https://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/en-USTelligent Community 13https://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/208/north-americaWed, 25 Mar 2026 13:26:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:7d066d99-d437-4e2d-bc4e-c0a3f8b1d65dJonathan EichholzContents The United States History of Wine in America The AVA System and Labeling Requirements California California: The North Coast California: The Central Coast California: The Central Valley and Sierra Foothills Washington Oregon New York Other Winemaking Areas of the US Canada Ontario British Columbia Mexico Review Quizzes The United States The United States of America is the world’s fourth largest producer of wine and claims the world’s sixth highest acreage of land under vine. California produces approximately 85% of all American wine, followed by Washington, New York, and Oregon. Compared with traditional wine-producing countries, the US has a large population, surpassing France in early 2011 to become the world’s largest wine consumer. Despite this, the US ranked only 62 nd in per capita consumption by 2016, with just 30% of the population identifying as wine drinkers. In 2019, the US experienced its first decline in wine consumption in 25 years, as the industry lost market share to fast-growing categories such as canned hard seltzers, spirits, and craft beer. Still, the US continues to provide the world’s most substantial market for fine wines. Further, over the past 20 years, powerful American critics have had a significant influence on winemakers and markets worldwide. History of Wine in America In the early eleventh century, the Viking Leif Eriksson brought his boat aground at L’Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, Canada, becoming the first European to definitively set foot on the North American continent. He christened his discovery Vinland—possibly a reference to the meadows before him or, as recounted in the 13 th -century poem “ Saga of the Greenlanders, ” a tribute to the wealth of native grapevines. Unlike in South America, several species of wild grapevines awaited the first colonists of North America, including Vitis labrusca , Vitis rotundifolia , and Vitis aestivalis . Vitis vinifera , the source of fine wine grapes, unfortunately did not. Following Columbus’s journey in 1492 and the subsequent rush to explore and colonize the New World, European colonists attempted to produce wines from the native grapes but were generally repelled by the grapes’ inherently foxy odors and turned to imported vines. A 1619 Virginia law required every male colonist at Jamestown, the first successful English settlement on North American soil, to plant and tend at least 10 vines—the earliest record of vinifera vine plantings on the East Coast. This experiment, like many others along the Eastern seaboard, ended in failure as the European vines succumbed to new vine diseases and the phylloxera pest. Interest in winemaking in the British colonies of America dwindled; cider, beer, and whiskey became the alcoholic beverages of choice in the 18 th century. Thomas Jefferson, a gourmand devoted to the best wines of Bordeaux, showed relentless enthusiasm for wine, lingering on business in the Médoc on the very day in 1787 that the Constitutional Convention opened in Philadelphia. Jefferson viewed wine as a mark of genteel society, and “the only antidote to the bane of whiskey.” Jefferson planted vinifera at his Virginia estate, hoping that the young country could produce its own fine wine and assert its self-sufficiency in the process. Unfortunately, his efforts (along with those of George Washington) were met with continual failure, and more than 30 years of vineyard cultivation ended without a single bottle of wine. The Founding Fathers had to settle for the best of Europe, as Madeira, Sherry, and the wines of France graced state tables. Unbeknownst to them, Spanish settlers beyond the western frontier were achieving success with vinifera grapes. The Mission grape, introduced to Mexico in the early 1500s, made its way northward to Rio Grande settlements in present-day Texas and New Mexico as early as 1629. Franciscan monks brought the Mission grape to what would become the state of California and established vineyards at each of their historic missions along the West Coast. In 1783, Franciscans at the San Juan Capistrano Mission produced California’s first wine from the grape. In 1823, the Franciscans built the San Francisco de Solano Mission, the last of the missions and the northern terminus of the Spanish Empire in North America—a site now occupied by Sonoma’s town square. By 1839, George Yount had arrived in Napa as the first American settler to set foot in the valley and had planted its first vineyard. The annexation of California from Mexico in 1847 and the discovery of gold at Sutter’s Mill in 1848 brought a wave of prospectors, American soldiers, and pioneers to the San Francisco Bay, and wine production increased correspondingly. The Hungarian-born, self-styled “Count” Agoston Haraszthy arrived in Sonoma in 1849, where he founded Buena Vista, one of California’s oldest commercial wineries. Dubbed the father of California wine, the colorful Haraszthy introduced more than 300 varieties to the state, collected as vine cuttings during his European travels. He is often credited with introducing Zinfandel in California, though this claim has been disproven. The mythology of the man—who is also reported to have operated the first commercial steamboat on the Mississippi, founded Wisconsin’s oldest incorporated town, and served as San Diego’s first town marshal—may greatly exceed the reality, but his story has become Californian wine legend. Fittingly, the legend ends with his spectacular demise in the jaws of alligators, deep within the jungles of Nicaragua. Credit: Brandon Lee Wise After working for Haraszthy, Charles Krug moved in 1861 to St. Helena in Napa Valley and founded his eponymous winery—the oldest in the valley. Jacob Schram built Schramsberg in 1862. Beringer, Napa’s oldest continuously operating winery, was established in 1876, and the Finnish immigrant Gustav Niebaum founded the legendary Inglenook Winery in 1880. By the last decade of the 19th century, Napa Valley had nearly 20,000 acres under vine; Sonoma Valley had over 22,000. The rising interest in Californian wine stood in stark contrast to the near total devastation of European vineyards due to phylloxera in the late 19th century, which in turn drove even more investment to the state. But California was not immune to phylloxera, which was discovered in Napa and Sonoma in the early 1870s. It wreaked havoc on the state’s vineyards throughout the 1880s and 1890s. Salvation for the decimated vines on both sides of the Atlantic came from the much maligned but phylloxera-resistant American vine species, particularly Vitis riparia and its hybrids. Since the late 19th century, Vitis vinifera vines throughout the world have generally been grafted on American rootstocks. While California’s pioneers built a foundation for a future in fine wine based on European varieties, American grapes and hybrids continued to populate the vineyards of the Eastern United States. Although French Huguenots and Dutch settlers experimented with winemaking in 17th-century New York, commercial winemaking can be traced to the 1840s, when Robert Prince produced wine from native grapes on Long Island. American nurseries began crossing vinifera vines with American species, hoping to produce a hardier vine that retained vinifera characteristics for superior wines. The Finger Lakes region in upstate New York was extensively planted with such hybrids from 1850 onward. Along with the native Concord, the American hybrids Catawba and Delaware dominated vineyards. The nation’s first bonded winery, Pleasant Valley Wine Company, was established in 1860 and is still operating today, near Hammondsport in the Finger Lakes. By the end of the 19th century, the Finger Lakes claimed over 24,000 acres under vine. Viticulture also thrived in Ohio: at the height of his winemaking career in the mid-19th century, Nicholas Longworth annually produced 150,000 bottles of traditional method, hand-riddled sparkling Catawba. In Missouri, German immigrants were by 1856 producing 100,000 gallons annually, and Stone Hill Winery in Hermann became the third largest winery in the world by the turn of the century. American grapevines and their hybrids were vitally important in Missouri. To this day, the Norton grape remains the pride of the state—connoisseurs of Norton can now enjoy their favorite Vitis aestivalis grape out of a Riedel glass commissioned especially for the wine. Charles Valentine Riley, a Missouri entomologist, earned his place in the history of wine for being the first to understand the innate resistance of American grape species to phylloxera. The French even erected a statue in Montpellier in his honor. In 1920, America’s young wine industry faced its greatest crisis: the “noble experiment” of Prohibition. Christian temperance movements gained power throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, resulting first in a series of state-level prohibitions—Maine outlawed the sale of alcohol in 1851, followed by Kansas in 1881—and culminating in the nationwide ban on the manufacture and sale of “intoxicating liquors” with the ratification of the 18th Amendment to the Constitution. Prohibition led to a near-total shutdown of America’s wine industry, although a few wineries survived by producing still-legal Christian sacramental wines. The Frenchman Georges de Latour’s Beaulieu Vineyards actually thrived during the dry times, declaring itself the House of Altar Wine. The 21st Amendment, ratified in 1933, finally ended Prohibition, but American tastes (and winemakers’ skills) had atrophied. Sweet, fortified jug wine accounted for 81% of California’s production in 1935. Cheap, generic table wines sold under the guises of Burgundy, Chablis, Port, and Sherry flooded the American market in the decades after Prohibition ended. From the end of Prohibition through the early 1970s, America’s wine industry became truly industrial, as it focused on inexpensive, lower-quality wines for a generally uneducated domestic market. This period also marked a firm shift in the bulk of the industry to California. To Kalon Vineyard in Napa Valley (Photo credit: Shawn DeMartino) While the Italian-born Gallo Brothers were churning out oceans of cheap Thunderbird and Night Train Express from California’s Central Valley, a small core of wineries in Napa and Sonoma continued to pursue quality. In 1938, Georges de Latour hired André Tchelistcheff, a Russian winemaker trained in France, to oversee the production at Beaulieu. He introduced the Georges de Latour Private Reserve Cabernet Sauvignon, a new benchmark in quality for American wine, and brought updated standards of hygiene and techniques to California, including temperature-controlled fermentations and controlled malolactic fermentation. Tchelistcheff mentored many of California’s young talents—including Robert Mondavi, Louis Martini, Joe Heitz, and Mike Grgich—who became industry giants and helped reshape the image of Napa and California wines in general. Prohibition survivors like Inglenook, Beringer, and Beaulieu in Napa were surpassed by ambitious new wineries of the next generation by the late 1960s. Following his departure from Charles Krug due to a family feud, Robert Mondavi, a man many credit with creating the “brand” of Napa Valley, launched his winery’s first harvest in 1966. In 1967, table wines surpassed fortified wines in domestic consumption for the first time. In 1968, Mondavi singlehandedly made Sauvignon Blanc saleable by renaming it Fumé Blanc and aging it in oak. By the mid-1970s, a segment of American wine consumers was maturing and started to look for wines tied to their region of origin. Unlike most European wines, the new breed of American fine wines were labeled by variety, with Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay emerging as the grapes of choice for Napa’s producers. The struggle to achieve higher quality was not limited to Napa: Hanzell, Martin Ray, and Simi were early modern pioneers in Sonoma, and winemaker Paul Draper in 1969 took over production of Monte Bello at Ridge in the Santa Cruz Mountains. The nearby Mount Eden Vineyards, originally established by Paul Masson in 1878, produced its first vintage under its new name in 1972. The first Chalone Vineyard bottling (Monterey’s oldest commercial vineyard) debuted in 1960. In 1970, disregarding much advice to the contrary, Richard Sanford planted Pinot Noir in his new Sanford & Benedict Vineyard in Santa Barbara’s Sta. Rita Hills . Interest in the winemaking tradition of nearby Paso Robles was slowly reviving. By the late 1970s, both Oregon and Washington had small, quality-conscious wine industries, and the Ukranian-born Dr. Konstantin Frank demonstrated in the face of tremendous skepticism that Vitis vinifera could grow successfully in the Finger Lakes. His Vinifera Wine Cellars, founded in 1962, received praise for its Riesling and sparkling wines and ignited a new interest in noble varieties in New York. In 1965, David Lett of the Eyrie Vineyards planted his first Pinot Noir grapes in the Willamette Valley, pioneering the varietal style for which the valley would become internationally known. America’s reputation for fine wine was slowly improving. In 1976, that reputation catapulted forward. Results of the 1976 Judgment of Paris, a blind tasting organized by a young Steven Spurrier, surprised the globe, as two Napa Valley wines—Stag’s Leap Wine Cellars Cabernet Sauvignon and Chateau Montelena Chardonnay—placed first in a blind tasting against a sampling of first and second growth Bordeaux, and premier cru and grand cru Burgundy, respectively. Boom times for Napa and for the California wine industry in general resulted, bringing foreign investment and heightening domestic interest. In 1978, a Diamond Creek Cabernet Sauvignon was the first Napa Valley bottling to top the $100 mark at release. By 1991, California’s plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon reached 30,000 acres and its Chardonnay 50,000 acres. By the new millennium, total acreage for both grapes doubled. New wineries opened at a seemingly exponential rate as America’s wine country became associated with a lifestyle of luxury. The market—and the business of wine criticism—grew alongside them. Phylloxera recurred in California’s vineyards in the 1980s. In Napa alone, over half of the vineyards had to be torn out and replanted—a new opportunity for producers to reassess grapes and clonal selections for each site. The 1990s signaled a stylistic shift in California, as ripeness, body, and higher alcohol levels found champions among influential critics, and many producers adjusted both viticulture and winemaking decisions to support more weight and fruit. In Napa, a new wave of upstart cult producers, including Screaming Eagle, Colgin, and Harlan Estate, emerged with stratospheric price tags previously reserved for Europe’s most pedigreed wines. Lifestyle, aesthetic, and the inherent quality of wine became suddenly more difficult than ever to disentangle, as hundreds of new producers, devoid of history, followed their lead into the premium wine market. Though consumption patterns have dipped, Americans drank over 900 million gallons of wine in 2018 and lead the world in wine consumption. As viticultural science and techniques continue to improve, quality moves forward overall. Older winemaking areas have been refined or rediscovered, and the importance of matching grapes to appropriate sites is becoming clearer, leading to the exploration of new vineyard areas. Wine is now made in all 50 states, and the United States has become a world leader in production, consumption, and criticism of wine. Still, the American wine industry is not without its own crises. New rootstocks may keep phylloxera at bay in California, but it is a rising concern in Washington, where it is a slow but gradual threat, as many winegrowers still have ungrafted vineyards. The Pacific Northwest also struggles with red blotch as well as fungal trunk diseases. Throughout California, Pierce’s disease and red blotch cause serious alarm for growers. Furthermore, premiumization seems to have hit its ceiling in recent years, as the Millennial generation is not as enthused by or loyal to luxury brands. Millennials consume a range of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages and have a rising interest in lower-alcohol alternatives and more eco-friendly packaging. Finally, the power of American critics like Robert Parker has engendered its own criticism, as some charge that the modern, ultra-ripe style prevalent among many American (and global) producers has evolved to win their praise. A rising number of apps and online forums have begun to put more weight and value in consumer-based reviews. BACK TO TOP The AVA System and Labeling Requirements Prior to the creation of American Viticultural Areas (AVAs), the only legal appellations for wine in the US were politically determined: the existing boundaries of states and counties. Although states and counties remain legal appellations, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) in the late 1970s finalized a new system that would, in theory, demarcate appellations based on distinctive geographical, physical, and climatic features. The bureau approved America’s first AVA in Augusta, Missouri, in late 1980, and Napa Valley gained AVA status in 1981. Today, the Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB), a new federal bureau created by the Homeland Security Act of 2002, oversees the AVA system. In 2007, the TTB suspended the entire process of new AVA approval in the midst of a controversial new proposal to create a Calistoga AVA within Napa Valley. The proposed AVA exposed a contentious disconnect between the rights of a brand and truth in appellation labeling, as two wineries—Calistoga Cellars and Calistoga Estates—did not use enough Calistoga fruit in their wines, and stood to lose their names if the TTB approved the AVA application. In late 2009, the TTB approved the AVA without grandfathering in either winery, setting an example for future label integrity. Legally, AVAs are only an indication of geographic origin and do not require producers to adhere to any additional guidelines in the vineyard or the winery. If a label lists an AVA, a minimum 85% of grapes used to produce the wine must have originated in the stated region. If producers choose to label their wines by county, state, or country instead, the minimum is lowered to 75%. California, Washington, and Oregon are exceptions: wines labeled as California or Oregon are required to be made solely from grapes grown in the state, whereas wines labeled as Washington must contain at least 95% of grapes grown in the state. Wines labeled by single vineyard contain a minimum 95% of grapes grown in the stated vineyard. Percentage of Grapes Required for Labeling by Appellation: If labeled by country, state, or county: 75% If labeled by AVA: 85% If labeled with a single vineyard: 95% For wines labeled with an AVA, a minimum 95% must come from the stated vintage; for wines labeled with a state or county, the minimum is relaxed to 85%. Wine with a varietal designation must contain a minimum 75% of the stated variety— Vitis labrusca grapes, like Concord, are an exception, and need only comprise a minimum 51% of a varietal wine. Alcohol content must be stated on the label, within a margin of plus or minus 1.5%. As an alternative, wines in the 7 to 14% ABV range may simply be labeled as table wine or light wine . Labels must also include a government health warning and the phrase contains sulfites , provided sulfites are present in a concentration of 10 parts per million or more. All wines must declare the name and address of the bottler. In order to legally qualify for the term estate bottled , 100% of a wine must come from grapes grown on land owned or controlled by the winery. In addition, the winery and all vineyards used in the production of an estate-bottled wine must be located within the same AVA. The 394,088-acre Northern Sonoma AVA, which includes large swaths of most of the county’s northern AVAs, was proposed by Gallo of Sonoma, which may now blend across pre-existing AVA boundaries for its estate-bottled wines. BACK TO TOP California Much of California is well suited to grapegrowing, experiencing ample sunshine, mild winters, and generally low humidity, which prevents high disease pressure. The main grapegrowing regions lie in the central and coastal area of the state, as the most northerly section can get too cool and the interior too hot. The major winegrowing regions of California are divided into five large AVAs: North Coast, Central Coast, South Coast, San Francisco Bay, and the Sierra Foothills. California's AVAs; click to enlarge and zoom in (Credit: California Wine Institute) Defined loosely by geology and climate, these AVAs ultimately serve to allow smaller AVAs that are further apart to be blended and still have a qualifying AVA with a general sense of origin. Each of these includes a number of smaller AVAs—for example, Napa Valley AVA and Sonoma Valley AVA are both located within the North Coast AVA. Most of the fine wine districts are located near the coast, where fog and cool sea breezes mitigate temperatures and create a large diurnal swing from warm days to cool nights. The South Coast AVA, which covers land in the counties stretching from Los Angeles to San Diego, has made little impact in terms of fine wine production. The inland Central Valley, source of 75% of the state’s wine, is not considered an AVA. California produces a wide range of varietal wines, led by Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon. Merlot, Syrah, Zinfandel, Pinot Noir, and Sauvignon Blanc enjoy extensive plantings. French Colombard and Chenin Blanc both occupy thousands of acres, but they are mostly confined to the Central Valley, where they produce bulk wine for blends. Curious producers throughout California continue to experiment with new varieties, and one is likely to find just about anything bottled as a varietal wine in California, from the more routine Gewürztraminer, Viognier, Petit Sirah, Grenache, and Mourvèdre to the occasional Tempranillo, Vermentino, Grüner Veltliner, Valdiguié, Graciano, and Nebbiolo. Meritage , a term trademarked by the Meritage Alliance, is used by producers to indicate a premium blend in which no grape accounts for more than 90% of the wine. Meritage wines may be red or white, but must be produced from Bordeaux varieties. Zinfandel, thought to be California’s native son before Carole Meredith, an American grape geneticist, produced research definitively linking it to Croatia’s Crljenak Kastelanski, dominated the vineyards of California in the late 19th century but fell out of favor, losing ground to the classic noble varieties of Europe. Regardless of its Croatian origins, many producers champion Zinfandel as a uniquely American wine style and covet old vine plantings for their concentration and character. Some of the oldest vineyards in California are planted to the grape and were spared, ironically, by the success of White Zinfandel in the 1980s. Other grapes popular in the field blends of years past have receded in acreage, like Charbono, Carignan, and the teinturier grape Alicante Bouschet. The North Coast California’s North Coast is the epicenter of fine wine production in the US. The North Coast AVA includes the counties of Napa, Sonoma, Mendocino, Lake, Solano, and Marin. Napa County, home of Napa Valley AVA , is California’s preeminent fine wine region and the birthplace of a classic style of American Cabernet Sauvignon. Approximately 4% of California’s vineyard acreage is in Napa Valley, and it encompasses 17 sub-AVAs, named for the surrounding mountains and towns of the valley. The Napa Valley itself stretches northward from the San Pablo Bay past the principal towns of Napa and St. Helena to Calistoga, with its width narrowing—from five miles wide at the town of Napa to one at Calistoga—and temperatures warming perceptibly as one travels north. Cool ocean air funnels through the Petaluma Gap into the San Pablo Bay and upward through the valley. Carneros , the southernmost AVA within Napa, is suitable for the production of sparkling wines, whereas Calistoga , the northernmost AVA, routinely sees daytime summer temperatures above 90 degrees Fahrenheit, and producers focus on sturdier grapes like Cabernet Sauvignon and Zinfandel. Altitude also has a major effect on temperature—Napa Valley’s vineyards stretch from 0 to over 2,000 feet above sea level. The valley is formed by the Mayacamas Mountains to the west, which mark the border with Sonoma County, and the Vaca Mountains on the east. It has a remarkable diversity of volcanic, alluvial, and maritime soil types, ranging from well-drained gravel loam, to dense clays, to the thin, rocky soils of the hillside vineyards. Napa Valley AVAs (Click to enlarge and zoom in) Cabernet Sauvignon mountain fruit from Napa’s sun-drenched hillside vineyards and mountainside AVAs is prized for its density, dark fruit, and concentration, as these regions typically yield smaller berries with higher acid due to cool temperatures. Mountain appellations include Mount Veeder , Diamond Mountain District , and Spring Mountain District to the west, and Atlas Peak , Crystal Springs of Napa Valley, and Howell Mountain to the east. Howell Mountain is the wettest and coolest of the mountain appellations and the first sub-appellation wholly within Napa Valley to receive its own AVA. Its high-altitude, west-facing vineyards produce benchmark mountain wines. This is the only appellation that is elevation specific, beginning at 1,400 feet. Erosion is a serious concern for Napa’s hillside growers, as heavy winter rains can literally wash away a vineyard’s entire topsoil, leaving nothing but hard bedrock behind. Valley floor topsoil is deeper, and valley fruit tends to produce a more elegant and supple style of Cabernet, with less intensity of color. Appellations here include Yountville , Oakville , Stags Leap District , Calistoga , St. Helena , and Rutherford . Rutherford AVA, known for its “Rutherford dust,” exemplifies the valley floor style, as it is home to a unique microclimate and set of soils that result in wines with a firm tannin profile. Chardonnay from Napa Valley has historically been opulent, weighty, buttery, and oak driven, although some producers are shifting to lighter styles, sometimes foregoing malolactic or barrel fermentation altogether. Other grapes grown in the valley include Zinfandel, Merlot, Cabernet Franc, Petit Verdot, Sauvignon Blanc, Petite Sirah, Syrah, Sangiovese, and Pinot Noir. In Carneros, Pinot Noir is heavily planted for sparkling and still wine production. To the west of Napa, Sonoma County includes over 50 miles of coastline, separated by a ridge that helps protect many of its more coastal vineyards from temperatures that would render it too difficult to grow grapes. Sonoma is responsible for 6% of California wine production. While red grapes lead, Chardonnay is the most planted variety overall at over 16,000 acres. Sonoma County contains 19 AVAs: Alexander Valley , Dry Creek Valley , Rockpile , Bennett Valley , Knights Valley , Chalk Hill , Russian River Valley , Sonoma Valley , Moon Mountain District Sonoma County , Green Valley of Russian River Valley , Sonoma Mountain , Sonoma Coast , West Sonoma Coast , Northern Sonoma , Pine Mountain-Cloverdale Peak , Fort Ross-Seaview , Fountaingrove District , Petaluma Gap , and most of the Carneros AVA , which extends from Napa into the extreme south of the county. From 2011 forward, all wines produced in the county are required to state Sonoma County on the label, regardless of whether or not the label also indicates an AVA. Sonoma County AVAs (Click to enlarge and zoom in) Sonoma County AVAs cover a much larger area than the AVAs of Napa, and there is a wide variation in climate and soil throughout the county. The windy, foggy Carneros AVA is a cool area, classified as Region I on the Winkler Index, whereas the warm northern AVAs of Alexander Valley and Dry Creek Valley are considered Region III. The coolest temperatures can be found in the northern stretches of the Sonoma Coast AVA , where altitude, cold ocean air, and persistent coastal fog combine to keep temperatures down. Pinot Noir and Chardonnay thrive, along with cool-climate renditions of Rhône varieties. However, as the Sonoma Coast AVA contains nearly 500,000 acres, the more inland and southern areas within it can experience a warmer Region II climate, and even the true coastal vineyards, if above the marine fog layer, may produce bold wines of concentration and power rather than elegance and focus. In regards to defining the true coast, The West Sonoma Coast AVA was approved in 2022. This AVA hugs 141,846 acres along the coast from the southern border of Mendocino to the town of Bodega Bay. The Russian River Valley AVA , which follows the river southwest from the town of Healdsburg, is also highly regarded for Pinot Noir and Chardonnay made in fruity, forward styles, yet the appellation’s more moderate climate may ultimately prove most hospitable to Rhône grapes and Zinfandel. Fertile alluvial soils, such as Goldridge sandy loam, characterize the valley. Green Valley is not merely a subregion of Russian River Valley but also its own unique AVA, distinct for its cool temperatures, Goldridge soil, and morning fog layer. Since Green Valley is a nested AVA within Russian River Valley , producers may label their wines Green Valley or Russian River Valley ; they often choose the latter in warmer vintages. Coastal producers of note include Hirsch, Marcassin, and Peay. Dehlinger, Joseph Swan, Rochioli, and Williams-Selyem are prominent names in Russian River Valley. Kosta Browne, Freeman, and sparkling wine producer Iron Horse are all Green Valley-based estates. The northern AVAs of Alexander Valley , Dry Creek Valley , Rockpile , and Knights Valley , are located to the north and east of Healdsburg. They have warmer Region III climates— Knights Valley is the warmest AVA in the county. Bordeaux grape varieties, particularly Cabernet Sauvignon, are most prominent in the gravelly soils of Alexander Valley and Knights Valley . Alexander Valley Cabernet Sauvignon tends to show a more herbaceous character and less body than its Napa counterparts, but Knights Valley wines, such as Peter Michael’s Les Pavots, can be very similar in style. Dry Creek Valley and the small Rockpile AVA are known for ripe, powerful styles of Zinfandel, aged in either American or French oak. In the southern sector of the county, Sonoma Valley AVA , the county’s most established region, is situated between the Mayacamas and Sonoma Mountains and runs nearly parallel to Napa Valley. Zinfandel, Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, and Cabernet Sauvignon are successful in the region. Like Napa, Sonoma Valley’s temperature gets progressively warmer as one travels north, although Bennett Valley, a nested AVA in the northwestern sector of the valley, favors Merlot, as it is too cool to routinely ripen Cabernet Sauvignon. The cool, windswept hills of Carneros form the valley’s southern extremity at the San Pablo Bay. The Champagne house of Taittinger and the Cava producer Codorníu both set up American sparkling wine estates in Carneros in the 1980s, following the pioneering example of Gloria Ferrer. The Petaluma Gap AVA was designated in late 2017. Named after the wind that funnels through lower Sonoma County due to a coastal mountain opening stretching from the Pacific to Petaluma and veering south toward San Pablo Bay, the AVA is marked by its wind and fog. Cool climate Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, and Syrah are its main focus. North of Sonoma County, Mendocino’s best winegrowing regions are centered at the confluence of the Russian and Navarro Rivers in the southern portion of the county. The Mendocino AVA, which has stricter boundaries than the county appellation, lines both rivers and encompasses the AVAs of Anderson Valley, Potter Valley, Redwood Valley, McDowell Valley, Yorkville Highlands, Cole Ranch, and a portion of Mendocino Ridge. Pine Mountain-Cloverdale Peak , which extends north of the Sonoma County border into Mendocino, is not included within it. Nor are two small, secluded AVAs in the northern sector of the county, Dos Rios and Covelo. In 2014, the Mendocino AVA decreased in size—a rare move—so that its boundaries would not overlap those of a new AVA approved in the same year, Eagle Peak Mendocino County. Cole Ranch, the smallest AVA in America, has a single vineyard, Cole Ranch, and McDowell Valley is essentially a monopole AVA of McDowell Valley Vineyards. Anderson Valley offers one of California’s coolest climates, as ocean air and fog trail inland along the path of the Navarro River, framed by steep hills. As testament to the Anderson Valley’s cool, marginal climate, the Champagne house of Louis Roederer established its American operations there rather than in Carneros, where many competitors landed, and today produces one of the more elegant styles of sparkling wine in California. In addition to the classic sparkling varieties, Riesling and Gewürztraminer perform well here. The inland areas of Mendocino AVA, particularly around Ukiah, are noticeably hotter. Mendocino Ridge AVA stretches southward from the Navarro River along the coast, but the appellation is restricted to vineyards that are at least 1,200 feet above sea level. Zinfandel thrives in the sun above the fog line. To the east of Mendocino, Lake County is the smallest wine-producing county in the North Coast. High elevations and cold winters allow for successful grapegrowing despite hot summers. Lake County has nine AVAs, the most prominent of which is Clear Lake. Despite its inland location, Clear Lake helps to buffer hot temperatures. This, coupled with beneficial diurnal swings, results in grapes with higher acid retention. The Central Coast California’s Central Coast AVA spans the entirety of California’s coastline from San Francisco Bay in the north to Santa Barbara County in the south. Directly east and south of the San Francisco Bay are the AVAs of Livermore Valley, Santa Cruz Mountains, Ben Lomond Mountain, Santa Clara Valley, San Ysidro District, Contra Costa and the sprawling San Francisco Bay AVA itself. Immediately south of the city of San Francisco, the large Santa Cruz Mountains AVA provides a cool coastal climate, where high-altitude vineyards are interspersed between miles of redwood forest. Ridge’s Monte Bello Vineyard and the original Bonny Doon Estate Vineyard, an eventual victim of Pierce’s disease, are among the Santa Cruz Mountains’ most celebrated parcels. The warm inland Livermore Valley achieves success with Sauvignon Blanc; Wente is the most notable producer within the appellation. Despite the inclusion of Santa Cruz County in the Central Coast AVA, Santa Cruz Mountains AVA is excluded. South of San Francisco Bay is Monterey County, home to Carmel Valley and Salinas Valley, the “lettuce capital of the world.” In the wake of Napa’s success, Monterey AVA was extensively planted with vines. Here, a gap in the mountains that runs perpendicular to the coast (west to east) allows warm air at the southwestern end of the valley to pull in the cool ocean air downstream. Although the region, boasting one of California’s longest growing seasons, seemed promising, much of its output had ended up in bulk blends from the Central Valley. Chardonnay leads here, accounting for about 40% of plantings in Monterey AVA. Pinot Noir is highlighted in Santa Lucia Highlands AVA, home to Garys’ Vineyard, and also in Mount Harlan AVA, within San Benito County, in the Gabilan mountain range to the east, where Calera produces acclaimed wines from the grape. Chalone AVA, an appellation dominated by the producer of the same name in Monterey, lies to the south in the same range. In 2022, Gabilan Mountains AVA was established and encompasses both Mount Harlan AVA and Chalone AVA. The San Luis Obispo and Santa Barbara counties are south of Monterey. San Luis Obispo’s Paso Robles AVA is a giant appellation covering 614,000 acres (40,000 of which are planted) with wide variations in climate and soil—the principal rationale for the creation of 11 new AVAs in 2014. Broadly, the western reaches are characterized by cooler marine air funneled through the Templeton Gap and more prevalent limestone and calcareous soils. East of the Salinas River, the soil structure is sandier, and the climate in general is warmer and more arid. Zinfandel has a long history in Paso Robles, and Cabernet Sauvignon became increasingly important as the area saw an infusion of large-scale wineries in the 1980s. Rhône varieties are growing in importance. Gary Eberle planted California’s first commercial Syrah vines in Paso Robles, and the nursery at Tablas Creek, a project owned in part by Château Beaucastel, provided clonal material from the Rhône Valley to interested producers across the state. Hospices du Rhône, the world’s largest Rhône wine celebration, is held annually in the area. Other AVAs in San Luis Obispo County include York Mountain, Arroyo Grande, San Luis Obispo Coast, and Edna Valley—the last of these offering a cool coastal climate appropriate for Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. At Point Conception in Santa Barbara County , California’s coastline sharply bends, trending east-west rather than north-south. Santa Barbara’s valleys, including the Santa Maria Valley AVA and the Santa Ynez Valley AVA , trail from east to west through the San Rafael and Santa Ynez Mountains, parallel to the coastline. The AVAs of Sta. Rita Hill s, Happy Canyon of Santa Barbara , Ballard Canyon , and Los Olivos District are located within the Santa Ynez Valley . Alisos Canyon , is a standalone AVA nestled in between the Santa Ynez and Santa Maria Valleys. In early 2006, a legal dispute with the Chilean winery of the same name led Sta. Rita Hills to legally abbreviate its appellation name. Despite a lengthy history of viticulture—Santa Barbara is the site of one of California’s original missions—interest in winemaking has only taken off in the last several decades, reinvigorated by the success of Richard Sanford’s original vineyard in the Sta. Rita Hills. The giant Bien Nacido Vineyard in Santa Maria Valley AVA was planted to premium varieties, principally Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, in the mid-1970s, not long after Sanford & Benedict was established. Santa Barbara County’s Region I maritime climate and lengthy growing season—the longest in California—is lauded for cultivation of Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Merlot, and Rhône varieties. Public awareness of Santa Barbara wines, and of Pinot Noir in general, skyrocketed in the wake of Alexander Payne’s 2004 film Sideways , a paean to the region and the grape. The Central Valley and Sierra Foothills The bulk of California’s wine is produced in the state’s vast, hot Central Valley, an extensively irrigated agricultural area divided between the northern Sacramento Valley and the southern San Joaquin Valley—the latter with over 100,000 acres under vine. The Central Valley is generally divided between Region IV and Region V heat summation zones, temperatures most suitable for fortified wines, table grapes, and raisins. Gallo, the second-largest producer in the world, is headquartered in Modesto, and half of the Central Valley’s wine is produced by its facilities. As evidenced by the wines of Gallo and other Central Valley giants, including Franzia (owned by the Wine Group) and Bronco Wine Company, most Central Valley production is of bulk wine quality—low in cost and low on character of site. Thus, despite its extensive area and huge production, the Central Valley has relatively few AVAs. The largest and most important Central Valley AVA is Lodi, home to over 20% of California’s total wine grape production. Located just south of Sacramento on the eastern edge of the Sacramento River Delta, Lodi is slightly cooler than much of the Central Valley due to the influence of a gap in the coastal ranges that pulls coastal air inland from the San Francisco Bay and over the delta. This area can experience diurnal shifts as great as 45 degrees Fahrenheit, allowing for refreshing acidities and bright fruit development. Lodi is home to large, value-oriented brands such as Sutter Home and Robert Mondavi Woodbridge as well as small boutique wineries, many of them specializing in old vine Zinfandel production. Lodi includes seven AVA sub-appellations: Alta Mesa, Borden Ranch, Mokelumne River, Cosumnes River, Jahant, Sloughhouse, and Clements Hills. Other AVAs of note in the Central Valley include Dunnigan Hills, Clarksburg, Capay Valley, and Merritt Island. The Sierra Foothills AVA is located to the east of Sacramento and Lodi, on the western edge of the Sierra Nevada Mountains in the heart of California’s 19th-century gold rush territory. The fragmented region is divided into several sub-AVAs: Fair Play, El Dorado, Fiddletown, North Yuba, and California Shenandoah Valley. Temperature is dependent on altitude; the lowest and hottest vineyards are located in Shenandoah. Chewy, spicy, concentrated Zinfandel, sometimes sourced from vines dating back to before Prohibition, is the Sierra Foothills’ most acclaimed style. The University of California at Davis, located just west of Sacramento, has been a guiding light for California’s wine producers and home to one of the world’s most highly regarded institutes of viticulture and oenology. Many of America’s winemakers are graduates of its programs, and UC–Davis’s impact on winemaking and viticultural practices in the US cannot be underestimated—but not all of the influence has been positive. When phylloxera struck California in the 1980s, it attacked the now-infamous AXR-1 rootstock, a supposedly resistant rootstock supplied to the state’s growers by Davis. Officially, the institution deemed phylloxera to have mutated. Larger criticisms levied at UC–Davis by some question its role in the modernization, standardization, and manipulation of viticulture and wine. BACK TO TOP Washington Despite a relatively short history of viticulture, Washington has emerged as the nation’s second largest producer of premium wines, accounting for approximately 5% of total production. Most of the state’s wine regions, and over 99% of its vineyards, are located east of the Cascade Mountains, where the mountains’ rain shadow effect turns the land arid and necessitates irrigation. Rainfall here averages 6 to 12 inches a year. Eastern Washington experiences a true continental climate, with hot summers and cold winters: frost and winter freezes are serious concerns for growers, but ripeness is easily achieved in the state's warm growing seasons. Sunlight is an ally, too, as Washington’s vineyards receive additional summer sunshine hours in accordance with its northerly latitude. Generally, the bedrock east of the Cascades is basalt, overlaid by sediments deposited by the Missoula Floods, a catastrophic cycle of massive floods that occurred repeatedly at the end of the last ice age, some 12,000 to 18,000 years ago. Vineyards in eastern Washington are thus typically planted on sandy or silty loam soils derived from the flood-borne sediments. Despite broad similarities in climate and soil, however, eastern Washington's vineyards tend to be spread out, with great distances between large vineyard plots. Columbia Valley AVA is the largest appellation in the state, covering 11 million acres—over one-quarter of Washington’s landmass. It follows the outline of the Columbia River Basin and dips across the Oregon border. Most of Washington's other significant AVAs, including Yakima Valley , Walla Walla Valley , and Horse Heaven Hills , are nested within its borders. Washington State AVAs (Click to enlarge and zoom in) Yakima Valley was approved as Washington’s first AVA in 1983. It contains over one-third of the state’s vineyards, and it also has five nested AVAs: Snipes Mountain , Rattlesnake Hills , Red Mountain, Candy Mountain , and Goose Gap . Rattlesnake offers higher elevation vineyards ranging from 850 to over 3,000 feet and planted along ridges and terraces. Here, Merlot is the most planted variety, followed by Riesling and Cabernet Sauvignon. Unique soils and a plethora of varieties (over 30) characterize Snipes Mountain . Red Mountain , which despite its name is more a steep southwest-facing slope than an actual mountain, is desert-like in climate, receiving five inches of rainfall on average per year. Red Mountain is Washington's warmest growing region as well as its most densely planted AVA. It has developed a reputation for noteworthy, tannic Cabernet Sauvignon. Along the Oregon border southeast of Yakima Valley and Red Mountain sits Walla Walla Valley , a shared AVA between the two states, which has emerged in this century as a prestige region. Here, soils consist of basalt bedrock and thin alluvial topsoil deposited by the Missoula Floods, and loess is everywhere. Vineyards are a small but growing segment of the valley's agricultural sector: vineyard acreage expanded from 450 acres to over 1,600 in the first decade of the 21st century and is now closer to 3,000 acres. The AVA’s reputation for premium red wine is growing, too. Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Syrah are Walla Walla's most acclaimed varieties, comprising over 80% of its current plantings. Historically, white grapes, led by Chardonnay and Riesling—which has achieved more success in this state than elsewhere in the country—dominated viticulture, but by the early 2010s, red varieties had surpassed them in total acreage, with Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot the state's two most planted varieties. Merlot shows a distinctively full, sweet, and luscious character, but most producers believe that the future here is in great Cabernet Sauvignon. Other important commercial grapes include Syrah, Gewürztraminer, Sémillon, Sauvignon Blanc, and Cabernet Franc. Over 1,000 bonded wineries are currently in business in Washington. BACK TO TOP Oregon While Oregon is primarily regarded for its Willamette Valley Pinot Noir, there are a few other noteworthy wine regions. On the northern boundary with Washington, east of Portland, there are four AVAs: the shared AVAs of Columbia Gorge, Columbia Valley, and Walla Walla Valley, and The Rocks of Milton-Freewater AVA, which sits on an old riverbed within Walla Walla Valley, entirely on the Oregon side. This AVA, established in 2015, earned its name for a topsoil of basalt cobblestones that draws comparisons to the galets of Châteauneuf-du-Pape. Producers are just beginning to explore the potential here for Rhône-style wines. On the extreme eastern side of the state, a single vineyard is planted on the Oregon side of Idaho’s arid Snake River Valley AVA. Finally, Southern Oregon is steadily growing in size and stature, celebrating diversity among grapes and styles. Oregon’s Willamette Valley , which stretches 120 miles southward from Portland, between the Cascades and the Oregon Coast Range (Coastal Range), is synonymous with quality Pinot Noir production. David Lett of The Eyrie Vineyards and Charles Coury of Charles Coury Vineyards were the first to explore its potential, traveling northward from California to plant Pinot Noir in the Willamette Valley in the mid-1960s. Dick Erath, Dick Ponzi, and others followed not long after. Lett’s 1975 South Block Reserve Pinot Noir achieved outstanding results in a French competition and brought vindication to the efforts of these early trailblazers. Soon after, in 1987, the Burgundy négociant Maison Joseph Drouhin purchased a Dundee Hills property, further validating the up-and-coming region. Today, the valley’s Pinot Noir wines are a steppingstone between California and the Côte d’Or: lighter in style and earthier than the former, riper and more forward than the latter. The cool, temperate climate of the valley invites further comparisons to Burgundy, and vintages are more variable than in Sonoma or Santa Barbara. Oregon AVAs (Click to enlarge and zoom in) In the mid-2000s, efforts to understand differences from site to site in the Willamette Valley resulted in the creation of six smaller AVAs within it: Dundee Hills , Eola-Amity Hills , Ribbon Ridge , McMinnville , Yamhill-Carlton District , and Chehalem Mountains . Five new nested AVAs were created more recently, bringing the total number of sub-AVAs to eleven: the Van Duzer Corridor AVA was approved in 2019, followed by the Laurelwood District and Tualatin Hills AVAs in 2020, Lower Long Tom in 2021, and Mount Pisgah Polk County Oregon in 2022. With these new divisions, winemakers could more closely explore (and identify with) different elevations and soil structures in the valley. For instance, Jory, a well-drained soil series of volcanic origin, is common in the "red hills" of the Dundee Hills AVA , while marine sedimentary soils like Willakenzie are more prominent on the valley's westernmost slopes, such as in Ribbon Ridge . As tasters often ascribe a denser style of wine and darker fruit to Willakenzie soils and more elegance to Jory, style profiles for the AVAs themselves are beginning to emerge. Climatic influences vary from one nested AVA to the next as well. Pacific winds funneling through the Van Duzer Corridor, a gap in the Coastal Mountains that separates the valley from the ocean, directly impact McMinnville and the Eola-Amity Hills , generating more tannic styles of Pinot Noir. The Chehalem Mountains AVA , on the other hand, has a number of north-facing vineyards that are among the valley's coolest sites. In the US, it is rare to have a winegrowing area like this, where all of these subtle differences can be viewed largely through the prism of one variety—Pinot Noir. It is the only red variety of any consequence in the Willamette Valley, but there are significant plantings of white grapes, including Pinot Gris (vinified in dry and off-dry styles), Chardonnay, and Riesling. While the Willamette Valley connects Portland in the north with Eugene, the Southern Oregon AVA stretches from just south of Eugene to the California border, encompassing the AVAs of the Umpqua Valley, Elkton Oregon, Rogue Valley, Applegate Valley, and Red Hill Douglas County. A wide range of varieties is planted throughout Southern Oregon, including Pinot Noir, Syrah, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Gris, Gewürztraminer, and Chardonnay. Applegate Valley AVA is the warmest and driest growing region west of the Cascades in Oregon. Overall, Southern Oregon is still an underdeveloped wine region, lacking a nearby large market like Portland or San Francisco to drive interest and investment. Varietal wines from Oregon—excluding those produced from white and red Bordeaux varieties, major Rhône grapes, Zinfandel, Sangiovese, Tannat, and Tempranillo—must contain a minimum 90% of the stated variety rather than the standard 75%. Oregon also maintains stricter state laws for labeling by region: a wine labeled by an AVA within Oregon must contain a minimum 95% of grapes grown in the respective appellation, rather than the 85% mandated by federal law. BACK TO TOP New York New York has the nation’s third largest vineyard area and is the third largest wine-producing state by volume, but the bulk of its grapes are harvested for purposes other than wine. The state’s most planted variety, Concord, composes about 19,000 of New York’s 33,000 vine acres, and only a third of it goes toward wine production. The rest is sold to large jam and juice companies, such as Welch’s, or consumed as table grapes. What is made into wine is typically sweet and inexpensive. Two large Kosher sacramental wineries, Manischewitz and Mogen David, make their wines from New York Concord. Hybrid varieties such as Concord have dominated New York grape plantings since the industry’s modern inception in the early 19th century. Vinifera varieties struggle during New York’s punishing winters, experienced dramatically at its more interior regions. The perennial threats of spring and autumn frost cause dramatic losses for vinifera in periodic vintages, and the potential for winter freeze leads many winegrowers to bury their vineyards in the coldest months to avoid vine death. Several American grape species, such as Vitis labrusca and Vitis aestivalis , are native to the New York area and naturally adapted to the harsh winter climate. Such qualities are harnessed in the breeding of French-American hybrids, which are generally winter hardy, allowing for a more reliable crop than vinifera—especially before the advent of more contemporary protective viticultural practices. Dr. Konstantin Frank of Vinifera Wine Cellars was key to the development of New York’s wine industry, helping advance New York wine to meet modern palates. Beginning in the 1950s, Frank worked to understand the potential for vinifera in the Finger Lakes and champion the state’s now-signature variety, Riesling. Historically, many wine critics looked down on hybrid varieties, often referencing an unpalatable grapey or musky character, termed as foxy. Today, winegrowers and drinkers are rediscovering the potential of French-American hybrids. Many contemporary examples from grapes such as Baco Noir, Seyval Blanc, Vidal, Cayuga, and Catawba demonstrate impressive quality and personalities distinct from vinifera wines. New York AVAs; click to enlarge and zoom in (Credit: New York Wine & Grape Foundation ) Located near Rochester in central-western New York, the Finger Lakes AVA bottles 90% of the state’s wines. The region is named for the series of 11 narrow, roughly parallel lakes that define the region. These so-called fingers were cut by retreating glaciers at the end of the last Ice Age. Hugging the banks of the Finger Lakes, vineyards benefit from the lake effect, in which the water moderates temperatures, cooling the vines in the warmer months and warming them during the winter. Lake Ontario, located due north, has a similar effect on the area more broadly. The two deepest Finger Lakes, Seneca Lake and Cayuga , have their own AVAs. The Finger Lakes has been New York’s leading wine region since the mid-19th century. Finger Lakes wineries of the mid-to-late 1800s focused on white and sparkling wines from French-American hybrids. Today, Riesling is the region’s flagship grape. It is made across the sweetness spectrum and, at its best, can challenge German examples in its complexity. Chardonnay, Gewürztraminer, Pinot Noir, Cabernet Franc, and even a small amount of Merlot have also found success in the Finger Lakes. The sandy Long Island AVA stretches across the land mass of the same name, located east of New York City and separated from Connecticut by the Long Island Sound. Here, the climate is warmer than elsewhere in New York, allowing for the cultivation of Bordeaux varieties, such as Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot, as well as Chardonnay, Gewürztraminer, and Riesling. As with the Finger Lakes, the Atlantic Ocean moderates temperatures to ward off frost. It also cools the vines during the hotter summers and barricades against warm southerly currents. The top vineyards are largely concentrated on the island’s eastern half. At its end, the island splits into two narrow forks, each with its own AVA: t he North Fork of Long Island AVA and the Hamptons, Long Island AVA . The Hudson River Region AVA is similarly influenced by the Atlantic. It follows the southern course of the Hudson River, from Columbia to Westchester counties, just above New York City. The towering Hudson River Palisades channel Atlantic breezes north, resulting in a cool climate that is often inhospitable to vinifera. Accordingly, the region is largely planted to hybrids, though some quality Chardonnay and Cabernet Franc are found. Notably, the Hudson River Region houses the United States’ oldest continually operating winery, Brotherhood Winery, founded in 1839. North of Albany, the more recent Upper Hudson AVA also focuses on hybrid varieties, as does the cold and sparsely planted Champlain Valley AVA , located in the northeastern corner of the state on the shores of Lake Champlain at the Vermont border. In the far west of New York, the Niagara Escarpment AVA traces the same limestone formation that extends into Canada’s Niagara Peninsula. Moderated by Lake Ontario, the Niagara Escarpment AVA is also recognized for its Icewines, many produced from Vidal. The Lake Erie AVA , just southwest, is the land of Concord. This “grape belt” appellation, the largest vineyard area outside California, is shared with Ohio and Pennsylvania and better known for jelly and juice than for wine. BACK TO TOP Other Winemaking Areas of the US Although wine is produced in all 50 states, beyond the above major commercial areas of production, most is sold and consumed locally. Texas has eight viticultural areas, including the sprawling nine-million-acre Texas Hill Country AVA. New Jersey, Virginia , Missouri, Michigan , Florida, Kentucky, Minnesota, Arizona, New Mexico, Ohio, Illinois, North Carolina, Colorado, and Idaho all support small but substantial wine industries. Quality and variety can sometimes be surprising. There are, for example, good renditions of sparkling wine from New Mexico, Virginia Nebbiolo, Texas Tempranillo, and Michigan Riesling. The Upper Mississippi River Valley AVA, spanning nearly 30,000 square miles in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Illinois, became America’s largest demarcated appellation with its formal approval in 2009. Back to Top Canada Canada’s modern history of winemaking begins in the early 19th century, but Vitis vinifera vines were not planted on a commercial scale until the 1970s. In the 1950s and 1960s, growers began moving away from traditional North American varieties like Concord and Niagara to French hybrids. De Chaunac, a red French hybrid developed by Albert Seibel but introduced to Canada after World War II by Adhemar de Chaunac, became one of Canada’s most planted varieties by the 1970s. De Chaunac ended the reliance of his employer, Ontario’s Brights Wines, on native grapes and introduced a number of other hybrids from his native France, including Baco Noir, Rosette, and Maréchal Foch. In 1951, he oversaw the successful introduction of 10 acres of Chardonnay at Brights, predating Dr. Konstantin Frank’s achievement in New York by just a few years. Brights Wines’ experimental vineyards of vinifera vines remained a small project, as French hybrids quickly came to dominate the Canadian wine landscape. Like the US, Canada suffered through Prohibition in the early 20th century, albeit on a provincial rather than national scale. Ontario and Nova Scotia were the last winemaking provinces to repeal Prohibition, in 1927 and 1929. While the wine industry was starting to transform itself through the introduction of French hybrids in the decades after Prohibition, it was also undergoing a period of consolidation. A moratorium was placed on new winery licenses, and larger wineries like Brights swallowed up the smaller producers who struggled through Prohibition. By 1974, only six wineries remained in business in the country. However, the end of the moratorium in 1974 signaled the beginning of a new era of small premium production and vinifera wines, with the founding of Inniskillin in Niagara-on-the-Lake. In the next several decades, Inniskillin would almost singlehandedly create an international reputation for Canadian icewine. Although good icewine can be fashioned from Vidal—the only French hybrid allowed for VQA Icewine—Inniskillin produced its most noteworthy wines from European grapes like Riesling and Cabernet Franc. In 1988, Canada signed a free trade agreement with the US, which required Canadian producers to refocus on quality in order to compete in their own domestic market and, when coupled with a government-sponsored vine-pull scheme, led to an even larger share in the vineyard for vinifera grapes. In the same year, an appellation and quality control system known as the Vintners Quality Alliance (VQA) was launched in Ontario. British Columbia established its VQA standards in 1990. Ontario and British Columbia, respectively Canada’s first and second most important wine regions, are the only areas with VQA status today. VQA standards are legally enforced in Ontario but voluntary in British Columbia. Approved bottlings will always carry the stylized VQA logo. VQA wines from Ontario or British Columbia must be made from 100% of grapes grown in the respective province. If labeled with a more precise appellation, British Columbia VQA wines must contain a minimum 95% of grapes grown in the stated appellation, whereas Ontario VQA wines require 85% for appellations and regional appellations, and 100% for sub-appellations (in Niagara Peninsula). To be labeled with a single vineyard in either province, a VQA wine must solely contain grapes grown in the stated vineyard. With the exception of sparkling wines, all Ontario VQA wines must be labeled with a vintage date and contain a minimum 85% of grapes harvested in that year. For British Columbia VQA vintage-dated wines, the minimum requirement is also set at 85%. Varietal wines from both regions must contain a minimum 85% of the stated variety. Only certain varieties (including a select few French hybrids) are authorized for production. VQA standards set limits on chaptalization (it is not authorized for the production of late-harvest wines or icewine), acidification, must weights, and other technical aspects of winemaking. Back to Top Ontario Ontario , Canada’s largest producer with approximately 15,000 acres devoted to vinifera grapes, is divided into three main appellations, or VQA Designated Viticultural Areas (DVAs): the Niagara Peninsula , Lake Erie North Shore , and Prince Edward County . A fourth appellation, Pelee Island (Canada’s southernmost point and smallest viticultural area, situated several miles off the shoreline of Lake Erie), existed until 2013, when it was formally deregulated. In 2016, this area was included in the South Islands sub-appellation within the Lake Erie North Shore DVA. All of Ontario’s appellations are located between 41 and 44 degrees latitude, where the cool continental climate is mitigated by the lake effect of the Great Lakes, although the effect dissipates quickly as one travels away from the coast. The Niagara Peninsula is the largest viticultural area and is subdivided into three regional appellations: Niagara Escarpment, Niagara-on-the-Lake, and West Niagara. Each regional appellation is in turn divided into a number of smaller sub-appellations. Riesling, Chardonnay, Cabernet Franc, Merlot, Gamay, and Pinot Noir are the dominant vinifera varieties in the Niagara Peninsula. Icewine, a German style first adopted in the Niagara Peninsula by Inniskillin, remains one of the most acclaimed wines of the region. Hopeful producers declare their intent to produce icewine to the VQA in November and allow grapes to remain on the vine into the winter, finally harvesting the frozen grapes at night, when temperatures reach at least -8 degrees Celsius. The resulting wine is concentrated, intensely sweet, and rich but retains acidity for balance. While icewine currently represents about half of Ontario's exports, it accounts for less than 5% of production. The increasing quality and local interest in dry wines is likely to spur increasing exports of the region's table wines. Excellent renditions of Cabernet Franc, Gamay, Riesling and traditional method sparkling wines are starting to find their way to the export market. To the north, much of Prince Edward County is separated from the mainland by water, and the vineyards occupy a fractured landmass of well-drained soils, interspersed with inlets and coves. Pinot Noir and Chardonnay are key grapes for the region’s handful of wineries. BACK TO TOP British Columbia On Canada’s Pacific Coast, British Columbia supports nine DVAs: Fraser Valley, Gulf Islands, Kootenays, Lillooet, Okanagan Valley, Shuswap, Similkameen Valley, Thomson Valley, and Vancouver Island. The Okanagan Valley is one of the world’s most northerly wine regions, reaching northward of the 49th parallel, and the most developed region in British Columbia—the valley supplies 84% of the province’s wine. The narrow valley, located between the Cascades and the Monashee Mountains, enjoys long daylight hours and a true continental climate, despite some mitigation of extremes by the nearby Lake Okanagan. Summers are hotter than in California’s coastal regions, and winters are much colder, bringing annual fears of significant vine damage. Vineyards are almost evenly divided between white and red grapes, with Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Pinot Gris, Merlot, and Pinot Blanc enjoying significant acreage. In 1973, prior to Inniskillin’s inception, Walter Hainle produced icewine on a very small scale in Okanagan Valley, but the dessert style in general remains a minor aim for the province's producers. Only a handful of botrytis wines are made. BACK TO TOP Mexico Mexico’s winemaking history began with the arrival of the Spanish to the Americas in the 16th century. The Spanish first tried to make wine with the indigenous vines they found in New Spain (now Mexico) but quickly realized these grapes would not produce good wine. In 1521, Hernán Cortés defeated the Aztec Empire, claiming it for Spain. One of his early orders from the King of Spain was to plant 1,000 vines for each native slave in the new territory. This was when Vitis vinifera, brought over from Europe, was introduced. Although there is controversy over the precise location where vinifera was first planted—some say it was in the state of Veracruz and others believe it was in Puebla—Mexico was the first country producing wine in the Americas. Soon after the defeat of the Aztec Empire, priests began to travel north on missions, seeking to convert the native people. For sacramental use, they cultivated the Listán Prieto grape, also known as Mission—named, of course, for its association with these missions. New Spain's fledgling wine industry soon became so successful that it began exporting wine to Spain, rivaling the industry in the Old World. In the 1600s, Charles II of Spain retaliated by prohibiting winemaking in New Spain. He ordered most vines in the territory to be destroyed, with only a few surviving to produce wine for religious purposes. His law remained in effect until Mexican Independence in 1821. In 1701, Juan Ugarte became the first person to plant vines in the state of Baja California while at the mission in Loreto. Jesuit priests with Misión Santo Tomás started growing a significant number of vines in 1791. During the reform war in Mexico in the 1800s, many of these church land holdings were sold to private investors, while others were abandoned. Bodegas Santo Tomás, for example, was established in 1888 after a private investor bought the land. In 1904, during the Porfiriato (when Mexico was ruled by Porfirio Díaz), the government gave a group of Russians immigrants escaping Tsar Nicolas II 100 acres in Baja California's Guadalupe Valley. They began to grow vines for personal winemaking and encouraged others to do the same, contributing to the region’s growing reputation as an area for quality winemaking. The 1970s brought a resurgence to the industry as Mexican wines were heavily promoted in Mexico City’s restaurants and winemakers began participating in international competitions. Established Spanish wineries such as Casa Pedro Domecq and Freixenet invested in the winemaking regions of Baja California and Querétaro. Today, a total of 25,000 hectares are planted across Mexico, with 8 of its 32 states producing wine. Mexico does not have any type of government regulation for viticulture or viniculture. Producing 85% of Mexico’s wine across 3,360 planted hectares, maritime-influenced Baja California is the most important winemaking state, with a Mediterranean climate well suited to viticulture. Its Guadalupe Valley is home to over 140 wineries, including L.A. Cetto, the largest winery in Mexico. Situated 400 meters above sea level and 25 kilometers from the Pacific Ocean, the area has a strong oceanic influence. The soils on the valley floor are sandy, and the soils on the hillsides are a blend of granite and poor clay. Moving south, the Ojos Negros Valley is the highest altitude and coolest valley in the region at 800 meters above sea level. There is occasional snow here, and it can be warmer than surrounding areas in the summer. The soil is a blend of sand and clay. Further south and 45 kilometers from the city of Ensenada, the Santo Tomás Valley has clay and volcanic soils. The southernmost valley in Baja California is San Vicente, only 11 kilometers from the Pacific. The ocean and the vineyards are divided by a hillside that limits the humidity entering the valley, and the soils are deep red clay with high mineral content. Baja California's other production areas are Valle de la Grulla and Tecate. Beyond Baja California, Coahuila and Querétaro are also key wine-producing states. Coahuila, east of Baja and bordering Texas, produces wine in Arteaga, Saltillo, and Parras de la Fuente. The last of these is most important, a valley oasis in the middle of the desert at 1,500 meters above sea level. It has clay soils and a warm desert climate with cool winters and warm summers. Located here is Casa Madero, the oldest winery in the Americas, founded in 1597. Querétaro is in the very center of Mexico, between 700 and 3,300 meters above sea level. It has a semi-arid climate and chalky and sandy soils. Ezequiel Montes, San Juan del Río, and Tequisquiapan are important growing areas. The other wine-producing states, from north to south, are Sonora, Durango, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes, and Guanajuato. With the exception of Guanajuato, these states have a semi-arid climate and are dominated by sand and clay soils. Sonora is home to the regions of Bahía Kino, Caborca, and Hermosillo. Durango is divided by the Sierra Madre range, creating microclimates; its most important region is Gómez Palacio. Zacatecas grows grapes in its most southern reaches, where elevation ranges from 400 to 2,000 meters above sea level and temperatures are consistent year round. The key regions are Ojocaliente and Valle de la Macarena. Tucked alongside the southern Zacatecas border, the small state of Aguascalientes has soft sandy soil with gravel and clay. Grapes grow in Pabellón de Arteaga, El Llano, Asientos, Jesús María, and Rincón de Romos at altitudes ranging from 800 to 1,800 meters above sea level. Guanajuato was one of the first Mexican states to produce wine and is known for being the place where the Mexican revolution began. The proximity of the Sierra Madre mountains results in three distinct climates, but wine country, at 1,900 meters above sea level, is mostly continental, with volcanic and gravel soils. The important areas for winegrowing are San Miguel de Allende and Dolores Hidalgo. BACK TO TOP Review Quizzes US: Beginner , Intermediate , Expert Canada: Beginner , Intermediate , ExpertPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/163/central-and-southern-italyTue, 24 Mar 2026 13:46:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:cb883bf8-7135-4bdc-afb9-5271b7c39e3eJonathan EichholzTable of Contents Tuscany (Toscana) Umbria Marches (Marche) Abruzzo Latium (Lazio) Molise Campania Apulia (Puglia) Basilicata Calabria Siciliy (Sicilia) Sardinia (Sardegna) Review Quizzes BACK TO TOP Tuscany (Toscana) On the Tyrrhenian Coast of Italy, the region of Tuscany has become a byword for Italian culture. A famous artistic legacy and rich history match the natural beauty of the Tuscan countryside, unfolding in waves of golden and green hills that ebb and flow between the Apennine Mountains and the sea. Wine is deeply embedded in Tuscany’s cultural heritage—the famous medieval Florentine poet Dante Alighieri praised the Vernaccia of San Gimignano, and legislation delimiting the Chianti zone dates to 1716. The first DOC and DOCG zones to be authorized in Italy were Tuscan. Wine and commercial agriculture are big business in Tuscany, and the hills are a patchwork of olive tree groves, vineyards, and wheat fields—a natural evolution of the “promiscuous” agriculture that ancient Romans practiced, wherein these three staple crops of Tuscany were planted side by side in the same fields. In the past, Chianti was synonymous with Italian wine—and a reminder, not unfairly, of its troubled quality. Historically bottled in a fiasco due to the inferior quality of Italian glass, the squat, straw-covered Chianti bottles came to epitomize the rustic, cheap nature of Italian wine in the late 1960s, ‘70s, and ‘80s. Tuscany’s winemakers have responded with a surge in quality over the last quarter century, slashing vineyard yields and building on the successes of the “Super-Tuscan” trailblazers Marquis Mario Rocchetta, who released the first commercial vintage of Sassicaia in 1968, and his nephew Piero Antinori, whose Tignanello bottling soon followed. While the benchmark for quality has been raised significantly, it may be at the expense of typicity—the Bordeaux grapes and model of winemaking extend great influence over the modern Tuscan estate. Nonetheless, today Tuscany stands at the forefront of both quality and large-scale commercial winemaking in Italy, producing around 2.7 million hectoliters of wine annually, about 60% of which is at the DOC/DOCG level. With 11 DOCGs Tuscany trails only Piedmont and Veneto in the number of its DOCG zones. Although Tuscany as a whole enjoys a dry, Mediterranean climate, winters can be harsh and summers can be long and hot. A wide variation in mesoclimates is present throughout the region: Montalcino in the southern province of Siena is typically more arid while Montepulciano, further inland, displays a more seasonal, continental climate. The soil structure of the region is similarly diverse, respective to the width of the region and the changing altitudes of Tuscany’s sloped vineyards. The thin-skinned Sangiovese is the main red grape of Tuscany and is, alongside Nebbiolo and Aglianico, one of the great indigenous red grapes of Italy. Typically, Sangiovese wines are light in color, naturally high in acidity, firmly tannic, and medium- to full-bodied. Sour cherry notes and herbal undertones are common. When aged, Sangiovese traditionally spends time in large European—often Slavonian—casks, but modern wines are just as likely to be aged in new barriques, which infuse both flavor and texture into the wines. In appellations where blending is allowed, grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon or the local Colorino are sometimes used to add color and power to Sangiovese, whereas the Canaiolo grape historically softened Sangiovese’s hard attack. Sangiovese, Italy’s most planted red variety, is highly subject to permutation in the vineyard, and significant energy has been devoted to clonal research, such as the Consorzio Vino Chianti Classico’s “Chianti Classico 2000 Project,” which started in 1987. Disease-resistant clones have been developed through such studies, but clones are often selected for additional properties, like the development of thicker skins with a higher proportion of anthocyanins . Even previously isolated clones such as the Brunello clone of Montalcino or the Prugnolo Gentile clone of Montepulciano have given way to a number of derivatives as research continues to refine understanding of this variable grape. Sangiovese is the principal red grape in the following DOCGs: Chianti, Chianti Classico, Carmignano, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano, Morellino di Scansano, and Montecucco Sangiovese. It is the sole red grape allowed for Brunello di Montalcino DOCG. In addition to the native Colorino and Canaiolo Nero, the international grapes Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot wield influence in Tuscan wine production. While these two Bordeaux grapes can be added in minor proportions to the Chianti formula, they are of far more vital importance to DOC and IGT “Super-Tuscan” blends, ripening easily in the Tuscan climate and providing lushness and flesh to the skeleton of Sangiovese. Syrah is gaining momentum in Tuscany, but the white international grapes Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc capture less interest than their red counterparts. The neutral Trebbiano Toscano, Italy’s most planted white grape, is regularly encountered in the region alongside its common blending partner Malvasia, whereas the local white Vernaccia grape is more or less limited to the environs of San Gimignano. In the coastal vineyards of Maremma, the Mediterranean Vermentino shows great promise, and some producers are investing heavily in plantings of the grape. Overall, however, the majority of Tuscan vineyards are devoted to the production of red wines, and more than 85% of the wine made in Tuscany is red. The large Chianti DOCG is Tuscany’s most famous wine region and one of the first delimited zones in Europe. Although Chianti was not elevated to DOCG until 1984, the limits of the modern Chianti zone were established in 1932, and seven subzones were created for the region: Classico, Rùfina, Colli Fiorentini, Colli Senesi, Colline Pisane, Colli Aretini, and Montalbano. Another subzone, Montespertoli, was added in a 1997 decree. With the exception of Classico, Rùfina—dominated by the Frescobaldi firm—is usually regarded as the most consistent in quality. Frescobaldi and the highly regarded Fattoria Selvapiana are the only producers in the tiny Pomino DOC within Rùfina, an appellation for red and white wines that permits a higher percentage of international grapes than Chianti DOCG, as well as a range of varietal bottlings. Baron Bettino Ricasoli is credited with defining the classic blend of Chianti, developed after years of experimentation and outlined in an 1872 letter to Professor Cesare Studiati at the University of Pisa. Today, the general recipe for Chianti DOCG, updated in 1996, calls for 70 to 100% Sangiovese, although wines from the Colli Senesi subzone must contain a minimum 75% of the grape. The addition of the white grapes Trebbiano Toscano and Malvasia, a practice dating to the 1870s, is now optional rather than mandatory. Other red grapes of the region comprise the remainder of the blend, although the Cabernet grapes may not exceed a maximum of 15%. (Cabernet is restricted to 10% in the subzone Colli Senesi.) The traditional practice of governo —refermentation with the juice of dried grapes, to strengthen the wine and initiate malolactic fermentation—is legally permitted. This process must be indicated on labels as Governo all’uso Toscano , although most quality-minded producers avoid it. Chianti normale may be released on March 1 of the year following the harvest; however, the Florentine subzones of Rùfina, Montespertoli, and Colli Fiorentini require additional aging. With two years of aging, Chianti may be labeled riserva . Chianti superiore wines require an additional half-degree of alcohol and lowered vineyard yields. Chianti Classico , upgraded to DOCG alongside Chianti in 1984, is the heartland of the Chianti zone and consistently provides the best examples of wine in the region. The Classico area contains the original Chianti zone delimited by Grand Duke Cosimo III de’ Medici in 1716, including the four original villages of Radda, Gaiole, Castellina, and Greve—each of which later appended “in Chianti” to their names. Although the extremely varied nature of Tuscan soils is evident within Chianti Classico, Sandstone and Marl dominate the region. Macingo and Piestraforte are the major sandstone-driven soils while Albarese is the top Marl soil. Sangiovese comprises a minimum 80% of the Chianti Classico blend. Like Chianti DOCG, Chianti Classico DOCG wines may be pure varietal Sangiovese, or they may be blended with other red grapes of the region. As of the 2006 vintage, white grapes are no longer permitted in the wine. The minimum alcohol level for Chianti Classico is 12%—compared to 11.5% for Chianti DOCG—and the wines may not be released until October 1st of the year following harvest. Riserva wines must be aged for a minimum 24 months, with at least 3 months in bottle and a minimum alcohol level of 12.5%; Gran Selezione wines—a new category approved in 2014—must come from estate grown grapes and are required to be aged for at least 30 months prior to release, also with 3 months in bottle, and an even higher minimum alcohol level: 13%. As of 2021, Gran Selezione must contain at least 90% Sangiovese. While 2010 was technically the first vintage for Gran Selezione, consideration is given to wines from earlier vintages so long as they can provide documentation proving all requirements have been met. Barrique is often the wood vessel of choice for aging riserva Chianti Classico. Whereas Chianti enjoys a legacy dating back centuries, Brunello di Montalcino DOCG —the most powerful expression of Sangiovese in Tuscany—has only recently achieved its status as one of Italy’s most profound wines. History credits Clemente Santi of Tenuta Greppo’s Biondi-Santi with the invention of the Brunello style, as the producer was the first to isolate the Brunello clone and bottle it alone in 1865. Biondi-Santi’s reputation and the style were immortalized shortly thereafter, with the release of the Brunello Riserva 1888. However, production remained minute even through the 1970s, and only recently has Brunello truly captured the public imagination. The nearly square hill of Montalcino, which overlaps Chianti Senesi in the province of Siena, is in the southern reaches of Tuscany, and encompasses 24,000 hectares—although only around 5,000 acres are authorized and planted for Brunello. Brunello di Montalcino is produced from 100% Sangiovese Grosso (Brunello), and aged in cask for a minimum two years and bottle for an additional four months—six months for riserva . The wine may not be released until January 1st of the fifth year following harvest, or until the sixth year for riserva bottlings. Soil is varied in Montalcino, with galestro characterizing the higher-altitude vineyards. Clay is predominant in the warmer southern reaches of the zone, and fossilized marine deposits are scattered throughout Montalcino. Montalcino’s frazioni (suburbs, or sub-communes) of Sant Angelo in Colle, Castelnuovo Abate and Torrenieri provide distinctions in the corresponding wines, but the individual winemaking techniques of each producer are of greater importance for the determination of the final style. Brunello is stronger, with more alcohol, extract and tannin, than Chianti. It can be so hard and unforgiving as to be nearly unapproachable upon release, leading some producers—Casanova di Neri, Mastrojanni—toward small barrels and shorter macerations, in the hope of rounding and fleshing out the wine. Others, such as Biondi-Santi, Talenti, and Soldera, remain more traditional in their approach. A “junior” version of Brunello, Rosso di Montalcino DOC , is produced in the same delimited region from 100% Sangiovese. The wines must be aged for one year prior to release, although cask aging is not required. The Sant’Antimo DOC , created in 1996, provides Montalcino producers an outlet for “Super-Tuscan” wines. Any grape authorized in Tuscany may be utilized for Sant’Antimo DOC, and the wines may be either red or white. Finally, Moscadello di Montalcino DOC exists for white wines from the region, produced from the Moscadello (Moscato Bianco) grape. Moscadello wines are often sweet, and may be still or sparkling. To the east of Montalcino, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano DOCG is produced in Montepulciano and several surrounding communes. The zone shares with Brunello di Montalcino the distinction of being one of the first DOCGs in Italy, awarded in 1980. The wines include a minimum 70% Sangiovese (Prugnolo Gentile clone) and, as of 2010, a maximum 30% other varieties of Tuscany, including no more than 5% of white varieties. Vino Nobile di Montepulciano is aged for a minimum of two years, with at least one year in wood. Riserva wines are aged for at least three years. The wines tend to be less firm than Chianti and less aggressively tannic than Brunello, striking a softer balance. The coastal Morellino di Scansano DOCG , in the southern Maremma, achieved DOCG status in 2006 for red wines based on a minimum 85% Sangiovese. Riserva wines are aged for a minimum of two years. As a newer appellation—and a newer winegrowing region in general, as much of the southern Maremma was an inhospitable swamp until Mussolini drained it in the 1930s—the territory of Scansano benefits from the reputation of nearby Bolgheri in the northern Maremma and a corresponding increase in investment and interest throughout the region. The DOCG wines are, at the time of writing, still searching for their unique voice amid the myriad Sangiovese reds of Tuscany. The red wines of Carmignano , a low-altitude territory which overlaps Chianti Montalbano, are a minimum 50% Sangiovese. Historically, winemakers in the region have added Cabernet grapes to the native grape, and 10% to 20% of Cabernet Sauvignon and/or Cabernet Franc is required in the blend. Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot may be added to Sangiovese in higher proportions in the new DOCG Rosso della Val di Cornia . A former subzone, Suvereto , was elevated to DOCG status alongside the red wines of Val di Cornia in 2011. While the Sangiovese DOCG wines of Tuscany represent the region’s greatest homegrown noble wines, the explosion of the “ Super Tuscan” style in the last 40 years is responsible for invigorating international interest. Constrained by the DOCG regulations of the time, Marquis Mario Rocchetta’s Tenuta San Guido released the 1968 Sassicaia, a barrique-aged Cabernet blend from Bolgheri in the Northern Maremma, as vino da tavola . Antinori followed with the vino da tavola Tignanello 1971, a barrique-aged red whose proportion of Sangiovese was set with the 1982 vintage at 85%. These two wines signaled an upheaval in the region’s wines—the influence of Bordeaux loomed as Tuscany’s winemakers sought to add flesh and roundness to Sangiovese, or supplant the native Sangiovese with French grapes. More “Super-Tuscan” Bordeaux-style wines followed: Antinori’s Cabernet-based Solaia, the Bordeaux blend Ornellaia and the Merlot-based Masseto, and the 100% Cabernet Franc Paleo Rosso from Le Macchiole. In contrast to those focusing on International grape varieties, some Chianti-based producers also felt stymied by the Chianti DOCG’s mandated blend, and they embraced the vino da tavola revolution precisely to emphasize Sangiovese. San Felice's Vigorello, Montevertine’s Le Pergole Torte and Isole e Olena’s Cepparello were three of the first 100% Sangiovese “Super-Tuscan” wines, released as vino da tavola before Chianti regulations permitted pure varietal bottlings. Thus, a peculiar phenomenon was occurring in Tuscany by the mid-eighties—some of the region’s most prized bottles were simple vino da tavola . This dissatisfaction with the regimented DOC laws soon spread to other regions in Italy, and was a primary motivator for the creation of the IGT category in 1992. Many great “Super-Tuscan” wines are today released as IGT, under a nome di fantasia , or fantasy name. Others carry the appellation of Bolgheri, a region in the northern Maremma that received DOC status in 1994 for red wines (white and rosato wines had been authorized as early as 1983). Following recent adjustments to the DOC disciplinare , Bolgheri may produce pure varietal examples of Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Cabernet Franc. Red wines may also be Bordeaux-style blends, and even include Syrah and Sangiovese. Bolgheri Superiore wines are aged for a minimum two years (one year in oak barrels) and show a minimum alcohol of 12.5%. Vermentino is the leading grape for white Bolgheri wines, although varietal Sauvignon Blanc is also produced in the appellation. The Bolgheri DOC surrounds Sassicaia, which earned recognition as a legal subzone (Bolgheri Sassicaia) in 1983. In 2013, the Bolgheri Sassicaia DOC officially gained separate status as an appellation—a tribute to the producer's renown and the only true monopole DOC in all of Italy. And if the march toward DOCG continues despite recent EU reforms, Bolgheri Sassicaia DOC may just be a steppingstone. About 12 miles off the coast of Maremma is the isle of Elba, notably the site of the French Emperor Napoleon’s exile in 1814. In 2011, the Elba Aleatico Passito DOCG was finalized for sweet red passito wines made from the Aleatico grape on the island. Aleatico has been genetically linked to the Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains grape; possibly it is a red-skinned mutation. The only white wine in Tuscany to enjoy DOCG status is Vernaccia di San Gimignano : a crisp, pink grapefruit-tinged white wine produced on sandy, rock-strewn soils around the hilltop town of San Gimignano in the Siena province. While Elba Aleatico Passito is the only dessert wine to reach DOCG status, vin santo is a traditional dessert bottling in Tuscany, although the difficulty and time required in its production make it increasingly rare. Vin santo , or “holy wine,” is a high alcohol, almond- and honey-toned dried grape wine produced from Trebbiano and Malvasia grapes. Grechetto is sometimes authorized, and rosé versions called “Occhio di Pernice” are produced with a minimum of 50% Sangiovese added to the white grapes. The grapes are hung from rafters to dry for a specified time set by each DOC—the grapes are usually raisinated until December 1, at least. A period of slow fermentation and aging in caratelli barrels follows, for a period of between three and eight years, depending on the style. Chestnut wood is traditionally used, allowing rapid oxidation, although many modern producers have switched to oak. The barrels are never topped—alcohol is concentrated through evaporation and the wine gains its characteristic amber hue. The final style of vin santo may be dry or sweet, depending on the length of the appassimento process. Vin santo may be fortified, and labeled liquoroso . While many Tuscan DOCs allow the production of vin santo , the majority of exported wine is Vin Santo del Chianti DOC . A less sweet dessert, such as biscotti, is usually served with the wine at a Tuscan table. BACK TO TOP Umbria Umbria, one of Italy’s few landlocked regions, has a much less illustrious reputation for wine than Tuscany, its neighbor to the west. The small region lies in the shadow of the Apennines, its climate moderated by maritime winds funneling from the Tyrrhenian Sea. The region—slow to develop and rustic in comparison to its neighbors—ironically provided the noted physicist Enrico Fermi with a wine to toast the first successful nuclear reaction of the Manhattan Project: Orvieto. Orvieto DOC , a clean, light white wine produced from at least 60% Grechetto and Trebbiano Toscano (Procanico), is responsible for a majority of the region’s production. The wine suffers from overproduction and overexpansion of the DOC zone, although wines from the classico zone surrounding the medieval city of Orvieto itself can show mineral intensity and depth. Orvieto DOC wines are generally dry, although they may be sweet, and even botrytised. Within the territory of Orvieto, solid red wines are produced on the tuffeau soils of Lago di Corbara DOC . The most celebrated red wines of Umbria are the ageworthy Sagrantino di Montefalco DOCG and Torgiano Rosso Riserva DOCG . Sagrantino di Montefalco is produced from 100% Sagrantino; the resulting wines are naturally high in alcohol and tannin, and are aged for a minimum 37 months, including 12 months in wood for the dry wines. The secco style of Sagrantino di Montefalco is a recent development; historically the wines were produced as passito . The DOCG allows both styles. Marco Caprai and Paolo Bea demonstrate the high quality of the wine, in respectively modern and traditional fashion. Torgiano Rosso Riserva DOCG is produced from 70-100% Sangiovese, with a minimum three years of aging prior to release—including six months in bottle. Standard Torgiano bottlings—varietal wines, Rosso, Bianco, spumante —are simply DOC. The Lungarotti family, Torgiano’s largest producer, was instrumental in the elevation of Torgiano Rosso Riserva to DOCG in 1990. BACK TO TOP Marche The Marches, a region to the east of Umbria on the Adriatic Coast, doubled its number of DOCG wines in 2009 with the addition of Verdicchio di Matelica Riserva DOCG and Castelli di Jesi Verdicchio Riserva DOCG . Verdicchio, the most important grape of the Marches, has the capacity to produce ageworthy, focused, green-tinged white wines with a distinctive lemony, stony character and a bitter almond tang. The late-ripening Verdicchio grape is naturally high in acidity, making it suitable for spumante production—and the occasional late harvest wine—at the DOC level. The coastal Castelli di Jesi and the more inland and higher-altitude Matelica are the best zones for the wines, with normale versions released as DOC and the riserva versions, aged for a minimum of eighteen months, released as DOCG. The Matelica wines are often sharper, whereas Castelli di Jesi provides wines of a fuller, rounder character. Red wines are produced as Conero Rosso Riserva DOCG and Vernaccia di Serrapetrona DOCG . Conero Rosso Riserva is produced just south of the regional capital Ancona, and the wines are comprised of a minimum 85% Montepulciano and a maximum 15% Sangiovese. It is matured for two years prior to release, and many producers rely on a percentage of new barriques for aging rather than the traditional old botti. Surrounding the coastal Conero zone is the larger Rosso Piceno DOC, which typically offers lighter Sangiovese and Montepulciano blends. The Vernaccia grape in Marches is actually a red grape—“Vernaccia” probably derives from the Latin vernaculus (“indigenous”) and is used for a number of distinct varieties in Italy. Vernaccia di Serrapetrona DOCG wines are sparkling reds, either dry or sweet, made from a percentage of passito grapes (40%). Italian officials approved the Offida DOCG in 2011, which covers red wines produced from Montepulciano and white varietal wines produced from Pecorino and Passerina. While not at DOCG level, aromatically complex wines are being fashioned from the obscure Lacrima grape as Lacrima di Morro d’Alba DOC , and may excite interest with their heady, floral, Pinot Noir-like character in the future. BACK TO TOP Abruzzo Top Vintages from Abruzzo's benchmark producer, Emidio Pepe. Immediately south of the Marches on the Adriatic Coast, Abruzzo is a huge contributor to Italy’s lower quality wine lake. The Montepulciano grape is the region’s most cultivated variety and the second most planted red grape in Italy. It easily produces ripe, tannic and full-bodied wines of deep color. Rosato versions of the wine are called Cerasuolo in reference to the cherry red hue of the rosés. Much of the wine is forgettable, although Montepulciano d’Abruzzo DOC can be a source of good value, as prices reflect the surplus of wine and the lack of demand. While efforts to raise the region’s prestige culminated in the 2003 evolution of Colline Teramane Montepulciano d’Abruzzo DOCG —essentially the classico zone of Montepulciano d’Abruzzo—the region’s two premier producers, Edoardo Valentini and the naturalistic Emidio Pepe, release their reds simply as Montepulciano d’Abruzzo DOC. While Montepulciano d’Abruzzo requires 85% Montepulciano, the DOCG raises the minimum to 90%, and stipulates one year of aging, including two months in bottle. Riserva wines are aged for a minimum three years. Trebbiano d’Abruzzo DOC wines account for most of the region’s white wines, and may be produced from either Trebbiano Toscano or the distinct Trebbiano Abruzzese, which is also known, perhaps mistakenly, as Bombino. BACK TO TOP Latium (Lazio) Lazio, south of Tuscany and Umbria on the Tyrrhenian Coast, is, with its capital at Rome, the political center of Italy and the third most populous Italian region. Much of the region’s overwhelmingly white wine is consumed locally, in the cafes and trattorias of the capital city. Trebbiano Toscano and Malvasia are the principal grapes of the region, and are produced in mass quantities as Castelli Romani DOC , a broad zone that encompasses several smaller appellations. Among the subzones of the Castelli Romani is the Frascati DOC , a commune near Rome whose white still and sparkling wines are principally composed of Malvasia. In 2011 Italian authorities awarded Frascati Superiore and Cannellino di Frascati , a late harvest style, the increasingly dubious honor of DOCG status. The Trebbiano-based white wines of Est! Est!! Est!!! di Montefiascone DOC are routinely cited for their “creative” back-story, which is retold ad nauseam elsewhere, rather than their inherent quality. Red wines make up only 15% of the region’s typical production. The indigenous Cesanese grape takes center stage in the rosso wines of Cesanese del Piglio , the first zone in Lazio to achieve DOCG status. The variety produces spicy, peppery wines with elevated acidity and moderate to high alcohol levels. Some of Lazio's best known red wines on the international stage emerge from the Falesco estate in Montefiascone near the Umbrian border, but Falesco's successes string from polished and plush examples of Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon, not Cesanese. BACK TO TOP Molise The small, mountainous region of Molise to the south of Abruzzo produces an equally small amount of wine. Most winemaking is handled by co-operatives, and less than 5% of the region’s production is at the DOC level. Only four DOCs exist in Molise: Biferno , Molise , Tintilia del Molise and Pentro di Isernia . Biferno DOC is the most prominent, producing reds and rosatos from a blend of Montepulciano and Aglianico, and white wines based on Trebbiano. BACK TO TOP Campania At the height of the Roman Empire in the first century CE, Falernian, a Campanian wine sourced from the slopes of Monte Massico, was among the most prominent wines of the ancient world—a position it would maintain well into the fourth century. Varo in 37 BCE praised the wine’s ageworthiness in a manual on farming, the author Petronius mentioned the wine in his first century work Satyricon , and the wine sold for four times the price of ordinary wine in Pompeii. The Falernian vintage of 121 BCE remained legendary for several hundred years. The wine at the time was sweet or dry, strong enough to be flammable, and probably produced from the Aminean grape, likely a Greek import known today as Greco. The coastal Massico region in northern Campania today builds on its ancient heritage with the steadily improving wines of the Falerno del Massico DOC . On the volcanic tuff soils of the lower mountain slopes, red wines are produced from Aglianico and Primitivo, and white varietal wines are produced from the fragrant Falanghina grape. Naples, the capital of Campania, is a World Heritage Site and the largest and most important city in Southern Italy; but the region itself, like much of the southern peninsula, reflects a growing disparity of immense poverty and natural beauty. The top tier of wines in Campania has taken a huge leap forward in the last two decades; however, less than 10% of the region’s wines are at DOC level. The ancient red varieties Aglianico and Piedirosso (“red feet”) and the white Falanghina, Greco, and Fiano comprise a majority of the Campanian DOC wines. The tannic, high-acid Aglianico shares a structural similarity with Sangiovese and Nebbiolo—although it displays a darker fruit profile—and has the capacity to produce the longest-lived and noblest red wines of Southern Italy. While tempered with the lighter Piedirosso in the velvety blends of Falerno del Massico DOC, Aglianico shines as a varietal wine in Taurasi DOCG and Aglianico del Taburno DOCG , a zone promoted to DOCG in 2011. Taurasi wines are produced in the inland area of Irpinia, in the province of Avellino—a region only a scant 40 miles from the center of the Aglianico del Vulture zone in Basilicata, the grape’s other famous expression. Taurasi wines must be aged a minimum of three years prior to release, with one year in wood. The aging requirement increases to four years—and eighteen months in wood—for riserva wines. Mastroberardino, Terredora and Feudi di San Gregorio exemplify the quality of wines in the region. The white DOCG wines of Campania are Greco di Tufo and Fiano di Avellino . The Fiano di Avellino DOCG wines are produced in a number of communes adjacent to the west of the Taurasi zone, from a minimum 85% of the full-bodied, assertive, resiny Fiano grape. Greco, a lighter but more intensely aromatic grape, is grown at higher altitudes to the immediate north of Fiano di Avellino, and comprises a minimum 85% of the Greco di Tufo DOCG wine. The acidic Coda di Volpe comprises the remainder. While not at DOCG level, Falanghina produces dry and sweet passito whites in the inland Falanghina del Sannio DOC . These Falanghina-based wines were formerly labeled under Sannio DOC , until it became its own DOC in 2011. Falanghina also excels in the panoramic coastal DOCs of Campi Flegrei and Costa d'Amalfi , where it is blended with the rare white Biancolella grape to produce a mellower and lusher style of wine. As a minor component, Falanghina provides an aromatic lift to the white wines of Vesuvio DOC , produced on the slopes of Mount Vesuvius just south of Campi Flegrei and Naples, but the Coda di Volpe and Verdeca grapes constitute the majority of the blend. Vesuvio, which may be white, rosato, red, sparkling, or fortified in style, may be labeled as Lacryma Christi del Vesuvio if it achieves a minimum 12% alcohol. Alongside Forastera, the Biancolella white grape produces more delicate varietal whites in the offshore Ischia DOC , in the Bay of Naples. More prevalent on the island are the reds based on Piedirosso and Guarnaccia, a thick-skinned indigenous variety also known as Tintore di Tramonti. BACK TO TOP Apulia (Puglia) Apulia, the heel of the boot of Italy, covers a lengthy expanse of coastland on the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. Apulia is the least mountainous region in Italy—characterized by broad plains and low hills, the coastal region’s terrain stands in sharp contrast to that of its rugged neighbors Basilicata and Molise. Apulia’s flat, fertile plains provide an easy outlet for high-yielding viticulture, and much of the region’s mass production was historically devoted to base wines destined for vermouth, bulk blending material, or distillate. The EU’s vine pull scheme has made an impact on Apulia, and the region’s production is considerably down from its peak in the 1980s. At the beginning of the 21st century, Apulia struggled to release more than 2% of its wines at the DOC level. However, quality production is on the rise, and Apulia now has over two dozen DOCs and four DOCGs (all awarded in 2011) devoted to quality production, though they still only comprise about 7% of total production. In northern Apulia, Castel del Monte is home to three DOCG zones. Castel del Monte Rosso Riserva DOCG requires a minimum of 65% of the aromatic and tannic red grape Nero (Uva) di Troia, while Castel del Monte Nero di Troia Riserva DOCG requires at least 90% of the grape. Castel del Monte Bombino Nero DOCG is dedicated exclusively to rosé wine. Castel del Monte DOC can be made from a range of grapes—both varietal and blended—and includes dry whites and sparkling wines from Bombino Bianco. Negroamaro, the most cultivated red grape in the region, is prized for its powerful structure and full body, and it is encountered as the major component of nearly every rosso and rosato DOC on the Salento peninsula. Salice Salentino DOC and Brindisi DOC are two of the more prominent appellations, and top quality Negroamaro may be blended with small amounts of Malvasia Nera or other red grapes, primarily to help stabilize color. The third major red grape of Apulia is Primitivo, which is genetically identical to Zinfandel and shares a softly tannic, syrupy character with its American twin. Varietal wines are produced in Primitivo di Manduria DOC , which sits to the west of Salice Salentino DOC on the Ionian Coast. With the advent of Primitivo di Manduria Dolce Naturale DOCG , DOC wines may no longer be fully sweet, but past styles ranged from secco to dolce . The DOCG wines have a minimum 50 grams per liter of residual sugar, and may be subject to the appassimento process. Of the lesser-known red grapes, Susumaniello can be excellent, with an elegant structure and medium body. White wines are produced to a lesser extent in Apulia. Verdeca is the standout white wine and is grown primarily in the Valle d'Itria in the center of the region. Wines labeled Fiano are often Fiano Minutolo, not related to the Campanian grape of the same name. In the far northeast, small areas of limestone soil and coastal influence can produce traditional method sparkling wines of surprising quality based on Bombino Bianco and Pinot Noir. BACK TO TOP Basilicata Basilicata, Italy’s third least populous region—only Molise and the Valle d’Aosta have a smaller population—is a mountainous, poor region producing little wine. Basilicata was long characterized by a sole DOC— Aglianico del Vulture —although the number of DOCs in the region has in recent years climbed to four. Aglianico del Vulture remains the region’s only real wine of note, and arguably one of the finest expressions of the thick-skinned Aglianico grape. In 2010, Aglianico del Vulture Superiore was upgraded to DOCG. As a DOCG wine, Aglianico must show a minimum alcohol content of 13.5% and undergo three years of aging, including one in wood. If aged for a minimum five years, including two in wood, the wine may be labeled riserva . Grown on the volcanic soils of the slopes of Mount Vulture, Aglianico can develop great complexity as it slowly ripens, with harvest occurring in late October or early November. DOC wines may be released in September during the year following harvest. The wines may be dry ( asciutto ) or off-dry ( abboccato ) and still or spumante , although dry, still interpretations represent the DOC’s most serious wines. BACK TO TOP Calabria Gaglioppo growing in Cirò. Calabria is the toe of the Italian boot; like its neighbors it is covered in mountains, dividing the region climatically between the hot Mediterranean coast and the more continental, higher-altitude interior. Famous throughout antiquity and the Middle Ages, most Calabrian wine today exists at the same high alcohol but low quality level that characterizes much southern Italian wine, although a few conscientious growers are increasingly bucking the trend of indifferent wine. Calabria's production is nearly double that of neighboring Basilicata. The chief red grape of Calabria is Gaglioppo, a thick-skinned grape encountered in the reds and rosatos of Cirò DOC , on the Ionian Coast. The Gaglioppo variety was long thought to be of Greek origin, and local legend ascribes the wines of Cirò as the beverage of ancient Olympians; however, it has more recently been genetically linked to Sangiovese. White plantings are dominated by Greco, but white grapes account for less than 10% of Calabrian wine—the best examples may be found in the DOC of Melissa . Greco di Bianco DOC principally produces sweet wines from the Greco grape, which is often partially dried prior to fermentation. Calabria contains the DOCG of Cirò Classico , which was established in 2025. This appellation highlights the high-quality Gaglioppo with a 90% minimum requirement for the variety . BACK TO TOP Sicily (Sicilia) Separated from Calabria by the narrow Strait of Messina, Sicily is one of Italy’s largest producers of wine, usually surpassed in volume only by Veneto. The island has a rich culinary history; however, the table wines of Sicily have long been nondescript. Marsala is the island’s most famous vinous product—a wine from the eponymous seaport on Sicily’s western edge, famously commercialized by the Englishman John Woodhouse in 1773, who first fortified the wine to ensure safe shipment to his home country. Marsala, which fed the British thirst for fortified wine (alongside Port, Sherry, and Madeira) in an era when taxes on the beloved claret of Bordeaux were raised to a trade-stifling level, suffered in the 20th century as a result of being essentially rebranded as a cooking wine. Marsala DOC , created in 1969, struggles to find a place in a crowded marketplace shifting away from fortified wines. Sicily, like the other regions of Southern Italy, produces very little wine at the DOC level. Viticulture on the island focused on productivity in the latter half of the 20th century, creating a glut of low quality bulk wines and grape concentrate to be shipped as a blending ingredients throughout Italy and France. However, a resurgent emphasis on lower yields and quality began to take shape in the last years of the century, championed by producers like Marco de Bartoli in Marsala, the larger-sized but quality oriented Planeta, and an increasing number of small producers. Sicily is well-suited to quality winemaking: arid Mediterranean heat is countered by altitude in the better vineyards, allowing large diurnal swings to even the ripening process, and beneficial hillside exposures are common on the mountainous island. While some of Sicily’s modern success can be attributed to IGT Terre Siciliane wines produced from international varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon or Syrah, the island has a wealth of indigenous grapes uniquely suited to its warm, dry climate. White grapes include the native Catarratto, Inzolia, Grecanico, Carricante, and Grillo. Zibibbo (Muscat of Alexandria) and the ubiquitous Malvasia are also commonly encountered in Sicily. Native red grapes include Nero d’Avola (Calabrese), Frappato, Perricone, Nerello Mascalese and Nerello Cappuccio. Vines on the slopes of Mount Etna. Catarratto is the island’s most heavily planted grape and the seventh most cultivated grape in Italy, despite being found only in the vineyards of western Sicily. The grape, utilized in Marsala blends and the Alcamo Bianco DOC table wines, churns out millions of hectoliters of juice destined for grape concentrate or distillation. Inzolia and Grillo are better alternatives for Marsala and table wines. Nerello Mascalese and Carricante are the dominant varieties of the Etna DOC rosso and bianco wines, respectively. The Etna DOC is in eastern Sicily, and the vines on the Mount Etna’s slopes benefit from well-drained volcanic soils—but viticulture in the shadow of an active volcano is a risky proposition. Nerello Mascalese also dominates the blends of Faro DOC on Sicily’s extreme northeastern coast, exemplified by the wines of Palari. Nero d’Avola, crowned with the recent DOCG Cerasuolo di Vittoria , is the island’s most planted red grape. Often likened in flavor to Syrah, Nero d’Avola is blended in Cerasuolo di Vittoria DOCG wines with the lighter, grapey Frappato in a ratio of 70-50% to 30-50%, resulting in vibrant, cherry-red (Cerasuolo) colored wines. Dessert styles have always been prominent in Sicily. Beyond the sweeter versions of Marsala, the island offers several notable dessert wines produced from the Zibibbo, Moscato Bianco, and Malvasia grapes. The exceedingly rare Moscato di Noto and Moscato di Siracusa DOCs, . with 88 hectares and 37 hectares respectively, are located to the east of Vittoria in southeastern Sicily and are based on Moscato Bianco, Off the northern coast of Sicily, the Malvasia delle Lipari DOC wines are produced in purely sweet, passito , and fortified styles, although production on the island is increasingly dominated by dry wines and released as Salina IGT. Zibibbo is fashioned into sweet Moscato di Pantelleria DOC and the superior Passito di Pantelleria on the volcanic island of Pantelleria, near the African Coast. In legend, the wine possessed such character as to dupe the Greek god Apollo into assuming that he was drinking ambrosia—a beverage, reserved for gods, that confers immortality upon the imbiber. BACK TO TOP Sardinia (Sardegna) South of Corsica, the island of Sardinia owes a great debt to Spanish grape varieties. Cannonau (Garnacha, or Grenache) and Carignano (Cariñena, or Carignan) are the dominant red varieties, and the island’s dominant white grape, Vermentino, is likely of Spanish origin. These grapes were likely introduced to the island during a period of general cultural assimilation, as the Spanish Kingdom of Aragon ruled Sardinia until the early 1700s, for a period of nearly 400 years. The island’s wines easily reach high alcohol levels in the dry, hot Mediterranean climate; some historic styles, such as the rare Malvasia di Bosa DOC and Vernaccia di Oristano DOC , may even be produced in an oxidative style reminiscent of Spanish sherries. Vermentino di Gallura is the island’s sole DOCG zone. At the extreme north end of Sardinia, Gallura is a hot, high-elevation zone with poor, rocky, granitic soils—a paramount requirement for keeping the Vermentino grape’s vigorous ambitions at bay. Here, Vermentino produces aromatic and rich wines and may see oak influence, although fresher styles are more common. To be labeled superiore , the wines must show a minimum 13% alcohol instead of the base 12% required for the DOCG. While Vermentino dominates white grape plantings in the northern reaches of Sardinia, Nuragus is more common in the south. The grape tends to produce tart, appley wines; the best versions are Nuragus di Cagliari DOC . Cannonau, the island’s premier red grape, is often rustic and spicy, with a fuller body than its color would indicate—premature oxidation is especially virulent in Sardinia’s Grenache. Cannonau di Sardegna DOC covers the entire island, and is divided into three subzones: Oliena, Jerzu, and Capo Ferrato. BACK TO TOP Review Quizzes Central Italy: Beginner , Intermediate , Expert Southern Italy: Beginner , Intermediate , Expert Updated June 2024Previewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/161/northern-italySat, 28 Feb 2026 16:08:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:e374d3b7-a5a4-4c97-98cc-2aecc2a45ff7Jonathan EichholzTable of Contents Italian Wine Law Northern Italy Piedmont (Piemonte) Valle d'Aosta Lombardy Liguria Emilia-Romagna Trentino-Alto Adige Veneto Friuli-Venezia Giulia Review Quizzes Italian Wine Law The Denominazione di Origine Controllata (DOC) system was introduced in 1963 as a means of formalizing and protecting Italian wine appellations. The French AOC system acted as a model for Italian authorities, as they established maximum yields, approved varieties and viticultural practices, set geographical boundaries, and authorized vinification techniques, styles, and minimum (or maximum) alcohol levels for each DOC wine. The Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG) category, a more prestigious and—theoretically—higher quality designation designed to represent the best of Italian wine, was also introduced in 1963, although the first DOCG was not awarded until 1980, when Brunello di Montalcino, Barolo and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano were upgraded from DOC. Most DOCGs (and many DOCs) stipulate minimum aging requirements for the wines—a notable departure from the legal requirements set by most French appellations. Over time, the system became unwieldy and too lenient; yields and geographical restrictions became too generous. Hundreds of DOC zones were established, leading to consumer confusion. Even the DOCG category, which should only include the recognizable benchmarks of Italian wine, was watered down by such unlikely promotions as Romagna Albana. As criticism of the system amplified in the 1970s and 1980s, many of Italy’s finer producers resorted to the Vino da Tavola category, releasing experimental wines produced in a manner conflicting with DOC legislation. Vino da Tavola, or table wine, cannot bear any geographical designation other than “Italy” itself, yet some of Italy’s most iconic wines—in particular the “Super Tuscans” Sassicaia and Tignanello—got their start as simple Vino da Tavola. The 1992 Goria’s Law represented an attempt at reform. This law established the category of Indicazione Geografica Tipica (IGT), a more relaxed regulation, offering winemakers wider freedoms. The first IGTs appeared in 1994. IGT wines are often varietally labeled, and IGT wines range from basic quality to some of Italy’s most sought-after bottles. Today, IGT wines are considered PGI (Protected Geographical Indication) by the European Union, whereas DOC and DOCG wines are considered PDO (Protected Designation of Origin), on par with France’s AOC/AOP. IGT status may be used as a springboard to DOC, and regions recognized as DOC for at least five years may apply for DOCG status. As the EU Common Market Organisation reforms came online from 2008 through 2011, jurisdiction over the final approval of new appellations transferred from Rome to Brussels, the political center of the EU. An unintended effect of this administrative power shift witnessed a host of new, unknown, or heretofore unremarkable appellations apply for DOC or DOCG status while Rome still held authority over the process, resulting in a wave of new appellations. From 2009 to late 2011 the number of DOCGs shot from under 50 to 73, as officials rushed to fulfill over 300 requests to approve or change the status of appellations across the country. DOCs likewise multiplied. The critical backlash was quick and nearly unanimous: Italy's appellation system, never a model of clarity for the consumer, was finally and truly broken. Nevertheless, progress: Italy's 79th DOCG (Casauria) was approved in 2025. Italian Wine Classifications Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG) / Denominazione di Origine Protetta (DOP) Denominazione di Origine Controllata (DOC) / Denominazione di Origine Protetta (DOP) Indicazione Geografica Tipica (IGT) / Indicazione Geografica Protetta (IGP) Vino (formerly Vino da Tavola) BACK TO TOP Northern Italy The wines of Italy elude easy categorization and definition. An ever-expanding host of DOCGs, coupled with an enormous range of DOC and IGT styles, provides a wide variety of wines culled from both indigenous and international grapes. Italy's axis runs north-south, resulting in a spectrum of climactic zones, and the country's terrain is generally rugged: the Apennine Mountains serve as the spine of Italy and the Alps bracket the northern regions. The culture of Italy is as fractured and segmented as its landscape. Despite its ancient prestige as the center of Roman civilization, modern Italy was unified as recently as 1861, and the province of Trentino-Alto Adige was not added until the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the end of World War I. Today, German and Slavic influences abound in the Tre Venezie, and the regions of Friuli-Venezia Giulia and Trentino-Alto-Adige are nearly autonomous. Lombardy, Italy's most populous and most industrialized region, stands in stark modern contrast to the Valle d'Aosta, Italy's most sparsely populated. The Valle d'Aosta includes French as an official language, and Piedmontese viticulture shows a depth of French influence. Furthermore, the northern Italy of Turin in Piedmont is wholly dissimilar from the southern Italy of Naples in Campania: the climates, the cultures, even the languages—all are distinct. These permutations, influences and sharp differences are reflected in the country's unique pantheon of wines. BACK TO TOP Piedmont (Piemonte) The region of Piedmont produces some of the finest wines in Italy, and is cited alongside Tuscany as one of Italy’s two most significant wine regions. Piedmont—“the foot of the mountain”—is cradled on three sides by the Apennines and the Alps. The Po River cuts through the heart of the region as it flows eastward from its headwaters in the Western Alps, creating a fertile alluvial plain well-suited for standard agriculture but too rich for viticulture. Thus, most of Piedmont’s grape-growing occurs in the foothills south of the Po Valley, in the provinces of Asti, Alessandria, and Cuneo. Within these three provinces, the Monferrato and Langhe hills are peppered with vineyards. Thinner, calcareous marl and sandstone soils with varying percentages of clay and sand, coupled with the sub-mountainous landscape, create a number of distinct mesoclimates throughout the region. Piedmont experiences a continental climate and the Alps provide a “rain shadow” effect, although autumn hail can be a worry in the Langhe hills—Barbaresco producers of lore were fond of firing cannons into the skies, attempting to disperse threatening cloudbanks. In the Langhe and Monferrato hills, many of the prized southern exposures, known as sorì in the Piedmontese dialect, are home to the region’s most noble and ageworthy red grape: the native Nebbiolo. The thin-skinned Nebbiolo, purportedly named for the morning fog ( la nebbia ) that prolongs the grape’s ripening process in the fall, produces wines of high acid, alcohol and extreme tannin, yet the best examples offer haunting aromatic complexity and great longevity. Nebbiolo’s worth was recognized centuries ago: a 1431 statute of La Morra in the Langhe extracts a punishment ranging from the loss of a right hand to death for uprooting the vine. The late-ripening Nebbiolo, Dolcetto and Barbera form the trio of major Piedmontese red grapes. Dolcetto, the “little sweet one,” is the earliest to ripen and provides tannic, fruity wines that are lower in acid and are generally designed for youthful consumption. Barbera, Piedmont’s most planted red grape, demonstrates high acidity but low tannin and is now subject to a range of stylistic interpretations. The incursion of modern winemaking techniques has, in some cases, diminished some of the obvious varietal differences between Nebbiolo, Barbera, and Dolcetto. Other lesser indigenous red grapes of Piedmont include Brachetto, Grignolino, Ruchè, Croatina, Vespolina, and Freisa. Moscato Bianco (Muscat à Petits Grains) is Piedmont’s most planted white grape and is generally funneled into the production of the sparkling wines of Asti. Cortese, Arneis, Erbaluce and Favorita (Vermentino) are also grown in the region, in diminishing order of importance. International grapes—Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Merlot, Syrah, Sauvignon Blanc, etc.—have been growing in significance since the 1980s, although usage of such non-traditional grapes is currently limited to the less-specific DOCs. Piedmont is home to more DOC zones than any other region in Italy—as of 2023, Piedmont claims 19 DOCGs and 41 DOCs—and almost half of the region’s vinous production is of at least DOC quality. The most prestigious DOCGs in Piedmont are Barolo and Barbaresco , located along the Tanaro River in the Cuneo Province, an area encapsulated by the larger Langhe DOC . Both zones produce red wines from the Nebbiolo grape; Barolo wines are typically more powerful and long-lived, whereas Barbaresco is slightly softer and more approachable due to its warmer climate and less time in oak. The aromas of tar, truffle, rose petals, and dried fruits are classically attributed to both wines, and their color is characteristically moderate in concentration and orange-tinged even in youth. Although Barolo wines may be produced in 11 communes, the five communes of La Morra, Barolo, Serralunga d’Alba, Monforte d’Alba, and Castiglione Falletto represent almost 90% of the DOCG’s demarcated land. Only sites with appropriate aspects can produce fully ripe Nebbiolo, and a division between soil types marks subtle differences in each commune’s wines. Tortonian soils, which contain a higher proportion of calcareous marl, characterize the vineyards of La Morra and Barolo and provide a softer style of wine. Serravallian (Helvetian) sandstone soils are more common in Monforte d’Alba, Serralunga d’Alba, and Castiglione Falletto and supply more structure in the wine. Nevertheless, Barolo is a massively tannic wine by nature, and prior to 2010, regulations called for a minimum three years of aging before release, two of which were in oak—or, rarely, chestnut—casks. Today, Barolo must be aged at least 38 months from November 1 of the harvest year, but only 18 months need be in wood. Barolo Riserva requires a total 62 months prior to release. Historically, longer periods of aging occurred in large neutral casks after extended macerations of 30-50 days, requiring the consumer to cellar the wine for years—sometimes decades—before it was approachable, but a modernization in technique entered the region by the 1980s, resulting in an often-too-convenient split amongst producers. Barolo was divided between the "traditionalists” who retained faith in older winemaking techniques—Giacomo Conterno, Bartolo Mascarello, Giuseppe Rinaldi—and the “modernists” who embraced barriques, shorter macerations, and a rounder style of wine—Paolo Scavino, Luciano Sandrone, Elio Altare. This is a useful division in Barolo (and Barbaresco) although the distinction is becoming more fluid in many cases today. Nebbiolo Vines in Barolo. Like Barolo, the Nebbiolo wines of Barbaresco DOCG are perfumed, tannic, and ageworthy, yet slightly lighter in body and more elegant. Although a portion of Alba is permitted to make the wine, production is concentrated in the three towns of Barbaresco, Neive, and Treiso. The wines must be aged for a minimum of 26 months from November 1st of the harvest year (including at least 9 months in cask) prior to release, or for a minimum of 50 months if labeled riserva . The wines have a much shorter history than Barolo and are really a phenomenon of the 20th century, achieving acclaimed cult status through the efforts of the modernist Angelo Gaja. The less iconic but equally talented Bruno Giacosa espouses the traditionalist approach in Barbaresco, and the local co-operative, Produttori del Barbaresco, offers great value and exemplifies the terroir of the region. Barolo and Barbaresco are frequently compared to Burgundy—the wines show similar aromatic richness, and the Langhe’s climate, the importance of single vineyards, and the modern emphasis on domaine bottling parallel the structure of Burgundy. In the past, large commerciant ( négociant ) houses dominated the business, but an emphasis on domaines and estate-bottling sparked in the 1960s, leading to an unofficial yet critical determination of the single vineyards ( crus ) of both Barolo and Barbaresco. Single vineyard bottlings from the best crus , such as Cannubi in Barolo or Rabajà in Barbaresco, fetch high prices. In 2007, the Barolo/Barbaresco/Langhe Consorzio finally voted to enshrine the crus of Barbaresco as legal menzioni geografiche aggiuntive (geographic areas) of the DOCG; in early 2010 Barolo followed suit. Barolo Chinato is a curiosity; a DOCG aromatized wine that is flavored with quinine. Once ridiculed by the wine press, Barolo Chinato has been resurgent—particularly amongst sommeliers. Cappellano is the standard bearer. The Roero DOCG , elevated from DOC in 2004, lies on the northwestern bank of the Tanaro River, opposite Barolo and Barbaresco. While the DOCG's red wines are based on a minimum 95% Nebbiolo, Roero also produces fresh and floral white wines from the Arneis grape. The sandy soils of Roero, north of the commune of Alba, provide a lighter style of Nebbiolo than Barolo or Barbaresco, and many producers here are experimenting with modern approaches. Two other Nebbiolo-based DOCG reds are produced in the hills north of the Po River, as Gattinara DOCG and Ghemme DOCG . These appellations straddle the Sesia River and offer Nebbiolo-based reds exclusively. Vespolina and Bonarda grapes are often blended with Nebbiolo—here known as Spanna—to produce the wines, which are typically lighter and even more focused on acidity than their southern counterparts. Uva Rara, or Bonarda Novarese, is used for blending in Ghemme, whereas another clone, Bonarda di Gattinara, is used in Gattinara. Neither grape is related to the Bonarda of Argentina. The Lessona and Sizzano DOC zones near Ghemme produce similar Nebbiolo-based red blends, and the more isolated Carema DOC near the border of the Valle d'Aosta produces fragrant Nebbiolo wines, especially in warmer vintages. In 2008, the Barbera grape finally came into the DOCG fold, with two appellations in the Monferrato hills east of the Langhe: Barbera d’Asti and Barbera del Monferrato Superiore . Both reflect a newer, more serious approach to Barbera production in the region. Barbera d’Asti may be released as normale after a short four-month aging period, whereas Barbera del Monferrato must be superiore and spends 14 months aging prior to release, including six months in cask. Modern Barbera often sees new wood. The Monferrato hills received a third DOCG in late 2010: Ruchè di Castagnole Monferrato , an aromatic red wine produced from the local Ruchè grape. The grape's name suggests either a strong resistance to the viral disease roncet (grapevine fanleaf virus), which plagues other varieties of the region, or its arrival in Piedmont alongside French monks, who dedicated a medieval monastery to Saint Rocco in the region. The region's fourth DOCG, Nizza , was approved for 100% Barbera varietal wines at the end of 2014. Formerly a subzone of the Barbera d'Asti DOCG, Nizza was the shot that broke a three-year silence in DOCG elevations, showing the world that Italy's top category was alive and well in the post-EU reform era. Three DOCG wines are produced from 100% Dolcetto: Dogliani , Dolcetto di Ovada Superiore (Ovada), and Dolcetto di Diano d'Alba (Diano d'Alba). Ovada wines must be superiore to qualify for DOCG status, whereas Dolcetto di Diano d'Alba and Dogliani may be released in both normale and superiore versions, with the latter designation stipulating a heightened level of alcohol. The minimum aging for all three superiore styles is ten months. Like Barolo and Barbaresco, Diano d'Alba DOCG wines may include menzioni geografiche aggiuntive on the label—75 sorì are classified as superior exposures. Dogliani’s fame rests, in part, on the wines of Luigi Einaudi, who was elected as the second President of the Italian Republic in 1948. The Dolcetto wines show sweet black fruit in a typically rustic frame, although denser and more polished interpretations are available. Gavi (Cortese di Gavi) was the first still white wine in Piedmont to be promoted to the DOCG level. The appellation is located in the extreme southern portion of Alessandria province and shares its western border with Ovada. Gavi’s dry, mineral-tinged whites are produced from the Cortese grape. Although the wines are generally still ( tranquillo ), spumante or frizzante versions are sometimes encountered. Erbaluce di Caluso , an appellation just south of Carema, transitioned from DOC to DOCG in late 2010. The white wines, produced from the high-acid, herbal-scented Erbaluce grape, may be still, spumante , or passito in style, with the latter type generally provoking the most praise. Of far more importance are the sparkling wines of Asti/Moscato d’Asti DOCG . Nearly 650,000 hl (or more) is produced each year, making Asti the largest producer of DOCG wine in Italy. Asti shed the pejorative “Asti Spumante” label with its move from DOC to DOCG, but the wines are always fully sparkling ( spumante ). The wines are comprised solely of Moscato Bianco and blended from vast vineyards across the southern provinces of Piedmont. Once pressed, the must is reserved and chilled for batch fermentation throughout the year on demand to offer the freshest bottlings to market. Unlike many sparkling wines, these will only see a single fermentation using the Charmat (or Martinotti) method to avoid any autolytic character from interfering with this wine's delicate primary fruit and floral aromas. Moscato d’Asti is a rarer and more artisanal product crafted from riper Moscato Bianco grapes. Moscato d’Asti is only slightly sparkling ( frizzante ), with a maximum pressure of 2.5 atmospheres, rather than spumante , and the wine remains delicate, with an alcohol level between 4.5% and 6.5%. Both wines are sweet, but the hedonistic fragrance of the Moscato grape is preserved more effectively in Moscato d’Asti. In 2023, a former subzone of Asti DOCG was promoted to its own separate Canelli DOCG. More serious traditional method sparkling wines are produced as Alta Langa DOCG from Pinot Noir and Chardonnay grapes, made in the style of Champagne or Franciacorta. In deference to the qualities impacted by aging on the lees, Alta Langa spumante wines spend 30 months en tirage , and riserva versions, a full three years. Despite the fact that Chardonnay and Pinot Noir have been planted in Piedmont since the early 1800s, the DOCG, awarded in early 2011, represents a rapid culmination of successes for an appellation that earned its DOC as recently as 2002 and contained only a scant 20 hectares of experimental plantings in 1994. While Alta Langa's producers, including notable Nebbiolo craftsmen Fontanafredda and Enrico Serafino, aim for greatness and international appeal with their sparkling wines, the sparkling reds of Brachetto d’Acqui DOCG retain local rustic charm. The wines are usually sweet and suitable as a dessert accompaniment. Both dry and still versions of Brachetto exist, although they are increasingly rare. BACK TO TOP Valle d'Aosta High altitude vineyards of the Valle d'Aosta. The landlocked, mountainous Valle d’Aosta is Italy’s smallest and least populous region. Nestled in the western Alps, the region experiences a continental climate with long, cold winters and short, hot summers. The Valle d’Aosta ranks last amongst Italy’s twenty regions in volume of production, and its vineyards are concentrated in a narrow band of land carved out by the Dora Baltea River. The Valle d’Aosta DOC is the sole DOC zone, but there are seven sub-appellations: Arnad-Montjovet, Blanc de Morgex et de la Salle, Chambave, Donnas, Enfer d’Arvier, Nus, and Torrette. A number of grapes, both local and international, provide a basis for the different red, white, and rosé blends and varietal wines of the DOC. The Petit Rouge grape is primary in wines from Torrette, Chambave, and Enfer d’Arvier. Picotendro—a local synonym for Nebbiolo—provides a high proportion of the blend for Donnas and Arnad-Montjovet reds. Blanc de Morgex, or Prié, is the white grape responsible for the still and sparkling wines of La Salle, grown at one of Europe’s highest vineyard elevations on the slopes of Mont Blanc. In addition, Valle d’Aosta DOC wines may be labeled as varietal wines. Examples of authorized varieties include Petite Arvine, Gamay, Petit Rouge, Fumin, and Premetta (Premetta is usually bottled as rosé). BACK TO TOP Lombardy Lombardy is a region of vast industrial, agricultural and viticultural importance. While Lombardy’s winegrowing appellations tend to be far removed from the capital Milan, the presence of such an important and wealthy city has provided Lombardy’s producers with a very thirsty, constant market for their wines. Lombardy is highly regarded for the modern quality of its sparkling wines, and the region’s still wines are improving. Franciacorta DOCG is the most important DOCG zone in Lombardy and the only true rival to the style of Champagne in Italy. Producers of Franciacorta are limited to sparkling winemaking—still wines from the region may be released as Curtefranca (formerly Terre di Franciacorta) DOC or Sebino IGT. While Franciacorta appears in a 1570 Italian treatise on the production of naturally sparkling wine, the zone’s recent origins can be traced to an influx of entrepreneurial spirit and ambition spearheaded by Guido Berlucchi, whose house released the region’s first modern sparkling wines in the early 1960s, and Maurizio Zanella of Ca’Del Bosco, whose prestige cuvee “Annamaria Clementi” is on par with Champagne’s more serious offerings. Franciacorta earned its DOCG for sparkling wines made by metodo classico (the traditional method) in 1995, and produces wines that, like Champagne, are driven by flavors derived from secondary fermentation and autolysis. Chardonnay, Pinot Nero (Noir), and a maximum 50% Pinot Bianco are permitted for use in the wine. Non-vintage Franciacorta DOCG wines must spend a minimum 18 months maturing on the lees and may not be released until 25 months after the harvest. Wines labeled as Satèn must include only white grapes and are bottled at less than five atmospheres, a lower pressure than the five to six atmospheres required for standard bottlings. Franciacorta Rosé requires a minimum 35% Pinot Nero grapes and is produced by blending rather than the saignée method. Vintage ( millesimato ) Franciacorta may not be released for a minimum 37 months, although in practice many producers allow their vintages wines to age for a much longer period. Unlike vintage