whereas lightly sparkling wines are labeled pétillant . Blanquette de Limoux wines from the Limoux AOP in the Languedoc region are also produced by the traditional method, from a minimum 90% Mauzac that may be blended with Chardonnay and Chenin Blanc. In Italy, the best traditional method sparkling wines are produced in Lombardy, within the DOCGs of Franciacorta and Oltrepò Pavese Metodo Classico . All Spanish Cava and the highest quality German Sekt are produced by the traditional method. England is a new frontier for traditional method sparkling wines: the White Cliffs of Dover (and much of southeastern England’s subsoil) represent a natural continuation of the chalk of Champagne. Nyetimber and Ridgeview Estate, both located in Sussex, lead the way. Quality sparkling wines are made on America’s West Coast—in Carneros, Napa Valley, Anderson Valley, Willamette Valley, and Washington. Roederer established operations in Anderson Valley in Mendocino, whereas Taittinger and Moët et Chandon founded American projects in Carneros and Yountville, respectively. Traditional method sparkling wines are made in New York, Canada, and even New Mexico. Graham Beck is at the forefront of traditional method “Cap Classique” sparkling wines in South Africa. Major Champagne houses have established outposts in Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, Ukraine, and even Brazil. BACK TO TOP Other Sparkling Winemaking Methods Méthode Ancestrale : Also known as the méthode rurale, this is the oldest and most rudimentary of sparkling winemaking procedures. A single fermentation begins in tank, but the wine is transferred to bottles before the process is complete— liqueur de tirage is unnecessary. Yeasts continue to ferment the remaining sugars in the bottle, giving the wine its sparkle. The residual sweetness of the finished wines varies by appellation, but dosage is not allowed. The wine may be disgorged, filtered and rebottled in clean glass prior to sale. Bugey Cerdon , Clairette de Die Méthode Dioise Ancestrale , and Gaillac Mousseux Méthode Gaillaçoise are examples of the style. The Charmat Process/Cuve Close/Tank Method: Developed by Eugene Charmat in the early 20th century, the Tank Method is quicker, cheaper, and less labor-intensive than the traditional method. After the wine undergoes primary fermentation, liqueur de tirage is added to the wine, provoking a second fermentation, which occurs in a pressurized enamel-lined tank, or autoclave, over a matter of days. Once the appropriate pressure is reached (usually 5 atmospheres), the wine is chilled to arrest fermentation. Some appellations require the wine to remain in tank for a minimum period of time, such as one month for Asti DOCG. The wine is then filtered and bottled, usually with a dosage. The lack of extended lees contact in the tank method is not suitable for making quality wines in the style of Champagne. The bubbles, or bead, in tank method wines will be larger and coarser, and the wine will have a less uniform texture than wines made by the traditional method. However, this method is appropriate and even preferred for sparkling wines emphasizing fruit and varietal aromatics rather than the flavors derived from autolysis. Most Asti DOCG and Prosecco bottlings are produced in this method. Continuous Method/Russian Continuous Method: Developed in the USSR, this method is similar to the tank method, but the base wine is pumped through a series of interconnected (continuous) tanks while undergoing the second fermentation. Liqueur de tirage is constantly added to the wine, and lees accumulate in the first several tanks, offering a higher degree of autolyzed flavors than the standard tank method. The majority of German Sekt is produced by either the tank method or the continuous method. Carbonation: The cheapest method of sparkling winemaking involves a simple injection of carbon dioxide into still wine. The bubbles do not integrate into the texture of the wine at all, and fade quickly upon opening. This method is not used for quality wines. Alternative methods of sparkling winemaking cannot compete with the wines of Champagne in complexity, but they may be perfectly suited to less serious (and sometimes more exuberant) styles. However, traditional method sparkling wines from all over the world are approaching and in some cases surpassing basic Champagne bottlings in character and refinement. Differences between well-made traditional method wines and basic méthode Champenoise wines are sometimes very difficult to detect. However, at its top echelon of quality there is no substitute for Champagne—its finesse, longevity, and price are incomparable in the world of sparkling wine. BACK TO TOP Updated June 2024Previewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/166/greece-and-eastern-europeMon, 08 Jun 2026 13:31:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:be262527-6dee-4f4a-815a-8be20e64bdb7Jonathan EichholzContents Greece Hungary Bulgaria Romania Slovenia and Croatia Czech Republic and Slovakia The Russian Federation Ukraine and Georgia Greece In its infancy, wine was produced in regions where the vine grew wild. From its origins in the Near East, cultivation of the grapevine spread to the Old Kingdom of Egypt, and, around 2500 BCE, the vine was brought, via trade, to the Minoan Bronze Age civilization of Crete. Despite Crete’s latitude, the island ’ s moderate climate proved suitable for the vine, and in viticulture the Minoans surpassed all their contemporaries. (They also developed indoor plumbing—clearly a civilization ahead of the times.) The practice was passed to their successors, the Mycenaeans, to other islands in the Aegean, and to the mainland of Greece. The Greeks spread cultivation of the vine throughout much of Europe. The first vineyards in France were in Massalia, a Greek colony at modern-day Marseilles, and Southern Italy’s modern varieties Greco and Aglianico may be Greek in origin. The Greeks took viticulture northward as well, to the banks of the Danube and the coastline of the Black Sea. Ultimately, the Greeks were responsible for not only spreading the vine geographically but also democratizing the consumption of wine. In ancient Egypt, wine was regarded as the sweat of the sun god Ra; the Greeks drank wine at religious and ceremonial events, but they also drank socially. As wine consumption in Greece spread to new social classes, additional vineyards were needed. The Romans carried the Greeks’ vines even farther, but the tradition of many modern-day European wine regions extends back to ancient Greece. While preeminent in the ancient world, Greek wines languished until a late 20th-century surge in interest and quality. Greece’s vinous reputation had long been rooted in r etsina, an aromatized wine flavored with Aleppo pine resin. Wine was transported through ancient Greece in amphorae, often sealed with pine resin to prevent spoilage, and over time the resulting flavor became an acquired taste. Some believe, however, that the resin was always added specifically for its flavor, as ancient Greek wine was often mixed with a variety of substances, including honey, seawater, and herbs. Today, retsina is generally produced as a white wine, from Savatiano grapes, and flavored with the addition of pine resin, rather than stored in resin-sealed casks. Per Greek law, it cannot be labeled with a vintage. Retsina is a traditional appellation protected by the EU (as a PGI) and is rarely encountered outside Greece, though the wine continues to shape perceptions of the Greek wine industry overall. For many years, Greece was thought of as a country producing lesser quality, oxidized wines, but a new generation of winemakers is striving to redefine Greek wine. Although larger producers, such as Boutari and Tsantali, continue to dominate the Greek wine industry, it is the newer, smaller producers who are generating excitement. With over 300 indigenous varieties in the country, the future for high-quality but uniquely Greek wines is bright. Greece first implemented wine laws in 1969 and 1970, with most of the country ’ s appellations established in 1971. Refined in the 1980s and overseen by the Greek Wine Institute, these appellation laws conform to EU standards and resemble the French model. There are two levels of PDO (Protected Designation of Origin) quality wine: Controlled Appellation of Origin, or Οίνοι Ονομασίας Προελεύσεως Eλεγχόμενης (AOC/OPE), a status reserved for traditional sweet wines; and Appellation of Superior Quality, or Οίνοι Ονομασίας Προελεύσεως Ανωτέρας Ποιότητος (AOSQ/OPAP). While these two separate categories might be found on labels, they are seen as archaic as most producers prefer the EU's PDO and PGi designations. PDO Wines of Greece will appear on current and future bottles of wines featuring a designation of origin, especially those destined for export. PDO wines may carry an aging designation. Réserve indicates a minimum one year of aging for white wines, with at least six months in barrel and three months in bottle, and a minimum two years of aging for red wines, with at least one year in barrel and six months in bottle. Grande Réserve requires a minimum two-year aging period for white wines, including at least one year in barrel and six months in bottle, and a minimum four-year aging period for red wines, including at least 18 months in barrel and 18 months in bottle. Below the PDO category are PGI (Protected Geographical Indication) wines, Varietal wines, and Table wines. The Varietal category comprises table wines that carry a vintage and variety on the label, whereas ordinary Table wines cannot; neither Varietal nor Table wines may list a geographical indication. The PGI category includes the Traditional Appellations (Ονομασία κατά Παράδοση) of Retsina and Verdea (an oxidative white wine produced on the island of Zakynthos, in the Ionian Sea), and integrates the wines of Greece’s former vin de pays category, Topikos Inos (Τοπικοί Οίνοι). The PGI zones are divided into regional, district, and area levels: PGI regions are equivalent to the major regions of Greece, such as Peloponnese and Crete, whereas PGI areas are so small they may only include a single estate. PGI districts correspond to the peripheral units of Greece, a form of political state that replaced prefectures during administrative reform in 2010. Cava indicates at least one year of aging for white and rosé PGI wines, and a minimum three years of aging for reds. White and rosé Cava wines spend at least six months in oak prior to bottling, and reds rest in barrel for at least one year. Palaiomenos se vareli may be added to the label of Cava, Réserve, or Grande Réserve wines to indicate oak aging beyond the required minimums. The Greek mainland includes the regions of Macedonia, Epirus, Peloponnese, Thessalia, Thrace, and Central Greece (Sterea Ellada). The Greek islands are broadly categorized into the Aegean and Ionian Islands. Although Thrace , in northeastern Greece, cannot claim any PDO appellations, neighboring Macedonia is home to some of Greece’s best dry red wines. In Macedonia’s PDO regions of Naoussa and Amynteo, red wines are produced solely from the firmly tannic red grape Xinomavro (“acid black”). In Goumenissa PDO, lighter Xinomavro wines are produced, requiring the addition of at least 20% Negoska. Naoussa PDO, established in 1971, is one of Greece’s most successful appellations and is the home of Boutari, one of Greece’s two largest producers and a major force in the modern rejuvenation of Greek winemaking. Amynteo is Greece’s coolest region and one of the few PDOs allowing the production of rosé wines; these may range from dry to semisweet, and be still or sparkling. A fourth PDO, Slopes of Meliton (Plagies Melitona), is a single appellation for Domaine Porto Carras, a trailblazing, ambitious Greek estate. Red PDO wines from the estate are blends of Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, and the native Limnio; white PDO wines are blends of the Greek varieties Assyrtiko, Athiri, and Roditis. Evangelos Gerovassiliou, the winemaker who launched Domaine Carras to international acclaim under the guidance of Émile Peynaud, nurtured the native white Malagousia grape from the brink of extinction and now produces varietal wines of high aromatic intensity from the grape at his own domaine in the PGI district of Thessaloniki, in central Macedonia. Moschofilero in Mantinia In Thessalia , south of Macedonia, Rapsani PDO includes four villages on the lower slopes of Mount Olympus. The appellation is the southernmost outpost of the Xinomavro grape, whose tannins and acid structure are softened by the warmer climate and blending with the Krassato and Stavroto varieties. Red wines from Mavro Messenikola are produced in Messenikola PDO , whereas only white wines, blended from Roditis and Savvatiano grapes from higher-altitude vineyards, are allowed in Anchialos PDO . These wines may be dry, off-dry, or semisweet. On the Ionian coast to the west of Thessalia, the region of Epirus contains only one PDO: Zitsa . Dry, semisweet, and sparkling wines are produced from the Debina grape. Central Greece , or Sterea Ellada, is a bastion of retsina; Attiki, the region surrounding Athens, is the center of production. The low-acid Savvatiano, preferred for retsina because it retains some varietal character when resinated, is the chief grape in the region, and the second most planted variety is Roditis, the common name for a closely linked family of pink-skinned grapes. There are no PDO zones. Peloponnese , a peninsula only by virtue of the narrow Isthmus of Corinth, is directly south of Sterea Ellada. Vine cultivation is concentrated in the north, around the three PDO zones of Nemea , Mantinia , and Patras . Both dry and sweet Nemean wines are produced exclusively from Agiorgitiko (Saint George), a softly tannic, intensely fruity black grape and one of Greece’s most noble native varieties. Agiorgitiko performs differently throughout the wide range of elevations and terrains in Nemea, reflected in the appellation’s division into several recognizable subzones; the commune of Koutsi is one of the most famous. The wines of Nemea are sometimes called the blood of Hercules (or blood of the lion), a reference to the first of Hercules’s 12 legendary labors. In the other PDO zones of the Peloponnese, only white wines are allowed. Moschofilero, a red-skinned grape that is aromatically similar to Muscat, is the principal component of Mantinia PDO wines, one of Greece’s most exciting white