Champagne, vintage Franciacorta requires only 85% of the grapes to be harvested in the stated year. Finally, vintage Franciacorta may be labeled riserva if it ages a minimum five years on its lees, with release after a minimum 67 months. With the exception of the exclusively brut Satèn style, non-vintage Franciacorta may be released in wide range of final sweetness levels, determined by the dosato ( dosage ). The residual sugar scale in Franciacorta mirrors that of Champagne. Traditional method sparkling wines are also produced in the southern reaches of Lombardy as Oltrepò Pavese Metodo Classico DOCG . The Pinot Nero grape is emphasized in this zone and the wine must contain a minimum 70% of the grape. If Pinot Nero accounts for at least 85% of the wine it may be labeled varietally. The aging regime for Oltrepò Pavese is shorter than that prescribed for Franciacorta: non-vintage wines must spend 15 months on the lees and vintage wines must spend two years on the lees. Still wines from the region may be released as Oltrepò Pavese DOC . To the north of Franciacorta is Valtellina, Lombardy’s most important zone for red wines. The Nebbiolo grape, known as Chiavennasca in Valtellina , provides a lighter and more angular style here than in neighboring Piedmont. Valtellina’s vineyards represent the Nebbiolo grape’s northernmost outpost in Italy; despite the region’s alpine location and high altitude, an abundance of sunshine makes the slow ripening process of the grape possible. Although Valtellina itself is DOC, two DOCG zones exist within it. Valtellina Superiore DOCG represents the heart of the viticultural region and has five subzones: Valgella, Inferno, Grumello, Sassella, and Maroggia. Valtellina Superiore wines are labeled as Stagafassli if bottled in the neighboring territory of Switzerland. Valtellina Superiore is aged for a compulsory 24 months (12 in cask), and riserva wines are aged three years prior to release. The second DOCG zone of the region is Sforzato di Valtellina , or Valtellina Sfurzat. Sforzato is a style similar to recioto , produced from Nebbiolo grapes that are dried prior to fermentation, yielding no more than half the equivalent juice content of a freshly harvested grape. The resulting wine is aged for at least two years, is dry in character, and has a minimum 14% alcohol content. The Moscato di Scanzo DOCG surrounds the town of Bergamo to the west of Franciacorta, and produces sweet passito red wines from a red Moscato grape. The wines must be aged for a minimum two years but may not be aged in wood. Moscato di Scanzo is often bottled in a slender 500 mL futura— a bottle shape familiar to fans of Inniskillin icewine. BACK TO TOP Liguria The region of Liguria occupies a narrow band of mountainous coastland south of Piedmont, and viticulture, while on the decline, has long been established in the region's steep, treacherous coastal terrain. Liguria enjoys a Mediterranean climate, and Pigato (Vermentino) is particularly successful here, especially in the DOC wines of Colli di Luni and Riviera Ligure di Ponente . The local red grape Rossese may also be produced as Riviera Ligure di Ponente DOC varietal wines, or as Rossese di Dolceacqua DOC. Despite advances in quality in these appellations, the basic, light Bosco-based white wines of Cinque Terre DOC remain amongst Liguria's most well known. BACK TO TOP Emilia-Romagna While the gastronomic creations of the Emilia-Romagna region are world-renowned—this is the home of Parmigiano-Reggiano, Prosciutto di Parma, and Modena’s Balsamic vinegar—the wines are less remarkable. Emilia-Romagna currently has two DOCG appellations, but neither is considered a wine of tremendously high repute. Promoted to DOCG status in 1987, Romagna Albana is most notable for being Italy’s first (and most regularly ridiculed) white wine DOCG, and it covers white (golden, really) wines made from the Albana grape in a range of possible styles. The most promising versions are passito . Colli Bolognesi Pignoletto is Emilia-Romagna's second DOCG, awarded in 2011. These are typically tart, dry varietal white wines produced from the Grechetto grape in an area encircling the city of Bologna. Prior to 2014, Pignoletto was a commonly accepted synonym for Grechetto, a grape popular in nearby Umbria. Emilia-Romagna’s indifferent standard of quality (barely 15% of the region’s output is DOC level) is underpinned by the region’s huge quantities of production. In the central provinces of Modena and Reggio, this production is nearly monopolized by Lambrusco. Several DOCs, including Lambrusco Grasparossa di Castelvetro , Lambrusco di Sorbara , and Lambrusco Salamino di Santa Croce , produce frizzante red wines from over sixty subvarieties of the Lambrusco variety. Sparkling Lambrusco wines, made in a range from dry to dolce , are prevalent in Emilia-Romagna but not exclusive to the region: the Lambrusco Mantovano DOC lies just over the regional border in Lombardy. In the 1970s, Banfi’s “Riunite” brand catapulted Lambrusco into the international spotlight and became one of Italy’s biggest export success stories, but the image of the wine today suffers from low expectations. Regardless, quality Lambrusco exists and good bottles provide a refreshing partner for the cured meats of the region. BACK TO TOP Trentino-Alto Adige The mountainous, landlocked Trentino-Alto Adige region is subdivided into two nearly autonomous provinces: the Italian-speaking Trentino in the south and the German-speaking Alto-Adige or Südtirol, in the north. The two provinces share a tradition of the grape that dates to pre-Roman times, and today focus on varietal wines. However, the two areas are culturally distinct and the inhabitants of the northern capital of Bolzano (Bozen in the original German) and surrounding areas are likely to refer to Italians in the third person. The multi-regional Valdadige DOC encapsulates Trentino-Alto Adige and Verona in Veneto, but the majority of wines are released under the separate Trentino and Alto-Adige (Südtiroler) DOCs. These designations permit a wide number of varietally labeled wines: Chardonnay, Pinot Grigio, Pinot Bianco, Müller-Thurgau, and Sauvignon Blanc are just a sampling of the many varieties encountered in Trentino DOC whites. These grapes form a major part of white Alto Adige DOC production as well; however, Gewürztraminer—a grape whose name (if not its actual origin) is linked to the local village of Tramin—is heavily utilized and makes intensely aromatic wines. Although many white wines in both zones are light in style and crisp in acidity, the sheer number of grapes and resulting styles renders generalization ineffective. Within the northeastern reaches of Alto Adige, the official subzone of Valle Isarco (Eisacktaler in German) is quickly gaining recognition for high-quality wines, frequently produced from German and Austrian varieties such as Silvaner, Veltliner and Kerner (a modern Schiava Grossa x Riesling crossing). Pinot Bianco finds its best expression in the Oltradige just south of Bolzano, near the town of Appiano. The DOC subzone of Terlano, just west of the capital in the Val d'Adige growing zone, has a long history of white wines blended from Chardonnay, Pinot Bianco, and Sauvignon Blanc, delivered in both oaked and unoaked styles. It is also the home of one of Italy's most respected cooperatives. Vineyards in the hills of Alto-Adige near Terlano. Trentino-Alto Adige is primarily known for its white wines, but the region supplies a larger quantity of reds than whites. Schiava (Vernatsch) is the predominant grape (technically there are four genetically distinct varieties) in both provinces, and it produces light red wines. Alto Adige’s historically important Santa Maddelena (St. Magdalener) subzone is the premier geographical appellation for Schiava varietal wines; the Casteller DOC in Trentino allows Schiava to be blended with Merlot and Lambrusco. Lago di Caldaro DOC (Kalterersee) in the south of Alto Adige is shared by both provinces and is similar in style to Santa Maddelena. The Lagrein grape is native to Trentino but thrives in Alto Adige, where it produces a denser, spicier wine than Schiava. The finest growing area for Lagrein is centered in the flatter growing area of Gries, just outside of Bolzano; the wines here are released under the general DOC but often with an indication of the area on the label. Higher elevations are favored growing areas for white grapes, but the majority of the valley is almost exclusively dedicated to apple growing—10% of Europe's entire production of apples occurs here. Pinot Nero is becoming increasingly important in the region, and the best examples come from the eastern side of the Bassa Atesina, Alto Adige's southernmost growing zone. The red Teroldego grape can produce deeply colored wines in Trentino’s Teroldego Rotaliano DOC . The ancient Marzemino, a genetic progeny of Teroldego and sibling of Lagrein, is one of the major Trentino DOC red varieties. Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Merlot, and Pinot Nero have been steadily increasing in importance and plantings in both provinces, where producers have the opportunity to underscore the grapes’ fragrant qualities. Trentino-Alto Adige does not contain any DOCG zones; however, as of 2020, 99% of the region’s production is of DOC quality, placing it foremost amongst Italy’s twenty regions in relative percentage of DOC production. Nonetheless, over three-quarters of the region’s output is dominated by co-ops, and Trentino-Alto Adige struggles to overcome a reputation of median quality. BACK TO TOP Veneto Veneto, with its capital at Venice, is the most significant of the three regions that comprise the Tre Venezie. It produces more wine than any other region in Italy, yet much of this falls at a lower level—an ocean of neutral, cheap Pinot Grigio (Pinot Gris) and sparkling wines comprises much of the bottom tier of Venetian winemaking. While over a quarter of the region’s production is DOC quality, the expansion of DOC zones like Soave and Valpolicella into markedly inferior areas fuels criticism of the DOC system and lends credence to lesser wines. Distressingly high yields and the presence of some of Italy’s largest mass-production wine companies compound difficulties in raising the base level of quality. Despite its generally low margin, Veneto produces some exciting wines, including the famous Amarone della Valpolicella—Amarone—one of the perennially expensive luxury wines of Italy. The raisinated styles of Amarone della Valpolicella and Recioto della Valpolicella represent the height of complexity for the Valpolicella region. The cherry- and bitter almond-tinged red Valpolicella DOC wines are produced from 45-95% Corvina, blended with Rondinella. Other non-aromatic grapes of the region, such as Molinara, Negrara and Oseleta, may not exceed a total 15% of the blend. The standard DOC wines are usually refreshing, lively and uncomplicated. Wines labeled superiore show a rounder character, with a higher minimum alcohol and a minimum of one year of aging. The Valpolicella Classico region is at the western end of the appellation, near the shores of Lake Garda, and consists of the several “fingers,” or valleys, surrounding the communes of Fumane, Marano, Negrar, Sant'Ambrogio, and San Pietro in Cariano. Although the Classico wines tend to be more ambitious in scope, wines from the eastern Valpolicella DOC valleys of Valpantena and Illasi, home of the unparalleled Venetian modernist Romano Dal Forno, can be equally compelling. Single vineyard ( vigna ) bottlings are becoming more common throughout the hierarchy of Valpolicella styles. The recioto style did not develop as an extension of the simpler Valpolicella wines; rather it was the modern Valpolicella’s precursor and a historical specialty of the region. Today, the style represents a small subset of Valpolicella’s total production. Recioto della Valpolicella and Amarone wines are produced through the expensive appassimento process; the grapes—varietal requirements for recioto wines are identical to the basic Valpolicella DOC—are dried for over three months in special lofts ( fruttai ) before fermentation, effectively concentrating sugar and extract. Grapes destined for Recioto della Valpolicella are typically dried for an additional month, and the resulting wine is semi-sweet to sweet, whereas Amarone is fermented to dryness or near-dryness. The appassimento process adds complex dried fruit tones, additional alcoholic warmth and a round, glycolic mouthfeel to the final wines. Amarone spends an additional two years aging prior to release; some producers (Dal Forno, Allegrini) are utilizing new barriques to add spice and density to the wines, whereas others (Giuseppe Quintarelli) remain traditional, aging the wine in large, neutral Slavonian botti . Amarone may be labeled riserva if aged for a minimum four years. Both Recioto della Valpolicella and Amarone della Valpolicella were finally approved for DOCG status in early 2010, and may be labeled as Classico or Valpantena if they originate in the respective areas. Recioto della Valpolicella wines may be spumante . Valpolicella Ripasso , finally granted its own DOC in 2010 as well, is a steppingstone in style between Valpolicella and Amarone: a wine “re-passed” over and re-fermented with the unpressed skins of grapes previously fermented for Amarone or Recioto wine. Ripasso wines require a minimum alcohol of 12.5%; Valpolicella Ripasso Superiore must achieve 13%. The Bardolino DOC zone lies between Valpolicella Classico and the eastern shores of Lake Garda. Corvina and Rondinella grapes dominate the blend of Bardolino, but the final wine is usually slightly lighter and more neutral than Valpolicella. Bardolino Superiore DOCG requires a year of aging prior to release and an additional one percent of alcohol. A rosé is produced as Bardolino Chiaretto. Grape drying at Dal Forno, Maule, Pieropana and Quintarelli. Soave DOC is the principal and most important white wine zone in Veneto, and its wines are comprised of a minimum 70% Garganega and a maximum of 30% Trebbiano di Soave and/or Chardonnay (as well as a maximum of 5% other authorized white wine grapes). Cheered, perhaps dubiously, by its own consorzio as “Europe’s largest vineyard,” Soave is a cautionary example among Italy’s frequent vinous expansions and allowances: the region has been so enormously extended from its hilly Classico zone that it has lost much of its original meaning and distinction. A formalized effort to classify Soave into geographical entities was approved in 2019 and recognized 33 individual crus . Two DOCGs exist in Soave: Recioto di Soave DOCG and Soave Superiore DOCG . Soave Superiore represents an attempt by the region to remedy its marred reputation, and covers wines from a specified subregion (Classico or Colli Scaligeri), typically vinified in stainless steel. Soave Superiore is aged for at least six months, and it may be called riserva with at least one year of aging. Recioto di Soave is produced from grapes dried from four to six months in the same delimited area as Soave Superiore. Barrel fermentation is common in Recioto di Soave and the growth of botrytis cinerea is encouraged. Soave DOC and Recioto di Soave DOCG wines may be spumante ; Soave Superiore DOCG wines may not. The wines of Gambellara DOC to the immediate east of Soave are similar in style and makeup. As in Soave, the semi-aromatic Garganega is the principal grape, making up at least 80% of the wine. Recioto di Gambellara achieved DOCG status in 2008 for sweet still and sparkling wines produced from 100% dried Garganega grapes. Just north of Gambellara, Fausto Maculan crafts singular Breganze Torcolato DOC wines. The local, acidic Vespaiolo grape is exclusively authorized for the production of these passito wines. A number of varietal dry wines are produced as Breganze DOC from both local and international varieties. The sparkling wines of Veneto are a world apart from neighboring Lombardy’s serious-minded, metodo classico wines. Here, over one million hectoliters of inexpensive, refreshing sparkling wine are annually churned out of the Glera grape; a variety whose inherent peachiness remains unadulterated by leesy, yeasty aromas as it undergoes transformation into frizzante or spumante wine via the Charmat method. The spumante wines are fully sparkling, with a minimum 3.5 atmospheres of pressure; the frizzante wines are slightly sparkling, with 1.0-2.5 atmospheres of pressure. Both usually undergo secondary fermentation in large stainless steel autoclaves, which keep the wine under pressure. The Prosecco wines, at their worst, are bland sparklers masked by a healthy addition of sugar; at their best the wines are semi-sweet or nearly dry, energetic, and fresh—the perfect Venetian aperitivo, as well as a component of the classic Bellini cocktail. Two DOCG zones are in place for Prosecco from the 2009 vintage onward: Conegliano Valdobbiadene Prosecco DOCG and the more obscure Asolo Prosecco DOCG , formerly known as Prosecco Montello e Colli Asolani. While both may produce still wine in addition to sparkling, the focus is on the frizzante and the spumante superiore styles. Fully sparkling superiore wines from both appellations may be produced from brut to demi-sec in sweetness; in practice the wines are principally extra dry or brut . The semi-sparkling styles sometimes undergo secondary fermentation in the bottle—a style indicated on the label . The hilly zone between the communes of Conegliano and Valdobbiadene represents the historical heartland of Prosecco production; in accordance with the area’s new recognition as DOCG, the producers’ consorzio ambitiously aims for the development of crus in the region. The most noteworthy cru is Cartizze, comprising a mere 107 of the DOCG’s approximate 8,000 hectares. Wines from the subzone are labeled Valdobbiadene Superiore di Cartizze, are fully sparkling in style, and are generally “dry,” with 17-35 grams per liter of residual sugar. Prosecco vines above the town of Valdobbiadene. Most Prosecco is released as non-vintage; the wine may be released with a vintage date if the wine is comprised from a minimum 85% of the stated year’s harvest. The Glera grape makes up a minimum 85% of the wine from both DOCG zones. While the DOCGs represent a renewed effort in establishing quality and image, the majority of wine is released below even the blanket Prosecco DOC level. If the wine is not at DOC level, the name Prosecco may no longer be used on labels. In 2010, Colli Euganei Fior d'Arancio , Piave Malanotte , and Lison , a region shared with Friuli, were promoted to DOCG status. Others followed suit the following year. The ascendance of such unlikely (and unknown) appellations further fuels criticism that the DOCG system in Italy is in need of serious repair. BACK TO TOP Friuli-Venezia Giulia The winemaking tradition of Friuli-Venezia Giulia borrows heavily from the neighboring Slavic, German, and Italian cultures. Techniques adapted from Germany and Austria ushered in a new age of clean, modern white winemaking in the 1960s, a move credited to producer Mario Schiopetto. The introduction of controlled cold fermentations in stainless steel, coupled with the region’s moderate temperatures, led to the Friulian style: crisp, aromatic, fruit-driven varietal white wines designed for quick consumption. This style has been refined through the years, bolstered by additional non-invasive practices like gravity flow and a minimized use of sulfur, yet critics contend that winemaking has become too clean—even clinical. Producers are continually experimenting in Friuli, as the fresh style pioneered here has become commonplace through much of Italy now. Modern Friulian whites can be blended, barrel-fermented and aged, powerful and lush rather than lean. A small subset of idiosyncratic producers spearheaded by Josko Gravner is taking another approach, making “orange” white wines with lengthy skin contact in ancient Slavic fashion. The international grapes Pinot Bianco, Chardonnay, Pinot Grigio, and Sauvignon Blanc—simply called Sauvignon in Friuli—are often bottled as varietal wines in the region, but Friuli also has a wealth of notable native grapes. For example, Verduzzo Gialla (Ramandolo) and Picolit produce sweet passito wines under two DOCG zones, Ramandolo DOCG and Colli Orientali del Friuli-Picolit DOCG . The coolest and highest-elevation area within Colli Orientali del Friuli-Picolit DOCG is its sole subzone, Cialla, a monopole of the Ronchi di Cialla estate, a property more renowned for shepherding the indigenous red grape Schioppettino back from extinction than for their small plot of Picolit vines. Indeed, despite their DOCG recognition it is not Friuli's sweet wines that earn the region international interest. The orange wines of Gravner and Radikon; the dry and powerful white wines of producers like Miani and Livio Felluga; Sauvingnon Blanc from Venica e Venica and Ronco del Gnemiz—these are the stars of modern Friuli. And Friuli's most impressive wines may be the product of native or international grapes. Sauvignon and Chardonnay win accolades, while Ribolla Gialla has achieved more recent fame as the subject of Gravner’s amphorae treatments. The aromatic Malvasia Istriana is consistently good, and Friulano—the region’s trademark white variety, formerly known as Tocai Friulano, also called Tai—is a fleshy, refreshingly almond- and mineral-tinged wine that provides the perfect foil for the famous Prosciutto di San Daniele of Friuli. Friulano is the core grape in the Rosazzo DOCG blend, a white-wine appellation modeled on Felluga's iconic "Terre Alte," and it is produced as a varietal wine in Lison DOCG , a growing region that crosses the Veneto border in western Friuli. Although Friuli receives the most acclaim for its white wines, a significant portion of the area's vineyards are planted to Merlot. Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon may be blended with or vinified separately from Merlot, producing wines that tend toward lighter, fragrant, herbal flavors. Refosco, Schioppettino, Terrano, and Pignolo are the most noteworthy indigenous red grapes. Refosco is the most planted of the three but typically shows the least promise, producing light, fruity reds. Refosco in Friuli is usually Refosco dal Peduncolo Rosso or Refoesco di Faedis. Schioppettino and Pignolo are both much rarer, but produce wines of more density, spice, and ageworthiness. Terrano, a grape that originated in Carso/Kras, is related to--and often confused with-- Friulian Refosco. Terrano is also known as Refosco d'Istria or Refosk. In the right hands it can provide an unexpected value--fruity and meaty, with firm tannins and lively acidity. Collio DOC (Collio Goriziano) and Colli Orientali del Friuli DOC are the most relevant and quality-minded of Friuli’s twelve DOC zones. Grave del Friuli DOC , meanwhile, is its most prolific. Eleven geographic DOCs of Friuli all produce varietally labeled red and white wines. The twelfth DOC appellation is Veneto’s Prosecco DOC , which extends into Friuli. Overall, Friuli ranks third amongst Italy’s regions in the percentage of DOC wine production, behind Trentino-Alto Adige and Piedmont. Review Quizzes Beginner Intermediate ExpertPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/206/south-americaFri, 13 Feb 2026 13:49:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:b85e65a1-7938-4b14-9f4d-e8452085a20bJonathan EichholzTable of Contents South America Chile Argentina Other Countries of South America Review Quizzes South America Winemaking arrived in the New World with Spanish conquistadores in the 16th century. From Mexico, where viticulture was first established in the Americas, the vine spread southward through other Spanish colonies, from Peru to Chile and Argentina by 1560. The Portuguese brought the vine to Brazil as early as 1532. Whether Spanish Catholics and missionaries hold responsibility for propagation of the vine, or colonists were simply interested in preserving a staple of their old lives, viticulture flourished in most of South America. However, despite promising early origins, South American viticulture suffered under a prohibitive 17th century Spanish law that restricted wine production (unrelated to the Church) in the New World in favor of Iberian producers. While some nascent wine-producing colonies were hindered by Spanish calls to uproot their vineyards, others, such as Chile, did their best to ignore the ban on production. The matter was settled definitively as the early 1800s brought a new era of political autonomy to former colonies, and Argentina, Chile, and Brazil (South America’s three leading wine producers) gained independence, though not without a great degree of turbulence and strife. An influx of European immigration in the 19th century, along with the development of a national rail system, resulted in a rapid expansion of viticulture in Argentina. Chile also benefited from European expertise: in 1830 the Frenchman Claudio Gay set up a Chilean repository of pre-phylloxera Vitis vinifera vines at the University of Chile’s Quinta Normal department. These vine specimens served Chile well; its geographic isolation, due to the Andes, prevented phylloxera from entering the country. Today, Chile is the only major winemaking country to remain totally phylloxera-free; in the late 1800s the country was able to capitalize on Europe’s vineyard devastation and a large domestic consumption to advance its own industry. The 20th century in South America was plagued by political and economic difficulties, and wine industries in both Chile and Argentina faced a number of challenges. The extraordinarily high domestic consumption of the early 20th century in both countries fell throughout the second half of the century; Argentineans were drinking nearly 90 liters of wine per person annually in the early 1970s, but by the late 1990s consumption dropped by over half. Throughout much of the 20th century, protective state policies prevented Chilean wine producers from participating in an international market, but foreign investment began to pour in during the 1980s, and Chile began to aggressively export its wines. Argentinean winemakers, beleaguered by economic woes, hyperinflation, and a sudden drop in domestic demand in the 1980s, looked to Chile’s recent success for inspiration, and began to focus on quality wine production meant for international markets. Chile has developed a reputation for quality varietal wines at value prices, as well as a number of super-premium red blends—often the product of joint projects between Chile’s great domestic houses and some of the more lauded names of Bordeaux and California. Argentina, meanwhile, touts its status as the world’s fifth largest wine-producing country, and owes a great deal of its successes to the appeal of the Malbec grape. One of the earliest grapes to arrive in the Americas was the black Mission grape. While it is often suggested that the Spanish planted this vine from seed, modern DNA research has revealed that Mission is identical to a grape found in the Canary Islands, Listán Prieto, and that it originated in Spain itself. Various offshoots from the grape provided early viticultural material for Central and South America, and even California. Until the 21st century, País (the Chilean synonym for the Mission grape) was the most planted grape in Chile. The grape, known as Criolla Chica in Argentina, played a similarly important role in historical viticulture, although plantings are not prevalent today. Two related grapes, the pink-skinned Cereza and Criolla Grande, while on the decline, still account for huge swaths of vineyard—Cereza was, until very recently, Argentina’s most planted grape. International varieties in both countries are rapidly increasing, led by Cabernet Sauvignon in Chile and Malbec in Argentina. Argentina successfully forged an international reputation for red varietal wines produced from Malbec, a previously overlooked Bordeaux blending variety introduced into the country in 1860. The country’s winemakers hope for similar success with Torrontés Riojano, a unique, highly aromatic crossing of Criolla Chica x Muscat of Alexandria. Two other varieties, Torrontés Mendocino and Torrontés Sanjuanino, may be labeled as "Torrontés" but they tend to produce lower quality wines. Torrontés Sanjuanino is also a Criolla Chica x Muscat of Alexandria crossing, and Torrontés Mendocino is a crossing of Muscat and an as-yet-unidentified other grape. Chile, on the other hand, has had mixed success with the development of a similarly popular and distinctive variety with which it can be readily identified. Part of the problem may stem from Chile’s own confusion over what is actually planted in the nation’s vineyards: ampelographical research determined that much of Chile’s Sauvignon Blanc was actually Sauvignon Vert, or Friulano, and a significant portion of the country’s Merlot turned out to be Carmenère, the sixth “lost” grape of Bordeaux. Many Chilean producers consider Carmenère to be the nation’s claim to a unique varietal expression, but the grape’s tendency to show pronounced green flavors has heretofore prevented it from capturing the public imagination to the same degree as Argentinean Malbec. BACK TO TOP Chile Chile stretches for nearly 3,000 miles up the west coast of South America, separated from the remainder of the continent by the Andes Mountains. Viticulture occupies around 800 of these coastal miles, with most major regions of production to the south of the capital city, Santiago. From north to south, the six regional Denominations of Origin (DOs) in Chile are Atacama, Coquimbo, Aconcagua, the Valle Central (Central Valley), Sur (the Southern Regions), and a new area at the southernmost limit of grapegrowing in the country, the Austral Region . Even with moderating maritime influence, Chile’s climate varies enormously from the northern to southern latitudes. The northernmost regions of Atacama and Coquimbo are dry and desert-like, with grapes historically destined for Pisco production or the table. The country’s most suitable vineyards for fine wine are mostly situated in the Central Valley to the south of Santiago, where the proximity of the Andes cools nighttime temperatures, and along the coast, where the cold, maritime Humboldt Current cools the vines. Although the Coastal Mountains (between the Central Valley and the Pacific) provide some shelter, the Humboldt Current forces cool sea air inland through the river valleys to affect the Central Valley vineyards during the day. While neither zone is as dry as the deserts to the north, irrigation is still essential in both the Central Valley and Aconcagua. In the country’s southernmost areas of viticulture, rainfall is higher and the overall growing season is cooler and shorter. Significant variations in altitude exist in most of Chile’s major regions, as vineyard plantings climb from the coast into the Coastal Ranges, and from the valleys into the Andean foothills. Chilean wine law, established in 1995, instituted the 75% rule: vintage, variety, and denomination of origin must, if listed on the bottle, comprise a minimum 75% of the blend. Many wineries observe an 85% minimum for all three categories, in order to comply with EU standards for export. Only permitted varieties may be used, and hybrid grapes are forbidden. Chilean law requires all wines to show a minimum alcohol content of 11.5%. Wines labeled Reserva and Reserva Especial must have a minimum 12% abv, and wines labeled Reserva Privada and Gran Reserva require a minimum 12.5% abv. In addition, Reserva Especial and Gran Reserva wines spend mandatory time in oak. Leading grape varieties in Chile after Cabernet Sauvignon include Sauvignon Blanc (and Sauvignon Vert), Merlot, Chardonnay, Carmenère, and Syrah. Muscat of Alexandria retains a large share of plantings, but the grape is used chiefly for distillation. Red grapes account for over 70% of the total acreage in Chile. In Atacama , the northernmost winegrowing region in Chile, viticulture is only possible through irrigation, and the region’s wines are generally distilled. Pisco and table grape production is also prominent in Coquimbo , but the region’s two northern valleys—Elqui and Limarí—are starting to develop a reputation for their wines, and vineyard acreage devoted to wine grapes has dramatically increased since the 1990s. Syrah is gaining attention in the Elqui’s cool, high-altitude vineyards, while the limestone soils and cooler climate of coastal Limarí are proving to be a match for Chardonnay. Coquimbo's third subregion, Choapa, is located in a narrow area to the south, where the Andes and Coastal Mountains converge. The Aconcagua DO takes its name from the Aconcagua River, rather than the nearby Argentinean peak—the highest mountain in the Americas. The sunny, dry Aconcagua Valley subregion follows the river as it flows from the Andes to the Pacific. Soils in the Aconcagua Valley are generally alluvial, and red grapes dominate the valley’s vineyards, particularly Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot. Although much of the valley is distressingly hot for grape-growing, the commune of Panquehue, home to Errázuriz, one of Chile’s most prominent estates and winemaking families, experiences a more moderate climate. Errázuriz’s “Seña,” an iconic Bordeaux-style blend and one of the premier reds of Chile, placed ahead of both Château Lafite and Château Margaux in the 2004 Berlin Tasting—a milestone for the Chilean wine industry likened to the famous 1976 Judgment of Paris. Aconcagua's other subregions—Casablanca and San Antonio—are located along the coast, and are among Chile’s coolest new winemaking zones, in stark contrast to the heat of the interior Aconcagua Valley. With a relatively short history, Casablanca has become the Aconcagua DO’s most prominent zone of production and one of Chile’s most exciting areas for fresh, crisp and fruity Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay. The emerging area of San Antonio, directly south of Casablanca, has the DO zone of Leyda Valley and five DO areas. Like Casablanca, San Antonio is predominantly a white wine region, with Pinot Noir also showing promising results. The Central Valley DO , located between the Andes and the hills and ranges along the coast, is Chile’s oldest and most established winemaking region. From north to south, the DO’s subregions are Maipo Valley, Rapel Valley, Curicó, and Maule Valley. The warm Maipo Valley is Chile’s most famous winemaking area, and the classic region in the country for Cabernet Sauvignon. Over 50% of the region’s more than 10,000 hectares are devoted to the grape, followed by Merlot, Syrah and Carmenère. Due to its proximity to Santiago, many of Chile’s established houses are based in the region, including Concha y Toro (Chile’s largest producer), Santa Rita, and Cousiño Macul. Cabernet thrives on the well-drained, low slopes of the Andes, and some of Chile’s most premium red wines issue from the subregion of Puente Alto, such as Concha y Toro’s “Don Melchor” and Errázuriz’s “Viñedo Chadwick” Cabernet Sauvignon varietal wines, and “Almaviva”, a joint project between Baron Philippe de Rothschild (Mouton-Rothschild) and Concha y Toro. The 2000 “Viñedo Chadwick” took first place in the 2004 Berlin Tasting. The Rapel Valley, divided into Cachapoal and Colchagua, is located to the south of Maipo. Although Cabernet Sauvignon’s position as the leading grape in both regions is firmly secure, Carmenère is growing in importance, and may soon eclipse Merlot as the valley’s second most cultivated grape. Colchagua is the larger, central portion of the valley, and is characterized by a warm climate and fertile soils. Although Colchagua is historically a bulk wine region, producers are finding success with premium wines sourced from higher-altitude eastern subregions with greater diurnal variation, such as San Fernando and Chimbarongo. Two areas were elevated to DO status in 2018: Los Lingues and Apalta. The latter, in eastern Colchagua, is the source of Casa Lapostolle’s “Clos Apalta” and Viña Montes “Alpha M,” two of Chile’s iconic Bordeaux-style blends. Viña Montes also produces “Purple Angel,” one of Chile’s highest-profile Carmenère varietal wines, from Colchagua fruit. Colchagua Chile. The Maule Valley and Curicó comprise the remainder of the Central Valley DO. Maule, one of Chile’s largest regions, has much more vineyard acreage than the Maipo Valley, but the quality is variable. Although Cabernet recently overtook País as the region’s most planted grape, bulk wines meant for local consumption still comprise a large share of the Maule Valley’s output. Curicó, with its two DO zones of Lontué and Teno, achieved some international recognition when Miguel Torres set up Chilean operations here in the late 1970s. Cabernet Sauvignon again dominates the vineyards, but a range of red and white grapes are represented, including Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay. Chile’s Southern Regions DO (Sur) contains three valleys: Itata, Bío Bío, and the southernmost Malleco. Cultivation is sparser in these southern valleys, and País and Muscat de Alexandria are the most planted grapes in both Itata and Bío Bío—nearly 6,000 acres of the Muscat variety in the Southern Regions, while on the decline, account for its status as Chile’s third most planted white variety, after Sauvignon (Blanc and Vert) and Chardonnay. Malleco is a tiny region, with just a few hectares of Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. In 2024, Chile continues to push the boundaries of viticulture as they approved two DOs in new portions of the country. Rapa Nui DO in the Pacific Ocean and Chiloé DO in Patagonia. All of the aforementioned DOs have a north-south orientation. In 2012, the Chilean Ministry of Agriculture amended wine law to support three new geographic terms: Costa, Entre Cordilleras, and Andes. On labels, producers may now append pre-existing DOs with one of these three new designations, which signify the proximity of a vineyard to the coast (Costa) or to the mountains (Andes). Entre Cordilleras ("between mountains") describes the valley areas between the coastal range and the Andes, a region in which over three-quarters of Chilean wine grapes are grown. In order for a wine to qualify for one of the new designations, at least 85% of the grapes must be harvested in the appropriate region. The enormous influence wielded by the sea and Chile's mountains upon viticulture is thrust into the limelight with these new geographic indications, but, as with most changes to appellation systems, early criticism of its meaningfulness to the consumer is robust. BACK TO TOP Argentina As of 2018, Argentina is the world’s fifth largest wine producer in the world and the tenth largest wine exporter. The country’s vineyards are mostly confined to the western sector of the country, in the plains and foothills near the Andes, where they experience a continental climate. In the rain shadow of the Andes, Argentina’s wine producing regions are very dry, a condition exacerbated by the Zonda, a fierce, dusty, hot afternoon wind that blows down from the mountains in the late spring and early summer, sometimes adversely affecting flowering. The general lack of humidity in most Argentinean winegrowing regions keeps vineyards free of fungal problems, and snowmelt provides plentiful water for irrigation—in those years that the Andes receive heavy winter snowfall. Unfortunately, the little moisture that does precipitate in the vineyards often comes in the form of dangerous spring and summer hail. As expected in a continental climate, summer temperatures can reach 100° F and above, although the country’s higher elevation vineyards—some of the world’s highest vines (3,000 meters above sea level) are located in Salta, at Donald Hess’ Colomé estate—serve to mitigate such extreme highs and prolong the growing season. As Argentinean vineyards are generally situated on the slopes of the Andean foothills and plains, the average national elevation for vineyards is approximately 900 meters above sea level. The lack of major nearby urban centers keeps Argentinean vineyards rather free from the effects of pollution; the Maipo, just across the mountains, is covered in Santiago’s smog by comparison. In descending order of importance, the country’s most important red grapes include the flagship Malbec, Bonarda, Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Merlot, and Tempranillo. Argentina ’ s Bonarda, the country ’ s second most planted red grape, is genetically distinct from the Northern Italian grape of the same name, but recent DNA studies have identified it as Savoie's Corbeau—a variety known as Charbono in the United States. The country’s most planted white grape is Pedro Giménez, a variety unrelated to Spain’s Pedro Ximénez, a blending grape often mainly suitable for bulk wines or grape concentrate. The distinctive, floral Torrontés is second among white grapes, followed by Chardonnay and Chenin Blanc. The Mendoza Chardonnay clone, developed at the University of California at Davis, has become popular throughout the country; despite being prone to millerandage the resulting grapes have a greater skin-to-juice ratio . Pink-skinned varieties, including Cereza, Criolla Chica, and Criolla Grande, occupy nearly 30% of the nation’s vineyard acreage. When working with premium wine grapes (such as Malbec or Gewürztraminer, but not Cereza or Criolla Chica), winemakers have the option of labeling both red and white wines as Reserva or Gran Reserva . Reserva implies a minimum 6 months of aging for white wines and one year for reds; Gran Reserva indicates at least one year for whites and two for reds. These two new designations, introduced in 2008, also limit maximum yields. The winemaking areas of Argentina are divided among the northwestern provinces, the central provinces of Cuyo, and the southern provinces of Patagonia. Approximately three-quarters of the country’s entire wine production occurs in the province of Mendoza in Cuyo, where more than 150,000 hectares are cultivated. To the north, the province of Salta, despite fewer than 3,000 total hectares under vine, is gaining a reputation for high-altitude Torrontés—a variety prone to high alcohol levels at lower, hotter elevations. Red grapes, such as Malbec and Cabernet Sauvignon, are also successful in the cooler mountain climate. Cafayate is a promising department within Salta, and is increasingly appearing on bottles of Torrontés—Susana Balbo’s “Crios” is a widely exported hallmark of the style. Etchart, the winery that first brought Michel Rolland to Argentina, and Yacochuya, Arnaldo Etchart's new project, are two prominent producers based in Cafayate. In the province of Catamarca, located directly south of Salta, Torrontés, Syrah, Malbec, and Cabernet Sauvignon lead in acreage. Cuyo comprises the wine-producing provinces of Mendoza, La Rioja, and San Juan. La Rioja is the northernmost of the three provinces; its most famous wine region is the Famatina Valley. Torrontés is again the most cultivated grape, followed by Malbec. Although production is significantly higher than in the northern provinces, La Rioja’s output is dwarfed by the massive production of Mendoza and San Juan to the south. San Juan, Argentina’s second-largest wine-producing province, has more than 45,000 hectares under vine in the Tulum, Zonda, Ullum, Jáchal, Calingasta, Pedernal and Fértil Valleys. Much of this acreage has historically been devoted to Argentina’s pink-skinned varieties, although Syrah and Bonarda—sometimes confusingly called Barbera Bonarda—are capturing critical attention. San Juan’s hot summer climate is ideal for grapes destined for brandy and vermouth production, and the region’s sherry-style wines are reasonably good in quality. Mendoza, the center of the Argentinean wine industry, is broadly divided into North, Central (Primera Zona), South, and East sectors, and the Uco Valley—a western subregion and home to the province’s highest vineyards. Soils in the region are generally comprised of loose, alluvial sand over clay, a structure that, when coupled with the gale-force Zonda wind, helps to keep phylloxera and other diseases at bay. As in Chile, almost all vines in Mendoza are planted on their own rootstock. The climate is desert-like, and irrigation is absolutely necessary, whether in the traditional form of furrow irrigation—a technique developed centuries ago by the Incas, in which the rivers' water, swelled by Andes snowmelt, is directed through the vineyards in channels—or by more modern methods of drip irrigation. Red grapes account for over half of the entire province’s acreage; Malbec, the most planted grape, covers around 35,000 hectares of vineyard. Despite being planted in Cahors, Bordeaux, and the Loire Valley, the grape achieves its most classic and identifiable varietal expression in Mendoza, offering brambly black and red mountain fruit tones, rich and robust texture, and sweet floral tones. The wines usually undergo some degree of French and/or American oak treatment, with some of the more serious examples, such as the single-vineyard Achaval Ferrer wines, spending over a year in 100% new barrels. In some applications, such as the blended Cheval des Andes, Malbec may convey a texture and style reminiscent of velvety Pomerol; other offerings are simpler, fresher, and best enjoyed in youth. The departments of Luján de Cuyo (one of Argentina’s two DOCs, authorized only for Malbec wines) and Maipú, in Central Mendoza, provide some of the best traditional sites for the grape. Highly regarded estates include Catena, Susana Balbo’s Dominio del Plata, Bressia, and Achával Ferrer. In addition to Malbec, Cabernet Sauvignon is finding complexity and popularity here at roughly 7% of the