wines. Patras is an appellation for dry to semisweet white wines produced from 100% Roditis, but there are also three dessert wine PDO zones connected to the region: Muscat of Patras , Muscat of Rio Patras , and Mavrodaphne of Patras . Muscat of Patras and Muscat of Rio Patras may be either vin doux naturel or naturally sweet in style, and are produced from Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains. Mavrodaphne (“black laurel”) of Patras is a sweet, fortified red wine produced from Mavrodaphne and Mavri Korinthiaki, a currant grape useful for enriching the sugar content of the wine. Mavrodaphne of Patras is aged for at least one year in wood prior to release, but the wine may sometimes rest in cask for a decade or more prior to bottling. Both vintage and nonvintage versions are produced. The estate of Achaia Clauss, progenitor of the style, has a Mavrodaphne solera dating to 1882. The Greeks often drink Mavrodaphne of Patras as an aperitif—a tradition developed to temper the briny, salty character of Greek first courses—and the wine is used for the communion sacrament in Greek Orthodox services. In 2010, the Greeks awarded PDO status to the wines of Monemvassia-Malvasia, a small zone on the southeastern coast of the Peloponnese. Although Monemvassia is the name of the grape used here and elsewhere in Greece, it is also the name of an old port town governed variously by the Greeks, Byzantines, Venetians, and Turks. Evidence of the brisk trade of Monemvassia’s sweet wines dates back to the 13th century. During their rule, Venetians rechristened the port and its wines Malvasia. In deference to the historic importance of the area’s malvasios oenos , the new appellation’s wines must be sweet in style. As the wines must be aged in an oxidative environment for at least two years, the first releases, produced from a minimum 51% Monemvassia, went on the market in 2012. Agiorgitiko growing in the hills of Nemea There are four wine-producing Ionian Islands off the west coast of Greece: Cephalonia, Kerkyra (Corfu), Lefkada, and Zakynthos. Cephalonia is the only Ionian island that has any PDOs. Robola of Cephalonia PDO is for dry white wines produced from Robola, a variety unrelated to the Ribolla or Rebula found in Friuli or Slovenia. PDO sweet wines are also produced on the island, from Mavrodaphne and Muscat . Zakynthos, an island of breathtaking beauty, visible from the Peloponnesian coast, is the home of Verdea traditional appellation wines. Verdea, produced from obscure and autochthonous grapes such as Skiadopoulo, Pavlos, and Avgoustiatis, may share similarities with Jura's vin jaune and sherry, but even to Greeks it is often unknown. A greater number of PDO appellations exist for the Aegean Islands , to the south and east of the mainland. Crete , the largest and southernmost Greek isle, accounts for approximately 10% of Greek wine production. Crete is home to the red wine PDO zones Archanes and Daphnes , and the PDO zones Sitia and Peza , which permit both red and white wines. In 2012, three new PDO zones debuted on the island: Candia , Malvasia Candia , and Malvasia Sitia . The Vilana grape, used for the majority of dry white Sitia wines and the entirety of Peza whites, is Crete’s most cultivated white grape. Despite Vilana's status in the PDO wines of the island, many of Crete's most talented winemakers prefer to showcase Vidiano, a white grape that retains more acidity. Liatiko, the dominant grape in the red Sitia and Daphnes PDO wines, is found only on Crete and a handful of neighboring islands. It is one of the most ancient varieties under cultivation, it ripens in mid-July, and it delivers a distinctively orange-hued wine. Mandilaria, the most common red variety throughout the Aegean, is blended with Kotsifali to produce the Archanes and red Peza wines. On Crete, however, many winemakers are more excited to blend Kotsifali with Syrah—a recipe that may successfully mirror international tastes yet sacrifices some of the character of Crete in the process. North of Crete are the Cycladic islands of Santorini and Paros. Santorini PDO is an appellation producing white wines from the Assyrtiko grape, sometimes blended with Athiri and Aidani. The vines must be trained close to the ground, in the stefani shape of baskets or wreaths, in order to protect them from the fierce Aegean winds and to collect the little moisture that becomes available as morning dew. Assyrtiko, grown in the island’s poor, volcanic soils, is one of Greece’s most compelling white grapes: the wines are distinctively mineral, powerful, and high in acidity. Paris Sigalas is a master of the variety, producing Assyrtiko in both barrel-aged and fresher versions. Also produced on the island is a sweet, dried grape wine, Vinsanto—a name likely appropriated by the Italians when Venetians ruled the island in the Middle Ages. In Paros PDO , red and white wines are produced from the Mandilaria and white Monemvassia varieties. Paros is the only Greek appellation that mandates use of a white grape (Monemvassia) in red blends. The isle of Samos, to the northeast of Paros, is home to one of the nation’s most famous wines: the famed Muscat of Samos, now a PDO, received a form of appellation protection as early as 1934, when the island’s growers were united under the Union of Vinicultural Cooperatives of Samos (EOSS). Unlike many Greek wine regions, Samos was not considered a propitious place for viticulture in the ancient world; only after constant harassment from pirates led to a near-total depopulation of the island (around 1475) did newcomers to the island begin to plant Muscat. The island rises sharply from the sea, and vineyards are planted on high altitude, terraced slopes. On Samos, Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains is known as Moscato Aspro, and is produced in vin de liqueur , vin doux naturel and naturally sweet versions. The naturally sweet version is called Samos Nectar, and is similar to vin de paille —the wine is produced from dried grapes and aged for a minimum of three years prior to release. The islands of Lemnos and Rhodes, to the north and east of the Cyclades respectively, each have two PDO appellations. Lemnos wines are white, dominated by Muscat, and may be dry or sweet. The ancient red Lemnio grape utilized in the wines of Domaine Carras originated on Lemnos, but its importance on the island has greatly diminished. Rhodes, an island much closer to southern Asia Minor than Greece itself, produces PDO red, white, and rosé varietal wines from Mandilaria and Athiri. Muscat of Rhodes PDO wines are rarely encountered. Greece today is focused on building a reputation with indigenous grapes as well as international varieties. Winemaker education is vastly improving, and phylloxera, which did not strike the Peloponnese until the 1960s and Crete until the 1970s, has enabled producers to rethink and reshape their vineyards. As the Greeks experiment and become more confident with the inherent strengths of native grapes, the quality and uniqueness of Greek wines continues to expand. (Various spellings of the regions and grapes are often encountered because of the inexact nature of translating from the Greek alphabet; there are no definitive translations.) BACK TO TOP Hungary In the northeastern corner of Hungary, at the confluence of the Tisza and Bodrog Rivers, producers in the Tokaj region (formerly Tokaj-Hegyalja, or the Tokaj “foothills”) have long been crafting some of Europe’s most exemplary and longest-lived dessert wines. Vineyards in Tokaj The region was one of the first in modern Europe to undergo a vineyard classification; in 1700, the Transylvanian Prince Rákóczy delimited 28 villages in the region, inaugurating a golden age for the wine that would last through the next two centuries. Some sources alternatively date Tokaj’s classification to 1730, with a final legal recognition in 1772—definitive evidence of the 1700 classification remains elusive. Aszú grapes are a fundamental component of the best Tokaji wines; although the term originally signified desiccated grapes, it has evolved to indicate grapes of high sugar levels afflicted with botrytis cinerea —the noble rot. Aszú appears in works published as early as 1571, and Szepsi Laczkó Máté definitively produced botrytis-affected aszú wine by the mid-17th century. Thus, the aszú wines of Tokaj predated the botrytised wines of Germany, and probably Sauternes as well. Legend attributes the mid-16th century declaration—“These wines are fit for a pope”—to either Pope Julius III or Pope Pius IV, and King Louis XIV of France praised Tokaji as (another) “wine of kings and king of wines” during his 17th century reign. Catherine the Great of Russia enjoyed Tokaji so emphatically that she left a permanent detachment of her Cossack guard in Tokaj to guard royal shipments, whereas the 19th century Queen Victoria of England received an annual birthday gift of a dozen bottles, courtesy of the Austro-Hungarian Emperor. Unfortunately, the Iron Curtain closed the door on quality for Tokaji in the 20th century, but the region rebounded quickly after the fall of communism with an immense amount of foreign interest and investors eager to see their beloved Tokaji restored to its former glory. Estates such as the Royal Tokaji Company, Vega Sicilia’s Tokaj Oremus, Disznókõ, and Királyudvar are leading the way. Tokaj is both the name of the overall region and the commune at the convergence of the two rivers; Tokaji is an adjectival form used to indicate the wine. The Tokaj region, sheltered by the Carpathian Mountains, enjoys a warm continental climate with long, humid autumns: perfect encouragement for botrytis. Soils are predominantly volcanic loess and clay, and many of the better vineyards occupy south-facing slopes. Rákóczy’s original classification, which divided the vineyards of Tokaj and its neighboring villages into 1st, 2nd, and 3rd growths, remains relevant today through the efforts of the Tokaj Renaissance, a producers’ association devoted to the protection of the concept. 74 vineyards are recognized as first growths; Szarvas and Mézes Mály, near the communes of Tokaj and Tarcal, respectively, share the superlative designation of Great First Growths. The two principal grapes of the region are Furmint and Hárslevelű; Sárgamuskotály (Muscat Blanc à Petite Grains), Zéta (Oremus), Kabar and Kövérszőlő are authorized but generally used in small quantities. Furmint is key to the production of Tokaji Aszú, as it is particularly susceptible to botrytis and high in acidity. Traditionally, the aszú grapes are handpicked individually and gathered in containers called puttony — puttonyos is an adjective rather than the plural form—which hold roughly 25 kg. As in Sauternes, yields are miniscule. A tiny fraction of syrupy, free-run juice is allowed to settle out of the aszú must—this will be vinified separately as Esszencia . The aszú is then trampled into a paste, or dough, and a number of puttony containing aszú paste is mixed with gönci barrels of must or base wine from non- aszú grapes. The number of puttony added to a gönc (a Hungarian oak cask of approximately 136 L) determines the final sweetness of the Tokaji Aszú wine, and Tokaj Aszú was labeled with 3-6 puttonyos to indicate sweetness—until major revisions eliminated these categories in time for the 2013 harvest. Modern Tokaj Aszú is simply labeled "Aszú"; it ages for just over two years prior to release (with a minimum 18 months in barrel) and must contain at least 120 g/l of residual sugar and achieve an actual alcohol content of at least 9%. Meanwhile, the sugar-rich Esszencia—the preferred Tokaji of the czars—ferments at a glacial pace, sometimes taking decades to reach 4-6% alcohol. Richer than honey, the wine retains at least 450 grams per liter of residual sugar. Esszencia, or Natúresszencia, is rarely available commercially, and it is everlasting nectar, unique in the entire world of wine. Several styles of Tokaji beyond Tokaji Aszú exist. Tokaji Szamorodni (“as it comes”) is produced from a mixture of aszú and non- aszú grapes and is often oxidative in style as it is matured in cask for a minimum of six months, sometimes under a film-forming yeast similar to flor . Szamorodni wines may be édes (sweet) or száraz (dry). Fordítás and Máslás wines are the product of refermenting wine with the pressed paste or spent lees, respectively, of Tokaji Aszú. Tokaji wines may also be produced as late harvest wines (in a wide range of styles) without the extended aging of Tokaji Aszú, or as dry varietal wines, made from non- aszú grapes. The talented Hungarian winemaker István Szepsy, a key figure in the establishment of Hugh Johnson’s Royal Tokaji Company and Királyudvar, is a founding member of the Circle of Mád, a small contingent of producers committed to elevating the stature of dry wines in the region. Tokaj, like Jerez and Champagne, has successfully faced a challenge over the provenance of its name and as of 2007 all other countries in the European Union are prohibited from using the term “Tokaj” or its derivatives (Tokay, Tocai) on labels, regardless of any actual similarity to the wine. Alsatian producers lost the right to produce Pinot Gris as Tokay d’Alsace and Italian producers rechristened Tocai Friulano as simply Friulano. While Tokaj is certainly Hungary’s most famous product of the vine, wine is produced throughout the country. In 2000, two decades after the fall of Communism, 22 total wine appellations were identified in Hungary. With the EU's recent reforms, this number of regions qualifying for PDO status has increased to 31, with 6 additional PGI areas. These are divided among three major geographical zones of production: the Northern Massif, the western region of Transdanubia, and the southern Great Plain. The Northern Massif includes Tokaj and Eger , a region famous for Egri Bikavér—the “Bull’s Blood of Eger.” Historically dominated by Kadarka—an indigenous, low-tannin, light-bodied and not particularly sanguine grape—modern Egri Bikavér is a blend of at least four varieties, incorporating Kékfrankos (Blaufränkisch), and other Hungarian and international grapes. Only Eger and Szekszárd in Transdanubia are permitted to use the term “Bikavér” on labels. (In Szekszárd, Bikavér also requires four varieties.) To the west of Eger is Mátra, Hungary’s second largest winegrowing region. Though the area is most known for white wines, red grapes like Kékfrankos and Kadarka are gaining in reputation. Further west, in Transdanubia, other regions