acreage. While white grapes, such as Chardonnay and Sémillon, are cultivated with success in the high elevation vineyards of Uco Valley and its Tupungato department. In Southern Mendoza's department of San Rafael DOC, Malbec is the principal grape. Southern Mendoza is also home to General Alvear, which focuses on the Criolla varieties and is not known for fine wines. Criolla Grande and Cereza still account for about 20% of the plantings in Mendoza, but they are relegated to bulk wine and grape concentrate production, and are losing acreage to a plethora of international and Italian varieties. South of Mendoza, the winemaking provinces of Patagonia are Río Negro, Neuquén, and Chubut. These are smaller regions of production, and markedly cooler than those to the north. White grapes, such as Torrontés and Sémillon, perform well in the provinces’ chalky soils and longer growing seasons, although cool-climate, elegant versions of Malbec, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Pinot Noir are promising. Bodegas Chacra, spearheaded by the family behind Tuscany’s Sassicaia, rapidly emerged as Patagonia’s most famous estate in the mid-2000s, selling super-premium Río Negro Pinot Noir. Bodega Noemía de Patagonia, another premier producer in the province, is winning acclaim for Malbec. La Pampa, an adjacent province to the north of Río Negro, is an emerging area for wine. BACK TO TOP Other Countries of South and Central America Beyond Chile and Argentina, viticulture is gaining steam in Brazil and Uruguay. Brazil’s production is predominantly red, although nearly a quarter of the country’s output is sparkling, and the country has attracted significant foreign investment, including the Champagne firm Moët et Chandon. Most of the country’s viticultural activity takes place in the southern state of Rio Grande do Sul, on the Argentinean border. Within Rio Grande do Sul, Serra Gaúcha is the country's most developed viticultural region and accounts for approximately 90% of Brazilian wine. Other southern regions include São Joaquim, Serra do Sudeste, and Campanha. São Francisco Valley is a tropical winegrowing region in the northern part of the country, where growers are able to harvest twice a year. A new system of Origin Indications in Brazil is unique among New World countries; both yields and grape varieties are restricted in the manner of European appellations. Vale dos Vinhedos , a subregion within Serra Gaúcha, received Brazil’s first Origin Indication in 2002. Bordeaux and other international grapes are planted in Brazil, alongside Iberian varieties like Aragonez and Touriga Nacional. Uruguay, South America’s fourth largest producer, exports over half of its production to Brazil. Tannat—rechristened Harriague, after Don Pascual Harriague, the Frenchman who introduced the grape to Uruguay—is the dominant red variety for quality wines. Smaller wine industries exist in Paraguay, Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador. BACK TO TOP Review Quizzes Chile: Beginner , Intermediate , Expert Argentina: Beginner , Intermediate , ExpertPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/2682/chinaWed, 11 Feb 2026 01:16:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:45ae3239-eb76-4bac-be87-85aadab3d9baSandra BanContents History and Overview Climate, Geography, and Viticulture Winemaking Areas of Wine Production History and Overview Understanding wine in China, especially regarding grape varieties, requires knowledge of two distinct historical contexts. First, China, with its indigenous grape species, can be considered an ancient wine country. Archaeological findings at a Neolithic site in Jiahu revealed grape seeds dating back to 7000 BCE , indicating ancient winemaking practices. Across the country, there is a diversity of local grape varieties. More than half of the world’s grape genus varieties are found in China, mostly in the wild, including in mountain and valley areas. Viticulture was historically significant in much of China, yet there was little emphasis on grape domestication, likely because other crops, such as rice, dominated. Indigenous Grape Species in China Vitis amurensis , also known as the mountain grape, is grown in northeastern China and is valued for its cold resistance. This makes it a valuable species for breeding cold-resistant varieties. Because of its high acidity and bitterness, however, it is unsuitable for dry wines. Beibinghong is a successful hybrid between Vitis amurensis and Vitis vinifera , producing a more balanced wine without excessive exotic aromas. Notably, Beibinghong is cold-resistant and does not require labor-intensive overwinter vine burial. Vitis davidii , known as the spine grape because of its spiny young shoots, is grown in subtropical areas of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau and the Yangtze River basin. This species has excellent resistance to high temperatures, humidity, and fungal diseases, making it valuable for developing varieties suitable for subtropical conditions. But it lacks sugar and acid, making it generally unsuitable for wine production. Vitis quinquangularis is grown south of the Yellow River in regions with ample sunshine and high rainfall. Its viticultural characteristics resemble those of Vitis davidii , with high tolerance for elevated temperatures, humidity, and fungal diseases. Known as the pentagon-leafed grape, this species has low sugar content but high acidity and tannins, making the wine overly sour and astringent if fermented to dryness. For the most part, native Chinese grape species have been and still are consumed as table grapes (including raisins) or used medicinally (including the roots). Most varieties used for commercial table grapes and raisin production in China today, however, are Vitis vinifera or have vinifera parentage. Centuries ago, vinifera was introduced to China primarily through the Silk Road, but the use of these grapes for wine production didn’t become popular. The most famous vinifera variety, both historically and commercially, is Longyan, meaning “dragon’s eye.” This variety is still the signature grape for producing refreshing white wines (both still and sparkling), primarily made in Hebei Province by the state-owned winery Great Wall Wine. In the 1800s, French missionaries brought hybrid grapes, such as Rose Honey, to Cizhong, a village in Yunnan Province. This marked the beginning of adapting varieties with vinifera parentage to a new environment and cultural context in certain parts of China. A critical milestone in China’s wine history was the introduction of Cabernet Sauvignon. In 1892, the Chinese industrialist Zhang Bishi established the first commercial vineyard in Yantai, Shandong Province, founding the Changyu wine company, now one of China’s largest wineries. Zhang imported 124 different vinifera varieties and 1.2 million grape seedlings from Europe, introducing such classic varieties as Cabernet Sauvignon to China. The wine trade in China formerly considered Cabernet Gernischt a special clone of either Cabernet Sauvignon or Cabernet Franc, but DNA profiling revealed it to be Carmenère. Other varieties, such as Italian Riesling (Welschriesling), spread across Chinese vineyards in the 20 th century because of their reliable cropping, and, with the rising demand for brandy production, Ugni Blanc plantings are expanding significantly. Georgian varieties, such as Rkatsiteli and Saperavi, are also found in Xinjiang, a result of the influence of the Soviet Union from 1934 to 1941. As recent trends have brought more attention to these varieties, aspiring winemakers have improved the quality of the wines made from them, achieving commercial success. Marselan, a black variety resulting from a cross between Cabernet Sauvignon and Grenache, has become a signature variety in China. Developed in 1961 by the scientist Paul Truel, who was working at the Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, in Montpellier, Marselan was first planted in China in 2001 by the Sino-French Viticulture and Winemaking Demonstration Farm (now the Domaine Franco-Chinois winery), in Huailai, Hebei Province. With its resistance to fungal diseases, reliable yields, deep color, fruity flavors, and sufficient body, Marselan is favored by growers across China. Both entry-level and award-winning, ageworthy wines have been produced, establishing China as a leader in Marselan wine production. A vineyard with the Helan Mountains in the distance (Credit: Gus Zhu) China’s recent focus on vinifera grapes positions the country as a newcomer in the context of vinifera production. Only since the early 1980s has China significantly increased its production of commercial wines from these grape varieties; it is still in the early stages of involvement in the international wine scene. Climate, Geography, and Viticulture Much of China has a distinct continental monsoon climate, meaning its agricultural land is impacted by hot and rainy summers. In most parts of southeastern China, vinifera cannot survive because of excessive summer humidity. Only native species, such as Vitis davidii and Vitis quinquangularis , can tolerate these conditions. Certain areas with a temperate monsoon climate have slightly less humidity, allowing vinifera to grow, but high fungal disease pressure is still a threat to grape cultivation. Common fungal issues include downy mildew and botrytis bunch rot, along with diseases such as grapevine white rot ( Coniella diplodiella ) and grape spot anthracnose ( Elsinoe ampelina ), which can develop in the humid, often extremely rainy summers. These diseases are also found in places that have similar climatic conditions, such as the American state of Connecticut. In arid or semiarid areas, leafhoppers and powdery mildew are significant concerns. Much of the grapevine production is concentrated in dry areas of China, but these regions often have extreme continental climates, with arid and cold winters. The dry, arid conditions are more detrimental than low temperatures to the vines’ survival over winter. For instance, when temperatures fall to between minus 12 degrees Celsius and minus 8 degrees Celsius (10.4 degrees Fahrenheit and 17.6 degrees Fahrenheit), countries such as Germany and Canada can produce ice wine without killing the vines. But the same temperature range accompanied by low humidity in China leads to desiccation and eventually the death of the vines. In grapegrowing areas of China with dry, cold winters, vines must be completely buried. Starting soon after harvest (late September to early October, depending on the region and vintage), vines are pruned in preparation. Vineyards then need heavy irrigation (flood or drip) to raise soil moisture levels, providing insulation from cold, arid conditions. The burial process begins between late October and mid-November and lasts 10 to 15 days. Soil is heaped over the vines by hand or by customized tractors. Trunks and cordons are bent or pushed down by hand or foot to avoid breaking; the process cannot be fully mechanized. Vines are unearthed from late March to late April, depending on warmth and frost risk. At this stage, attention shifts to protecting the buds. Unearthing the vines too early risks frost damage, while unearthing too late can lead to budburst under the soil, damaging buds. Although mechanization is used, careful manual work ensures higher survival rates. Vines with the typical slanted trunks and dense canopies (Credit: Gus Zhu) Unique training systems have been developed to ease vine burial. These systems typically feature very low trunks (such as the crawling dragon system) or trunks trained in a slanted manner. The best system is the chang, named after the Chinese character chang (厂, “factory”). It features an improved slanted trunk with a single horizontal cordon. This system balances vine burial feasibility with vine health, promoting longevity and overall vine health. With proper management, vines can live more than 30 years, though in areas requiring vine burial, few surpass 40 years because of the thickness and rigidity of trunks and cordons. The current lack of old vines is also because most grapevines were planted following China’s reform in the 1980s. The costs of these vine burial procedures are estimated to be 30% to 50% of the annual viticultural costs, influenced by factors such as temperature, humidity, grape variety, and rootstock. Many hybrids with Chinese indigenous variety parentage (such as Beibinghong, discussed in the grape varieties section below, as well as Beichun, a hybrid of Muscat Hamburg and a Vitis amurensis variety) are bred for cold resistance while maintaining desirable sensory profiles. Because phylloxera is not an issue in China, many of the country’s vines are own-rooted, yet recent plantings increasingly use grafted vines to combat soil salinity and provide some cold resistance. The grafting union, however, is fragile and prone to cracking during burial. Winemaking Fermentation has been understood by the Chinese for centuries, but brewing has been favored over winemaking in Chinese culture. Key alcoholic beverages in China and across East Asia rely on rice and grains, requiring significant effort to convert starches into alcohol. Traditional yellow wines and Japanese sake exemplify the sophisticated methods used. These processes involve saccharification to convert starches into fermentable sugars, essential for alcoholic fermentation. Compared with alcoholic beverages based on grapes, which contain tartaric acid absent in many other crops, those based on rice and grain have lower acidity; they also have a higher protein content, emphasizing umami flavors. As vinifera grapes were introduced in China, Chinese winemakers found that they fermented more easily but yielded sensory profiles that were exotic and unfamiliar. And so, like winemakers in many countries developing their practices, they turned to classic European regions, such as Bordeaux, to learn about winemaking. Initially, they masked imperfections in their wines with generous new oak aromas, much as Bordeaux imitators did in the early development of their winemaking. China’s rapid development and cultural adaptability have accelerated winemaking advancements beginning in the 2010s. Aligning with global trends, winemakers, especially those who obtained viticulture and enology degrees abroad, now favor balanced, less oaky styles. They experiment with various grape varieties, indigenous yeasts, and levels of oak toasting to diversify wine styles. The rise of the Marselan variety illustrates this diversity, with each winery crafting unique flavors. Areas of Wine Production In terms of wine production laws and regulations in China, it’s important to note that many wine regions lack geographical indication (GI) protection. Currently, there are four GIs officially designated by China’s Ministry of Commerce and the European Union: Shacheng Pu Tao Jiu GI, Huanren Bing Jiu GI, Helanshan Dong Lu Pu Tao Jiu GI (East Foothill of Helan Mountain), and Yantai Pu Tao Jiu GI. Because of the scattered distribution of producers in some areas, however, establishing appellation legislation remains challenging. Given the rapid evolution of the Chinese wine industry, more regions or even subregions will likely receive GI status in the future. Credit: Demei Li This study guide aims for clarity by categorizing regions into larger zones based on China’s official administrative divisions. These zones highlight key climatic and geographic characteristics. Within each zone, key wine regions are discussed to varying extents, depending on the level of winemaking and the development of regulations within those areas. The list below clarifies geographic concepts for discussing Chinese wine regions: Zones: Large zones based on the official classification of greater administrative areas of China, less frequently used in relation to wine production in China. Provinces: China’s province-level divisions, totaling 34, including 23 provinces, 5 autonomous regions, 4 municipalities, and 2 special administrative regions. These names may designate wine-producing areas; for example, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (administrative) is known as the Xinjiang wine region, and the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region (administrative) is sometimes referred to as the Ningxia wine region. Regions: Sometimes named after provinces, as described above, or areas within provinces, with some regions spanning two or more provinces. Many are expected to obtain GI status as the industry progresses. Several subregions have been acknowledged by the local wine trade in recent years. Northwestern Zone The Northwestern Zone covers 24.3% of China’s landmass, bordering countries such as Russia, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan. This vast inland area, which has an extreme continental climate, with minimal rainfall and high aridity, contains 43% of China’s desert land. The region’s bitterly cold, dry winters necessitate winter vine burial, while viable viticultural areas benefit from mountain range protection or moderating effects from large bodies of water, such as lakes. Summers are hot, with low humidity, allowing grapes to achieve high levels of ripeness. Plateaus in the northwest contribute to cooler nighttime temperatures, mitigating daytime heat. Broadly speaking, the Northwestern Zone can be divided into three main wine-producing regions. The first is Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, including the famous East Foothill of Helan Mountain appellation. The second is Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, recognized as the Xinjiang wine region. The third encompasses Gansu Province and part of Qinghai Province, known collectively as the Hexi Corridor region. Two province-level divisions of northwestern China will not be detailed here. One is the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (western part), which includes vineyards near East Foothill of Helan Mountain, in Ningxia, as few producers make wine there. The other is administratively confusing: Shaanxi Province, although part of northwestern China, is grouped with Shanxi Province (spelled similarly to the former) as the Loess Plateau wine region, based on geographic attributes, discussed in the Northern Zone section. East Foothill of Helan Mountain Since the early 2000s, wine has become the cornerstone industry of the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. Strong local government support has played a crucial role in its rapid development. This growth is only possible, however, because of the region’s favorable natural environment, particularly the imposing Helan Mountains. These mountains resemble parts of the Andes that are visible from the Mendoza side in Argentina. Their high altitudes (often above 1,000 meters, or around 3,300 feet) contribute significantly to the balance and complexity of Ningxia wines. Most important, the Helan Mountains act as a barrier, shielding the region from extreme cold, aridity, and winds originating from the Siberian High and the Tengger Desert. Despite the need for winter vine burial, the eastern foothills are largely protected from harsh western conditions, making viticulture and agriculture viable in the area. The grand Helan Mountains in Ningxia (Credit: Gus Zhu) The East Foothill of Helan Mountain region is renowned for its sunny and dry growing seasons, which significantly reduce the threat of fungal diseases, a common advantage in northwestern Chinese wine regions. With up to 3,100 hours of sunshine annually, grapes ripen easily. But this abundance of sun can lead to rapid sugar accumulation, resulting in high alcohol levels and less phenolic development overall. It’s not unusual to find wines with both overripe fruit flavors and green notes. Proximity to the Yellow River provides a water source for the region, although its moderating effects are limited. Currently, nearly 38,000 hectares (93,900 acres) of vineyards thrive in the sheltered slopes of East Foothill of Helan Mountain, making it the largest wine region in China. Wineries produce anywhere from several hundred to one million cases annually. Thanks to recent developments in both large-volume and award-winning, premium wines, a diverse array of grape varieties are cultivated. Cabernet Sauvignon leads among red varieties, while Chardonnay dominates among whites (like other wine regions in China). Plantings of Marselan are rapidly expanding in the region as well. With increasingly sophisticated vine burial techniques, growers have shifted focus to enhancing other viticultural practices. A major concern is the high soil salinity, which poses two primary challenges. First, as most vines grow on their own roots, elevated salt levels can hinder normal water and nutrient uptake. To combat this, some producers have begun grafting vines onto rootstocks resistant to high salinity. Second, there’s an issue with pH levels; naturally high potassium content in the grapes, from the soils, often results in elevated pH despite acid additions, leading to lower acidity in many Ningxia wines. In recent years, some winemakers have pursued more refreshing styles through innovative vineyard management and winemaking techniques. There are six subregions within East Foothill of Helan Mountain, arranged from north to south: Shizuishan, Jinshan, Zhenbeibu, Yuquanying, Qingtongxia, and Hongsipu. (More will likely be identified in the future.) These subregions are primarily delineated by their local administrative centers. Soil composition varies across these areas; those nearer to the main Helan Mountain range tend to have rockier soils, while those closer to the Yellow River contain more clay. Considerations for growing conditions differ among the subregions. Northern and central areas are more sheltered by the Helan Mountains, offering protection from harsh winter conditions. Southward, where the mountains are lower and less dense, arid winds can penetrate vineyards, intensifying winter challenges but cooling vineyards during hot summers and reducing fungal disease pressure. Wines from these areas tend to have powerful structures. Hexi Corridor The name Hexi denotes the western side of the Yellow River. This region forms a narrow corridor nestled among various mountain ranges. Beginning at the southwestern end of the Helan Mountains, in Ningxia, the corridor stretches directly to the Turpan Basin, in Xinjiang. Most of this corridor lies within Gansu Province, with some vineyard areas extending into Qinghai Province, hence its alternative name, Gansu Corridor. Historically, the Hexi Corridor has been a vital segment of the Northern Silk Road, serving as a crucial passage connecting China’s central plains with the western regions of Asia. Today, it remains integral to China’s Belt and Road Initiative, underscoring the substantial government support for the wine industry in northwestern China. The growing conditions in Hexi Corridor are akin to those in Ningxia, influenced by its desert surroundings. The vineyard area here, however, covers only 2,000 hectares (4,940 acres), a fraction of Ningxia’s. Without the protective benefits that the Helan Mountain range affords Ningxia, vineyards are restricted to sheltered areas along the narrow corridor. Additionally, vineyards must be planted near the primary water source, supplied by snowmelt from the Qilian Mountains. Vineyards are scattered across subregions such as Wuwei, Zhangye, Jiayuguan, and Dunhuang. The most esteemed subregion, Wuwei, lies directly beneath the Qilian Mountains, benefiting from a desert climate that minimizes fungal disease pressure while ensuring sufficient grape ripening. Xinjiang (Wine) Region Compared with Ningxia and Gansu, Xinjiang receives even more intense sunlight, often exceeding 3,000 hours annually. Xinjiang’s climatic conditions contribute to it being the source of over 80% of China’s raisin production. Because the intense sunlight poses a significant risk of sunburn to vines, many growers use large, dense canopies for shading. The diurnal temperature range in Xinjiang can be substantial, with daytime highs reaching up to 50 degrees Celsius (122 degrees Fahrenheit) and nighttime lows dropping to around 20 degrees Celsius (68 degrees Fahrenheit) during harvest season. The extreme continental climate of this northwestern region also results in bitterly cold and dry winters, necessitating vine burial practices. Apart from its general growing conditions, the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region is China’s largest provincial division, encompassing one-sixth of the country’s total landmass. It is the second largest wine-producing area, covering 33,500 hectares (82,780 acres) of vineyards. Given its diverse geography, Xinjiang’s four main wine regions can be considered individually, as each shows distinct characteristics. The Northern Foothill of Tianshan Mountain region lies north of the capital city Ürümqi, situated between the northern slopes of the Tian Shan Mountains and the Gurbantünggüt Desert, the second largest desert in China. This plateau region spans an altitude range of 500 to 1,000 meters (1,640 to 3,280 feet). With its relatively flat terrain and proximity to Ürümqi, this area has become a hub for viticulture and winemaking, with wineries of significant production capacity established here. In recent years, subregions have been defined to highlight the diversity within this area. Key grape varieties include Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Chardonnay, and Italian Riesling. Additionally, Syrah has garnered attention in this region for its strong performance. The Yanqi Basin is a semienclosed area located south of the Tian Shan Mountains, with an average altitude of 1,100 meters (3,610 feet). Initially a barren desert region, the basin is notable for hosting the important Bosten Lake, one of the largest inland freshwater lakes in China. The lake not only introduces some humidity, mitigating the arid conditions, but also interacts with surrounding mountains to produce moderating breezes. As a result, the Yanqi Basin has emerged as the second most significant wine region in Xinjiang. The region is increasingly renowned for producing high-quality Cabernet Sauvignon, Marselan, and Syrah grapes. The Ili River Valley has the least continental climate among all the wine regions in Xinjiang, uniquely influenced by humid Atlantic air. Unlike in other regions in China, there are no major mountain ranges blocking this Atlantic influence from the far west until it reaches the western part of the Tian Shan Mountains in the Ili River Valley’s east. Consequently, harvest in this valley occurs later compared with other Xinjiang regions. While higher-altitude areas (up to 1,300 meters, or 4,270 feet) help preserve freshness in varieties such as Pinot Noir and Riesling, most vineyards are planted at lower altitudes. These lower altitudes yield wines characterized by a relatively elegant style, including Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Chardonnay, and Italian Riesling. The regions of Turpan and Hami Basin are characterized by an arid desert climate, with daytime temperatures often reaching extremely high levels (up to 50 degrees Celsius, or 122 degrees Fahrenheit). This environment is suited primarily to cultivating raisins, which are among Xinjiang’s most significant agricultural products. Distinctive wines can also be crafted here, though, by selecting heat-resistant grape varieties and using effective shading techniques. Examples include wines made from Georgian varieties, such as Rkatsiteli and Saperavi, showing the region’s potential for quality winemaking despite its challenging climate. Northern Zone In contrast to the pronounced continentality of the Northwestern Zone, the Northern Zone has a more temperate continental climate. Summers are notably more humid, characterized by thunderstorms that are rare in northwestern China. As a result, vineyard workers here contend with a higher prevalence of fungal diseases. Despite this, wines from northern China typically show lower alcohol levels and balanced acidity compared with those from the Northwestern Zone. The region still has cold, dry winters, however, necessitating vine burial practices in most vineyards to protect against the harsh conditions. A significant advantage of the Northern Zone is its proximity to highly developed cities, such as Beijing and Tianjin, which allows producers greater access to skilled labor, advanced equipment, and a developed marketplace. This proximity has facilitated extensive experimentation with grape varieties to identify those best suited to the local terroir, although Bordeaux varieties remain predominant. Successful trials have included Burgundian-style Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, along with varieties including Marselan, Riesling, and even Tempranillo, demonstrating the region’s potential for diverse winemaking achievements. Bohai Bay Region The Bohai Bay region, centered around the major cities of Beijing and Tianjin, benefits significantly from Tianjin’s status as China’s largest human-made port and a longstanding trade hub. Notably, one of China’s largest wine producers, Dynasty, has established its headquarters there. The Tianjin municipality is influenced by increased humidity from the Bohai Sea, creating challenges for vine health. Consequently, many large producers in Tianjin now source a substantial quantity of grapes from regions such as East Foothill of Helan Mountain. Suburbs of Beijing municipality, such as Fangshan District and Miyun District, have been identified as suitable wine-producing regions because of their windy conditions during the growing seasons. The hilly topography in these areas generates consistent winds that effectively mitigate humidity, provided vineyards are strategically planted in optimal sites. The Huailai wine region, in Hebei Province, centered around Huailai County, exemplifies the helpful influence of wind. Situated within the Yanqing-Huailai Basin, this region benefits from strong winds channeled through hills and river valleys. Vineyards located near the Guanting reservoir, China’s first large-scale reservoir, have access to an ample water supply and a lake-like effect that moderates the local climate. This contributes to even and steady grape ripening, resulting in balanced wines with notably low pH levels and refreshing natural acidity compared with those of northwestern regions. The Huailai wine region is divided into five subregions: Guanting North Bank (including Shacheng Town and Tumu Town), Guanting South Bank (including Xiaonan Xinbao Town and Donghuayuan Town), Sangyuan Town, and Wangjialou Township. Huailai was the site of the first Marselan grapevine planted in China, and another highly successful variety here is Petit Manseng. The windy conditions in Huailai cause Petit Manseng grapes to shrivel, and the dried, raisin-like berries are transformed to intensely concentrated, complex, and lusciously sweet wines with mouthwatering acidity. Hebei Province features another wine-producing center, the Jieshi Mountain region, located, unlike Hualai and the other inland regions, in the coastal Changli County. This coastal area faces the Bohai Sea but benefits from the Jieshi Mountain, an extension of the Yan Mountains of northern China, which blocks much of the sea’s humidity. This geographic advantage has established a favorable viticultural area within the county, with less humidity than the coastal Tianjin areas. Loess Plateau Region Situated as a plateau in north-central China, the Loess Plateau wine region blends elements of both the northwestern and Bohai Bay climates. This region receives ample sunlight akin to the Bohai Bay area, influenced by arid conditions from the nearby Gobi Desert in the northwest. While winter vine burial remains necessary in the central-north part of the region, vineyards located farther south, where the winters are often milder, do not require burial. During the growing season, the plateau receives more humidity compared with the northwestern regions because of the continental monsoon climatic pattern. This higher humidity contributes to elevated fungal disease pressure, a significant concern for viticulture in the area. Wines from the Loess Plateau typically show alcohol levels, acidity, phenolic ripeness, and flavor profiles that blend aspects of both northwestern and Bohai Bay wines, reflecting the region’s unique climatic influences. The Loess Plateau region spans primarily across two provinces: Shanxi Province and Shaanxi Province. There are only a small number of wineries scattered across these provinces, resulting in limited understanding of regional identities and characteristics among both consumers and producers. To address this, industry professionals in China have begun proposing subregions within the expansive Loess Plateau based on specific geographic features. This initiative aims to establish clearer regional or subregional concepts and enhance recognition of the region’s wine industry. The proposed regions include Fenhe Plain, Weihe North Plateau, Guanzhong Plain, and Danfeng County. Eastern Zone Moving into the wettest vineyard areas, the monsoonal influence in the Eastern Zone is pronounced. From mid-June to mid-July, this region receives persistent rainfall and rain showers because of the strong subtropical front and even typhoons pushing in from the east. This high humidity not only affects agricultural crops, leading to high fungal disease pressure, but also causes issues such as mold on clothing and furniture. In extreme cases, days with excessive humidity are referred to as “sauna weather” by locals. The Shanghai municipality, the most economically developed city in China, receives substantial rainfall during the summer. Although not suitable for viticulture, Shanghai has the most developed wine marketplace in China. In a monsoon climate, managing excess water and humidity is crucial to site selection and viticultural practices. When vineyards are being planted, slopes are often prioritized to encourage better drainage, and hills to lessen the subtropical influence, while open canopies are preferred to maintain healthier vines. Despite these efforts, heavy rainfall, hail, and thunderstorms can significantly impact both the quantity and quality of grapes during a particular vintage. Premium-quality wines can indeed be achieved under favorable conditions in eastern China. The region’s low continentality allows for long growing seasons that gradually ripen grapes. Compared with regions farther north, grapes grown in the Eastern Zone tend to show better phenolic maturity, crisper acidity, and more moderate alcohol levels. This results in elegant wines with fine tannins. A notable advantage in eastern China is that, thanks to sufficient warmth and moisture, it’s not necessary to bury vines over winter. This reduces costs and enhances the longevity and vitality of vines. Consequently, the region has the highest number of old vines, some exceeding 50 years in age, contributing to the depth and complexity of its wines. Jiaodong Peninsula Region Shandong Province encompasses the entire Jiaodong Peninsula wine region, which includes three main wine regions around the major cities of Yantai, Weihai, and Qingdao. These cities have undergone strong economic development, which has facilitated the establishment of new wineries. For instance, Qingdao is renowned as the home of Tsingtao Brewery, holding more than a 2.5% share of the global beer market. The coastal areas of these cities benefit from the moderating effects of both the Bohai Sea and the Yellow Sea. Moreover, the peninsula’s numerous valleys have helped create slopes and low-lying hills, which aid in minimizing damp conditions in the vineyards. As the birthplace of the modern Chinese wine industry, with the first commercial winery established in Yantai, Shandong Province has developed a robust industrial infrastructure for viticulture, winemaking, bottling, packaging, transportation, and logistics over the past century. The province has a total vineyard area of 19,500 hectares (48,190 acres), making it the third largest in China. Predominant grape varieties include Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Chardonnay, and Italian Riesling, along with significant plantings of Cabernet Gernischt. Small quantities of single-varietal Petit Verdot are produced in Shandong Province, and the wines have become known for their outstanding quality. Some of the finest rosé wines are produced here as well. As Yantai has developed, subregions have emerged. Local wine professionals use the phrase “one belt, three valleys” to describe the mesoclimate centered around the renowned wine-producing district of Penglai. “One belt” refers to the concentration of wineries along the seaside belt, while “three valleys” refers to the Qiushan, Pingshan, and Nanwang valleys, within the Penglai district. These valleys are adorned with vineyards planted on hills and gentle slopes, some of which are terraced against the backdrop of beautiful coastal scenery. The different aspects of vineyards on the slopes create a diversity of mesoclimates in each valley. Northeastern Zone The growing conditions in the Northeastern Zone are similar to those of Canada, with reliable snowfall during the winter. Temperatures can drop to minus 20 degrees Celsius (minus 4 degrees Fahrenheit), allowing grapes to naturally freeze in late autumn and early winter. Surprisingly, this coldness doesn’t necessitate burying the vines over winter; instead, the higher humidity in the air masses, compared with the arid conditions of northwestern China, combined with heavy snowfall acts as a natural and effective insulation blanket to protect the vines. As in Canada, Vidal has been selected as the primary white grape variety for producing ice wine from frozen grape berries. This variety is resilient to cold weather and fungal diseases and produces ice wine with excellent balance between sweetness and acidity. Additionally, there are red grape varieties, typically hybrids of vinifera and Vitis amurensis , prized for their cold-weather resistance, but the flavors can be too unfamiliar to international consumers. Changbai Mountain Region Although the snowy conditions create layers of insulation during winter, most areas of northern China are too cold to allow for grape ripening. But there are vineyards in the relatively lower-latitude areas of Liaoning Province and Jilin Province. Within these provinces, moderating influences are crucial when establishing vineyards. The Changbai Mountain region spans the northern part, providing protection for vineyards in such major areas as Huanren, Tonghua, and the Yalu River Valley. The extended foothills and valleys of Changbai Mountain, along with nearby rivers and lakes, create milder conditions that support steady grape ripening and health. In Huanren particularly, Huanren Lake enhances this effect with climate moderation and sunlight reflection, facilitating conditions suitable for ice wine production when grapes freeze. Southwestern Zone The Southwestern Zone includes a latitude range of 22 degrees to 29 degrees. Despite this low latitude, the vineyards are situated at high altitudes, resulting in an alpine plateau climate. The most renowned viticultural areas lie within the Shangri-La region, located at the border of Yunnan Province, Sichuan Province, and the Tibet Autonomous Region. Consequently, the wine industry has proposed the concept of the Greater Shangri-La wine region, predominantly encompassing vineyards in Yunnan, with additional high-altitude sites in Sichuan and Tibet. The corresponding wine regions of the latter two are Western Sichuan Plateau and Eastern Tibet. Greater Shangri-La Region The Greater Shangri-La wine region has one of the most complex and unique geographies among all vineyard areas globally. Within the wine industry, the altitudes of the Shangri-La vineyards are often compared with those of Argentina. For instance, Argentinian vineyards typically sit above 700 meters (2,300 feet), with some reaching above 3,000 meters (9,840 feet), whereas the Shangri-La vineyards start at 1,500 meters (4,920 feet) and can ascend to 3,000 meters (9,840 feet). But there is a significant distinction in their topography: Argentinian vineyards are often on plateaus, whereas Shangri-La’s terrain is dramatic, characterized by steep slopes and terraced agricultural lands. Mechanization is nearly impossible in this rugged landscape, leading to intensely demanding labor and high viticultural costs. Consequently, vineyard operations are typically small-scale, emphasizing premium-quality production as the region’s primary focus. Playing a pivotal role in shaping the complex topography of the Greater Shangri-La region, the Hengduan Mountain range spans almost vertically from north to south (with a slight tilt from northwest to southeast), with higher altitudes in the north. The deep river valleys within this range serve as conduits for the southwest Indian monsoon, transporting warmth and humidity inland to the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and parts of southeastern China. This natural phenomenon provides sufficient warmth and humidity to viticultural areas, eliminating the need for vine burial over winter. In the Greater Shangri-La region, the altitudes become higher farther north, toward the Tibetan border. Higher elevations offer several advantages: a more temperate climate, with fewer extreme hot days in summer, and with mild winters that negate the need for vine burial; stronger UV light, which contributes to flavor and phenolic development in grape skins; and a high diurnal temperature range, which helps preserve acidity. In this region, moderate maritime-like influences from the monsoon combine with continental features of warm days and cool nights, resulting in premium wines, such as Cabernet Sauvignon–based reds and Chardonnay, known for their complexity, concentration, long aging potential, elegance, and purity. The Greater Shangri-La region has extremely diverse mesoclimates because of its varying altitudes and aspects. Higher altitudes on the sheltered side, away from monsoon channels, show cooler and drier conditions, while lower-altitude sites facing southwest winds have warmer and more humid environments. Defining subregions has been challenging, owing to the unique expression of each vineyard scattered throughout the region. Several counties are recognized for premium wine production, including Deqin and Weixi, within Shangri-La. A wide range of grape varieties thrive in different vineyards with varied soil types, including Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, and Riesling, as well as hybrids, such as Rose Honey. Written by Gus Zhu MW (October 2024) Edited by Sandra Ban and Stacy Ladenburger Special thanks to Demei Li for reviewing this guide and providing the map used above.Previewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/165/spainMon, 19 Jan 2026 15:27:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:e4acdcb5-c845-4bdb-9db7-3556e58b732dJonathan EichholzTable of Contents Spain North-Central Spain Green Spain: Galicia and Basque Country Castilla y León Catalonia (Catalunya) Southern Spain Review Quizzes Spain The Phoenicians, one of the first great maritime trading cultures, founded the city of Gadir (modern Cádiz) on the coast of southern Spain around 1100 BCE and established the value of viticulture and wine as a commodity in Andalucía. The wine trade of the eastern Mediterranean owes a significant debt to Phoenician ships: the grapes they carried from the Middle East to North Africa, the Mediterranean islands and the Iberian peninsula represent the genetic ancestors of some of the modern varieties of Spain. However, while the Phoenicians may have introduced viticulture in Spain, evidence of primitive grape cultivation reaches thousands of years back in time, and wild grapes preceded mankind in the region. Winemaking continued under the Romans, who improved on the fragile, large amphorae in use, but it remained a secondary pursuit under the conquering Moors, whose religion forbade the consumption of alcohol. Still, grapegrowing persisted and was often used for raisins and distillation for medicines, perfumes, and other goods. Despite the indifference of the Moors—the sale of wine was illegal, but often tolerated—Spanish wine became renowned for its strength, and found its way as a blending component into wines from France and Italy. During this time, the Catholic church began to expand slowly as well and would soon come to reign in Spain. In 1492, Christopher Columbus and the Spanish explorers opened up a new world for Spanish trade. Wine benefitted greatly from these related occurrences: with the law’s renewed approval, Spanish wine went forth with Spanish ships to supply the nation’s new colonies, and the inherently heavy wines were often made in a deliberately rancio style, or they nonetheless arrived in the West Indies that way. Sherry wines, possibly the first vinous export to North America, became increasingly popular with the English market from the end of the 15th century onward, despite a deteriorating relationship between the two nations that culminated in the English defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588. The Spanish colonies presented a captive audience for Spanish wines; 17th century Spanish law barred the colonies from producing their own—a move that would impede the nascent New World wine industries and protect Spanish exports like Málaga and Sherry. However, few of Spain’s table wines were of great quality, and Spain was falling behind the rest of Europe in the development of new viticultural techniques. When oidium and phylloxera struck France in the 1850s and 1860s, an abrupt change occurred, particularly in Rioja, where a sudden influx of French winemakers and merchants sought to bridge the interruption of their own disease-ridden vineyards with Spanish wine. During this period the Bordeaux-trained Marqués de Riscal and Marqués de Murrieta returned to Rioja with grape varieties and lessons from the Médoc, including barrique aging (called barricas in Spain) and estate bottling (performed at their newly constructed bodegas ). However, a significant alteration to the Bordeaux technique of barrique aging was implemented in Rioja: the Spaniards used American oak ( Quercus alba ) rather than French—an economic decision based on Spain’s history of transatlantic colonial trade. Many of today’s great traditionalist Rioja wineries got their start in the latter half of the 19th century: López de Heredia, CVNE, La Rioja Alta, and Berceo. The second half of the 19th century also saw the birth of Spanish traditional method sparkling wine— champaña , now known as Cava—at San Sadurní d’Anoia. The ravages of phylloxera and fungal diseases did not spare Spain, and the root louse arrived in Rioja near the dawn of the 20th century. Nonetheless, Spain focused on quality, and Consejos Reguladores were established for the major regions of Rioja, Jerez, and Málaga in the 1930s. Following a bloody civil war, fascism took hold in Spain under Francisco Franco in the late 1930s, and Spain remained the only major fascist country in Western Europe after World War II—a dark period for wine that would last until the dictator’s death in 1975. The suppression of economic freedom under Franco hindered winemakers, although several advances were made. Miguel Torres brought stainless steel and temperature-controlled fermentations to Catalonia in the 1960s, and the Denominación de Origen regulations were finally approved in 1970 for Rioja. Spain responded to its new freedom after Franco with a simultaneous celebration and diversification of its unique regional cultures. Many Spanish winegrowing regions were reborn in the latter decades of the 20th century, as enthusiastic young vignerons sought to showcase their Spanish identity through modern technique, looking both forward and backward for inspiration. Today, Spain is a diverse mix of experimental, modern, and traditional winemaking techniques, and the country’s wine laws are some of the most adaptable in Europe. In Spain, Denominación de Origen (DO) and the superior Denominación de Origen Calificada (DOCa) represent the two highest tiers of quality wine, equivalent to the EU’s Protected Designation of Origin (DOP) status. The first DOs were awarded in 1932. Vinos de Calidad con Indicación Geográfica (VCIG), once considered a steppingstone to DO, is also considered DOP in the new European appellation scheme. The lowest level of quality wine, Vino de la Tierra (VdlT), falls within the EU’s Protected Geographical Indication (IGP) scheme. The DO Pago (Vinos de Pago) estates represent a theoretically superior appellation to the basic DO. An estate within an existing DO must surpass the basic DO requirements in DO Pago legislation, typically through lowered yields and other measures suggestive of quality winemaking. In order to apply for DO Pago status, an estate should show international critical praise and a decade's worth of quality production, although some young Pagos have sped through official channels with astonishing speed. Interest in Pagos is notably absent in Spain's top quality appellations, such as Rioja and Ribera del Duero, where producers have nothing to gain from distancing themselves from a well-known brand. Spanish DO wines are generally eligible for a series of aging designations, provided the below requirements are met. Despite a suggestion of quality, these terms are rapidly disappearing from labels in a new, forward-looking Spain that perceives terms like crianza and reserva as old-fashioned. With the exception of a few major regions (including Rioja and Ribera del Duero) that have adapted more stringent requirements, the following label definitions are consistent throughout Spain. Additionally, any DOP wines may use the following aging terminology: Noble: min. 18 months aging in a cask of less than 600 L or bottle Añejo: min. 24 months aging in a cask of less than 600 L or bottle Viejo: min. 36 months aging, demonstrates marked oxidative character BACK TO TOP North Central Spain North-Central Spain essentially comprises the three autonomías of Navarra, La Rioja, and Aragón. Sheltered by the Pyrenees Mountains to the northeast, which divide France and Spain, and the Cantabrian Mountains to the northwest, the region’s highlands are in a rain shadow, and summer temperatures rise further inland. The Ebro River emerges from the eastern Cantabrian Mountains, and flows on a southeasterly course toward the Mediterranean, passing through the historic Rioja DOCa , Spain’s premier red wine region. Rioja, named not after the Ebro but for the Oja, a smaller tributary, was the first region in Spain to be christened as Denominación de Origen Calificada—in 1991—and has been a viable wine-producing area for over 2000 years. Here, as in the other many of the other major winegrowing regions of Europe, Christian monks guided viticulture in the Middle Ages. The 13th century Benedictine clergyman Gonzalo de Berceo, whose name is commemorated in Berceo’s reserva and gran reserva bottlings, extolled the virtues of Rioja wine in verse. Although he penned his theological works in Latin, he preferred to write his poetry in the “vulgar vernacular” of Spanish, hoping to reach the less educated peasantry. His short verses represent the first Spanish poetry committed to paper, more than a century after the king’s legal recognition of Rioja in 1102. Further decrees protecting the wines’ regional identity were issued by the 17th century, and in the 19th century the style of Rioja wines shifted, subject to French influence. Aging in American oak barrels became a standard, and the red wines started to resemble what is now considered the classic style: soft, with muted red fruit, firm acidity and the unmistakable oak aromas coconut, vanilla and cedar. Today, however, a new spectrum of styles emerges from Rioja, as many producers are emphasizing French oak, more extraction, and riper, darker fruit. A similar dichotomy exists in the region’s white wines: some are produced in a clean, fruity, modern style, whereas others are wood-toned, oxidative and textural. Occasionally, Rioja white wines may be off-dry. Tempranillo is the main grape of red Rioja and is the most planted grape in the whole country; its traditional blending partners are Mazuelo (Carignan), Graciano, and Garnacha. Together, these four grapes (along with Maturana Tinta, authorized for Rioja in 2007) must comprise a minimum 85% of the red Rioja blend, or 95% if destemmed. “Experimental” grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon may make up the remainder. Viura—known elsewhere as Macabéo—is the dominant white grape, followed by Garnacha Blanca, Malvasía Riojano, and Maturana Blanca. Chardonnay, Tempranillo Blanco, Sauvignon Blanc, Turruntés, and Verdejo are the only other white grapes permitted in blends. Rosado wines require a minimum 25% of the four previously mentioned primary red grapes of Rioja. As in Ribera del Duero, Rioja regulations for aging red wines supersede the standard requirements. Red crianza wines require a total two years of aging prior to release, with a minimum year in oak. Red reserva wines are aged for three years, including one year in oak. Gran Reserva red wines must age for at least two years in cask and two years in bottle, with a total aging of at least 60 months. Rioja casks must be 225 liters—the size of a barrique. Rioja white wines and rosados are also eligible for these categories: crianza wines age for eighteen months, reserva wines for two years, and gran reserva wines age for four. All three categories require a minimum six months in cask. Whereas producers may age white and rosado crianza wines in a non-oxidative environment like stainless steel, reserva wines must remain in oak or bottle for the minimum period of aging. From Haro in the northwest to Alfaro in the southeast, Rioja follows the path of the Ebro through three climatically distinct subzones: Rioja Alta, Rioja Alavesa, and Rioja Oriental (formerly Rioja Baja.) Rioja Alavesa is the smallest, northernmost zone (it is located within Basque country) and Tempranillo here often produces vino joven wines for early consumption. Carbonic maceration may be employed for such wines. Rioja Alta is the southwestern zone, and with its slightly warmer climate the zone is capable of producing classic, ageworthy Tempranillo, Mazuelo and Graciano. Rioja Alta and Rioja Alavesa share a similar soil structure, with a high proportion of calcareous clay, whereas Rioja Oriental, the hottest subregion, contains more alluvial soils and ferrous clay. Garnacha performs best in Rioja Oriental's hot climate. Many producers will source blends from all three subregions to create a base style, combining the freshness of Rioja Alavesa, the extract and alcoholic warmth of Rioja Oriental, and the acidity and structure of Rioja Alta. Others, however, prefer the typicity that results from single region and single vineyard bottlings: staunch traditionalist López de Heredia produces single vineyard wines from estate vineyards such as Bosconia and Tondonia; and Ysios—a modern winery renowned for its avant-garde architectural design—produces pure Tempranillo from its estate vineyards in the Rioja Alavesa region. Architecturally, Ysios is at the forefront of a new movement in spectacular modern bodega design sweeping through Rioja. Marqués de Riscal’s estate now includes an impressive new structure designed by Frank Gehry, famed architect of the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, and even de Heredia, the oldest winery in Haro, now features a sleek new visitors’ boutique designed by Zaha Hadid. Although many producers have made single vineyard bottles for decades, there was no official single vineyard category until legislation passed in 2017. As of 2018, producers may register their Viñedos Singulares and print official single vineyard names on their labels. To be a single vineyard, the vineyard's soil must be assessed, the vines must be at least 35 years old, the estate must have proof that it has been working with the vineyard for at least 10 years, and the wine must pass a tasting panel. The grapes must also be hand-harvested at a significantly lower yield than what is typically required of regional wines. Also in 2018, the Vino Espumoso de Calidad category was added for traditional method sparkling wine. To be labeled as such, the grapes must be hand-harvested, and the entire winemaking process must take place at the same facility (that is, it cannot be moved at any stage of the process). Brut Nature, Extra Brut, and Brut styles are allowed. Vino Espumoso requires a minimum of 15 months lees aging, whereas Reserva and Gran Anãda require 24 and 36 months, respectively. Gran Anãda wines must be produced with fruit harvested during a single vintage, and this date must be stated on the label. Artadi's "El Pison" vineyard in Rioja. Navarra DO is adjacent to the northern and eastern borders of Rioja, and has long been famous for rosado bottlings. Like Rioja, Navarra wines gained prominence in the Middle Ages due to clerical support, and the rosados of the region achieved recognition by the 15th century. Today, however, red wine accounts for approximately 60% of the Navarra’s production, with rosado wines representing only 30% of the region’s output. Garnacha and Tempranillo are the major red varieties. Chardonnay plantings have spiked in the last two decades, making it Navarra's most prominent white variety, but white grapes account for only about 7% of vineyard acreage. Red grapes of French origin, including Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Pinot Noir, are on the rise. Navarra contains five subzones: the higher altitude Valdizarbe, Baja Montaña and Tierra Estella in the north, Ribera Alta in the center of the zone, and Ribera Baja in the hot southern sector. As a testament to the rising quality of Navarra’s red wines, four estates earned their own DO Pago appellations: Señorío de Arínzano and Prado Irache in Tierra Estella, Bodegas Otazu in Valdizarbe, and Bolandín in Ribera Baja. The autonomía of Aragon, to the east of Rioja and Navarra, contains four DOs: Campo de Borja , Calatayud , Cariñena , and Somontano . The hot climate of Navarra’s Ribera Baja and Rioja’s Oriental (Baja) zone extends southward into the Campo de Borja DO, where Garnacha commands around two-thirds of the vineyard acreage. Red and rosado wines are produced, principally from Garnacha and Tempranillo, and white wines are based on Viura. Garnacha also dominates the vineyards of Calatayud DO and Cariñena DO to the south. Cariñena, one of Spain’s longstanding delimited zones (dating to 1932) is the ancestral home of the Carignan/Mazuelo grape, but today the grape is a secondary player in the region’s blends. Finally, the up-and-coming Somontano DO (“beneath the mountain”) lies in the foothills of the Pyrenees near Catalonia, producing wines from local grapes such as the white Alcañón and red Parraleta, as well as a larger complement of Spanish and international varieties. The region also contains two Pagos, Ayles and Urbezo. BACK TO TOP Green Spain: Galicia and Basque Country Green Spain includes the autonomía of Galicia, which borders Portugal in the northwestern corner of the country, and the autonomías of Asturias, Cantabria, and País Vasco (Basque Country) along the northern Costa Verde , or green coast. Galicia is a verdant region of lush vegetation and dense forests, riddled with rías (estuaries) and small rivers cutting through low mountain ranges. The cooler maritime climate of the region is ideal for the production of crisp, refreshing white wines, and Galicia is emerging as one of Spain’s best areas for such wines. As the nickname “Green Spain” implies, Galicia is a world removed from the popular conception of an arid Spanish landscape. Within Galicia, there are five DOs: Rías Baixas , Ribeiro , Valdeorras , Ribeira Sacra , and Monterrei . Rías Baixas DO (the “low estuaries”) borders Portugal on the coast and contains five subzones: Val do Salnés, Ribeira do Ulla, Soutomaior, O Rosal, and Condado do Tea. The white grape Albariño comprises classic wines from the region, and a wine labeled Rías Baixas Albariño will not contain any blending grapes. If the wine is instead labeled with one of the northern subzones (Val do Salnés or Ribeira do Ulla) it must contain a minimum 70% of recommended varieties: Albariño, Loureiro, Treixadura, and Caiño Blanco. The southern subzones of O Rosal and Condado do Tea vary slightly: the wines contain a minimum 70% of Albariño combined with, respectively, either Loureira or Treixadura—the favored white grapes in Portugal’s neighboring Vinho Verde—in any combination. Regardless, many of the best producers make pure varietal Albariño, sometimes subjecting the wine to malolactic fermentation and barrica aging, which is indicated on the bottle. Whether oaked or not, classic Albariño wines tend to show stone fruit and citrus flowers, with an undercurrent of minerality. Red wines are produced from grapes such as Caiño, Espadeiro and Mencía, but nearly 96% of the vineyard acreage in Rías Baixas is devoted to Albariño. With exports to England dating to the 17th century, Ribeiro DO is one of Spain’s oldest recognized wine regions, and the wines have always been popular with Spaniards. Located along the Miño River to the east of Rías Baixas, the region produces red and white wines based on Galician varieties—Treixadura is the favored white grape, gradually replacing the neutral, heavier Palomino, and Caiño is preferred for reds. A dried grape wine, Vino Tostado, is a local specialty. The “sacred bank” of Ribeira Sacra DO, named for its large concentration of churches, is located further inland and upriver. Ribeira Sacra encompasses five subregions: Amandi, Chantada, Quiroga-Bibei, Ribeiras do Sil and Ribeiras do Miño. Steeply terraced slopes recall the better-known regions of the northern Rhône—the Romans also built these terraces, some 2000 years ago. The remote region’s better red and white wines are based on Mencía, Treixadura, and Godello. Valdeorras DO is Galicia’s easternmost zone. While some pleasant red wines are produced, the region’s best wines are clean, fruit-driven, high-acid Godello whites. Monterrei, the southernmost DO in Galicia, is a small region with only a handful of wineries. Asturias and Cantabria do not produce any DO wine, but the País Vasco contains three principal DO zones: Getariako Txakolina , Bizkaiko Txakolina , and Arabako Txakolina . Wines from all three DOs may be white, red, or rosado , but the white wines, produced from the native Ondarrabi Zuri grape, are predominant. In Getariako alone, Ondarrabi Zuri (Hondarribi Zuri) accounts for 95% of vineyard acreage, with the remaining acreage planted to Ondarrabi Beltza, the preferred local red variety. The rare rosado wines, traditionally known as Ojo de Gallo, are often blends of the two grapes. The white wines, a perfect complement to oily seafood, are low in alcohol, high in lemony acidity, and retain a light effervescence. Txakoli wines should be consumed in their youth. BACK TO TOP Castilla y León Castilla y León, or Old Castile, is Spain’s largest autonomía . “The land of castles” includes a number of such fortifications built to repel the Moors in the early Middle Ages, and the dynastic union of Castilla y León and Aragon through marriage in the 15th century led to the birth of the Kingdom of Spain. Castilian Spanish was the only official dialect in Spain for two centuries prior to the ratification of the Spanish constitution in 1978. The region is generally characterized by a continental climate, slightly moderated by its proximity to the Atlantic and Mediterranean but still subject to extreme highs and lows. The terrain of Castilla y León consists of the northern part of the Meseta Central—the arid central plateau of Spain—and the mountains that encircle it. The Duero River flows westward through the center of the region and passes the DOs of Ribera del Duero , Rueda , Toro , Tierra del Vino de Zamora , and finally Arribes on its path toward Portugal. Arlanza DO is located directly north of Ribera del Duero, with Cigales DO to the west of both appellations. León DO and Bierzo DO are located in the mountainous northwestern corner of Castilla y León; Bierzo borders Valdeorras in Galicia. The Mencía grape is at home in the valleys of the Sil River and its tributaries in the Bierzo DO; it is often the dominant grape in red wines and rosé wines, and many of the region’s newer and more serious reds are solely produced from Mencía. The young Alvaro Palacios, already a marquee name in Priorat, founded Descendientes de José Palacios with his nephew Ricardo Pérez in 1999, and achieved instant recognition for Bierzo with their biodynamic “Corullón” bottlings: extracted, old-vine Mencía-based wines sourced from mountainside schist soils. The project, along with other modern trailblazers such as Dominio de Tares and Pittacum, is commanding top dollar for its wines. Whites are also produced, and while wines made from Godello and Doña Blanca show more promise, Palomino still dominates the vineyards. The León DO, upgraded from Vino de la Tierra in 2007, produces reds, whites, and rosados . Recommended red grapes include Mencía and the local Prieto Picudo. Ribera del Duero DO, which surrounds the towns of Aranda de Duero and Peñafiel in the Duero River Valley, is considered one of Spain’s top red wine-producing regions. The region’s flagship estate has long been Vega Sicilia, founded in by Don Eloy Lecanda y Chaves, who in 1864 planted a number of Bordeaux varieties and—curiously—a little Pinot Noir alongside Tinto del País (Tempranillo) in order to make brandy. In 1929, following an ownership change and a transition to estate-bottled table wines, new winemaker Domingo Txomin achieved international acclaim at the Barcelona World’s Fair with his 1917 and 1918 vintages of Único, Vega Sicilia’s benchmark wine. Único, blended from Tinto del País, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot and aged, often for a decade or more in American and French oak barrels, has long commanded extravagantly high prices, even as a simple vino de mesa —Ribera del Duero did not achieve DO status until 1982. Despite its mammoth influence, Vega Sicilia remained the only serious producer in the region until the 1980s, when the wines of Pesquera began achieving critical acclaim. Since the mid-1980s, however, quality, investment and interest have skyrocketed in Ribera del Duero, and the region now supports a number of cult wine estates, including Dominio de Pingus and Aalto. When Ribera del Duero received DO status, there were only 9 wineries in the region; today the number of producers is nearer to 300. Ribera del Duero produces reds as well as small amounts of whites, rosados, and claretes . Whites must contain at least 75% of the early-ripening Albillo Mayor grape. Rosados and claretes are composed of a minimum of 50% authorized red grapes for the area. Tempranillo, variously known as Tinto del País and Tinto Fino, is the region’s premier grape and enjoys a near monopoly on its vineyards; a minimum of 75% is required for its reds. Small amounts of Garnacha and international varieties like Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot are also cultivated. As in Rioja, the aging requirements for these categories differ slightly from the normal DO standards. Recent labeling changes allow for not only reds but also white wines, rosados , and claretes to be labeled crianza , reserva , and gran reserva . For crianza , reds must age for two years prior to release (including one year in cask). Reds labeled reserva must age for three years prior to release (including one year in cask). Gran reserva reds must age for a minimum two years in cask for a total of five years of aging altogether. Roble may be used for wines that see a minimum of three months oak aging; joven is for wines aged less than three months. Whether joven or gran reserva , however, no rule mandates that an aging classification needs to be stated on the label. (For a full list of aging requirements, refer to the Compendium .) Rueda received its DO shortly before Ribera del Duero, in 1980. The white Verdejo grape, easily prone to oxidation, was rejuvenated by Marqués de Riscal in the 1970s as a fresh, crisp counterpart to their red Rioja. Through careful handling, controlled temperatures and an anaerobic environment, Verdejo could provide delicate, aromatic wines, rather than the oxidative, sherry-style wines of the past. White wines simply labeled as Rueda now require a minimum 50% of Verdejo or Sauvignon, often blended with Viura. They may blend with Chardonnay and Viognier as well. Red wines are dominated by Tempranillo, and rosado wines contain a minimum 50% of red grapes. Espumoso , or sparkling wines, are produced in both rosado and white styles. Brut and Brut Nature Espumoso wines require a minimum 75% Verdejo or Sauvignon Blanc. The occasional dry fortified, oxidized Dorado wine is still encountered, although these wines are a dying style in a region energized by freshness, and are not often encountered outside Spain. Rueda Dorado oxidizing in glass. To the west of Rueda, Toro DO produces red, white and rosado wines, although it is the region’s red wines that have attracted the most international interest. Red wines require either a minimum of 75% Tinta de Toro or 85% Garnacha. However, they are often produced solely from Tinta de Toro, a local strain of Tempranillo, which ripens easily in the extremely hot, dry continental summers of Toro. White wines may be made with Verdejo or Malvasia along with Albillo Real and Muscat à Petit Grains, and rosados may be blends of any of these red or white grapes. Fariña and Numanthia-Termes are among the top names in the appellation, and the launching of Vega Sicilia’s Bodegas Pintia seems to cement Toro’s newfound success. Tierra del Vino de Zamora DO lies to the west of Toro, and produces red, white, rosado, and the lighter clarete (rosé) wines from similar grapes. Reds require a minimum 75% Tempranillo. Vega Sicilia’s Ribera del Duero rival Alejándro Fernández of Pesquera staked his claim in Zamora, with the founding of the Dehesa la Granja estate. Overall, Toro and Zamora can only continue to benefit from their proximity to Ribera del Duero. The river continues its westward path, flowing through Arribes DO at the border. Here, Rufete—reflecting the region’s proximity to Portugal—and several other red grapes join Tempranillo in the appellation's vineyards; white wines are produced from Malvasia, Verdejo, and Albilla. Cigales DO is located to the north of the old capital city of Valladolid, and to the northwest of Ribera del Duero. The region produces red wines made principally from Garnacha Tinta and Tinto del País (Tempranillo), but is particularly noted for its rosado and nuevo (primeur) rosado production. Arlanza DO, to the east of Cigales and directly north of Ribera del Duero, is one of Spain’s newest DOs, dating to 2007. A small core of wineries produces reds and whites from a complement of Duero Valley and Bordeaux varieties. As of 2021, Castilla y Leon received its first DO Pago, Urueña. Then it was joined by Abadía-Retuerta and Dehesa Peñalba in 2022. BACK TO TOP Catalonia (Catalunya) The autonomía of Catalonia, or Catalunya in the Catalan language, is a stone’s throw (and a trek over the Pyrenees) from Roussillon in France, a region with which it shares a common culture and lineage. Catalonia and Roussillon split in the 17th century, when the king of Spain ceded Roussillon to France, a political division that has existed to this day. Although the two regions fly a similar flag of red and yellow stripes as a reminder of an intertwined history, a shared interest in heavier, fortified and sweet red wines has ceded ground in Catalonia. Catalan wines reflect its industry, wealth, and modernization: when traditional method sparkling winemaking came to Spain, it debuted in Catalonia; when Miguel Torres introduced stainless steel fermentation to Spain in the 1960s, he introduced it in Catalonia; when René Barbier sought to create a bold new Spanish red wine in 1979, he planted his grapes in Catalonia. The region of Catalonia exemplifies the modern face of Spanish winemaking and technological innovation; however, amidst the new is a backbone of tradition and older styles—wines produced in the same fashion for generations. Priorat DOCa (DOQ in Catalan) in the southwest of Catalonia is the site of René Barbier’s project and home to some of Spain’s richest, most concentrated red wines. The second region in Spain to be promoted to DOCa, Priorat derives its name from Priorato de Scala Dei , a Carthusian monastery (priory) founded on the site of a boy’s vision of angels ascending to heaven. The region is overwhelmingly devoted to red wine production, although some white and rosado wine is produced. Garnacha and Cariñena are the traditional varieties of Priorat, struggling to achieve even small yields in the rock-strewn schist soils of the region. Llicorella , a mix of black slate and quartzite, characterizes the best vineyards, requiring vines to dig deeply for water. In 1979 Barbier, a winemaker for Alvaro Palacios, planted a mix of local and French vines in the llicorella soils of Gratallops, and convinced Palacios and several others to join him. In 1989, they cooperatively produced a first effort—a single red wine bottled under five different labels—and turned the eyes of the wine world towards Priorat. The five original “Clos” wines of Priorat, commonly acknowledged as Barbier’s Clos Mogador, Palacios' Clos Dofi, Clos Erasmus, Clos de l’Obac, and Clos Martinet, were released as vino de mesa , yet they represented a new pinnacle of quality for the region. After the 1991 vintage, the project split and the wines moved forward in separate production. Today, Clos Mogador, Alvaro Palacios, Clos Erasmus, Costers del Siurana (whose founder Carles Pastrana produced Clos de l’Obac), and Mas Martinet continue to build on their original legacy, alongside others like Vall Llach and Scala Dei. Priorat’s best red wines are usually dominated by Garnacha or blended from Spanish and French varieties, and subject to varying shades of French barrique treatment. Managing alcohol is a key factor in a warm, Mediterranean region where grapes can ripen unchecked to a potential alcohol of 18%. In 2009, Priorat established a village category (Vino de Pueblo, or Vi de Vila in Catalan) for estate-grown wines from 12 villages, including Gratallops. Schist soil at Scala Dei in Priorat. Priorat DOQ is almost entirely surrounded by the Montsant DO , a ring-shaped region that was until 2002 a subzone of Tarragona. Like Priorat, Garnacha and Cariñena are dominant, and the region seems poised to offer a value alternative as Priorat’s prices continue to rise. Tarragona DO is much larger, encompassing a swath of the Catalan coast to the west of Penedès DO. Historically, Tarragona wines were generally fortified rancio or mistela, the Spanish version of vin de liqueur . Today, much of the vineyard area has been converted to white varieties for Cava, but these old styles are still made in small quantities. Communion wines for Christian churches now represent the most substantial market for Tarragona’s wines. The Terra Alta DO is to the southwest of Tarragona and the Conca de Barberà DO is adjacent to northern Tarragona. Costers del Segre DO spans several noncontiguous subzones between Tarragona and Somontano: Pallars Jussà, Artesa de Segre, Valls del Riucorb, Segrià, Garrigues, Urgell and Raimat. Raimat, the smallest subzone, houses an estate of the same name that was integral to the formation of the zone. With far-reaching foresight, Manuel Raventós purchased arid, infertile land in the region for his Raïmat estate in 1914; over sixty years later, after a transformation of the parched land through canal construction and agricultural restoration, his estate produced its first commercial vintage. Northeast of Tarragona, along the Catalan coast, is the Penedès DO . The land rises steadily from the coast toward the inland Meseta, and Penedès is divided between three distinct altitude zones: Baix-Penedès, Medio-Penedès, and Alt-Penedès. The Alt-Penedès, one of Europe’s highest altitude winegrowing regions, is perfectly suited to cultivation of the white Parellada grape, one of the principal grapes in the Cava sparkling blend. Although Cava has its own DO, 95% of Cava is produced in the region of Penedès, and five of Cava’s authorized white grapes—Parellada, Xarel-lo, Macabéo (Macabeu), Malvasía, and Chardonnay—comprise a large majority of the Penedès vineyards. Ull de Llebre (Tempranillo) thrives in the Medio-Penedès. Sturdier Mediterranean red grapes like Garnacha (Garnatxa) and Monastrell are planted in the lower vineyards of the Baix-Penedès, producing high-alcohol red and rosado wines, which have replaced the sweet fortified reds popular in the past—and across the border in Roussillon. Although red grapes dominate in the Baix-Penedès, two producers—Vega de Ribes and the charity Hospital de Sant Joan Baptista—are perpetuating the Malvasía de Sitges variety, a historical specialty of the region nearly consigned to the dustbin of history. As a sweet fortified wine, Malvasía de Sitges recently received the coveted Slow Food “presidia” status, helping to insure its future survival as a unique product of the region. Sant Sadurní d’Anoia, the birthplace of Cava, lies in the Alt-Penedès. Here, Jose Raventós of Codorníu introduced método tradicional sparkling winemaking to Spain, in 1872. Today, Codorníu is second in size only to the competing house of Freixenet, the world’s largest producer of sparkling wines. Cava DO wines may be produced from the following grapes: Parellada, Xarel-lo, Macabeu, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Garnacha Tinta, Monastrell, Trepat, and Malvasia (Subirat). The recommended grapes Macabeu, Xarel-lo and Parellada provide the traditional blend for the wine; with new plantings and more appropriate viticultural practices they are providing better wines, deflecting past criticisms aimed at the blowsy, broad, neutral character of the wines. Cava wines require less time on the lees than Champagne at the C ava de Guarda level: nine months. For the C ava de Guarda Superior designations: eighteen months for reserva , and thirty months for gran reserva. Cava DO is the only Spanish Denominación de Origen that covers a style, rather than a region. Technically, Spain mapped and delimited the regions of Cava production in order to comply with EU regulations—the region just happened to coincide with the vineyards of many producers throughout Spain who were already making the wine. Today, the better Cava sparklers made from the traditional grapes are slightly earthy and citrus-tinged, whereas Chardonnay and Pinot Noir are better suited to lengthier lees aging and the flavors of autolysis. Bottles of Cava can always be spotted by the mark of a four-pointed star imprinted on the cork. The remaining Catalan appellations include Alella DO , to the northeast of Penedès, where Xarel-lo, known locally as Pansà Blanca, contributes to the DO’s own still dry white wines or the blends of Cava. Empordà DO is located in the northeastern corner of Spain, bordering Banyuls in Roussillon. The focus is on Cariñena rosados , although Garnacha and international varieties have also been successful. Pla de Bages —a derivative of Bacchus, the Roman god of wine—is a newer DO to the north of Penedès, with similar grapes. The Catalunya DO encompasses the entire autonomía , covering wineries not included in more specific DO zones and allowing more freedom of blending and expression from a range of sites and authorized grapes. The Balearic Islands, a chain off the coast of Catalonia, is an autonomía closely associated with Catalan culture. Two DO zones, Pla i Llevant and Binissalem Mallorca , produce wines from a range of international and indigenous grapes, including Manto Negro and Moll (Prensal Blanc). BACK TO TOP Southern Spain Wine is produced in every autonomía of Southern Spain, including Murcia and Valencia, which comprise the Levant region on the eastern coast; Castilla-La Mancha, the southern portion of the central Meseta; Madrid, the capital city; Extremadura in southwestern Spain; and Andalucía on the southern coast. Valencia , a region steeped in both Catalan and Moorish tradition, is simultaneously the name of the autonomía , its capital (and Spain’s third largest city) and a DO zone focusing on white wines produced from the local Merseguera grape and other varieties. The wines can be fairly neutral, and the region is better known for its oranges and its paella—Valencia is the birthplace of the famous Spanish rice dish. The other DO zones within the autonomía of Valencia are Alicante and Utiel-Requena . Alicante DO is known for dessert wines: a local specialty is Fondillón, a solera-style, oxidative dessert wine produced from overripe Monastrell (Mourvèdre) grapes aged for a minimum of ten years. Unlike Sherry, the famous solera wine of Andalucía, Fondillón is not fortified and it does carry the flavor of wood. Utiel-Requena DO red wines are primarily produced from the Bobal grape and doble pasta is a traditional style. Doble Pasta red wines are macerated and fermented with twice the normal amount of grape skins and pulp, resulting in a wine of intense concentration, tannin and color. Often, doble pasta wines are used to strengthen weaker blends, but this traditional role is ebbing away with the rising production of grape concentrate in Utiel-Requena. Murcia, the southern autonomía in the Levant, comprises three DO zones: Jumilla , Yecla , and Bullas . The sandy soils of Jumilla resisted phylloxera until the 1980s, nearly one hundred years after the bug entered Spain, and the resulting vineyard decimation allowed the region’s producers to refocus, pivoting away from generic bulk wine production to the cultivation of the drought-resistant, thick-skinned Monastrell. The region’s reds and rosados —white grapes perform less worthily in the desert-like climate of Jumilla—now represent some of Spain’s best values and make up over 95% of the DO’s output. Garnacha, Petit Verdot, and other grapes may be used for blending, but Monastrell alone occupies over 80% of the region’s vineyards. Monastrell vines in Jumilla. To the west of the coastal Levant appellations, La Mancha DO lies within the Castilla-La Mancha autonomía and is Europe’s largest single demarcated wine region. Windmills dot the flat plain, recalling Don Quixote, Cervantes’ delusional knight-errant, whose silhouette adorns the logo of the La Mancha DO Consejo Regulador . The principal grapes of the region are Cencibel (Tempranillo) and Airén, which thrive in La Mancha’s hot, dry environment—an inhospitable region for fungus and mold. Despite being found only in southern Spain, Airén until recently claimed more acreage than any other white grape in the world, due to vast tracts of low-density plantings in La Mancha. Today, it is the second most planted grape, after Chardonnay, and remains on the decline, with a significant amount of the vast annual harvest destined for distillation. Cencibel performs well and is highly recommended by the Consejo for replanting in La Mancha, yet some producers, as in every corner of Spain, are experimenting with international varieties. Within the Méntrida DO , the Marqués de Griñon estate planted Cabernet Sauvignon, Petit Verdot, Syrah, and Merlot and adopted the illegal practice of drip irrigation, releasing modern, concentrated wines as vino de mesa . Officials rewarded the estate’s controversial methodology and encépagement in 2003, granting Marques de Griñon an estate appellation: DO Pago Dominio de Valdepusa. The same year, the La Mancha estate of filmmaker Manuel Manzaneque received its own appellation, DO Pago Finca Élez. Other DO Pago estates followed: Guijoso in 2005, Dehesa del Carrizal in 2006, and Campo de la Guardia and Pago Florentino in 2009. Casa del Blanco and Calzadilla received DO Pago status in 2010 and 2011, respectively. Three additions were approved in 2019: DO Pagos Vallegarcía, La Jaraba, and Los Cerrillos. in 2024, Rosalejo became the newest addition to DO Pago status in the area. The Castilla-La Mancha pagos all implement an international blend, in the pursuit of wines of “expression.” Marqués de Griñon, founded in 1973, has the longest history of any of these pagos . The estate has enlisted both the Pomerol guru Michel Rolland and his mentor, Émile Peynaud, in its quest to quickly position itself at the top of Spain’s quality ladder. This approach—incorporating money and modern methodology in the quick pursuit of concentration, greatness, and expression, rather than the timeworn, terroir-driven methods of the Old World—is common among DO Pago proprietors, perhaps quixotically. Like Méntrida, Almansa DO was once administered by La Mancha's Consejo Regulador . For Almansa reds, producers rely principally on the Garnacha Tintorera grape, a teinturier characterized by red-pigmented juice. Manchuela DO is to the north of Almansa, bridging the Levant and La Mancha. As in Utiel-Requena, Bobal is the chief grape. Ribera del Júcar DO is located between Manchuela and La Mancha, and was a subzone of the latter until it received its own DO status in 2003. Valdepeñas DO —the “valley of rocks”—is surrounded by La Mancha, yet the region received formal recognition in 1932, over forty years earlier than its much larger neighbor. Here, too, Airén is the most planted grape, followed by Cencibel. Although the climate of the two regions is quite similar, the vines in Valdepeñas benefit from a higher concentration of chalk bedrock, which provides better retention of water in the arid environment. Reserva and gran reserva wines, often produced exclusively from Cencibel, can be of excellent quality—particularly those sourced from the western sector of Los Llanos and the northern sector of Las Aberturas . To the northeast of La Mancha, the newer Uclés DO is off to a promising start, focusing on the red varieties Cencibel, Garnacha, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Syrah. White wines, sparkling wines, and sweet, dulce wines are also produced. The DO requires vines bearing red grapes to be in their sixth year of age before the fruit may be harvested, and mature vines are divided into three age categories; maximum yields decrease with the vine’s age. North of La Mancha, Mondéjar DO permits wines of all three colors from Cencibel, Cabernet Sauvignon, Macabéo, and the white Malvar grape. To the west of the zone is Vinos de Madrid DO , an appellation for the wines produced in four areas—San Martín de Valdeiglesias, Navalcarnero, Arganda, and el Molar—comprising three noncontiguous zones around the capital city. Airén, Malvar, Tinto Fino, and Negra de Madrid (Garnacha) are widely planted in the appellation; most of the wines are consumed within the city itself. To the southwest of Madrid and Méntrida, in the Extremadura autonomía , is the sole DO of Ribera del Guadiana . The large DO contains six subzones: Ribera Alta de Guadiana, Ribera Baja de Guadiana, Matanegra, Cañamero, Montánchez, and the superior Tierra de Barros. Although some good value wine is produced, much of the region’s large harvest ends up in the copper stills of Jerez, and the region is overall better known for its contributions to gastronomy: jamón serrano and the prohibitively expensive jamón ibérico . Tierra de Barros, which encompasses nearly 80% of the DO, is the home of Bodegas Inviosa, a longstanding and key proponent of the region’s wines—and the only producer of Cava in southwestern Spain. Spanning Spain’s southern coastline, Andalucía includes the DO zones of Grenada , Málaga , Sierras de Málaga , Montilla-Moriles , Condado de Huelva , Jerez-Xérès-Sherry , and Manzanilla Sanlúcar de Barrameda . This is the Spain of bullfighting, of flamenco, of authentic gazpacho—the stereotypes of Andalucían culture that often serve to characterize all of Spain. The Strait of Gibraltar bridges Africa and Europe: it represents a historically important trading route and may have even been the route by which man first crossed into Europe. Before the Moorish conquest of 711, the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Visigoths, and even the Byzantines exerted control over the region, to varying degrees of success. It was the Moors, however, who transformed Andalucía, or Al-Andalus, into a hub of Mediterranean trade, learning and culture. The city of Jerez de la Frontera was known as “Sherish” in Arabic—key to a successfully prosecuted case in more recent times contesting British use of the term Sherry. The Moorish culture persisted longest here, until the fall of Granada in 1492 ended Moorish rule on the Iberian Peninsula. Eight months later, Columbus set sail from Andalucía to find his ocean route to the East Indies. This event, sparking the race for colonial power and discovery in the Americas, was to have a profound effect on the future of Spanish wine—particularly the fortified wines of Andalucía and the Canary Islands, which, along with Porto and Madeira, supplied the New World. Ferdinand Magellan, who led the first circumnavigation of the globe in 1519, spent more of his budget on sherry than weapons. The wines of Jerez, known to English-speakers as "sack," also found a market in England, France, and Flanders. A singular plunder of nearly 3000 barrels of “sherris sack” in 1587 by the English Admiral Frances Drake cinched English tastes for the wine—a preemptive strike against Cádiz and the king’s armada, which sailed unsuccessfully against England in the following year. Sherry became an incredibly popular export to Great Britain in the ensuing three centuries; Samuel Pepys, who famously extolled the virtues of “Ho-Bryan,” also visited Sanlúcar de Barrameda, and Shakespeare regularly cited the wine in his works. High demand led to increased supply, and the Jerez bodegas began to purchase wine stocks from more distant areas of Andalucía, such as Condado de Huelva and Montilla-Moriles, to fill their soleras. British firms—Osbourne, Garvey, John Harvey (now Domecq)—arrived in the 17th and 18th centuries to found bodegas. Sherry was in worldwide demand by the late 1800s, but the arrival of phylloxera in 1894, coupled with a rise in production of “Sherry” styles throughout Europe, curtailed the industry. With the establishment of a Jerez Consejo Regulador and the attainment of DO status in 1933, Sherry rebounded. By 1979, Jerez was exporting 200 million bottles a year. Unfortunately, much of the wine was cheap and of questionable quality, and Jerez suffered considerably as a result. Today, efforts to reduce vineyard acreage and increase quality overall have largely been successful, and Sherry is the product of one of the world of wine’s most laborious, artisan processes, often for a very good price. There are two DO zones today, sharing the same vineyards and Consejo Regulador : Jerez-Xérès-Sherry and Manzanilla-Sanlúcar de Barrameda. Three towns—Jerez de la Frontera, Sanlúcar de Barrameda, and El Puerto de Santa Maria—form a “golden triangle” that is the historic area of production. The three authorized grapes are, in descending order of importance, Palomino, Pedro Ximénez and Moscatel. Palomino, or Listán, produces characterless table wines but is the preferred variety for dry Sherry. It thrives in the white albariza soils of the region, which characterize the best pagos , or vineyards. The lower-lying vineyards usually contain more barros (clay), whereas coastal vineyards are characterized by sandy soils called arenas , and are principally suitable for Moscatel grapes. For more information on the production and styles of Sherry, click here . Montilla-Moriles DO, to the northeast of Jerez, lent its name to the style of Amontillado , although it is legally barred from using the term Sherry on its labels. Pedro Ximénez (PX) is the zone’s principal grape, and Jerez has received dispensation to import PX must from Montilla-Moriles to compensate for its own declining acreage of the grape. Wines in the style of Sherry—Fino, Oloroso, and Amontillado—are produced in both fortified and unfortified versions. As the PX grape ripens extremely well in Montilla-Moriles’ hot climate, the wines can naturally ferment to 15.5% alcohol—the ideal strength for flor to survive and the post-fortification strength of Fino sherry. Thus, typically only Olorosos and dessert styles are fortified. The coastal Málaga DO is directly south of Montilla-Moriles. Once a prosperous wine region, both in its own right and as a supplier to the Jerez soleras, Málaga suffers from lowered international interest in both fortified and sweet wines—the specialties of the zone. Moscatel and PX grapes are the region’s principal grapes. Classically, the grapes are dried for a period of up to 20 days on esparto grass mats (a process known as the soleo ) prior to fermentation. Today, the wines of Málaga are either naturally sweet wines—produced either from soleo or simply overripe grapes—or fortified sweet wines. The fortified wines either retain natural sweetness, or the winemaker restores it through the addition of arrope . The fortified wines undergo solera aging in American oak. Five age categories exist for Málaga: Málaga Pálido (no aging requirement), Málaga (at least six months in oak), Málaga Noble (two to three years), Málaga Añejo (three to five years), and Málaga Trasañejo (minimum five years). Table wines from the region are released under the Sierras de Málaga DO. Off the coast of Africa, the Canary Islands lie nearly 700 miles from the Iberian Peninsula. The archipelago is of volcanic origin and has a sub-tropical climate. Nonetheless, wine is produced on most of the inhabited islands, and there are ten DO zones. Five are located on the island of Tenerife; the other five each cover a whole island: La Palma, El Hierro, Gran Canaria, La Gomera and Lanzarote. Phylloxera reached the Canaries in 2025, and century-old vines are still not an uncommon sight. Red wines are usually produced from Listán Negro, Negramoll (Tinta Negra), Malvasía Rosada, and Listán Prieto (Mission), whereas whites may result from a larger combination of grapes, including Malvasía, Gual, Forastera Blanca, Moscatel, and Listán Blanco (Palomino). The fortified wines of the past have ceded ground to the fresh vino joven styles popular with the islands’ tourists. BACK TO TOP Review Quizzes Beginner Intermediate ExpertPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/164/germany-austria-and-switzerlandSun, 04 Jan 2026 02:02:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:9e11ae30-3dc3-496f-ac95-958ccc7fd8fdSandra BanTable of Contents Germany The VDP & Classic/Selection Wines Mosel Rheingau Rheinhessen Pfalz Nahe Ahr Franken Mitterlrhein Hessische-Bergstrasse Baden & Württemberg Sachsen & Saale-Unstrut Austria Niederösterreich Burgenland Styria Wien (Vienna) Switzerland Review Quizzes Germany The northerly winemaking regions of Germany straddle the 50th parallel and are amongst the world’s coolest vineyards. Nonetheless, vine cultivation dates to the ancient world—wild vines had been growing on the upper Rhine previously, but V itis vinifera arrived in Germany with the Romans. Near the end of the 3rd century, Emperor Probus overturned Domitian’s 92 CE ban on new vineyard plantings, and viticulture followed the Romans into provinces north of the Alps. By the fourth century winemaking was definitively established along the steep slopes of the Mosel River. Charlemagne, the legendary beard-stained lover of wine—whose newly minted Carolingian calendar replaced the Roman October with Windume-Manoth, “the month of the vintage”—introduced vine cultivation east of the Rhine River in the late eighth century. During the Middle Ages, the Church was instrumental in shepherding the development of vineyards, and many of Germany’s modern einzellagen (vineyards) owe their nomenclature to monastic influence. As in France, the Church essentially operated its own feudal economy: it collected a tithe, or tax, from the parishioners who worked the vineyards, and wine made a suitable substitute for cash. The Cistercians of Burgundy founded the famous Kloster Eberbach monastery in the Rheingau in 1136, where they amassed the largest vineyard holdings in Europe by the end of the Middle Ages, with over 700 acres of vines. The walled Steinberg vineyard, an ortsteil within the commune of Hattenheim, was the monks’ centerpiece and remains wholly intact today—an alleinbesitz ( monopole) of Kloster Eberbach for over eight centuries. The Church’s influence in German viticulture was finally ended by Napoleon, who established his Civil Code after defeating Germany—then known as the Holy Roman Empire—and annexing all German lands west of the Rhine for France in the late 18th century. All of the Church’s vineyard holdings were secularized in 1803; even Kloster Eberbach was dissolved as a monastery, finally ending up in the hands of the state-run Hessische Staatsweingüter after World War II. As in Burgundy, the Napoleonic Code led to fractured ownership and a gradual, significant splintering of vineyards. By the 1960s, there were over 30,000 different vineyard sites throughout West Germany—a major impetus for the vineyard reorganization and registration mandated by the German Wine Law of 1971. 