beyond Szekszárd include Badacsony and Balatonfüred-Csopak on the shores of Lake Balaton, one of Europe’s largest lakes. Somló lies to the northwest, on the slopes of the extinct volcano. White wines dominate production in these three areas; grapes include Furmint, Juhfark, Olaszrizling (Welschriesling), and a number of international varieties. Red wines are more common in both the extreme south and north of Transdanubia. On the northern border, Sopron is contiguous with Austria’s Burgenland, and Kékfrankos is cultivated in both regions. To the east of Transdanubia, the Great Plain contains nearly half of Hungary’s acreage under vine. The region’s sandy soils provided a welcome habitat after phylloxera struck in the 19th century. Most of the wines of this region are of everyday quality and consumed locally. Kunság, Hungary’s largest region, is located in the Great Plain and produces a sizable amount of mass production white wine (and some reds) from indigenous grapes. Finally, just south along the Croatian border is Villány, Hungary’s hottest region, which produces good-quality wines from Bordeaux varieties, Kékfrankos, and Kékoportó (Blauer Portugieser). BACK TO TOP Bulgaria Bulgaria’s wine history dates back about 3,000 years. Although the Ottoman Empire impeded the industry’s growth, existing vineyards continued to be maintained from the 15 th to 19 th centuries. Wine culture resumed upon the fall of the Ottomans, and cooperatives were swiftly established. After World War II, the Soviets saw the economic potential in wine, and they took to developing land for grape production on collective, state-run farms. They formed Vinprom in 1948 to manage vineyard expansion and promotion. Vineyards were established on flatter, more fertile grounds in an effort to produce higher yields and allow for mechanized farming. By the late 1950s, Russia was importing much of Bulgaria’s wine production, and Bulgaria grew to become the fourth largest global wine exporter shortly thereafter. The 1970s ushered in more investment and outside consultation. PepsiCo, for example, was eager to reach Communist countries with its product. In Bulgaria, because of the low value of the local currency, the company was paid for its cola concentrate with Bulgarian wine. However, finding quality lacking, PepsiCo hired consultants, including Professor Maynard Amerine of UC Davis, to help improve the product. This influenced Bulgaria's growing industry and encouraged the planting of grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay. However, Gorbachev’s anti-alcohol reforms, launched in 1985, stymied the huge industry, raising and fixing grape prices so cooperatives had little choice but to turn to more profitable crops. Privatization following the collapse of the Communist regime in 1990 moved at a slow pace. Foreign investment from quality-minded wine and spirits companies was more difficult to achieve than in neighboring Hungary. France’s Belvedere Group lent the country some prestige when it stepped into Bulgaria in 2002 but sold many of its Bulgarian assets in 2009 during the global economic crisis. The dawn of the 21 st century brought positive changes to the Bulgarian wine industry, leading up to its entry into the EU in 2007. Agricultural funding became available to small wineries to establish wineries as well as improve existing vineyard and winery operations; subsidies attracted foreign interest and investment in the wine industry as well. By 2018, there were over 250 producers. Bulgarian wine law dates back to the Wine Act of 1978, with the establishment of a Controliran system outlining the best regions and styles. Rules were developed to dictate particular grapes, vineyard techniques, winemaking practices, and tastings to verify typicity and overall quality. By 2000, however, quality categories tended toward the French model and EU regulations. Finally, by 2007, Bulgaria fully adopted EU law, and the Controliran system has since become obsolete. There are two defined levels of quality for Bulgarian wine: table wine and quality wine. Within the quality category, Bulgaria has only two PGIs, the Danubian Plain and the Thracian Lowlands. Bulgaria has 52 PDOs, but as few as 5 or 6 are in use. In Bulgaria, a winery’s reputation carries more value than a PDO on the label, and thus PDOs are rarely listed. Less than 1% of the 2016 harvest was declared PDO wine, with 70% considered table wine. As a whole, Bulgaria contains five large regions of wine production: the northern Danubian Plain, the eastern Black Sea coast, the southern Thracian Plain and Sub-Balkan zone referred to as the Valley of the Roses, and the southwestern Struma River Valley. The last of these enjoys a Mediterranean climate, whereas most of Bulgaria is continental. All quality wines may be labeled “barik” if the fermentation occurred in oak casks of 500L or less in volume. The terms “Reserve” and “Special Selection” indicate that a single variety has seen one or two years, respectively, of aging before release. Red grapes account for about 60% of Bulgaria’s area under vine; Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot are responsible for over half of all reds planted. The thin-skinned Pamid, a very historic grape, accounts for 10% of all plantings and is one of the first red varieties to be harvested. It produces a fresh style suitable for youthful consumption. The native Gamza (Kadarka) and deep-colored Mavrud compose about 3% of plantings. Rubin, a crossing of Nebbiolo and Syrah, shows great potential. Native white grapes include Red Misket (Misket Cherven), an aromatic specialty of Sungurlare—and of no relation to Muscat. Red Misket, Rkatsiteli, and Dimiat are the most planted white varieties in Bulgaria. BACK TO TOP Romania Like its neighbors in Eastern Europe, Romania fell behind the Iron Curtain after World War II, and viticulture—an ancient tradition in this part of the world—changed abruptly under the Communists. The new government emphasized quantity and equality, which in winemaking terms translated to poorer quality. Vineyard acreage greatly expanded with substandard grapes and frost- and disease-resistant hybrids. Winemaking was in the hands of huge cooperatives, which by the end of the 1980s constituted over 60% of production. Since the fall of Communism in 1989, Romania has shifted to privatize its industry and refocus on quality. The lead-up to EU accession in 2007 marked a significant transition. Better plant material, optimal clones, VSP training, closer spacing, and better overall hygiene awareness in the winery vastly improved wine quality. Though quantity was prioritized under Soviet control and plantings greatly expanded during this time, vineyard area has decreased in recent years, stabilizing around 180,000 hectares in 2017. In part, this was a response to Gorbachev’s reforms, but the shift toward quality contributed as well. Five wineries are responsible for nearly 70% of production, with about 97% of growers owning less than a half hectare of land. Despite a domestic preference for white wines (about 60% of its production), Romania is increasing plantings of red grapes and turning toward more international varieties like Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Pinot Noir to satisfy export markets. As of 2017, Merlot leads red grapes in overall plantings. However, Romania still harnesses an incredible number of indigenous grapes, which can be an advantage in mature niche markets that have taken an increasing interest in experiencing native grapes throughout the world. The most cultivated grapes in the country are the indigenous white grapes Fetească Albă and Fetească Regală. Riesling Italico (Welschriesling), Chardonnay, Sauvignon, Muscat Ottonel, and Pinot Gris also enjoy significant acreage. The indigenous red grapes Fetească Neagră, Burgund Mare, and Băbească Neagră can achieve higher quality, while Rosioara (Bulgaria’s Pamid) is generally reserved for table wine production. Romanian wine law follows EU legislation and has two broad categories: Wines for Current Consumption (table wines) and Quality Wines. Table wines are subdivided into VM (table wine/Vin de Masa) and VMS (superior table wine/Vin de Masa Superior). Quality Wines are classified as either Vin cu Indicaţie Geografică (a PGI designation) or Denumire de Origine Controlată (or DOC, a PDO designation). For Vin cu Indicaţie wines, a minimum of 85% of the grapes must be produced and vinified in the area specified on the label. Romania’s 12 PGIs are responsible for about 9% of production. There are 35 DOC wines, and they may be produced from recommended and authorized Vitis vinifera varieties (excluding hybrids). DOC wines have been growing in recent years, comprising nearly 30% of overall production in 2017, and seven of the eight major wine zones contain DOCs. These wines may be further subcategorized as follows: DOC-CMD: grapes harvested at full maturity DOC-CT: late-harvested grapes DOC-CIB: botrytis-affected grapes Additional regulated quality aging terms include: Rezervă and Vin de Vinotecă. Rezervă indicates a minimum of six months in oak and six months in bottle. Vin de Vinotecă ensures a wine has been matured for at least one year in oak and four years in the bottle before release. Although Romania lies on the same latitude as France, its climate is continental and moderated by the Black Sea. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of the country, and the Danube River marks the southern border with Serbia, flowing eastward into the Black Sea. Many of Romania’s wine regions form a ring along the outer slopes of the Carpathians, including the Moldavan Hills in the east, Muntenia-Oltenia toward the south, and Banat and Crişana-Maramureş in the northwest. Dobrogea and the Danube Terraces are on the eastern Black Sea Coast; the Transylvanian Plateau, in the center of the country, contains Romania’s highest vineyards, buffered by the Carpathian peaks. A final region, Sands, is a minor area for quality wine production. In Transylvania, the Jidvei DOC nested in Târnave DOC is one of Romania’s coolest and most important wine regions, producing white wines of high acidity from several varieties, including the Fetească grapes and Traminer Rosé. The sweet white wines of Cotnari DOC in Moldavia are the country’s most famous vinous product, having once enjoyed a reputation on par with Tokaji and Constantia. Grasă de Cotnari—which possibly shares a common lineage with Furmint—is capable of reaching extreme ripeness levels and is the region’s most prominent grape. Frâncusa, Tămâioasă Românească—a grape with a unique, resiny aroma comparable to frankincense—and Fetească Albă may be blended with Grasă or vinified and bottled separately as varietal wines. Cotnari may be dry, but the sweet Grasă-based interpretations are the most complex and long-lived. The elevated (200–350 meters) south-facing slopes of the Dealu Mare DOC (meaning “big hill”) within Muntenia-Oltenia are gaining a reputation for red wines, particularly from Cabernet Sauvignon and Pinot Noir. Once known for its late-harvest Chardonnay, Murfatlar DOC in Dobrogea is developing a reputation for its soft styles of Cabernet Sauvignon and Pinot Noir. Its dry climate has also encouraged more organic farming in recent years. BACK TO TOP Slovenia and Croatia From Austro-Hungarian rule to Yugoslavian control that lasted for much of the 20 th century, Slovenia finally became independent in 1991. It was the first nation to emerge from the wreckage of Tito’s Yugoslavia and establish a successful wine industry built on well-defined and enforced quality laws. Slovenia joined the EU in 2004 and is a rapidly improving producer of wine. With nearly 30,000 registered growers and just over 21,000 hectares of vines, grapegrowing is very fragmented, though this is beginning to shift. Cooperatives are still responsible for the majority of production. Grapes are known by their Slovenian names: Refosk (Refosco), Rebula (Ribolla), Sivi Pinot (Pinot Grigio). International varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot are also common, and some indigenous varieties such as the white Pinela and Zelen (a relative of Verduzzo Gialla) persist. Overall, the focus is on white wine, at over 70% of production. In line with EU wine law, wines of quality include PDO and PGI wines. PDO wines are referred to as Zaščitena Označa Porekla (ZOP) and constitute much of Slovenia’s production. PGIs, which are not as common, are labeled here as Zaščitena Geografska Označba (ZGO). Table wine is simply namizmo vino . There are three regions in the country: Primorska (Primorje) in the west bordering Friuli in Italy, Podravje in the extreme northeast, and Posavje, at Slovenia’s southeastern border with Croatia. Primorska, the country’s best region for both red and white wine, is subdivided into four districts: Goriška Brda, Kras, Slovenska Istra, and the Vipava Valley. The proximity to Friuli is clear: Goriška Brda (Brda translates to “hills”) becomes Collio Goriziano across the Italian border, and Kras becomes Carso. Primorska (especially Slovenska Istra) has a more mild, Mediterranean-influenced climate that is similar to that of Friuli, as compared to the rest of Slovenia, which is generally continental. The vineyards and geography are blind to political division: Ales Kristancic of Movia, Slovenia’s star producer, has to cross the border to harvest nearly half of his vineyards. His contemporary and aesthetic kin, Josko Gravner, has to cross the Slovenian border to access some of his vineyards as well. Podravje is the country’s largest region, with nearly 9,000 hectares under vine. It contains two districts: Štajerska Slovenija (Styrian Slovenia) and Prekmurje, the latter comparatively much warmer and producing more generous, full-bodied styles. One of the oldest vines in the world exists in Maribor, the capital of Stajerska Slovenija, at over 400 years old. Nearly 95% of the wines here are white. Laski Rizling (Welschriesling) leads the plantings but is largely destined for bulk production. Higher-quality wine come from Diseci Traminer (Gewürztraminer), Renski Rizling (Riesling), Chardonnay, and Sauvignon Blanc. Posavje is third in production, with slightly more than half of Primorska’s total acreage under vine. Posavje borders the Croatian Inland region, which is characterized overwhelmingly by white wine production. There are three wine districts here: Bizeljsko Sremič (sought after for its sparkling wines), Bela Krajin (home to sweet Rumeni Muškat), and