30,000 einzellagen were condensed in bureaucratic fashion into 2,600 registered vineyards, each with a minimum size of five hectares. There are only a few exceptions to this mandated minimum size today, including the Doctor vineyard in Bernkastel—whose three proprietors successfully petitioned to have the expanded boundaries shrunk to three hectares in 1984—the Kirchenstück and Freundstück vineyards in Forst, and the Schloss Vollrads ortsteil vineyard in Rheingau. As the Gothic script popular on some bottles indicates, Germany’s winemaking is anchored in tradition. Many producers—Schloss Johannisberg, Reichsgraf von Kesselstatt, Reinhold Haart, Dr. Bürklin-Wolf—can trace their estates back hundreds of years. Riesling and Spätburgunder (Pinot Noir), the country’s current most planted white and red varieties, enjoy a long history in German vineyards. Records dating to 1402 establish the first documentation of rüssling vines, whereas Pinot Noir arrived in Germany by the 14th century, presumably on the backs of monks from Burgundy. The model of must weight as a precondition for quality, codified in the 1971 law, finds precedence in wine ordinances dating to the 1830s. The “discovery” of Spätlese harvesting dates to 1775, when harvesters at Schloss Johannisberg in the Rheingau found that, despite their appearance, grapes afflicted with edelfäule (noble rot) made pretty good wine. The estate followed with the introduction of the Auslese category in 1787 and the first Eiswein in 1858. The 19th century was a golden age for German vintners, as the best wines produced along the Rhine—called Hock in English markets—often sold at prices above even first growth Bordeaux. In the 1700s, an increase in demand for foodstuffs pushed grapevines from the more fertile soils up to the otherwise unworkable slopes; by the mid-19th century these poor soils were producing serious, lauded wines. Often located near rivers, such as the Mosel, Rhine, Main, Nahe, and Elbe, the south- and southwest-facing vineyards receive direct and reflected warmth of the sun and provide the soil stress that great wines require. These wines were generally made from Riesling grapes, long-lived, and arguably drier in style than most wines now graded by p rädikat level. The advances in quality in the 19th century were mirrored by a steady German interest in viticultural science. Germany’s vineyards are near the conventional northerly limit for viticulture; thus, the reliability of ripening and susceptibility to frost loomed as major concerns. A desire for improvements in yield and disease resistance also drove research. The Geisenheim Wine Institute in the Rheingau, founded in 1872, developed a number of hardier grape crossings that would ripen in greater abundance across a variety of sites. Müller-Thurgau, created at Geisenheim in 1882, displaced Silvaner in the late 1960s to become Germany’s most planted grape. (Riesling has since usurped Müller-Thurgau and is now the most planted grape.) Originally thought to be Riesling x Silvaner, more recent DNA testing has recast Müller-Thurgau as Riesling x Madeleine Royale. Ehrenfelser and Kerner can produce good wines, but most of the successful crossings, such as Bacchus and Faber, are more notable for their ability to ripen where Riesling cannot. Scheurebe, an early 20th-century crossing of Riesling and Bukettrebe, developed in the Rheinhessen, is one of the few to show real quality potential. Dornfelder, a crossing of Helfensteiner and Heroldrebe that was developed in 1956, is the most prominent German red crossing and is currently the country’s second most planted red grape. Research at Geisenheim continues, and the institute contributes enormously to the German understanding of viticulture and winemaking. However, many of the crossings developed at Geisenheim and similar institutes became chief components of the lower quality wines that characterized much of the 20th century. Beginning with the attack of phylloxera in the late 19th century, Germany’s wine industry suffered one setback after another. The root louse, mildew problems, a huge depression, and two devastating world wars conspired to shrink domestic wine production. In a reversal, replanting after World War II occurred with an eye toward mass production. The higher yield, reliable crossings developed at Geisenheim and other institutes were planted on flat vineyards suitable for mechanical harvesting, rather than on the steeper but more refined hillside plots. Liebfraumilch, a wine whose 18th century origins suggest a connection to the Liebfrauenkirche Church at Worms in Rheinhessen, became the face of German wine to the outside world—in the 1980s, over 60% of all German vinous exports had Liebfraumilch printed on the label. The sweet, cheap, characterless beverage was a resounding commercial success, but almost singlehandedly destroyed the image of German wine internationally. Although it is usually produced from Müller-Thurgau, Liebfraumilch cannot carry a grape name on the label, and it may be blended from vineyards throughout Rheinhessen, Nahe, Rheingau, and the Pfalz—not a recipe for typicity or complexity. The legacy of Liebfraumilch, combined with general public confusion over the German label and wine styles, created a serious awareness problem for German producers in the last years of the 20th century. However, quality-minded producers and the Verband Deutscher Prädikatsweingüter (VDP) are making a concerted effort to renew interest in German wines and show that Riesling, an excellent transmitter of minerality and one of the most noble white grapes, can be compelling in both sweet and dry interpretations. Riesling, planted in over 20% of the nation’s vineyards, is at the forefront of about two-dozen commercially significant varieties in Germany. White varieties occupy nearly two-thirds of the vineyard acreage. In addition to Riesling and Müller-Thurgau, the white grapes Silvaner, Grauburgunder (Pinot Gris), Weissburgunder (Pinot Blanc), Kerner and Bacchus each account for at least 2% of total plantings. Spätburgunder comprises over one-tenth of Germany’s total vineyard acreage, followed in decreasing order by the red grapes Dornfelder, Blauer Portugieser, Trollinger, and Schwarzriesling (Pinot Meunier). Plantings of nearly all crossings—Müller-Thurgau, Scheurebe, Kerner, Dornfelder, Bacchus—have been on the decline in recent decades. The red grapes are additionally used in some regions to produce Weissherbst, a saignée rosé wine made from a single variety and of at least Qualitätswein quality. In general, the higher quality German wines are varietal wines, and must contain 85% of the stated variety. Germany makes less wine than most other major wine-producing countries of Western Europe; by 2018, Germany ranked 8th worldwide in wine production, behind countries such as France, Italy, Argentina, and Australia. France has over seven times the vineyard acreage of Germany and produces more than four times as much wine. Qualitätswein (formerly Qualitätswein bestimmter Anbaugebiete) and Prädikatswein (formerly Qualitätswein mit Prädikat) represent the two tiers of German “quality” wine; however, the combined categories comprise more than 95% of each vintage, and even Liebfraumilch is considered QbA in quality. Both categories can only be produced in one of Germany’s 13 anbaugebiete . Prädikatswein is at the apex of Germany’s legal quality pyramid, and wines in this category are further labeled by the following levels ( prädikats ): Kabinett, Spätlese, Auslese, Beerenauslese, Trockenbeerenauslese and Eiswein. The prädikat level is determined by the level of sugars in the grape at harvest, measured by degrees according to the Öchsle scale. Each anbaugebiet has its own minimum requirements for each authorized grape; thus, the minimum required for each prädikat level is expressed as a range (see the table below). There is no maximum, and grapes harvested at higher must weights may be declassified to a lower prädikat —a common phenomenon in the warmer vintages of recent years, when many Riesling grapes picked at Spätlese ripeness have been released as Kabinett instead. Prädikatswein must carry a minimum alcohol level of 7% (5.5% for Beerenauslese, TBA, and Eiswein wines) and winemakers may not chaptalize at this level. Prädikatswein must also carry an Amtliche Prüfungsnummer (AP Number), a series of five sets of numbers indicating that the wine has been approved by a tasting panel. In the series, the first number refers to the region where the wine was tested, the second set of numbers refers to the commune in which the wine was bottled, the third set of numbers is the bottler's code, the fourth set of numbers is a unique code for the bottling, and the final two numbers indicate the year in which the application was filed. While Prädikatswein as a category is intended to showcase Germany’s best efforts, many of the country’s superb Grosses Gewächs dry wines are released as Qualitätswein , without mention of prädikat level. With the notable exception of Liebfraumilch, Qualitätswein and Prädikatswein are generally produced in one of Germany’s thirteen quality wine regions, or anbaugebiete , and must state the anbaugebiet on the label. Below the quality wine category are the PGI category of Landwein and wines without geographic indication, or Wein/Deutscher Wein (known as tafelwein until 2009). Neither is regularly exported. Landwein originates in one of 26 broad regions and must be trocken or halbtrocken in style. Deutscher Wein must be 100% German in origin. Wein may include grapes from other countries, and, if it does, the label must list the countries that contribute to the blend. In keeping with new EU allowances for table wines, Deutscher Wein may state the variety on the label. Most Sekt, or German sparkling wine, is made at this level of quality and is produced by the Charmat method. Sekt may labeled as Qualitätswein if it is produced from traditional grapes grown in one of the thirteen anbaugebiete of Germany. Prädikat Level Minimum Öchsle Range Kabinett 70-85° Spätlese 76-95° Auslese 83-105° Beerenauslese 110-128° Trockenbeerenauslese 150-154° Eiswein 110-128° BACK TO TOP The VDP & Classic/Selection Wines The Verband Deutscher Prädikatsweingüter, or VDP, is a national German association of producers committed to top quality. Founded in 1910 as the Verband Deutscher Naturweinversteigerer, the organization originally strove to promote unchaptalized natur wines, principally through wine auctions. When the 1971 Wine Law abolished the use of the term natur and created the category of QbA, for which chaptalization is legal, the organization rewrote its internal constitution to promote superior standards while respecting new labeling laws and changed its name to the VDP. In 1984, a separate organization called Charta was formed to advance the classic, dry style of Rheingau Riesling. Charta wines, distinguished by an icon of three Roman arches—styled from the balcony of Graue Haus, in Winkel—represented the first major attempt by producers to validate dry wines within a system that only rewards sugar. Charta did not have as significant of an effect as its founders may have wanted, and today only a handful of producers remain committed to the concept. However, the core belief in the quality and tradition of dry wines found a new sponsor, the VDP, who merged Charta’s promotion of dry Riesling with a renewed emphasis on terroir and vineyard site as a measure of quality. Today, the VDP counts nearly 200 of Germany’s finest estates as members and promotes their wines through an extralegal, tiered hierarchy and a more restrictive classification of einzellagen than the government provides, as spelled out in the 2002 VDP Accord and subsequent revisions. Prior to the 2012 vintage, Erste Lage wines represented the top tier of the VDP quality pyramid. Erste Lage translates to “first site,” and usage of the term was reserved by the VDP for Germany’s finest single vineyard sites. In early 2012, the VDP elected to create a new, four-tier system designed to better emulate the model of Burgundy. From the 2012 vintage forward, the former Erste Lage wines would henceforth be known as Grosse Lage—not to be confused with grosslagen —and the category, according to the VDP, would mirror the idea of Grand Crus in Burgundy. However, Erste Lage will continue to exist, albeit it less grandly: from 2012 onward, Erste Lage will indicate sites of premier cru rather than grand cru stature. Producers of Grosse Lage wine are held to the preexisting standards for top sites, and the wines may be dry Grosses Gewächs (sometimes stated as GG) or sweet (labeled by prädikat ). Producers of sweet wines may make a range of prädikat levels from a Grosse Lage site, but only one dry wine may be produced in each of the top vineyards. The former Erste Lage logo--a “1” followed by a cluster of grapes-- will be applied only to wines of Grosse Lage quality; An indication of either Grosse Lage or Erste Lage will appear on the capsule. The Grosses Gewächs category is reserved for Grosse Lage, so producers of Erste Lage dry wines must label their products as trocken instead. In addition, while all VDP members are committed to Grosse Lage, individual member organizations in each anbaugebiet may choose whether or not to develop an Erste Lage designation. In the Pfalz, for instance, this category will exist and some former top sites, like Paradiesgarten and Kalkofen in Deidesheim, will be recast as Premier Cru. The Rheinhessen VDP organization, on the other hand, is unlikely to adopt the Erste Lage tier. Grosse Lage wines are the product of grapes harvested by hand at a maximum yield of 50 hl/ha. If dry, the wines are denoted by the initials “GG” (Grosses Gewächs), whereas lusciously sweet wines are labeled by traditional prädikat levels. Grosses Gewächs wines are legally considered trocken and may not contain more than 9 g/l of residual sugar. In the Rheingau, Grosses Gewächs wines frequently carry the alternative label of Erstes Gewächs, a trademarked term established by Charta. While Grosses Gewächs is barred by German wine law from appearing on wine labels—hence its indication by initials—Erstes Gewächs is a legally authorized term, and it may be spelled out in full. Grape varieties approved for Erste Lage wines vary according to each anbaugebiet , but there is a clear emphasis on Riesling—55% of VDP estate vineyards are planted to the grape. Grosses Gewächs white wines may not be released before September 1 of the year following the harvest; red wines receive an additional year of aging. Erste Lage wines labeled by prädikat may be released as soon as May 1 of the year following the harvest. The einzellage must be listed on the label—in the style of the grands crus of Burgundy, the village name is dropped—and the vineyard site must be approved by the VDP. While a site may be recognized by both the German Wine Law and the VDP, the VDP’s demarcation is often much narrower, representing a return to pre-1971 vineyard boundaries. For example, the 1971 law established the area of the Saarburger Rausch vineyard in the Mosel anbaugebiet at 16 hectares, but only 8 hectares are classified as Erste Lage. Rüdesheimer Berg Roseneck in the Rheingau includes over 26 hectares according to the law, but a mere 6.9 hectares qualifies for the more severe Erste Lage designation. Below the premier and grand cru categories of Erste Lage and Grosse Lage, the VDP hierarcy includes the tiers of Ortswein and Gutswein, modeled on Burgundy’s village and regional wines, respectively. At these levels, maximum permitted yields are 75 hl/ha, and the wines show less and less site specificity. As in Burgundy, Ortswein may be produced from typical grape varieties sourced from multiple vineyard sites in a single village (e.g. Forst), whereas wines in the Gutswein category may be produced from grapes sourced from an estate’s holdings anywhere within a single anbaugebiet . VDP Classification (2012 forward) and corresponding maximum yields Grosse Lage: "Grand Cru" Wines (max. 50 hl/ha) Erste Lage: "Premier Cru" Wines (max. 60 hl/ha) Ortswein: Village Wines (max. 75 hl/ha) Gutswein: Regional Wines (max. 75 hl/ha) Many of Germany’s most prominent producers belong to the VDP: Robert Weil, Reichsgraf von Kesselstatt, Dr. Loosen, Egon Müller, Joh. Jos. Prüm, Dönnhoff, Keller, Bürklin-Wolf, Toni Jost—these are a fraction of the storied names that bring serious credibility to the organization. Estate-bottling is mandatory. Capsules on all member estates’ bottles must be emblazoned with the VDP logo, a stylized eagle clasping a cluster of grapes. While the association’s influence is clear, the VDP has not yet been technically sanctioned by German law, and its classification scheme is essentially a voluntary one for members. The system itself is even open to interpretation, and exemptions from one requirement or another may be granted to individual estates. Bürklin-Wolf, for instance, labels its Grosse Lage wines as “GC”—for “Grand Cru”—rather than “GG.” Aspects of the classification also differ from one anbaugebiet to another: in the Mosel, for instance, producers may now make Grosse Lage wines at every prädikat level, but producers in Pfalz will not be able to produce Kabinett Grosse Lage. The difficulty in creating a singular classification system for an entire country is underscored—consider for a moment the different meanings of “Grand Cru” in Burgundy, Bordeaux, Alsace, and Champagne—and inconsistencies remain, but the VDP may have just developed one of Germany’s most logical approaches yet. On the other hand, the current classification system is not without objections from within the VDP ranks, so the level at which it will actually be implemented remains to be seen. Although it is the most successful, the VDP is not the only organization that has attempted to improve on the weaker aspects of the 1971 German Wine Law and its resulting effect on the image of German wine. The state-affiliated German Wine Institute at Mainz created its own simplified hierarchy for drier styles of wine, which debuted with the 2000 vintage. The terms Classic and Selection were intended to replace the more cumbersome halbtrocken and trocken , respectively. Classic wines are considered “harmoniously dry” with a maximum residual sugar content of 15 g/l, and Selection wines are “superior dry” with a maximum residual sugar content of 9 g/l (12 g/l allowed for Riesling). Wines labeled “Classic” are single varietal wines and omit any mention of a vineyard on the label. They show a superior minimum alcohol content of 12% (11.5% in the Mosel). Selection wines are single vineyard wines from a single variety. Yields are restricted to 60 hl/ha. Must weight for Selection wines must be equivalent to Auslese, and vineyards are hand-harvested. The wines may not be released prior to September 1 of the year following harvest. Unlike the VDP’s stringent hierarchy, Classic and Selection are legally recognized terms and may be used by producers in any anbaugebiet that meet the requirements. They are essentially competing systems. Despite its lack of legal backing and more difficult terminology, the VDP system is clearly superior—the better producers support VDP and its stricter guidelines, while the marketplace has not embraced the Classic/Selection wines. BACK TO TOP Mosel The Mosel , known as the Mosel-Saar-Ruwer until August 1, 2007, is highly regarded for its pure, light, low alcohol Rieslings and is well known for the precipitous slate slopes the vines inhabit. Although recent warm vintages have provided fuller, sweeter examples, Mosel Kabinett Riesling is amongst the world’s most delicate wines. Shimmering star-bright, full of green apple fruit, slate and candlewax, rarely topping off at more than 8% alcohol, and with racy, high acidity to keep the sweetness balanced: the classic Kabinett style of the Mosel cannot be imitated. The Mosel is a source of graceful, low alcohol, honeyed sweet wines at all prädikat levels, and many producers bottle small quantities of “reserve” selections with a goldkapsel —a gold-colored capsule. This generally indicates additional sweetness due to a higher must weight, and is most commonly encountered on Auslese bottlings. Even richer bottlings are marked with a Lange Goldkapsel—a longer gold capsule—and this length and color of capsule may be the only clue to a substantial difference in price and character. The Goldkapsel is a device used almost exclusively by Mosel producers, and is a means of subverting the 1971 Wine Law, which ruled that additional qualifications of the prädikat level, such as feine and hochfeine , could not be listed on the bottle. In addition to the great sweet wines of the Mosel, a number of producers are producing Grosses Gewächs and standard trocken wines. Mosel dry wines run the risk of being thin and tart in character, but the better estates can produce precise, focused, refreshing, ageworthy wines. Vintages can be extremely variable in the marginal climate; however, a nearly unbroken chain of warmer weather in the last fifteen years, coupled with clonal selections better suited to cool weather, has provided vintners with higher average must weights than in the past, leading to fruitier sweet wines and more powerful dry wines. The Mosel River emerges from the Vosges Mountains in France and flows eastward into Germany, joining with its tributaries (the Saar and Ruwer) until it merges with the Rhine at Koblenz, marking the end of the Mosel Valley and the border of the Mittelrhein anbaugebiet . The Mosel is divided into six bereiche: Bernkastel, Burg Cochem, Saar, Ruwertal, Obermosel, and Moseltor. The Bernkastel bereich is the largest, occupying a stretch of the Mosel from Trier to Zell, wherein most of the Mosel’s greatest gemeinden and einzellagen are located. Trittenheim, Piesport, Brauneberg, Bernkastel-Kues, Graach-an-der-Mosel, Wehlen, Zeltingen, Ürzig, and Erden appear, one after the other, as the river snakes northward toward Zell. This region is known as the Mittelmosel, and Riesling overwhelmingly dominates its vineyards. The soils are composed of dark blue Devonian slate, although red slate characterizes the vineyards near Erden. The absorptive blue slate retains heat and the river reflects warmth onto the vines, allowing them to ripen in a region where the annual average temperature is 49° F—8° colder than the grapevine’s ideal annual temperature. As the river follows its zigzag path, the best vineyards are exclusively found on the sheer aspects of the southward-facing slopes. These vineyards are impossible to harvest mechanically, and cable systems are often employed to enable workers to traverse the cliff-side vines. Vineyards without perfect aspects and a steep slope to maximize warmth simply cannot ripen the noble Riesling, and are usually reduced to the production of lesser grosslagen wine. Two commonly encountered grosslagen within the Bernkastel bereich are Badstube and Michelsberg. The former can be the source of decent wines sourced from the region around Bernkastel-Kues; the latter is a commercially made, rather unfortunate smear on the integrity of Piesport. Goldtröpfchen Vineyard on the hillside facing the flatland of Piesport. Piesport’s greatest vineyard is Goldtröpfchen—“droplets of gold”—and wines bearing the title Piesporter Goldtröpfchen are a world apart from those labeled Piesporter Michelsberg. Immortalized in the wines of producers such as Reinhold Haart and Reichsgraf von Kesselstatt, the Goldtröpfchen vineyard, a natural amphitheatre, provides excellent terroir for Riesling and is one of the Mosel’s most pedigreed sites. Brauneberg’s Juffer-Sonnenuhr vineyard is one of the Mosel’s “sundial” vineyards. Along with Wehlener Sonnenuhr and Zeltinger Sonnenuhr, Brauneberger Juffer-Sonnenuhr features a sundial in the cliff face, allowing vineyard workers to know the time. Bernkastel-Kues is the site of the famous Doctor vineyard, reputedly the source of a miraculously curative wine in the 14th century and an exception to the 1971 German Wine Law. Those growers to the east of the vineyard whose vines were excluded from Doctor in 1984 may label their wines as Alte Badstube am Doktorberg. The wines of Bernkasteler Lay are of high quality; Dr. Loosen provides some of the more compelling examples. In Graach, Reichsgraf von Kesselstatt owns the great alleinbesitz Josephshöfer; good wines are also produced from the neighboring Domprobst. After the Sonnenuhr vineyards of Wehlen and Zeltingen, exemplified again the famous Joh. Jos. Prüm estate and Dr. Loosen, is Ürziger Würzgarten, the “spice garden” of Ürzig. The Mönchhof estate and its subsidiary Joh. Jos. Christoffel Erben are based in Ürzig, and are prominent producers of Würzgarten wines. Finally, red slate emerges near Erden, characterizing the great vineyards of Prälat and Treppchen. Prälat is one of the Mosel’s warmest sites, and again Dr. Loosen is a premier producer of its wines. Ürziger Würzgarten Vineyard. The Saar bereich covers vineyards surrounding a portion of the Saar River, a tributary of the Mosel south of Trier. Despite its more southerly location, the Saar Valley is cooler than the Mittelmosel, due to its higher altitude. The river is smaller than the Mosel, and the Saar’s slate soils are less uniform, creating less warming effect. Thus, the marginal climate here provides even higher acidity in the wines, but in hotter years, such as 2003 or 2005, Saar wines can be exceptional. Scharzhofberger, an ortsteil within the gemeinde of Wiltingen, is highly regarded as one of the Mosel’s finest sites; Egon Müller is its greatest grower. The Ruwertal bereich is located northeast of the Saar Valley, stretching from Waldrach to the village of Ruwer, where the Ruwer tributary—a stream, really—joins the Mosel. The temperatures are again cooler than the Mittelmosel, and make ripening difficult. Without a powerful force of water to carve its way through the region, the vineyards here have gentler slopes than those found along the Mosel River. However, there are two exemplary vineyards along the Ruwer, and both are monopoles: Maximin Grünhäuser Abtsberg (part of a trio of monopoles owned by the von Schubert-Grünhaus estate) and Eitelsbacher Karthäuserhofberg, owned by Karthäuserhof. Formerly the Zell bereich, Burg Cochem includes the lower Mosel Valley, from the village of Zell north to Koblenz. This area is often referred to as the Terrassenmosel, as the narrowing river and intensely steep slopes make terraced vineyards necessary. Some of Europe’s steepest vineyards are here, reaching gradients of 65%. The vineyard of Uhlen in Winningen is responsible for some of the bereich’s best wines. The Obermosel and Moseltor bereiche are south of the Saar, along the Luxembourg border. Elbling, rather than Riesling, is the dominant grape in these southernmost bereiche. Mosel: Important Gemeinden and Einzellagen Saar Wiltingen: Scharzhofberger Saarburg: Rausch Ruwer Eitelsbach: Karthäuserhofberg Mertesdorf: Abtsberg, Herrenberg, Bruderberg Mosel Trittenheim: Apotheke Piesport: Goldtröpfchen, Domherr Brauneberg: Juffer, Juffer Sonnenuhr Bernkastel-Kues: Doctor, Lay Graach an der Mosel: Domprobst, Josephshöfer (monopole of Reichsgraf von Kesselstatt) Wehlen: Sonnenuhr Zeltingen: Sonnenuhr Ürzig: Würzgarten Erden: Prälat, Treppchen BACK TO TOP Rheingau If the Mosel is Germany’s oldest winemaking region, modern viticulture first appeared in the Rheingau . Home to the storied estates of Kloster Eberbach and Schloss Johannisberg, the Rheingau was the earliest beneficiary of the Church’s influence, and its vineyards were the first to be demarcated. The height of German wine fame in the 19th century rested on the shoulders of Rheingau Riesling, and the more recent drive to produce noble dry Riesling got its start in the Erstes Gewächs wines of Charta, spearheaded by the Bernhard Breuer (of the Georg Breuer estate) in Rüdesheim. Geisenheim, the center of German viticultural research, is located here, yet the Rheingau is less affected by the mid-20th century surge in crossings plantings than the neighboring Rheinhessen. The Rheingau is simply too well suited to Riesling; the region has a higher proportion of the grape (nearly 80% of vineyard acreage) than any other anbaugebiet . The Rhine River and Johannisberg, the famous wine village and the Rheingau’s sole bereich, have even lent their names to the grape: Johannisberg Riesling and Rhine Riesling have long been used as synonyms for true Riesling worldwide. The heart of the Rheingau is essentially one long southeast-facing slope. Before resuming its northward path toward Koblenz, the Rhine River flows westward for a short time from the city of Wiesbaden to Rüdesheim, and most of the Rheingau’s vineyards are found here, on the northern bank of the river. At Rüdesheim, the vineyards tilt downward, but the Rheingau's inclines are much less dramatic than those found in the Mosel. Like the Mosel, however, the Rhine provides warmth to the slope; thus the Rheingau is actually warmer than much of the Rheinhessen to the south. Soil in the upper slope vineyards is dominated by slate, whereas the lower vineyards closer to the water contain a mixture of clay, loess, alluvial sand and red slate. The varied soils of the Rheingau and the favorable mesoclimate combine to produce a more powerful style of Riesling than the Mosel. The wines are typically fuller in body and more concentrated, yet acidity can be bracing. Dry wines account for over half of the Rheingau Riesling production. A traditional flute-shaped brown bottle, the Rheingauer Flöte, is sometimes used to bottle Riesling in the Rheingau, whereas the Mosel uses green glass. Traditional Rheingau Stück Barrels. On the western end of the Rheingau, to the northwest of Rüdesheim, lies the village of Assmannshausen. Long the Rheingau’s center for red wine production, Assmannshausen maintains a majority of the region’s Spätburgunder, the most planted red grape in the anbaugebiet . The commune’s best Pinot Noir materializes from the Höllenberg vineyard; August Kesseler is amongst its finest growers. Riesling takes center stage in the remainder of the Rheingau, beginning with the Rhine’s curve at Rüdesheim, where the vineyards of Berg Rottland, Berg Schlossberg, and Berg Roseneck produce good wine. The landscape between Geisenheim and Johannisberg to the east is dominated by Schloss Johannisberg, where successful harnessing of botrytis in the late 18th century led to the development of Spätlese and Auslese. East of Johannisberg is Winkel, home to the historic ortsteil Schloss Vollrads and the lauded Jesuitengarten and Hasensprung vineyards. Continuing upriver, past Oestrich, are the riverside villages of Hattenheim and Erbach. Schloss Schönborn, whose holdings include the monopole Pfaffenberg vineyard, is one of the principal growers based in Hattenheim. The low-lying Erbacher Marcobrunn is contiguous to the eastern edge of Mannberg, and is renowned for its quality in warm vintages. At a higher elevation up the slope from Hattenheim is the commune of Hallgarten, with its premier vineyards Jungfer and Schönhell, and the monastery Kloster Eberbach, whose secular evolution saw the cloister buildings used as a Prussian insane asylum and a women’s prison before being rededicated as a functional winery and museum. Due north of Erbach is Kiedrich, a hill village singularly famous for the wines of Robert Weil, whose holdings in the Gräfenberg vineyard are the source of outstanding sweet wines, especially at Auslese level and above. Finally, decent if not generally superlative wines characterize the riverside village of Eltville; the Sonnenberg vineyard provides some of its best. To the east of Eltville, the Rhine is joined by the smaller Main River, which feeds into the Rhine from the east. An eastern segment of the Rheingau is located here, at the village of Hochheim, separated from Eltville and the rest of the Rheingau by the suburbs of Wiesbaden. The vineyards of Hochheim—notably the origin of the nickname Hock—are distinguished by a gentler slope than those elsewhere in the Rheingau, yet the area is uncharacteristically warm. Kirchenstück is the village’s finest vineyard, and Franz Künstler is a domaine to watch. With a history dating back to only 1956, the Künstler estate is just an infant by Rheingau standards, yet it produces some of Hochheim’s finest wines. Rheingau: Important Gemeinden and Einzellagen Assmannshausen: Höllenberg Rüdesheim: Berg Roseneck, Berg Rottland, Berg Schlossberg Geisenheim: Schloss Johannisberg Johannisberg: Hölle Winkel: Schloss Vollrads, Jesuitengarten, Hasensprung Hattenheim: Pfaffenberg (monopole of Schloss Schonborn), Mannberg, Steinberg Hallgarten: Schönhell, Jungfer Erbach: Marcobrunn Kiedrich: Gräfenberg Eltville: Sonnenberg Hochheim am Main: Hölle, Kirchenstück BACK TO TOP Rheinhessen The Rheinhessen is directly south of the Rheingau, and it is bordered by the Rhine River to the north and east, the Nahe to the west, and the Pfalz to the south. The historically important city of Worms marks the southern edge of the Rheinhessen, and Mainz—home of the German Wine Institute—is the Rheinhessen’s northern outpost, situated across the Rhine from Wiesbaden. In between is a huge swath of vineyards; with 26,500 cultivated hectares, the Rheinhessen has more land under vine than any other anbaugebiet . Historically, a large proportion of the wine produced has been of poorer quality, and as of 2012 Müller-Thurgau still ranked ahead of Riesling as the region’s most planted variety. (In 2013, Riesling finally surpassed it.) High-yielding, dependable crossings in general are embraced throughout the region that gave the world Liebfraumilch, as Riesling has traditionally had more difficulty ripening on cooler, frost-prone sites away from the moderating influence of the Rhine River. Consequently, quality wines in the Rheinhessen have classically been produced in the Rheinterrasse, along the western banks of the Rhine. The Rheinterrasse, a region larger than the entire Rheingau, is an extended reach of eastern exposures protected from frost and the winds that sweep through much of the rolling, unwooded expanse of the Rheinhessen. The Rheinterrasse stretches from Bodenheim southward through the winemaking towns of Nierstein and Oppenheim, terminating near Mettenheim. Its most prestigious sector is a slope of red clay and slate spanning 180 ha between Nierstein and Nackenheim, the Roter Hang. In the past, wines from the Roter Hang fetched high prices, and the Titanic's wine list reportedly featured a Niersteiner Pettenthal Riesling as its most expensive offering, eclipsing First Growth Bordeaux. Gunderloch is a marquee producer within the Roter Hang; the estate owns over three-quarters of Rothenberg, one of the Rheinhessen's premier sites. As Müller-Thurgau's influence wanes, Riesling is resurgent in the Rheinhessen, and Silvaner is considered a regional specialty—the Rheinhessen has a more acreage devoted to Silvaner than any other winegrowing region in the world, including Franken. Riesling is often produced in halbtrocken or sweeter styles, whereas Silvaner is usually produced as a dry wine. Unfortunately, a deluge of blended bulk wines and lower quality, semisweet QbA wines are still dumped on the marketplace every year, and the Rheinhessen has a long way to go to bridge the quality divide between its finer demarcated sites and the bottom end. Spearheading the charge are producers in areas of the Rheinhessen considered less fit for quality wine production in the cooler years of decades past. Weingut Keller in Flörsheim-Dalsheim and Wittmann in neighboring Westhofen are making some of Germany's best dry Riesling. In fact, Germany's most elusive and expensive dry bottling of Riesling, the micro-production "G-Max," arrives from an undisclosed vineyard site in Keller's portfolio. Both Keller and Wittmann belong to "Message in a Bottle," an association of over two dozen young and dynamic winemakers in Rheinhessen committed to raising quality throughout the region. Blue Nun and Liebfraumilch cast a long shadow over the Rheinhessen, but today one is just as likely to find quality wines, from Germany's most diverse selection of varieties, here as anywhere else in the country. Rheinhessen: Important Gemeinden and Einzellage Nackenheim: Rothenberg Nierstein: Hipping, Pettenthal Oppenheim: Schützenhütte, Sackträger Westhofen: Morstein, Kirchspiel Dalsheim: Hubacker BACK TO TOP Pfalz The Pfalz , known to English-speakers as the Palatinate and officially named the Rheinpfalz until 1992, is one of the warmest winegrowing regions in Germany. The climate is sunny and dry, and the region has an extremely complex soil makeup, with layers of red sandstone, calcium-based limestone, loess, red slate, basalt, igneous granite and alluvial gravel. The Pfalz is a natural continuation of France’s Alsace, which borders it to the south. In the Pfalz, the Vosges Mountains are rechristened as the Haardt hills, rarely rising to heights of more than 500 or 600 meters on this side of the border. In fact, Schweigen’s Friedrich Becker, one of Germany’s most esteemed producers of Spätburgunder, has to cross the border into sovereign France to work his holdings in the Kammerberg Grosse Lage vineyard. In recent years, winemakers like Becker and Hansjörg Rebholz, a premier producer of dry Riesling and Weissburgunder, have propelled the southern Pfalz (Südliche Weinstrasse) into the spotlight; historically, however, the most important vineyards of the region lay further north, on the east-facing slopes of the Haardt hills in the Mittelhaardt-Deutsche Weinstrasse. From north to south, the premier wine villages of the Mittelhaardt-Deutsche Weinstrasse include Kallstadt, Ungstein, Bad Dürkheim, Wachenheim, Forst, Deidesheim, and Ruppertsberg. Forst is home to the Pfalz’s warmest and most exceptional vineyard site, the Grosse Lage Kirchenstück, and highly regarded neighboring sites like Jesuitengarten, Pechstein, and Ungeheuer. The Pfalz’s widely varied soil types generate dramatically different styles of Riesling, even from vineyards in such close proximity. In general, however, Pfalz Riesling is among Germany’s most full-bodied, and the wines are almost invariably dry. In the Mittelhaardt, the "3 Bs" (Bassermann-Jordan, von Buhl, Bürklin-Wolf) and Müller-Catoir are among the most recognizable estates. In the Pfalz, the story does not begin and end with Riesling. Pinot varieties are making big strides in the region, and Scheurebe has a reputation for sweet wines in the Pfalz dating back to the 1940s. When dry, Scheurebe may resemble pyrazine-laden Sauvignon Blanc in the glass, but as a late harvest wine its character develops into something more akin to cassis, and the wines can be opulent and memorable. Sauvignon Blanc itself is making an appearance in the region and in many major producers' portfolios, due to a domestic interest in the grape. There is even a little Sangiovese in the region; alongside some almond and lemon trees, the presence of a central Italian red variety is a reminder that the Pfalz's climate really is a little warmer! Pfalz: Important Gemeinden and Einzellagen Mittelhaardt-Deutsche Weinstrasse Kallstadt: Saumagen Ungstein Bad Dürkheim Wachenheim Forst: Kirchenstück, Freundstück, Pechstein, Ungeheuer, Jesuitengarten Deidesheim: Langenmorgen, Hohenmorgen, Kieselberg Ruppertsberg: Reiterpfad, Gaisböhl (Bürklin-Wolf monopole) Königsbach: Idig Südliche-Weinstrasse: Siebeldingen: Im Sonnenschein Birkweiler: Kastanienbusch Schweigen: Kammerberg BACK TO TOP Nahe To the west of the Rheinhessen, the Nahe ’s best vineyards are situated along the Nahe River, a tributary of the Rhine. Riesling is the premier grape; Nahe Rieslings are generally sweet and can be difficult to pin down, falling between the Mosel and the Rheingau in style. The villages of Schlossböckelheim, Oberhausen, Niederhausen, Norheim, Bad Münster, and