Doljenska (known for Cviček, a fashionable, tart blend of white and red grapes). The coast of Croatia stretches from the Italian border southward and includes four wine regions: Slavonia and the Danube, the Croatian Uplands, Istria and Kvarner, and Dalmatia. These are then subdivided further into 12 subregions. The coastal regions include Istria and Kvarner to the north, where mostly white production takes place. Here, a distinct Malvasia grape called Malvazija Istarska is grown. The southern coastal region of Dalmatia, on the other hand, is home to mostly reds. Inland, where Slavonia and the Danube are located, the climate is warmest. Graševina (Welschriesling), Croatia’s most planted grape, is widely grown here. The cool, mountainous Croatian Uplands account for a small percentage of production, with an established tradition of sweet wine production, though aromatic whites are gaining in reputation. Though white wine dominates overall, there is an increasing interest in red Bordeaux varieties and the native Crljenak Kastelanski (Zinfandel) and its offshoot Plavac Mali. Mike Grgich, legendary Napa Valley winemaker and a native Croatian, produces Plavac Mali wines at his Grgic Vina estate in the Dingac subzone of Dalmatia. His personal recollection of Croatia’s coastal vineyards was the impetus that led UC Davis’s Carole Meredith to establish the definitive correlation between Zinfandel and Crljenak. BACK TO TOP Czech Republic and Slovakia Slovakia and the Czech Republic , the two independent entities that once formed Czechoslovakia, are not major wine-producing countries, yet both are attempting to elevate quality and production. Slovakia’s wine industry has been slowly rebuilding since achieving independence from Czechoslovakia in 1993. Slovakia is divided into six main wine regions spanning its entire southern border: Malé Karpaty Hills (Small Carpathian), Južnoslovenská (Southern Slovakia), Nitrianska (Nitra wine region), Stredoslovenská (Central Slovakia), Východoslovenská (Eastern Slovakia), and Tokaj. Malé Karpaty Hills is among the most important. Toward the Czech border, more white wine production takes place with grapes like Silvaner, Veltliner, Welschriesling, and Riesling; toward Hungary, where it is warmer, red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon and Blaufränkish are successful. Tokaj is contiguous with Tokaj in Hungary, and the two regions share a common winemaking tradition. Slovak vintners may use Tokajský/-á/-é (“of Tokaj”) on the label if they abide by revised Hungarian production regulations. Slovakia’s wine law came into effect in 2009, influenced by both France and Germany. The Czech Republic has two principal regions: Moravia in the south and Bohemia in the north. Over 96% of the Republic’s land under vine is located in Moravia, where Welschriesling, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Gruner Veltliner, and Riesling shine. Moravia is just north of Austria’s Weinviertel, where Bohemia is located in the northwest, on the same latitude as the Rheingau in Germany. Geologically, the two are quite different, as granite, clay, and sand characterize much of Moravia, where limestone and basalt typify Bohemia. Many international and Germanic varieties are common in the Czech Republic, including Müller-Thurgau, Frankovka (Blaufränkisch), Svatovavnnecké (St. Laurent), Ryzlink Vlassky (Welschriesling), Chardonnay, and Cabernet Sauvignon. Quality Wines with Special Attributes (Akostné vino s Prívlastkom) resemble German Prädikatswein, with an accompanying scale of Kabinett through Trockenbeerenauslese and Eiswein. Instead of the Oechsle scale, both countries use the Czecho-Slovak Normalized Must Weight Scale (NM), which measures the natural sugar in 100 liters of grape juice, where 1 degree CNM is equivalent to 1 kilogram of sugar. After gaining its independence, and in preparation for EU accession, the Czech Republic fashioned its wine law after Germany’s, by ripeness level. In 2008, the new EU categories resulted in the terms CHZO for PGI wines and CHOP for PDO wines. As of 2018, 10 official geographical appellations (Vína Originální Certifikace, or VOC) were introduced: VOC Znojmo, VOC Mikulov, VOC Blue Mountains, VOC Blatnice, VOC Valtice, VOC Melnik, VOC Palava, VOC Slovácko, VOC Kraví Hora, and, most recently, VOC Bzenec. VOC Znojmo in Moravia was the first to receive this designation, in 2009. In order to display the VOC name on the neck of the bottle, a producer must abide by certain criteria, including hand-harvesting, minimum must weights, low maximum yields, and defined alcohol levels. As the new appellation concept evolves in the Czech Republic, it is intended to complement, rather than replace, the existing Germanic system. BACK TO TOP The Russian Federation Russian czars were famous for their conspicuous vinous consumption, with czars from Peter the Great forward sipping Tokaji Esszencia. Louis Roederer created its tête de cuvée Cristal for the exclusive enjoyment of Czar Alexander II—bottled in clear glass so as not to provoke the unpopular czar’s suspicion of foul play. The country eventually developed its own successful industry. In 1980, the former Soviet Union was the world’s fourth largest producer of wine, trailing only France, Italy, and Spain. The country’s viticulture was a model of commercial efficiency, but in the ensuing decade, production declined by over three billion liters annually, due to Gorbachev’s propagandistic anti-alcohol campaign. Today, little Russian wine is seen in the West, and the domestic market in Russia, awash in cheap imported juice, struggles to highlight quality. Only the southern portion of the country, particularly the region between the Black and Caspian Seas, is suitable for viticulture. Krasnodar, on the Black Sea Coast, is Russia’s most important region with over 50% of the federation’s vineyards. Krasnodar’s climate is one of Russia’s most moderate maritime-influenced climates, evidenced by the number of wealthy coastal resorts. Neighboring Dagestan and Stavropol, where many grapes are distilled into brandy, are notable regions, although each experiences extreme cold, requiring the vines to be buried in soil to survive the cold winter months. Rostov, Kabardino-Balkaria, and the war-torn Chechnya produce smaller amounts of wine. Over 70% of Russian grapes grown are dedicated to wine. While over 100 varieties are approved, nearly half of the plantings are Cabernet Sauvignon. Other grapes that enjoy higher percentages include those that are grown for the burgeoning sparkling wine industry, such as Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, and Riesling. The local grape Rkatsiteli enjoys some prominence as well. BACK TO TOP Ukraine and Georgia Ukraine is one of the most important wine-producing nations of the former Soviet Republic, although domestic consumption of wine pales in comparison to beer and vodka. If Crimea is considered part of Ukraine, a point disputed since its annexation by Russia in 2014, then there are four major regions of production: Crimea (Krim), Odessa, Nikolayev-Kherson, and the Transcarpathian region. Rkatsiteli continues to be a significant variety, and while Vitis vinifiera has always been preferred (with popular varieties including Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, Welschriesling, and Furmint), hybrids like Isabella are beginning to gain ground. Odessa and Crimea account for nearly 80% of the total annual wine production. Both regions produce a lot of sparkling wine—often made in the traditional method—in addition to red and white still wines. Fortified wines are produced in Crimea, and Massandra, near Yalta, is famous for its huge collection of Crimean wines produced in the style of Sherry and Madeira. The former Soviet republic of Georgia has one of the world’s oldest winemaking traditions, with archaeological evidence dating back to 6,000 BCE and wild vines ( Vitis vinifera silvestris ) common in the country. Over 500 indigenous grapes and clones exist here. There are 37 authorized varieties; of these, the indigenous red Saperavi and white Rkatsiteli are the most cultivated. Georgia is also known for its qvevri winemaking techniques, referring to the amphorae pots used for fermentation and aging wine beneath the ground. Traditionally, all components of the grape clusters (known as chacha ) go into the qvevri . The earth moderates the temperature, and the wines are left to settle and clarify naturally. Georgia has 18 recognized appellations and 10 wine regions: Kakheti, Kartli, Imereti, Racha, Lechkhumi, and Meskheti, and the Black Sea subregions of Adjara, Guria, Samegrelo, and Apkhazeti. The southeastern region of Kakheti is responsible for about 80% of Georgia’s production. South of Georgia, Armenia—where over 80% of grape production is distilled for local grape brandy—has experienced a recent revival in winemaking. Over half of its 50 wineries were registered in the past decade. Recent investment and modern winemaking technology have helped in this recovery. The climate is incredibly challenging. Nearly all vineyards require irrigation to combat the dry summers, and most have to bury vines for winter protection. There are five winegrowing regions in Armenia: Ararat Valley, Ararat Valley foothills, the Northeast zone, Vaiots Dzor, and Zangezur. Ararat Valley, including the foothills, is where nearly 80% of grapegrowing occurs. The local Areni Noir from the Vaiots Dzor region is showing great promise. To the west of Ukraine, Moldova shares a winemaking tradition with neighboring Moldavia in Romania. While Moldova is one of the smallest of the former Soviet republics, it has the greatest number of vines per capita in the world. Moldova has optimal conditions for grapegrowing. It is situated on the same latitude as Burgundy, with an overall temperate climate and rolling hills. The Black Sea offers a moderating cooling influence. There are four wine regions, three of which are PGIs: Codru (central), Ștefan Vodă (southeast), and Valul lui Trajan (southwest). Codru has a more continental climate, producing fragrant, fresh whites and restrained reds. Valul lui Trajan enjoys a Mediterranean climate and is valued for its full-bodied reds. Purcari in Ștefan Vodă is known for its ageworthy reds. Bălti, the fourth region, located in the north, produces a small percentage of grapes that are primarily meant for distillation. A wide array of varieties are planted, but only about 10% are considered local, including Fetească Albă, Fetească Regală, and Fetească Neagră. French varieties represent the most vineyard land; Aligoté, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Pinot Noir are among those found in the region. The Western Balkans are a patchwork of potential. Bosnia and Herzegovina, situated in the mountains, deliver sweet whites and table reds made from Blatina. While two businesses dominate Serbia’s wine industry, a handful of small family estates continue respected artisan production. There is a vibrant, youthful scene in Vojvodin, in northern Serbia, where producers are experimenting with aging vessels, biodynamic viticulture, and minimal intervention winemaking. The climate of the region is similar to that of Hungary. Albania holds promise for indigenous varieties in a Mediterranean climate. Structured Vranec and Kratosija (Zinfandel) can be found in Montenegro. Finally, North Macedonia is improving its winemaking and reputation throughout its three regions, of which the Vardar Valley is the most significant. Selected Resources Gilby, Caroline. Wines of Bulgaria, Romania, and Moldova . Oxford: Infinite Ideas, 2018. Johnson, Hugh, and Jancis Robinson, eds. The World Atlas of Wine. 8 th ed. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2019. Robinson, Jancis, ed. The Oxford Companion to Wine , 4 th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. BACK TO TOPPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/212/viticulture-and-vinificationTue, 26 May 2026 18:19:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:0c88ac3d-bd82-4b60-b047-8cc22c9e9953Sandra BanTable of Contents Viticulture A Year in the Vineyard Climate, Terroir, and the Grapevine Vine Training and Pruning Vine Diseases and Insect Threats Sustainable Models of Viticulture Vinification Red Wine Production White Wine Production Rosé Wine Production Oak The Future of Winemaking Viticulture Man first domesticated Vitis vinifera , the species of climbing vine responsible for fine wine production, nearly 5,000 years before the Common Era. Viticulture, the study of grape growing, slowly developed in conjunction with the cultivation of the vine, as growers over time learned from instinct and observation. The grower or viticulturist confronts decisions on vine training and pruning methods, canopy management, fertilization and irrigation, harvest dates, and disease control; and monitors the development of the vineyard in general. From Charlemagne’s directive to plant the vineyards of Corton where the snows melt first, to the widespread adoption of rootstock grafting to combat phylloxera, to the modern embrace of drip irrigation and mechanization, advances in viticulture aim to reduce the vagaries of weather and disease, and promote either the quantity or quality of wine. Rarely are these goals of quantity and quality aligned for the viticulturist. Today, viticulture is a highly evolved science, and the development of the vine (and its transformation in the winery) is highly calculated to provide a desired character of fruit. While cold science governed many of the viticultural advancements of the last century, newer movements of sustainability have sprouted in reaction, and several distinct paths of viticulture exist for conscientious growers. BACK TO TOP A Year in the Vineyard The annual life cycle of the vine begins in the spring, with budbreak. The vine, which started “weeping” or “bleeding” watery sap from pruned canes sometime in February (in the Northern Hemisphere), will finally emerge from dormancy as the average air temperature surpasses 50°F. During budbreak, which usually occurs in March or April, the first small shoots and leaves will break through buds left intact by winter pruning. At this stage, the vine is vulnerable to frost. The vine’s foliage continues to develop through the early spring, and small green clusters called embryo bunches form on the shoots by mid-April. Flowering occurs six to thirteen weeks after the initial budbreak, depending on the climate. During this period, the embryo bunches bloom into small flowers for about ten days, and the self-pollinating grapevine begins the process of fertilization, which leads to fruit set. As the vine flowers, it is extremely susceptible to the damaging effects of cold, frost, and wind. Successfully pollinated embryo bunches grow into true grape clusters during fruit set—each grape is the product of individual fertilization. Fruit set usually hovers around 30%—the remaining embryo berries “shatter,” falling from the cluster, a process also known as coulure. As the berries enlarge through July, they remain hard, high in acidity and low in sugar. Another danger that can impact yield at this time is millerandage, where some grape flowers fail to fertilize. They go on to mature at different rates; some grow ripe and large, while others stay very small and seedless. In August, however, veraison ( véraison ) begins and the grapes begin to truly ripen, as sugars are moved from the leaf system to the fruit. During veraison, the grapes soften and change color—turning from green to red-black or yellow-green—and acidity decreases. While veraison swiftly affects an individual grape, it may not evenly affect a whole bunch. Some varieties, such as Zinfandel, are characterized by extremely uneven ripening (also called asynchrony), in which veraison haphazardly affects each bunch. Cane ripening occurs in tandem with veraison, as the stems on each shoot begin to lignify, accumulating carbohydrates to sustain the plant through the winter. Once the grapes have achieved an optimal balance of sugar and acid, they are ready for harvest ( vendange ). Harvest, by either manual or mechanical means, begins as early as late August, and may last through the beginning of November. White grapes are generally harvested before red grapes, although some white grapes destined for the specialized botrytised dessert wines or icewine may hang on the vine until late November or December. New World winemakers have greatly advanced the idea of complete physiological ripeness—a concept of ripeness comprising not only must weight and pH, but also the ripening of tannin and other phenolics, the condition of the berry and its pulp, and seed lignification—which often requires longer “hang time” for the grapes on the vine. After harvest, work moves from the vineyard to the winery. The vines lose their leaves in the autumn, and enter a period of winter dormancy. Fertilization may be applied in the fall after harvest, and the vines will be pruned over the winter to prepare for next year’s growth. Note : For equivalent dates in southern hemisphere vineyards, add six months. BACK TO TOP Climate, Terroir, and the Grapevine Climate encompasses expected temperature, rainfall, sunshine, wind, and other atmospheric elements, and remains relatively stable from year to year—weather is the daily manifestation of climate, and is generally responsible for vintage variation. For temperature, the vine prefers a mean annual level between 50° and 68°F, with an ideal of 57°F. To successfully ripen, red grapes require an average summer temperature of approximately 70°F, whereas white grapes prefer an average of 66°F. This generally restricts viticulture to the temperate bands of latitude between 30° and 50° in both the northern and southern hemispheres. Certain pockets of viticulture exist, due to privileged exposures and climatic conditions, outside of these general bands of latitude, and climate change may expand the grapevine’s habitat in the coming years. One method of classifying climates solely by temperature—and therefore recommending varieties appropriate to that temperature—is the California Heat Summation Index (also known as the Winkler Index). This scale divides climates into five Regions based on the number of degree days. Degree days are calculated by multiplying the days in each month of the growing season (defined as April 1 through October 31) by the mean number of degrees over 50°F for that month. The months’ totals are then added together to arrive at the heat summation: Degree Days Region Ia 1,500-2,000° days F (850-1,111° days C) Region Ib 2,000-2,500° days F (1,111-1389° days C) Region II 2,500-3,000° days F (1,389-1,667° days C) Region III 3,000-3,500° days F (1,667-1,944° days C) Region IV 3,500-4,000° days F (1,944-2,222° days C) Region V 4,000-4,900° days F (2,222-2,700° days C) Temperature and sunshine are closely related. Sunshine, a requirement for photosynthesis—in which plants convert carbon dioxide into organic compounds, including sugars—is a necessary provider of both light and heat. The minimum amount of sunshine required to support viticulture is approximately 1,300 hours. As sunshine during the growing season increases the farther one moves away from the equator, vines in the cooler climates often enjoy more sunshine than vines in the warmer climates. Cloud cover will not greatly impact the transmission of light for the purposes of photosynthesis, but it will affect the amount of heat the sun bestows on a vine. Rainfall itself is another primary concern. The vine evolved as a drought-resistant plant, but it still requires approximately 10-30 inches of rainfall annually to produce an adequate crop, depending on the warmth of the climate. Irrigation can of course supplant actual rainfall in regions where its usage is legal. Many Mediterranean winegrowing regions receive an abundance of rain in winter and spring, and remain mostly dry through the summer—an ideal situation for the vine. If the vine receives too little rain, water stress will occur, a condition that promotes smaller berry size and yields but will lead to interrupted ripening and complete shutdown of the vine if the stress is too severe. Too much rain will not adversely affect the vine itself, but it will dilute fruit quality and create a friendly environment for fungal diseases. Wind, a final consideration of climate, is often a detriment to the vine if it blows persistently hard. At its most violent extreme, wind can undermine flowering and denude vines. In colder climates, wind chill can be especially devastating. On the other hand, wind can be a detriment to mold and mildew, and wind machines are often employed in the battle against frost to mix colder, settled air near the ground with warmer upper air. The French concept of terroir is often cited as a word with no direct English equivalent, but it has an umbrella of meaning: terroir , in a holistic sense, defines the complete system of the living vine. The concept of terroir comprises the choice of grapevine as it relates to its location, topography, soil, climate, and the hand of man upon it. Terroir is not only the soil; terroir is the entire system of factors that influence the development of the vine—factors that, depending on the style of viticulture and wine-making applied, may be magnified or subsumed in the resulting wine. Terroir begins with the vine’s macroclimate: the regional climate. Macroclimate varies in size depending on the factors affecting it: the Rheingau, on a single south-facing slope, and the Médoc, with its even landscape and constant maritime influence, are subject to single macroclimates. However, the Napa Valley may be divided into several distinct macroclimates between the different peaks and valley floor. One can draw broad assertions about a region’s suitability for viticulture from its macroclimate, but the subtler distinctions of mesoclimate—the climate of a particular vineyard—are of greater importance. At this level, the aspect (degree and direction of its slope) and shelter of a vineyard are essential to distinctions in mesoclimate. Slopes provide good drainage and may benefit from increased sunshine, but temperature falls steadily with added altitude. Mesoclimates are small: one must realistically speak of several in Corton, the largest grand cru vineyard in Burgundy, whereas La Tâche has a single mesoclimate. On an even smaller scale, microclimate refers to the climate in and around a vine canopy, the restricted space including all parts of the vine above the ground. Techniques of canopy management have been developed to adjust the microclimate of a vine, particularly in its exposure to sunshine and its eventual yield. These include winter pruning, leaf removal, shoot positioning, and the use of sophisticated trellising systems—man’s hand at work in the equation of terroir . Soil type is a major aspect of a vine’s success. In general, low-fertility soils produce better wines than rich soils, the latter being better suited for other types of agriculture. Conventional wisdom holds that the vine should always struggle to produce good fruit; that too much vigor results in commonplace wine. Well-drained, easily penetrable soils with good water-retention are desirable, as they permit the vine to dig deeply for water and minerals. The heat-retaining (and reflecting) character of a particular soil is also an important factor, especially in correlation with climate. High soil pH, common in limestone-rich soils, contributes to higher acidity (low pH) in grapes, and although such soils are typically inhospitable to most agriculture, viticulture thrives. Soil acidity (low pH) can, on the other hand, be a deterrent to viticulture. This can be countered by the application of lime. The choice of grapevine is inextricably linked to its terroir : would the terroir of Burgundy not be fundamentally altered if Pinot Noir was suddenly replaced with another grape? When a new vineyard is planted, the grower not only chooses the grape variety he or she desires, but also the specific clone or clones of that variety that best express the desired character. Clones, identical genetic reproductions of a single vine, are selected for a host of different attributes in both the field and the wine: disease resistance, hardiness, yield, aromatics, structure, and color are among the qualities to consider when selecting a clone. Once a vineyard is established, the grower may choose to propagate the vines by either clonal selection or mass selection ( selection massale ). The latter method, popular in Burgundy, enables the grower to select budwood for replanting from a number of vines throughout the vineyard, rather than single clones. In mass selection, a grower will attempt to reinforce positive traits and eliminate negative traits through appropriate selection—and while the results may be less precise than those gained through clonal selection, a broader genetic diversity is maintained. The budwood selection, or scion, is then usually grafted onto separate rootstock. Although some modern vineyards are still planted on their own rootstock, most of the world’s vines are grafted to American rootstock. Phylloxera, detailed under “Vine Diseases and Insect Threats” below, ravaged most of the world’s vineyards in the late 19th century. Salvation came in the form of lowly American grapevine species— Vitis riparia and others—that were highly resistant to the root louse. A grower may select a particular rootstock not just for its resistance to phylloxera, but also its ability to withstand other diseases and drought, its tolerance to salt and lime, and/or its effect on vine vigor. The combination of clonal and rootstock selection will have a great impact on the character and health of the vine. Once grafted and planted, the vine will not usually produce a crop of grapes suitable for harvest until its third year. In many European appellations, growers are prohibited from harvesting grapes for wine until the vine is at least three years old. By its sixth year, the grapevine is considered mature; shoot growth and the vine’s annual yield, in the absence of major stresses, stabilize. The root system will grow to maturity by the tenth year, although poorer soils will slow growth. The yield of many commercial vineyards will begin to decline after 20 years, and vineyards are often uneconomical to maintain after 50 years of age. However, exceptional old vine plantings of a century or more of age exist, producing small yields but highly concentrated fruit. Old vine plantings of Rhône varieties in Australia and Zinfandel in California are especially valued. BACK TO TOP Vine Training and Pruning Head trained spur pruned Zinfandel. The objective of vine training, which includes the processes of pruning, shaping, and trellising the vine, is to maximize the vine’s performance in local conditions and to keep its canes from touching the ground and establishing new roots. The grapevine does not have a self-supporting structure, and must often be tethered to another apparatus: a tree, stake, or a wire trellis. The type of trellis or support varies according to the manner in which the vine is trained. In addition, the principles of canopy management are voiced through the selection of a training system. Most vines can be classified as either head-trained or cordon-trained. In cordon training, the vine has at least one permanent cane that extends from the trunk, called an arm or cordon. It grows thick and gnarled over time, and fruit-bearing shoots will emerge from it each season. Head-trained vines have no permanent cordon, and the trunk ends in a knob, or head. Cordon-trained vines generally require a trellising system, whereas head-trained vines may be supported by a simple stake, or not at all. Although head-trained vines may technically be trellised (see the Guyot training system, below), head-training is commonly asserted as an alternative to trellising, synonymous with bush vines. Head-trained vines may be spur-pruned or cane-pruned, whereas cordon-trained vines are spur-pruned. If left on the vine, a green shoot (fruiting cane) will harden to become a woody cane after a season—along the cane are a number of buds, which will each produce a shoot during spring budbreak. The spur is a cane cut back to two buds. If a vine is spur-pruned, the upper cane growing from a spur will be removed during winter pruning, and the lower cane growing from the same spur will be cut back to two buds, creating a new spur. Thus, each spur will produce two fruiting canes each year, one of which will become the following year’s spur. Cordon-trained vines contain several spurs along the length of the arm. In its simplest form, cane pruning requires the grower to retain one spur and one cane. The number of buds left on the cane may range from six to over a dozen, and European appellation systems often establish a maximum number for each grape. The buds on the two-year-old cane each release shoots that will produce a season’s fruit, and the entire two-year-old main cane and its fruiting canes are removed after the growing season. In its place, one of the one-year-old canes from the spur is selected and retained to become the following season’s main cane. Although cane-pruning is usually only used on head-trained vines, some growers occasionally merge the style with cordon-training, retaining a “kicker cane” along an otherwise spur-trained cordon. VSP in New Zealand. One of the most basic systems of cane-pruning/head-training is the Guyot system, developed in the 1860 by Jules Guyot. The Guyot system requires a vertical trellis on which the canes can be suspended, and has one spur and one main two-year-old cane. The double Guyot variant supports two main canes, extending outward from the trunk on opposite sides. The simplest form of spur-pruning/head-training is the Gobelet system, an ancient technique common in the Southern Rhône and Southern Italy, wherein the vine, often unsupported, resembles a goblet, with each year’s fruiting canes extending from the spur-pruned, shortened arms atop the trunk. In Italy the Gobelet system is known as albarello ; in Spain, en vaso . Australians often refer to such vines as bush vines. One of the simplest spur-pruned/cordon-trained systems is the Cordon de Royat, the preferred training style for Pinot Noir in Champagne. The Cordon de Royat system is similar to the Guyot system, with a single spur-pruned permanent cordon extending horizontally from the trunk, rather than a two-year-old cane. The spur-pruned/cordon-trained Geneva system and a close variant, the Lyre system, are more complicated, as cordons extend outward from the trunk in a flat “U” shape, creating a divided canopy. Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP), a trellising system, may be used for either cane-pruned or spur-pruned vines. The Tendone system, known as pergola in Italy and enforcado in Portugal, is an alternative training system in which the vines are trained upward and overhead along wooden frames or trees, enabling workers to pass underneath. Tendone vines may be either spur- or cane-pruned. This list is by no means exhaustive; many other styles and combinations of training systems exist. BACK TO TOP Vine Diseases and Insect Threats Diseases that affect the vine can be broadly categorized into four main groups: fungal, viral, bacterial, and phytoplasma. Fungal diseases manifest as mildew or mold and are typically associated with warm and damp climates, attacking either the root system or the canopy of the grapevine. Fungal spores are spread by wind and rain and a disease, once entrenched in a vine, may infect an entire vineyard. Some of the most worrisome fungal diseases—including powdery and downy mildew—originated in America, arriving in Europe on cuttings in the 19th century. Fungal diseases, while problematic in the past, can be successfully controlled—if not wholly eradicated—through fungicide sprays and other applications. Bacterial diseases are less common but are difficult to control and can be extremely devastating to the health of the vine. Viral diseases, spread through grafting or transmitted by insects, are often less immediately destructive than bacterial diseases, yet there is no known cure for many common viruses affecting grapevines. Infected vines experience a shortened lifespan, reduced yields and a changed quality of fruit. Viral diseases are controlled through removal and appropriate selection for propagation. Phytoplasma diseases are caused by phytoplasmas, pathogens similar to bacteria, yet they are symptomatically similar to viral diseases and, like viruses, must be spread through an insect vector or rootstock grafting. Phytoplasma diseases, known as grapevine yellows, were first recorded in Europe in the mid-1990s, and may cause widespread difficulties in the 21st century. One of the most historically important and devastating blights on the vine is not a disease at all, but an infestation: phylloxera . The tiny Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (originally called Phylloxera vastatrix ), an aphid that feeds on the roots of vines, is native to the Eastern United States, but it quickly spread through Europe from cuttings imported to the Southern Rhône Valley in the early 1860s, and is now present in all of the world’s major winegrowing countries—with the notable exception of Chile. Phylloxera will kill vines by destroying its root system, and its arrival in Europe swelled fears of a total collapse of viticulture. Most of the world’s Vitis vinifera vines are today grafted onto native American vine rootstocks, which are naturally resistant to the phylloxera root louse. Sandier soils, such as those found in Colares in Portugal, act as a natural barrier, impeding the spread of phylloxera. Other insects—mealy bugs, nematodes, and glassy-winged sharpshooters—act as carriers, or vectors, of disease, and their appearance in the vineyard may be a harbinger of a coming infection. Fungal Diseases Powdery Mildew (Oidium): Native to North America, the Uncinula necator fungus has spread worldwide, and thrives in humid climates even without precipitation—rainfall is actually a detriment to the survival of its spores. The fungus, during its anamorph stage, is known as Oidium tuckerii . Powdery mildew affects all green parts of the plant, marking grapes, leaves, and shoots with its dusty white mildew growth. It prefers densely shaded canopies and overcast weather, and greatly inhibits bunch development and ripening. If infected prior to flowering, yields will be reduced; if infected after fruit set, berries will struggle to achieve veraison and reach full size. Fruit affected by powdery mildew is universally avoided in the winemaking process, as it creates off-flavors in the wine. Powdery mildew, first recorded in England in 1847, spread quickly throughout the Vitis vinifera vineyards of Europe but was soon controlled by applications of sulfur and other fungicides. Downy Mildew (Peronospora): Another fungal disease that emigrated to Europe on North American vine cuttings, downy mildew spread rampantly through France and the rest of Europe in the early 1880s. Plasmopara viticola , the agent of downy mildew, attacks the green portions of the vine, causing leaves to drop off the vine and limiting the vine’s ability to photosynthesize. The infection is first visible as an oil spot on vine leaves. As spores germinate a white, cottony growth develops on the underside of the leaves. The fungus survives the winter on fallen leaves in the soil, and its spores reach the vine again with the help of rain splatter in the spring. Arid regions prohibit its growth. The blue-staining Bordeaux Mixture , a spray of copper sulfate, water and lime, was developed by 1885 to prevent outbreaks of downy mildew. Eutypa Dieback: Also called dead arm, the disease is caused by the Eutypa lata fungus. Spores are carried by rain and enter the vine through pruning wounds. Common in Mediterranean climates, the disease is difficult to control as it affects a wide number of plants. Infected vines experience stunted shoot growth as the fungus releases toxins, and eventually an infected cane may die—the dead arm. This disease has a drastic effect on yield, but does not devalue the quality of the crop. In fact, Australia’s d’Arenberg ascribes a beneficial effect on quality to the dead arm, and markets its icon Shiraz under the disease’s nickname. A separate fungus, Phomopsis viticola , manifests as a similar disease. Esca (Black Measles): One of the earliest known fungal grapevine diseases, Esca thrives in warmer climates but exists worldwide, and there is no known control or cure. Unlike other fungal diseases, Esca is the result of a complex of fungi, rather than a single organism. On young vines, the disease will weaken growth, affect berry development and discolor leaves; in hot weather an affected young vine may suddenly die. In older vines, the disease affects the wood, causing the interior of the trunk and arms to soften and rot from the inside—a condition that led ancient Romans to use Esca-infected tree trunks for firewood, as its spongy interior quickly caught fire. Mature, Esca-infected vines will rarely live past 30 years of age. The disease is exacerbated by rainfall and can be spread by wind or on the pruning shears of careless vineyard workers. Black Rot: Native to North America, Black Rot spread to Europe with the importation of phylloxera-resistant rootstocks in the late 1800s. The disease is caused by the Guignardia bidwelli fungus, originating as a black spot on the vine’s shoots, leaves, and berries. Although yield reductions can be disastrous if unchecked, the disease can be controlled through fungicide sprays. Bunch Rot: Bunch rot is a grouping of similar diseases caused by a number of fungi species. In general, bunch rots reduce crop yields and may adversely affect the character of the wine, imbuing it with moldy off-flavors. One of the most common forms of bunch rot is Botrytis bunch rot. Known in its malevolent form as grey rot, the Botrytis cinerea fungus will break down the skin of berries and allow other yeasts and bacteria to rot the grapes. It spreads quickly throughout vineyards. However, if the fungus invades healthy white grapes under favorable conditions, it will instead result in the noble rot, a precondition for some of the world’s greatest sweet wines. Botrytis bunch rot requires warm weather and humidity of at least 90% to germinate. Bacterial Diseases Pierce’s Disease: Caused by the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa and most commonly transmitted by the glassy-winged sharpshooter—a leafhopping insect found near citrus orchards and oleander plants—Pierce’s Disease is a scourge, rendering vines incapable of producing chlorophyll and killing them within one to five years. The disease is common in the southern United States and Mexico but is steadily moving northward in California, with sightings of the glassy-winged sharpshooter and outbreaks of the disease provoking major alarm in both Sonoma and Napa counties. There is neither a cure nor a chemical control for the disease, and authorities in other countries are maintaining strict quarantines to prevent its incursion. Crown Gall (Black Knot): T he Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium causes the Crown Gall disease in a wide variety of plant species. When affected, a vine develops tumors (galls) on its trunk, which girdle and essentially strangle the vine, withering or killing outright the portions of the vine above. The bacteria thrive in colder climates, and systemically live inside the grapevine. During winter freezes, when the vine’s trunk may be ruptured, the bacteria invade the outer trunk, rapidly multiplying and fomenting the onset of disease. The disease is spread through the propagation of bacteria-infected budwood. Bacterial Blight: Caused by the Xanthomonas ampelina bacterium, Bacterial Blight often kills young grapevine shoots. They develop dark brown streaks in early spring, and eventually wither and die. Spread by rain and compromised pruning tools, the disease can be controlled by hot water treatments and copper sprays, such as the Bordeaux Mixture. Viral Diseases Leafroll Virus: Leafroll Virus, a condition caused by a complex of at least nine different viruses, may be responsible for as much as 60% of the world’s grape production losses. Although affected vines display radiant shades of red and gold in the autumn, such beautiful colors, combined with a characteristic downward curling of the leaves, signal the virus’s malevolent side: reduced yields and delayed ripening. Leafroll Virus, spread through propagation of infected vines or by an insect vector like the mealy bug, is currently incurable but it will not kill the vine; thus, infected vines are not always removed. Fanleaf Degeneration: Fanleaf Degeneration, a nepovirus spread by soil nematodes feeding on infected roots, severely curtails yields and affected vineyards must be removed. A complex of similar diseases, Fanleaf Degeneration deforms shoot growth, and leads to poor fruit set and shot (seedless) berries. The leaves on an infected vine are malformed, resembling fans in appearance, and may form yellow bands around the veins. The productive lifespan of the vine and its winter durability are diminished. Phytoplasma Diseases Flavescence Dorée: A form of grapevine yellows, Flavescence Dorée first appeared in Armagnac in 1949. Leafhopper insects and propagation of infected vines spread the disease, which will initially delay budbreak and slow shoot growth, eventually causing bunches to fall off the vine and berries to shrivel. The disease will discolor leaves, cause pustules and cracks to form, and may kill young vines. No cure exists, although insecticides may be used to control leafhopper insect populations and retard its spread. BACK TO TOP Sustainable Models of Viticulture The 20th century witnessed a series of great agricultural advancements—many of which grew from wartime applications—as modern chemistry paved the way for successful monoculture. The discovery of synthetic nitrogen led to the development of chemical fertilizers, a Nobel Prize-winning endeavor blemished by its subsequent use in the poison gases of World Wars I and II. Chemical disease and pest control became widespread. By the 1950s, agriculture amongst the world’s leading nations was industrialized, and farming yields climbed. Such intensive farming practices require high inputs of (fossil fuel) energy, and industrialized farms develop dependencies on chemical means of survival as the land is stripped bare. As the 21st century dawned, such chemical enhancements are being enhanced by precise genetic modification—perhaps the only possible result of a history in which mankind has continually refined the plant species of agriculture through one form of selection or another. GMOs (genetically modified organisms) have been banned in the EU since 1998, but genetically modified yeasts were first employed in North American winemaking in 2006. Viticulture—a commercial enterprise at its heart—parallels trends and advancements in the larger world of agriculture. However, a rapidly expanding generation of growers is taking the ethos of organic and sustainable viticulture to heart. The ideal of sustainable viticulture, an unregulated (and therefore abused) term, is ultimately to return the vineyard to a self-sustaining position in harmony with the larger ecosystem to which it belongs. Its many adherents interpret the idea in different ways and to different degrees. In the US, many advocates of greener agriculture have become fixated on the idea of organic farming. In order to grow grapes organically in the US or Australia, synthetic chemical treatments and certain filtration procedures are forbidden—although copper and sulfur treatments, such as Bordeaux Mixture, may still be allowed. When an American (or Australian) wine is labeled as organic, it must be produced from organically-grown grapes and contain no added sulfites—a stipulation which prevents most good bottles from qualifying, as sulfites are an important (and almost universal) preservative in wine. Instead, many bottles are labeled as “wine made from organically grown grapes,” a designation which permits the addition of sulfites. Despite the image of green, less than 3% of California’s acreage is certified organic. France only has about 9% of its vineyard area certified. In 2012, the EU elaborated upon existing laws for organic grapegrowing by laying out winemaking measures required in order to label a wine organic. This included limiting the amount of SO 2 allowed in winemaking (a maximum of 100 mg/L for reds and 150 mg/L for whites and rosé, with a 30 mg/L differential if residual sugar is greater than 2 g/L). It is important to remember, too, that many growers around the world practice organically but choose not to get certified for a multitude of reasons, not the least of which are economic as well as the fact that certification rules can be rigid in exceptionally challenging vintages. While organic viticulture is admirable, it functions legally by the elimination of negative practices, rather than implementation of positive ones. Other models of sustainability take a different approach in promoting the long-term health of the soil and the vine’s relationship to its environment. In this sense, sustainability may govern (but is not limited to) water usage, energy efficiency, pest and erosion control, the planting of cover crops, the degree of mechanization, planting decisions, and even labor practices. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is considered a sustainable approach to weed, insect, and disease problems that tolerates the targeted application of some synthetic products, but limits their use overall. Often, IPM is utilized as a vineyard transitions from conventional to organic viticulture, or it may be a part of a separate sustainability philosophy. New regional sustainability organizations include VINEA, a voluntary group of Walla Walla Valley winegrowers who promote a holistic, socially- and environmentally-responsible methodology. VINEA winegrowers may not be exclusively organic, but they do farm in accordance with the standards set forth by LIVE (Low Input Viticulture and Enology, a third-party certifying system) and the vineyards are certified as Salmon-Safe. Oregon’s producers are at the forefront of sustainable approaches, and may label their wines as Oregon Sustainable Certified Wine (OSCW) provided 97% of fruit is certified by Salmon-Safe. Another approved organization, such as LIVE or USDA Organic, must certify both the fruit and the winery. California Certified Sustainable Winegrowing (CERTIFIED SUSTAINABLE), administered by the California Sustainable Winegrowing Alliance (CSWA), provides incremental certification for wineries and vineyards based on a concept of continual improvement. While less than 3% of California’s grape acreage is certified organic, as of 2015, 25% of acreage and over 60% of the state’s case production was CERTIFIED SUSTAINABLE, Lodi Rules, Napa Green, and/or SIP. The controversial concept of biodynamic viticulture takes the concepts of organic and sustainable farming and combines them with an almost mystical sensibility. Observing the rhythms and forces of the Earth is, in the ideal of biodynamic farming, intrinsically tied to the success of any ecosystem—the farm, in concert with the cosmic periphery, becomes a whole organism, generating its own fertility as governed by the cycle of seasons and lunar activity. Truly biodynamic vineyard workers will time their various tasks by motions of celestial bodies—particularly the moon. Introduced by the Austrian Rudolf Steiner in 1924 and today personified by Nicolas Joly of the Loire, biodynamic agriculture requires the yearly application of homeopathic preparations, produced from such animal and mineral substances as dandelion flowers, stinging nettles, and “horn manure” to ritually treat and heal the soil. Biodiversity and soil rotation are emphasized. The Demeter Biodynamic Trade Association certifies biodynamic farms and vineyards internationally. Many are skeptical of the biodynamic model, and the resulting wines may be wasteful or revelatory—depending on whom one asks. BACK TO TOP Vinification The intricacies of vinification—the transformation of grape juice into wine—can vary considerably between different producers, different regions, and different styles of wine, but the principles remain the same. Vinification is dependent on sound viticulture. Ultimately, the job of the winemaker is to preserve the inherent quality of a grape as it becomes wine. However, the choices a winemaker faces in determining how a grape’s character may be best expressed—and the tools at his or her disposal—are numerous. The rather quaint notion of fermentation as a natural, unaided process—and of wine as a totally natural product—is a false premise in most cases, relieved of the burden of truth by the methods inherent to modern winemaking. Many modern enhancements of the basic principles of vinification have raised the overall quality of wine worldwide, and confer a greater control over the final product. As in the practices of viticulture, some producers choose to emphasize the natural form of wine in its levels of unpredictability; others prefer to make their wines with the assurances that result from an industrialized process. In the process of alcoholic fermentation, the metabolism of yeast cells converts sugar in grape must into ethyl alcohol (ethanol) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). Heat is generated during this process. The ratio of conversion is not perfect, and intermediate compounds must develop, bridging the transformation of sugar to alcohol. Traces of volatile compounds produced in this complex series of reactions, including acetaldehydes, ethyl acetate and fusel oils, remain in the finished wine and influence its aroma and character. While a small amount of sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) is also naturally produced as a byproduct of fermentation, SO 2 is generally added to the must or juice before fermentation to prevent oxidation and bacterial contamination, and to ensure rapid fermentation. Acetaldehyde, regarded as a sign of oxidation in finished wines, is actually the last link on the chain of intermediate compounds between sugar and alcohol, and will remain in the new wine in trace amounts. A small amount of the remaining acetaldehyde is inevitably converted to acetic acid, which in turn reacts with alcohol to produce ethyl acetate, a culprit of volatile acidity in wine. When volatile acidity is encountered as a fault, excessive acetic acid has been produced by the activity of acetobacter, the group of bacteria responsible for turning wine to vinegar in the presence of oxygen. Yeasts require nitrogen to work, and low levels of nitrogen in the must leads to the formation of hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), a highly volatile compound reminiscent of rotten eggs. Winemakers may supplement low nitrogen levels through nutrient additions, to avoid excessive sulfide production during fermentation. H 2 S levels may also be affected by elemental sulfur (S) coming in from the vineyard on the grapes if a treatment occurred close to harvest. In winemaking terms, the addition of sulfites refers to sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ); sulfides include hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), mercaptans and other foul-smelling compounds produced under reductive conditions. The size and complexity of a fermentation vessel can range from a small plastic bin to a barrique to a 2,500 hl-capacity stainless steel tank. The amount of heat generated by fermentation increases with the size of the must—without accounting for any temperature control, small vessels provoke slow, cool fermentations and large vessels lead to short, hot fermentations. Below 50°F, most yeasts will not act; above 105°F, yeasts will die. White wine fermentations usually take place on the cooler end, as fruit and freshness are preserved at lower temperatures. Red wine fermentations may reach into the 90s, although winemakers run the risk of volatalized (lost) flavor compounds and stuck fermentations as the thermometer passes 95°F. The benefit of hot fermentations for red wines is in the increased extraction of color, tannin and flavor compounds. The risk of stuck fermentation—a disastrous and sudden shutdown of yeast activity—has been greatly reduced in the age of temperature control and selected commercial yeasts. However, stuck fermentations still keep many winemakers up at night during, particularly if it has been a challenging vintage, yeast nutrition has been difficult to manage, and/or they have opted for using ambient yeasts to ferment. Large fermentation tanks with temperature control can accompany either cool or hot fermentations, without allowing the temperature to rise out of hand. Barrel fermentation , on the other hand, lacks temperature control but the relatively small size of the vessel prevents temperatures from rising too high. White grapes (such as Chardonnay) fermented in barrel will lose some of the initial fruit and fresh aromatics, yet gain a more cohesive expression of oak and a subtler color than those fermented in tank but aged in a new barrel. Barrel fermented wines are generally subject to the processes of lees contact and bâtonnage , or lees stirring, which add further complexity and richness. Other fermentation vessels include large wooden casks, ceramic amphorae and cement eggs—a less porous vessel than a barrel, yet still allowing some oxygen ingress. Bâtonnage. The agent of fermentation—yeast—is an important consideration for the winemaker. A wide number of cultured yeasts are available, developed in laboratories and designed to lend control over some aspect of the fermentation process or affect the character of the wine. Cultured yeasts promise reliability, and are often able to continue to work in higher levels of alcohol than ambient yeasts. Ambient yeasts—often inaccurately identified as native or wild—inhabit the winery and come to life in the presence of must, although they are by nature less predictable than cultured yeasts. Many winemakers believe ambient yeasts create a more complex wine. Some will hope for a smooth beginning to ambient yeast fermentation, but inoculate the must with cultured yeast if the progress is slow; others will inoculate with cultured yeasts and use SO 2 to eliminate any ambient yeast in the must in order to maintain total control. Depending on the type of yeast used, the wine will take as little as a week to more than a month to ferment dry. In the milder climates of the Old World, chaptalization—the addition of sugar to the must to increase the final alcohol and glycerin content of the wine—is frequently practiced. In the warmer climates of the New World, some producers respond to the problem of excessive ripening and the resulting high alcohol levels by removing alcohol from the wine through modern devices such as spinning cones. Another technique of alcohol adjustment, reverse osmosis , separates the wine into two constituent parts, permeate and retentate. The permeate, which contains water and ethanol, is then distilled to a proper level before being recombined with the retentate—the wine’s aromatic compounds—at a lower percentage of alcohol. Once banned in the EU, such processes of de-alcoholization by physical separation were legalized in 2009, provided the level of alcohol is not adjusted by more than 2%. Winemakers in warm regions may also choose to balance their wines through acidification: the addition of acid to must or to a finished wine. Tartaric acid and malic acid, the two principal acids in grape juice, may be used for acidification; tartaric acid, added prior to fermentation, is preferred. As (or after) the alcoholic fermentation occurs, the unrelated process of malolactic fermentation, also known as secondary fermentation or “malo,” may take place in the wine. In malolactic fermentation, lactic acid bacteria convert harsh malic acids into softer lactic acids and carbon dioxide. It rounds out a wine’s texture. Malolactic fermentation may be initiated by inoculation, or it may occur naturally, as lactic acid bacteria are naturally found alongside yeasts on grape skins. It may also be prevented or shortened by removing the organisms responsible. Malolactic fermentation often occurs in red wines, and most of the world’s fuller styles of white wines undergo either full or partial malo. Lighter, high-acid whites are sometimes treated to a degree of malo, although producers of certain varieties, like Riesling, scrupulously avoid it. Diacetyl, the compound responsible for buttery aromas in wine, is a byproduct of malolactic fermentation. Carbonic maceration ( macération carbonique ) is an alcoholic fermentation used for some red wines, wherein whole, uncrushed grapes in an anaerobic environment (under a protective blanket of CO 2 ) initiate an intracellular fermentation. Attempting to sustain itself, a berry will release enzymes to transform its own sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This occurs without the action of yeasts. However, such fermentations cannot produce more than a couple of degrees of alcohol, as the berry ceases activity in the presence of enough ethanol. Carbonic maceration must therefore be combined with a standard fermentation in wine production. In Beaujolais, where the process is often used for nouveau and other wines, a tank will be filled with whole berries. Berries at the bottom will be crushed under the weight of those above it and will ferment normally. The ensuing carbon dioxide will blanket the whole berries above, which will then begin to ferment by carbonic maceration. The grapes will eventually explode, or the winemaker will press the juice, and then the yeasts would begin their work. Carbonic maceration. BACK TO TOP Red Wine Production After harvest, grapes may be sorted (on a vibrating table or belt) prior to being crushed and destemmed. This initial sorting is labor-intensive and expensive, but allows the winemaker to remove MOG—material other than grapes. Crushing grapes, traditionally accomplished by foot, is usually carried out by machine—a crusher-destemmer. Alternatively, some producers may choose to use whole clusters (retaining the stems), whole berries (discarding the stems), or partially destemmed and partially crushed berries. The fermentation of whole berries—a common practice with Pinot Noir and Syrah—will encourage a level of carbonic maceration, whereas stems may be retained for spicy aromatic complexity and structure. Whole cluster fermentation requires less handling while improving the movement of juice and air through the cap. Damaged or unripe stems, however, can cause undesirable green flavors in the wine. If a winery uses whole berries—and spares no expense—the grapes may be sorted again after destemming to remove jacks (leftover pieces of grape stem) and any remaining MOG. Crushed red grapes will usually undergo a pre-fermentation maceration, which promotes the extraction of color and tannin. Traditionally, this maceration was the simple consequence of waiting for ambient yeasts to ignite fermentation, but today many inoculated musts undergo this period of aqueous extraction. Cold soak, a pre-fermentation maceration technique that relies on substantial SO 2 additions and a cold temperature, was developed in Burgundy in the 1970s and has been popularized by Pinot Noir producers worldwide. Proponents may cold soak grapes for nearly a week before fermentation. Occasionally, some juice will be run off prior to fermentation, in order for the producer to have a greater ratio of skins to juice, and therefore achieve more extraction. Punching down the cap (pigeage) of California Pinot Noir. Fermentation and maceration occur in tandem for red wines. Grape skins are always included in red wine fermentation, as the winemaker hopes to extract the phenolics contained within grape skins—tannin, color compounds (anthocyanins) and flavor compounds—with the help of heat and alcohol. The juice, in most cases, would be colorless without the skins. As red wine ferments, a cap ( chapeau ) of grape solids (pomace) develops on the surface of the must, pushed up by the action of CO 2 . Careful cap management is integral to red wine production: without intervention, the cap will dry out, solidify and prevent extraction. One traditional method of submerging and breaking up the cap is pigeage , or punching down. Pigeage may be performed manually—by workers using poles, paddles, or even their own feet—or mechanically. An alternate method of cap management is remontage , in which the fermenting wine is pumped over the top of the cap. Pumping over will agitate and aerate the wine to a greater degree. Both methods may be performed once or several times daily during fermentation. A third technique, délestage , allows the winemaker to fully drain the fermentation vessel. The wine is racked into a separate vessel while the cap drains fully, and is then pumped back over the cap in the fermentation vessel. Once fermentation has concluded, a fuller-bodied red may continue to macerate for a period of days or weeks before it is pressed off the skins. The most tannic and traditional styles of Nebbiolo-based wines in Piedmont often incur at least a month of post-fermentation maceration. After fermentation and any post-fermentation maceration, the winemaker will draw the high quality, free-run wine ( vin de goutte ) from the tank. The remaining pomace is then pressed to yield coarser, tannic press wine ( vin de presse ). A small proportion of press wine may be blended in to a top cuvée for structure, or it may be entirely reserved for lesser wines. The traditional basket press relies on vertical pressure to press the pomace, whereas the modern pneumatic bladder press exerts gentle pressure on the grapes by means of its inflation with air. The wines may be blended or kept as separate lots, and moved into the preferred aging vessel, if any. High quality red wines are generally matured in oak barrels—the size and percentage of new barrels is determined by the style of the wine. The maturation period ( élevage ) ranges from a few months to more than two years in wood for some top Bordeaux and Napa wines, and the wines racked periodically during the process. Racking, or soutirage , is the movement of wine from one vessel to another, providing aeration and clarification as the wine is removed from its lees, or sediment. Malolactic fermentation may occur quickly at the end of fermentation or slowly during maturation. SO 2 is often added during maturation, or just before bottling—an addition that is anathema to advocates of sans soufre (“without sulfur”), a newer doctrine of extreme natural winemaking. Prior to bottling, the wines will be racked a final time, and may be fined or filtered. Both processes ensure greater clarification in the finished wine, and filtration promotes stability in the bottle. Fining ( collage ) requires a fining agent to precipitate solids out of the wine: bentonite, casein, isinglass, gelatin, and egg white are commonly used. When employed in the fining process, casein (a milk protein), egg white, gelatin and isinglass (a material obtained from sturgeon bladders) may create a dilemma for vegans and vegetarians. Bentonite, a type of clay, escapes criticism from such quarters. Filtration, a more invasive and expensive process, is often accomplished through the use of pads or a membrane with microscopic openings. Many critics charge that fining and especially filtration strip the wine of character, and a growing number of winemakers are proclaiming their aversion to either method. BACK TO TOP White Wine Production Chardonnay undergoing a brief period of skin contact. White wine grapes are crushed and pressed prior to fermentation. The grapes may be crushed and destemmed, or crushed as whole bunches, as the stems provide good drainage channels for the juice during the pressing stage. White grapes may see some extended skin contact, usually measured in hours rather than days, between crushing and pressing. This maceration enables the extraction of aromatic compounds but may lead to excessive tannin and bitterness in the final wine if unchecked. White grapes are pressed in either a traditional style of vertical press or a modern pneumatic press, and—like red grapes after fermentation—first yield free-run juice, followed by pressed juice of decreasing quality. After pressing, the juice is allowed to settle ( débourbage ). This process allows the juice to be racked off suspended solids and clarified prior to fermentation. During all of these procedures, warm temperatures and oxygen are the enemy, and winemakers must keep musts cool and prevent spoilage or premature fermentation with the judicious use of SO 2 . Fermentation occurs at a cooler temperature for white wines than for reds, and there is no cap, as the grapes have already been pressed. White wines are frequently clarified after fermentation, and may undergo cold stabilization—a process that causes tartrate crystals to precipitate out of the wine at a temperature of approximately 25°F. In white wines that are not cold-stabilized, crystals may later form in the bottle. Light, aromatic white wines do not often undergo barrel maturation or malolactic fermentation, and will usually be bottled shortly after the conclusion of fermentation. White wines may be fermented to dryness, but fermentation is arrested for many aromatic white wines while some degree of residual sugar remains. In some cases, sweetness may also be added back to a wine after it ferments to dryness, in the form of sterilized fresh grape juice, known as Süssreserve in Germany. Off-dry and sweet white wines are often filtered, as the sugar content can lead to unexpected refermentation in the bottle. White wines matured in oak often undergo full or partial malolactic fermentation. The lees, or yeast sediment, build up in fermenting red wines as well as whites, but their impact is more noticeable in the development of white wines. Fermented wine, whether in tank or barrel, may be left in contact with the lees in order to encourage malolactic fermentation—lactic acid bacteria feed on the nutrients in lees—and supplement richness and body in the wines. The effects of lees contact may be punctuated by bâtonnage . White wines matured in oak, such as the classic wines of Burgundy or Graves, are typically bottled after 9 to 18 months in barrel. During the maturation period, the wines may be racked and the lees may be stirred frequently or not at all. They may be fined or filtered prior to bottling. BACK TO TOP Rosé Wine Production There are two basic methods of rosé winemaking: blending and limited skin maceration . A blended rosé is simply the product of red and white base wines blended together, a technique widely regarded as inferior. Blending is prohibited throughout the EU, but only for wines below the PGI level! While individual appellations typically preclude the use of blending in rosé winemaking, this does not rule out changes to PDO/PGI regulations in the future, and the world's most expensive rosé wine—Champagne—is almost always assembled as a blend of white and red base wines. Nonetheless, subjecting red grapes to a short period of skin contact prior to fermentation is generally upheld as the superior technique for still rosé winemaking. In this method, a winemaker may purposefully craft rosé by leaving the juice in contact with its skins for a period of several hours to several days, depending on the desired extraction of color. Conversely, he or she may "bleed" juice from a maceration, producing rosé as a byproduct of red wine fermentation. In this variant, known as the saignée ("bleeding") method, pink juice is drawn from a vessel to concentrate the remaining must for red wine production, improving its color and structure. Finally, some winemakers may choose not to crush at all, achieving the palest of hues through direct pressing of whole red grapes or clusters. From a whisper of pink to salmon to orange to cherry red, the color of rosé wines can vary greatly, depending on the technique of production and the length of maceration. BACK TO TOP Oak Oak, a watertight, lightweight, and malleable wood, became a vessel of choice for wine during the era of ancient Rome. Oak allows gentle, slow oxidation to occur, rounding out and softening the texture of wine. The smaller the oak container, the more marked this effect is. New oak also contributes flavor—in the form of lactones and phenolic aldehydes such as vanillin—and wood tannin to wine, but this effect is dulled upon repeated usage—a barrel becomes neutral, ceasing to contribute flavor and aroma by its fourth to sixth year of use. Most of the barrel’s flavor is transmitted to the wine in its first year. However, a neutral barrel can still be useful, especially if new wood flavor is not desired. The use of new barrels is not just a stylistic concern, as new oak barrels are extremely expensive. The use of oak chips, staves, and powder are cheaper alternatives, although they will not provide an oxidative effect. Micro-oxygenation ( microbullage ), an aeration technique in which small amounts of oxygen are allowed to enter a stainless steel tank during either fermentation or maturation of the wine, may be combined with oak chips to approximate the effects of a new barrel at a fraction of the cost. The flavor imparted by an oak barrel is dependent on the level of toast and the type of wood. French oak barrels, produced from Quercus robur and Quercus petraea trees, are characterized by tight wood grain developed through slow growth. Faster-growing American white oak species ( Quercus alba ) usually display wider grain. Traditionally, French oak is split rather than sawn, a technique that produces fewer staves but prevents leakage in the final barrel. American oak is less porous and can be sawn without fear of leakage, but this method releases more vanillin and lactones, resulting in the coconut character of American oak. The drying process of the green staves also varies between European and American coopers. French oak is usually air-dried, a gentle process that leaches out some of oak’s more aggressive tannins and flavors, whereas American oak is quickly kiln-dried, and lactones are concentrated. The quality (and subtlety) of American oak is improving, however, and many American coopers now use air-drying techniques. In order to make an oak barrel, heat must be applied to bend each dry wooden stave into shape. This process is divided into three stages: warming ( chauffage ), shaping ( cintrage ), and toasting ( bousinage )—the latter stage has a significant effect on the wine. A barrel is subject to light, medium, or heavy toasting, and while the level of lactones (responsible for oaky aromas) and vanillin rises with increased toasting, they will subside with heavy toasting in place of spicier, smokier aromas. Light toast promotes the most extraction of wood tannin. BACK TO TOP The Future of Winemaking Wine has been an important commodity since ancient times, and winemaking decisions cannot be totally divorced from the business of wine, except in the most privileged of cases. Economic realities inform decisions in the winery and the vineyard. Striving for sustainability is necessary, but such wines are more expensive to produce, at least in the short term. While the downside of industrial viticulture and winemaking is easy to see, the search for sustainability and low-impact techniques may promote its own dangerous sensibility of doctrine and purity. Winemakers who advocate sustainable vineyard practices must determine if vinification practices should be altered to conform to the ethos guiding management of the vineyard. What is an unnatural manipulation in the winery and what is an accepted practice, necessary to the character of a particular wine? As the public continues to demand—and deserve—a right to understand what we consume, winery decisions will be thrust ever more into the spotlight. A “natural,” hands-off approach in the winery may lead to superior wines, or it may lead to bacterial spoilage and inconsistency. A winemaker may choose from many avenues of production, and must determine his or her own balance of quality, consistency, and level of intervention. BACK TO TOPPreview