Bad Kreuznach line the banks of the Nahe as it flows northward in the center of the region, and the region’s best wines can usually be found in this small stretch. The rich, sweet prädikat wines of Dönnhoff are the most well-known, expensive wines of the Nahe—especially those sourced from his monopole vineyard Oberhauser Brücke and Hermannshöhle in Niederhausen, the Nahe’s finest site. Nahe: Important Gemeinden and Einzellagen Bad Kreuznach Bad Münster Norheim Niederhausen: Hermannshöhle, Hermannsberg Oberhausen: Brücke Schlossböckelheim: Kupfergrube, Felsenberg BACK TO TOP Ahr Pinot Noir on the steep slopes of the Ahr. The Ahr is one of Germany’s smaller anbaugebiete —it ranks 10th overall in size—and is the world’s most northerly wine region dedicated to red wine production. Despite its location north of the 50th parallel, just over 80% of the Ahr’s wine is red, with Spätburgunder as the region’s dominant grape. The winegrowing area surrounds the Ahr River, a tributary of the Rhine, and its terraced vineyards are sheltered from cold winds by the Eifel Mountains. Steep slopes of rocky, volcanic slate offer warmth, and the region is actually warmer than the Mosel (The VDP describes its climate as “Mediterranean”). The region has only one bereich, Walporzheim-Ahrtal, and one grosslage, Klosterberg. Ahr Spätburgunder is generally light in color, showing bright acidity, red-fruit and a leaner structure, but top producers like Meyer-Näkel and Kreuzberg utilize barrique in their high-end cuvees to create richer styles. BACK TO TOP Franken Franken is centered along the Main River as it flows westward from Bamberg toward Frankfurt, to the east of Hochheim. The region produces a lot of beer—Franken and Bavaria overlap—but some quality wines are made, and the Silvaner grape thrives here, fashioning smoky, full, mineral-tinged dry white wines. The grape succeeds in Franken’s cool climate, where Riesling has difficulty ripening, yet was surpassed by Müller-Thurgau in plantings in the mid-20th century. Hans Wirsching and Horst Sauer produce excellent examples from the villages of Iphofen and Escherndorf, respectively. Würzburg is Franken’s wine center; the vineyard Stein within Würzburg lends its name to “Steinwein”, an old nickname for Frankish wine in general. Almost all Franken wine is dry, and some excellent Grosses Gewächs Rieslings are now appearing, along with a few notable bottlings of Spätburgunder and Frühburgunder, an early-ripening strain of Pinot Noir. Traditionally, the wines of Franken are bottled in the squat, flask-shaped bocksbeutel . Franken: Important Gemeinden and Einzellagen Würzburg: Stein, Leiste Escherndorf: Lump Iphofen: Julius Echter Berg Bürgstadt: Centgrafenberg BACK TO TOP Mittelrhein The Mittelrhein is a narrow anbaugebiet following the Rhine River northward past Assmannshausen and Lorch in the Rheingau. Cultivation is similar to the Mosel: steep, slate riverside slopes planted predominantly to Riesling. However, nearly 80% of the wine is either trocken or halbtrocken . The Hahn Grosse Lage vineyard, a monopole of Toni Jost in Bacharach, is one of the region's finest sites. The village of Spay, near Koblenz, is also the source of some good wines, especially from the estate of Matthias Müller. BACK TO TOP Hessische-Bergstrasse With just over 400 ha in the entire anbaugebiet , Hessische-Bergstrasse is one of Germany's smallest. It was for some time the only region in the country without a VDP top site, but with the move to Grosse Lage in the 2012 vintage that is no longer the case. BACK TO TOP Baden & Württemberg Baden and Württemberg are larger regions in southern Germany. Baden covers a large area along the French border and Württemberg is to the east, south of Franken. Both have separate zones along the Swiss border to the south, on the shores of Lake Boden (Bodensee). Germany's warmest winegrowing region, Kaiserstuhl, is located in Baden. Spätburgunder and other red grapes are preferred, as the entire area is too hot for quality Riesling. Württemberg contains most of Germany's Schwarzriesling, and Lemberger (Blaufränkisch) is a common variety, but few of the wines leave the area. Both regions are dominated by mass production and co-operatives. The rosé Weissherbst is locally popular in Baden; schillerwein , a style of rosé produced by fermenting red and white grapes together, is more common in Württemberg. BACK TO TOP Sachsen & Saale-Unstrut The anbaugebiete of Sachsen (Saxony) and Saale-Unstrut are located in former East Germany, and were added when the country was reunified in 1990. Sachsen is located in the Elbe River Valley, and is one of Germany’s smallest winegrowing regions. Although Müller-Thurgau is the most widely planted grape, Goldriesling, an aromatic crossing developed in Alsace, is a local specialty. Saale-Unstrut lies at the confluence of the Saale and Unstrut rivers, and is Germany's northernmost winegrowing region. Müller-Thurgau and Weißburgunder are common varieties in its cold climate. BACK TO TOP Austria Although archeological evidence dates grape growing in Austria (Österreich) back thousands of years, Austrian winemaking, like that of Germany, began to flourish in the Roman era after Probus’s repeal of the ban on provincial viticulture. Charlemagne and the Cistercian monks influenced the development of the vine in Austria as well, and by the 13th century the city of Vienna had become a major center for wine trade along the Danube River. Austrian wines were produced and exported in huge quantities throughout the Renaissance, although the wines never quite achieved the fame of the illustrious Tokaji of neighboring Hungary or the later Rieslings of the Rheingau. The first record of Trockenbeerenauslese in Austria dates to 1526, predating Spätlese in Germany by over 200 years, but by the 17th century war and taxes conspired to shrink production, and Austria would never again enjoy the breadth of vineyard acreage it amassed in the 1700s. Austrian vines, along with the rest of Europe’s vineyards, were challenged by the arrival of American fungal diseases (oidium, peronospora) and the root louse, yet the country rebounded to become the world’s third largest producer after World War II. Austria’s commercial successes in the 20th century resulted from innovations and developments similar to those being pursued in Germany. A viticultural research institute at Klosterneuburg, built in 1860, focused attention on grape crossings and higher yields. Dr. Lenz Moser developed the Hochkultur system in the 1920s, which gained popularity in the 1950s, the adaptation of this system opened the door to the mechanization of vineyards – a viticultural breakthrough with worldwide ramifications. The shift to high-volume winemaking took its toll on quality and the body of the wines, and dozens of culpable winemakers decided to artificially bolster their wines, leading to a scandal that would decimate the country’s wine industry in 1985, yet ultimately lead Austria to new heights of quality. Diethylene glycol—a colorless, odorless, poisonous chemical—gave a light wine some added texture. The “antifreeze” scandal of 1985 surfaced when one of the guilty parties tried to claim the chemical as a legitimate winery expense on his tax return. Customers cancelled orders worldwide. Bottles tested positive for the chemical in nearly every export market, and the press decried the matter, asserting that Austrians had diluted their wines with antifreeze. The association stuck and damaged the image of Austrian wines for years. Austria responded by drafting some of the strictest wine laws in Europe and quickly refocusing on quality. In a very short time, Austria has earned a renewed reputation as one of the classic winemaking nations of the world. Austria’s vineyard area is mostly confined to the eastern portions of the country. From north to south, the four major winemaking regions, or Weinbaugebiete, are Niederösterreich (Lower Austria), Wien (Vienna), Burgenland, and Steiermark (Styria) . Niederösterreich and Burgenland contain about 90% of the country’s vineyards. With 31% of the total vineyard acreage, the indigenous Grüner Veltliner is the most cultivated white variety, followed by Welschriesling, Müller Thurgau, Weißburgunder, Riesling, and Chardonnay, whose Austrian synonyms include Morillon and Feinburgunder. Zweigelt, a Blaufränkisch x St. Laurent crossing developed in Austria in 1922, leads red grapes in plantings, followed by Blaufränkisch itself, Blauer Portugieser, and Blauburger (Blauer Portugieser x Blaufränkisch). As of 2015, white varieties occupied 67% of Austria’s total vineyard acreage. Austrian wine law defines three levels of quality: Wein, Landwein, and Qualitätswein . Qualitätswein, the highest caliber of quality and regional specificity in Austria, is sourced from a single Weinbaugebiet or one of the 17 smaller wine regions and may be produced from one or more of 40 permitted grapes. Qualitätswein, which accounts for about 80% of Austria's total production, must pass a tasting panel and chemical analysis, indicated by a State Control Number (Prüfnummer) and the inclusion of the red and white banderole on the bottle's capsule. Wein—a generic category that replaced Tafelwein in time for the 2009 vintage—may carry a vintage date and a variety on the label, but may not exhibit a more exclusive statement of origin than Österreich. Landwein production is restricted to the same 40 varieties permitted for Qualitätswein, but the wines are labeled with one of three broad geographic areas (Weinbauregionen): Weinland, Steirerland, or Bergland. Weinland covers the areas defined as Niederösterreich, Wien and Burgenland, Steirerland corresponds to Steiermark, and Bergland includes just under 250 ha of vineyard land scattered throughout the remainder of Austria's mountainous countryside. All three levels of quality share a maximum yield of 9,000 kg/ha (75 hl/ha) but minimum must weights increase with each level of quality. Qualitätswein may be further subdivided into the categories of Prädikatswein and Districtus Austriae Controllatus (DAC). Austrian Prädikatswein shares many characteristics of its German counterparts, with a similar progression of late harvest designations and a typically sweeter profile. A minimum alcohol content of 5% is required for wines labeled by prädikat . In Austria, Kabinett wines are considered a subset of Qualitätswein rather than a beginning rung on the ladder of Prädikatswein; however, even at the Kabinett level winemakers are prohibited from practicing both chaptalization and the addition of Süssreserve. Austria’s Prädikatswein hierarchy includes the additional categories of strohwein, a dried grape wine of at least Beerenauslese ripeness, and Ausbruch, a sweet specialty of Rust, a free city on the western shore of Neusiedlersee. Most of Austria’s lusciously sweet wines are produced around the lake of Neusiedlersee in Burgenland, but the vast majority of the country’s white wines are fermented dry. Dry wines are the focus of the DAC system, a newer indication of origin for Qualitätswein designed to align Austrian regions with wine profiles in the mind of the consumer, in the tradition of the French and Italian systems. As of 2023, there are 18 DACs: Weinviertel (2002), Mittelburgenland (2005), Traisental (2006), Kremstal (2007), Kamptal (2008), Leithaberg (2009), Eisenberg (2010), Neusiedlersee (2012), Wiener Gemischter Satz (2013), Rosalia (2018), Vulkanland Steiermark (2018), Südsteiermark (2018), Weststeiermark (2018), Carnuntum (2019), Wachau (2020), Ruster Ausbruch (2020), Wagram (2022), and Thermenregion DAC (2023). Each DAC prescribes limited grape varieties, minimum alcohol content, and stylistic choices for the producer. In 2013, the Austrian Sekt Committee formed to bring international attention to high-quality Sekt. Austrian Sekt with Protected Designation of Origin became a legal category (distinct from “normal” Austrian Sekt) in 2016. In 2022, three distinct Sekt Austria PDOs were recognized: Sekt Austria, Sekt Austria Reserve, and Sekt Austria Grosse Reserve. The first requires that the grapes come from one of Austria’s federal states and the wine spends at least nine months on the lees, in the case of traditional method wines, and six months for those produced using tank method. Tank, transfer, and traditional methods are all allowed, and all dosage levels/styles and colors may be produced. Starting at the Reserve level, traditional method, hand-harvesting, and whole-cluster pressing are mandated. Grapes must be grown and vinified in one of Austria’s federal states, and 18 months on the lees is required at minimum. The finished product may only be Brut, Extra Brut, or Brut Nature, and an indication of the village in which the wine was produced may appear on the label. At the top of the tier is Grosse Reserve. Here the rules become more stringent: grapes must come from a single wine village, such as Langenlois, and this must be stated on the label. Vineyard names may also appear on the label. The wine must sit on the lees for a minimum of 36 months. Like Reserve, Grosse Reserve may not hold more than 12 grams per liter of residual sugar, meaning the wines must be Brut, Extra Brut, or Brut Nature. To differentiate Sekt Austria with Protected Designation of Origin from general Austrian Sekt, bottles must carry the official red and white seal on the capsule with the words Geschützter Ursprung, geprüfte Qualität, meaning “protected designation of origin and certified quality”, along with an indication of the quality level. BACK TO TOP Niederösterreich Niederösterreich, or Lower Austria, is the largest winegrowing region in the county and contains more than twice the planted vineyard area of the next leading Weinbaugebiet, Burgenland. In southern Niederösterreich, the alpine terrain that characterizes western and central Austria yields to the Pannonian Plain, a former seabed of loess soils stretching from eastern Austria through Hungary and many countries of the former eastern bloc. The resulting continental climate ushers in hot, dry summers and severe winters; the seasonal divide is much more pronounced than in many of the milder winegrowing climates of Western Europe. Most of Niederösterreich’s subzones are located along the path of the Danube River (and its tributaries) as it cuts through the region; Weinviertel and Thermenregion provide the exceptions. There are a total of eight subzones: Weinviertel, Carnuntum, Traisental, Wagram, Kremstal, Kamptal, Wachau, and Thermenregion. As of 2023, all of the subzones have earned DAC status. Weinviertel , Niederösterreich’s largest subzone and Austria’s first DAC, is located in the hills north of the Danube and the Pannonian Plain and provides a fresher, lighter wine in this cooler climate. DAC wines must be produced from Grüner Veltliner, with a minimum alcohol of 12%. They are approved by a tasting panel, which must determine that the wines show a distinct peppery note, and no obvious wood or botrytis tones. A Reserve category for Weinviertel debuted with the 2009 vintage; these fuller-bodied wines show a minimum alcohol of 13% and may reveal hints of both botrytis and wood, supported by the richer character of the wine. Traisental and Kremstal DACs have very similar regulations. The wines may be produced from either Grüner Veltliner or Riesling, and may be labeled either Classic (Klassik) or Reserve with a corresponding minimum alcohol content of either 12% or 13%. Again, there can be no obvious notes of either botrytis or wood in the Classic examples. Kamptal allows for Grüner Veltliner, Rielsing, Chardonnay, Weissburgunder, and Pinot Gris within the DAC quality pyramid and for Reserve. Grüner varietal wines from these three DACs show a more delicate spice, rather than the pungent white pepper of Weinviertel. The neighboring districts of Kremstal and Kamptal are located in western Niederösterreich, along the Krems and Kamp Rivers, tributaries of the Danube. Langenlois, one of Austria’s most important wine towns, is located in the Kamptal; the nearby Heiligenstein, Lamm, and Dechant vineyards are highly regarded. While Austrian single vineyard wines are labeled in the German fashion, with the village and vineyard name, many producers observe the old custom of replacing the village with the word Ried , indicating a top site. In 2010, 53 top sites throughout Kremstal, Kamptal, Wagram and Traisental were elevated to the status of Erste Lage by the Österreichische Traditionsweingüter, an association of producers founded in 1992. As of 2019, there are 81 vineyard sites that can use this designation on the bottle label. Although the classification does not yet have legal status, the organization is closely aligning itself with the DAC concept and featuring each region's allowable grape varieties. Many of the best vineyards in Austria are found in the Wachau , Niederösterreich’s westernmost subregion. The Wachau is a narrow band of steep slopes between Melk and Krems along the banks of the Danube, which moderates the otherwise severe continental climate. The river and cool northern winds chill the summer nights significantly, enabling the wines to retain high natural acidity. Much of the Wachau’s best vineyard land encompasses terraced slopes on the north bank of the river, in the style of the Mosel. The soil structure is a combination of loess and Gföhl, or gneiss, with a proportion of alluvial sand in the lower vineyard sites near the river’s edge. The unique climate, soil, and aspect of the Wachau yield Austria’s most extracted, ageworthy white wines; Grüner Veltliner and Riesling both excel in the region. The vineyard of Achleiten, in the village of Weissenkirchen, is home to some of the most pedigreed vines, and the trio of FX Pichler, Prager, and Emmerich Knoll are amongst the Wachau’s finest estates. While Pichler departed in 2020, historically, all three were members of Vinea Wachau, an organization of estates sworn to uphold the tenets of natural winemaking as spelled out in the Codex Wachau: no additives (including chaptalization), no aromatization (including the use of new barrique), and no “fractionation” (techniques such as de-alcoholization). All wines released by members must be bottled in the region and vinified from grapes grown in the Wachau. Founded in 1983, the Vinea Wachau members control more than 85% of the region’s vineyard acreage. Wachau is a relatively recent addition to Austria’s DAC system and has introduced a few unique rules. Wines are categorized in a three-tier hierarchal system, in which regional wines (Gebietsweine) can have up to 17 varieties (including a Gemischter Satz blend), village wines (Ortsweine) are permitted 9 varieties, and single-vineyard wines (Riedenweine) must be from Riesling or Grüner Veltliner. Consistent with Vinea Wachau rules, no chaptalization or oak character is allowed in Reidenweine, and all grapes—regardless of the tier—must be hand-harvested. Wachau producers may choose to continue following the rules and philosophies set by the Vinea Wachau, applying stylistic categories created in the late 1980s on their labels: Steinfeder, Federspiel, and Smaragd. Steinfeder (named for a local grass found in the vineyards) is the lightest style, with a minimum must weight of 15° KMW and a maximum alcohol of 11.5%. Federspiel (referencing a medieval falconer's lure) has a minimum must weight of 17° KMW and a final alcohol range of 11.5 to 12.5%. Finally, Smaragd (taking its name from the emerald lizard who basks on terraces) has a minimum alcohol of 12.5% and a minimum must weight of 18.2° KMW—the approximate equivalent of 90° Öchsle, or Spätlese ripeness. As these wines must be dry, Smaragd wines can reach high alcohol levels, show a high degree of extract, and display notes of botrytis. Vineyards along the Danube in the Wachau. To the east of Wachau, Kremstal, and Kamptal is the region of Wagram , which was awarded DAC status in 2022. Known as Donauland prior to 2007, Wagram lies just upstream from Vienna along the Danube. Grüner Veltliner is the main grape in the region, but Roter Veltliner, an unrelated red grape produced as a white wine, is a specialty of Wagram. The institute at Klosterneuburg lies within eastern Wagram. Carnuntum and Thermenregion are both located south of Vienna. Far from the Danube, Thermenregion experiences the full force of the hot Pannonian summers. The rare white grapes Rotgipfler and Zierfandler are cultivated here, produced varietally or as the blended Spätrot-Rotgipfler. Carnuntum’s climate is similar to that of sunny, neighboring Burgenland, and production is oriented toward red wines, particularly Zweigelt. Gemischter Satz—traditional field blends—are still popular in Carnuntum. BACK TO TOP Burgenland Burgenland, the other half of Weinland Österreich, produces Austria’s best red and sweet white wines. Burgenland borders Hungary, and shares many viticultural and climactic traits with regions just across the border, such as Sopron. The hot continental, Pannonian climate in Burgenland is tempered by the cooling influence of the Neusiedlersee, a large, shallow lake which, formerly, divided the subzones of Neusiedlersee and Neusiedlersee-Hügelland to the west. (As of 2016 Neusiedlersee-Hügelland is no longer recognized as a wine-growing region.) Mittelburgenland , and the former Südburgenland, are located to the south. As of 2020, Burgenland claims six DAC zones: Mittelburgenland, Leithaberg , Eisenberg , Neusiedlersee , Rosalia , and Rust . Mittelburgenland DAC produces red wines from Blaufränkisch, which may be sold from August 1 in the year following the harvest. Reserve wines undergo an additional year of aging and have a higher minimum alcohol content—13% as opposed to 12.5%. Although many producers in the region are experimenting with barriques, the DAC regulations stipulate large casks or used wood in the event of barrique-aging. The capital of Burgenland, Eisenstadt, is located within Leithaberg, the first DAC to allow both red and white wines. White wines may be blends or single varietal, produced from Grüner Veltliner, Chardonnay, Neuburger, or Weissburgunder. The red wines are comprised of a minimum 85% Blaufränkisch, with stipulations similar to those of Mittelburgenland on new wood. Like Mittelburgenland, Eisenberg DAC also produces red wines from Blaufränkisch. Known in Germany as Lemberger and Hungary as Kékfrankos, Blaufränkisch typically generates wines of medium weight, with supple texture, deep color and spicy red and black fruit flavors. Although Blaufränkisch is Burgenland’s most exciting and most planted red grape, Zweigelt has significant acreage, and its parent, the thin-skinned, low-tannin St. Laurent, is being cultivated with increasing frequency. in 2012 the Neusiedlersee DAC was created, producing red wines based on the fruity and spicy Zweigelt. The wines may be Classic or Reserve bottlings, with the Reserve wines matured for an extra year before release. In Rosalia DAC, monovarietal wines from either Blaufrankisch or Zweigelt may be produced, as long as the wines have a minimum alcohol content of 12% abv and a maximum of 4 g/l residual sugar. At the reserve level single vineyards (rieds) may be indicated on the label; reserve wines must have a minimum alcohol content of 13% abv. Rosalia DAC also permits dry rosé wines, made from one or several red Qualitätswein grapes. Varietal labelling is not allowed, though single vineyard labels are permitted. The Rosalia DAC became official in 2018, but wines may be released with the Rosalia DAC retroactively, with the 2017 vintage. White grapes are almost all on the decline in the Burgenland region. However, some exemplary sweet wines are made in both of the northern subregions. The village of Illmitz in Neusiedlersee is home to the Alois Kracher estate, whose eiswein, BA and TBA bottlings are legendary. The late Alois Kracher’s TBA Scheurebe is among the grape’s finest expressions to date. On the western shore of Neusiedlersee is the free city of Rust, famous for the production of Ausbruch, a traditional sweet wine dating to the 17th century. Grapes destined for Ausbruch are harvested at a minimum 30° KMW (approximately 156°Öchsle). Production for Ausbruch bears similarities to the process of Tokaji: richly concentrated botrytis-affected must is added to less concentrated must—from fruit harvested in the same vineyard—and the two are fermented together, then aged in barrel before release. Furmint grapes were traditionally used, but modern Ruster Ausbruch is more often produced from Chardonnay, Muskateller, Pinot Blanc, Neuburger, Welschriesling, Traminer and Pinot Gris. Despite the presence of many of Austria's greatest sweet white wines, DAC status for these wines was only granted in 2020. Ruster Ausbruch DAC was formed for sweet white wines produced with grapes grown within the city of Rust, while Neusiedlersee DAC was expanded to include sweet whites in addition to Classic and Reserve red wines based on Zweigelt. BACK TO TOP Styria Styria, or Steiermark, is a mountainous region to the south of Burgenland. There are three subregions: Südsteiermark , Weststeiermark , and Vulkanland Steiermark. The region contains approximately 9% of the nation’s vineyards. Sauvignon Blanc, is the region’s most cultivated variety, and, along with, Welschriesling, Weissburgunder and Traminer, performs well in the volcanic slopes of Vulkanland Steiermark. Sauvignon Blanc shines in the Südsteiermark; Manfred Tement is a leading light in the appellation, excelling with both unoaked and barrique-aged versions. In 2017 Styria held one DAC zone, Schilcherland DAC. The Schilcherland DAC promoted the racy rosé produced from the ancient grape, Blauer Wildbacher. Those wines could be listed as "Klassic" or "Ried", if a single vineyard was listed. The Schilcherland DAC only existed in the 2017 vintage; in 2018 Styria earned three DACs corresponding to its wine regions: Vulkanland Steiermark DAC, Südsteiermark DAC, and Weststeiermark DAC, the latter of which reabsorbed the schilcher wine style. In addition to the new Styrian DACs, the 2018 vintage is the first to promote the three-tiered "System of Origin Steiermark." The pyramid was set up to promote wines of the region and also set quality standards. At the base of the pyramid is Regional Wine; above that is Ortswein, which corresponds to village wines; the top of the pyramid holds Reidenwein, or single vineyard wines. Both Ortswein and Reidenwein require longer aging and a focus on the best grape varieties of the region. BACK TO TOP Wien (Vienna) Wien lies on the Danube River and is surrounded on three sides by the Niederösterreich subzones of Thermenregion, Carnuntum, Weinviertel, and Wagram. With nearly 600 ha of vines, it is the only capital city in Europe to have its own wine appellation within city limits. Gemischter Satz is commonly produced by Viennese winemakers, as is heuriger , a nouveau wine consumed in its infancy in taverns of the same name. Wiener (Viennese) Gemischter Satz received its own DAC in 2013. Gemischter Satz DAC wines are white and produced from a blend of at least 3 varieties. The even-fresher Sturm—a half-fermented, sparkling grape juice—usually accompanies harvest-time meals. BACK TO TOP Switzerland Cradled between France, Germany, and Austria, the mountainous nation of Switzerland is a loose confederation of states, or cantons, divided by language and custom and held together by shared values and political ethic rather than a common culture. Four national languages—French, German, Italian, and Romansch—illustrate the small alpine country’s broad diversity, and the 26 nearly autonomous cantons of Switzerland each have their own official language (or languages). In western Switzerland, the four French-speaking cantons Valais, Vaud, Geneva, and Neuchâtel produce wine, and seventeen German-speaking cantons practice viticulture in eastern Switzerland. The Italian-speaking canton of Ticino in the south borders Italy’s Lombardy region, and focuses almost exclusively on the Merlot grape. The most cultivated white grape variety in Switzerland is Chasselas. An unexciting variety elsewhere, Chasselas can produce refined, mineral-driven wines in the moderate climate of Switzerland’s valleys. Müller-Thurgau, Chardonnay, and Sylvaner, known locally as Johannisberg, are also widespread. Among the red varieties, Pinot Noir, Gamay, and Merlot are commonly encountered. Although less frequently planted in the vineyard, there is also an array of interesting indigenous grapes, including the white Amigne of Vétroz and Petite Arvine—the latter more often encountered in Italy’s Valle d’Aosta. Switzerland has traditionally exported very little wine, with over 90% of Swiss wine consumed within the country. Valais is the most important canton in Switzerland for wine production and is responsible for a third of the country’s annual production. The canton’s vineyard area is clustered along the banks of the Rhône River, establishing Valais as the river’s northernmost appellation. Protected by the Alps, Valais is the driest winegrowing region in Switzerland. This, in addition to soil diversity, ample sun exposure, and the foehn, a warm, dry wind, provides hospitable conditions for grapegrowing. Fendant (Chasselas) and Dôle, a blend of Pinot Noir and Gamay at a minimum of 51%, are the canton’s most widely produced wines. Rèze, one of Switzerland’s oldest indigenous grapes, produces the rare Valais specialty vin des glaciers , a maderized wine stored in high-altitude soleras. Only a few parcels remain planted today. Vaud , on the north shores of Lake Geneva, borders France’s Jura region and is also dominated by the cultivation of Chasselas, locally known as Dorin. In 2010, the Vaud appellation system was simplified, bracketing the former 26 village AOCs into six regional AOCs: Chablais, La Côte, Lavaux, Vully, Bonvillars, and Côtes de l'Orbe. Approved villages may be mentioned on the bottle. Two grands crus , Dézaley and Calamin, retain their individual status, and there is now a premier cru designation in Vaud. Traditional AOCs remain in place for Dorin and Salvagnin, a blend of Gamay, Pinot Noir, and the crossings Gamaret and Garanoir. Geneva, a small canton on the southwestern shore of Lake Geneva, contains the country’s densest plantings. Here, Chasselas and Gamay dominate, though Chardonnay and Pinot Noir are gaining attention. BACK TO TOP Review Quizzes Germany: Beginner , Intermediate , Expert Austria: Beginner , Intermediate , Expert Switzerland: Beginner , Intermediate , ExpertPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/155/rhone-valley-and-southern-franceFri, 02 Jan 2026 18:57:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:274bcbd0-93a3-4f38-921a-2f87abc47462Sandra BanTable of Contents Rhône Valley Northern Rhône Valley Southern Rhône Valley Provence and Corsica Languedoc-Roussillon Southwestern France and the Dordogne Review Quizzes The Rhône Valley The Rhône Valley in France is overwhelmingly devoted to red wine production. While the Rhône River is dotted with vineyards from its headwaters in Switzerland to its mouth on the French Mediterranean coast, the Rhône Valley properly refers to two clusters of appellations along the banks of the river in Southern France. The Northern Rhône, or Rhône septentrionale , occupies a narrow band of vineyards hugging the river just south of Beaujolais, from Vienne to Valence. The vineyards of the Southern Rhône, or Rhône méridionale , funnel outward south of Montélimar toward Avignon, near the river’s Mediterranean basin. While these two separate stretches are often considered collectively, the Northern and Southern Rhône are climatically and viticulturally distinct. The Rhône Valley and its environs boast a long history of enological importance. The introduction of winemaking in France can be traced to the Greeks, who established vine cultivation at their Massalia settlement—modern-day Marseilles—in approximately 600 BCE. At the height of Greek trade, some 10 million liters of wine in amphorae were shipped through Massalia into the heart of Gaul via the Rhône River. The Romans continued this trend with their arrival in the Southern Rhône in 125 BCE, and viticulture spread to the Northern Rhône by the first century CE. The Northern Rhône’s picturesque, hallmark terraces were first constructed by Roman workers. Vienne evolved as an important Roman provincial capital, and the Viennese vinum picatum, or "pitched wine," was exported to Rome itself. Whether vinum picatum was simply a reference to the wine’s character resulting from its mode of transport (amphorae lined with resin) or an allusion to the tarry flavors of Syrah is unclear. Winemaking continued in the Rhône Valley after the fall of Rome, but the trade of wine declined greatly during the Dark Ages. As in Burgundy, the Catholic Church was primarily responsible for reviving the culture of the vine in the ninth century. In 1309, the Southern Rhône suddenly became the center of Christian Europe as Pope Clement V moved his court from Rome to Avignon. His successor, Pope John XXII, began construction of the now-ruined summer papal palace, Châteauneuf-du-Pape, and planted the surrounding vineyards. The Roman Catholic popes presided in Avignon until 1378, and Châteauneuf-du-Pape remained property of the papacy until 1791. However, the wine sourced from the papal vineyards— vin d’Avignon —was not bottled as Châteauneuf-du-Pape until the 19th century. In the 17th century, traders carried Rhône wines to the Loire Valley, and by the 18th, they were being exported via the Loire to England. The “manly” wines of Hermitage were among the most famous in France in the 18th and 19th centuries, and many merchants of Bordeaux blended them with their own reds to strengthen the wines. The Southern Rhône was the first quality region in France to be struck by phylloxera when it first appeared in 1863. As wine fraud took hold in France during the decades of grafting and replanting following the epidemic, the growers of Châteauneuf-du-Pape prepared and imposed a set of rules for production. These rules became the prototype for the Appellation Contrôlée system, and in 1936, Châteauneuf-du-Pape became the first AOC (now AOP) in France. In the late 20th century, these wines were often overlooked in favor of Burgundy and Bordeaux; today, however, they achieve critical acclaim and capture public interest. BACK TO TOP The Northern Rhône While the Southern Rhône’s climate is firmly Mediterranean, the Northern Rhône is more continental. Some 75 miles north of Avignon, the Northern Rhône benefits from its southerly position but experiences greater seasonal temperature shifts, more rainfall, and fewer annual hours of sunshine than the southern appellations. The cold, dry Mistral wind , a defining climatic element of the Southern Rhône and Provence, blows down from the Massif Central and affects the Northern Rhône in winter and spring. Although the wind is strong enough to strip the vines—many trees in the valley grow leaning southward, bent by the wind—it dries the vineyards, preventing mold and mildew from taking hold. Heat-retaining granitic and schistous soils define much of the north: the steeply sloped vineyards of Côte-Rôtie, Condrieu, and Hermitage are carved out of this bedrock. Fine sand and loess topsoil throughout the Northern Rhône are prone to erosion, a threat partially mitigated by terrace construction. Near the commune of Condrieu, the thin topsoil is rich with powdery, decomposed mica, known locally as arzelle . The soils become heavier with clay in the southern section of Saint-Joseph, Crozes-Hermitage, and Saint-Péray. In the Northern Rhône, the Syrah grape achieves its classic status. The wines are full-bodied, firm, and savory, and they manifest a host of signature secondary aromas including smoke, grilled meat, olive, lavender, and peppercorn. The wines are typically fermented and aged in large oak foudres, although some producers are now experimenting with new barriques. There are five appellations for Syrah: Hermitage AOP , Crozes-Hermitage AOP , Cornas AOP , Côte-Rôtie AOP , and Saint-Joseph AOP . In Cornas, Syrah is bottled as a 100% varietal wine. The other appellations allow a small percentage of white grapes to be blended (and often fermented together) with the Syrah grape. In Côte-Rôtie, up to 20% Viognier may be added. In Crozes-Hermitage and Hermitage, producers have the option of adding a combined total of 15% Marsanne and Roussanne. Saint-Joseph producers may add up to 10% Marsanne and Roussanne. Co-fermentation offers the almost counterintuitive advantage of stabilizing red wine color and moderating tannin extraction. Generally, a smaller percentage of white grapes than the allowable maximums is used, if any. Côte Rôtie vineyards Côte-Rôtie, the northernmost appellation in the Northern Rhône Valley, is home to some of France’s steepest vineyards. On parts of the slope, the gradient is a precipitous 55 degrees or more. Côte-Rôtie, the “roasted slope,” rises up a southeasterly aspect behind the riverside town of Ampuis, home to E. Guigal, the largest producer in the appellation. While Côte-Rôtie has grown to include other communes, the two slopes nearest Ampuis—the Côte Brune and Côte Blonde—are considered the heart of the appellation’s terroir. The wines derived from these two hillsides are said to mirror their namesake: Côte Blonde yields softer, alluring wines, whereas the wines of Côte Brune are stronger and more assertive. La Landonne, a cru bottled as a vineyard designate by Guigal, René Rostaing, and others, fetches prices that can equal those commanded by the first growths of Bordeaux. Rising up from the village of Tain-l’Hermitage, the south-facing hill of Hermitage produces equally compelling Syrah. Four major producers dominate the terraced hill: the singular Jean-Louis Chave and the négociants Delas, M. Chapoutier, and Jaboulet. “La Chapelle,” Jaboulet’s premier wine, is named for a small hillside chapel that stands in commemoration of Gaspard de Stérimberg, the legendary Crusader-turned-hermit who lived a life of asceticism atop the hill. The chapel is located within the climat of L’Hermite. Other important climats of Hermitage include le Méal, les Bessards, Gréffieux, Beaume, and Péléat. Behind the hill of Hermitage are the vineyards of Crozes-Hermitage. The red wines of Crozes-Hermitage are generally lighter and less ageworthy, although the better wines can approach Hermitage in quality. Hill of Hermitage In Cornas, the Syrah wines are traditionally rustic, impenetrable in their youth, and slow to develop in the bottle. The vineyards of Cornas are among the warmest in the Northern Rhône. The sun’s warmth is magnified by the naked granite soil (gore ) in the vineyards, and the appellation is shielded from the Mistral wind. There are four noteworthy lieux-dits : Les Reynards, La Côte, Les Chaillot, and Les Mazards. At just over 100 hectares of planted land, Cornas is physically the smallest red wine appellation of the Northern Rhône, although Hermitage is not far behind. Auguste Clape has long been considered the standard-bearer for the traditional wines of the appellation, eschewing destemming for whole-cluster fermentation and new oak barriques for the old demi-muids of the region. North of Cornas, Saint-Joseph produces variable wines. The appellation’s borders have been greatly enlarged from the original delimited area near the commune of Tournon-sur-Rhône, opposite the hill of Hermitage. Today, the AOP extends through Condrieu in the north to Saint-Péray in the south. Along with Crozes-Hermitage, Saint-Joseph provides a basic level of quality in the Northern Rhône. Cornas and Côte-Rôtie may produce only red wine; Saint-Joseph, Crozes-Hermitage, and Hermitage also produce small amounts of white wines, from the Marsanne and Roussanne grapes. Near Valence, the cool Saint-Péray AOP exclusively produces Marsanne and Roussanne wines, which may be made in méthode traditionelle mousseux style. Often but not always blended, the more delicate Roussanne adds acidity and waxy minerality to Marsanne’s broader, oily texture and marzipan character. In Hermitage, producers have the traditional option of drying either grape for the rare dessert wine vin de paille , a style revived by Gérard Chave in the 1970s and again by Chapoutier in 1990. Condrieu AOP is a white wine appellation just south of Côte-Rôtie for the Viognier grape. With less than 200 delimited hectares in the appellation, these wines are rare. In the 1960s, the wine approached extinction as it had fallen out of commercial favor and only a handful of hectares were still planted to Viognier. Today, it experiences a small resurgence in the hands of producers such as Georges Vernay, Yves Cuilleron, and André Perret. Viognier wines tend toward honeyed lushness, intriguing floral aromas, and rich texture; however, important stylistic decisions, such as the use of oak and the desirability of malolactic fermentation, vary widely by producer. The Viognier wines of Château Grillet AOP , a monopole within Condrieu, enjoy historical acclaim but are perhaps more notable today for their scarcity than their intrinsic value. Château Grillet is often incorrectly cited as the smallest appellation in France; this distinction belongs to La Romanée in Burgundy. Southeast of Valence, four minor appellations of the Northern Rhône lie on the Drôme River, a tributary of the Rhône. Coteaux de Die AOP and the sparkling wine appellation Crémant de Die AOP offer whites based entirely and partially, respectively, on Clairette. Clairette de Die AOP provides two styles of sparkling wines: méthode traditionnelle and méthode Dioise ancestrale. While Clairette is the sole grape in the traditional method wines, the méthode Dioise ancestrale requires its rustic sparkling wines to contain, confusingly, a minimum 75% Muscat à Petit Grains. The méthode ancestrale is an old technique of sparkling wine production in which the wine is bottled without dosage before fermentation has concluded. The wines are disgorged into pressurized tanks and rebottled without l iqueur d’expédition . A minimum 35 grams per liter residual sugar remains, implying demi-sec sweetness. Méthode traditionnelle wines are basically brut in style, with a maximum 15 grams per liter of sugar after dosage . Near Die, Châtillon-en-Diois AOP is an anomaly for Gamay-based reds and rosés and whites based on Aligoté and Chardonnay. BACK TO TOP The Southern Rhône The Southern Rhône accounts for about 95% of all wine produced in the Rhône Valley and it is overwhelmingly devoted to red wine. Unlike the Northern Rhône, wines from the southern appellations are generally blends. Grenache—a Spanish import—is the most planted red grape, offering richness of body, sweet fruit, and warmth. Mourvèdre and Syrah constitute a significant percentage of plantings, adding structure and depth of color to the blend. Cinsault provides finesse and freshness, and is often utilized for rosé wines as well. Carignan is the last major red grape of the Southern Rhône, but acreage is on the decline. The climate of the Southern Rhône is distinctly Mediterranean; the landscape shifts to become rugged garrigue scrubland. The Mistral blows fiercely across the flat southern valley. Many growers plant their vines at an angle so that the wind will blow them upright over time. Hot summers are tempered by significant diurnal swings, and mild winters follow typically heavy autumnal rains. A wealth of alluvial soils exists in the Southern Rhône, deposited over limestone subsoil in the river’s course. Sand, gravel, and clay have been left in the river’s wake, and larger stones have been dumped in the valley’s mounds by post-ice age glacial melt. In Châteauneuf-du-Pape, these deposited “pudding stones” are called galets . Made of quartzite and smoothed by the river, the galets store heat, releasing it to warm the vines at night. Châteauneuf-du-Pape AOP offers red and white wines and is the premier southern appellation. With 13 accepted varieties—or 18, depending on how one counts the grapes—Châteauneuf-du-Pape embodies the Southern Rhône’s blending philosophy. While Grenache is generally the principal variety in red wines from the appellation, Château de Beaucastel Rouge includes a significant proportion of Mourvèdre and is famously produced from a blend of every authorized variety. On the other end of the spectrum, Château Rayas often releases their Châteauneuf-du-Pape Rouge as a 100% varietal Grenache. Regardless of the individual producer’s encépagement and assemblage , the red wines generally show more ripeness, richness, and alcohol than their northern counterparts. At 12.5%, the required minimum potential alcoholic strength is the highest in France for dry AOP wines, and can result in surprisingly high-alcohol wines, reaching 15% or more in some producers' top-end cuvées. Additionally, AOP regulations mandate that producers declassify or discard at least 2% of harvested grapes ( le râpé), a process that serves as a safeguard against underripeness. Vine growing in the famed soil of Châteauneuf-du-Pape Château La Nerthe released the first estate-bottled Châteauneuf-du-Pape in 1785. Today, a papal crest embossed on the shoulder of the bottle marks many estate-bottled wines from the appellation. Knowledge of a producer’s individual style is key, as so many elements contribute to the character of the final wine. The appellation’s size is a factor: in comparison to Cornas’ 100 hectares, Châteauneuf-du-Pape has over 3,000. Thus, the soil of the appellation is vastly varied beyond the iconic galets ; distinct pockets of alluvial sediment exist for gravel, calcareous clay, and sand. Traditional producers tend to use old oak foudres for extended aging, and some may even bottle a vintage from cask as it is sold, creating great variation in individual bottlings of the same wine. Carbonic maceration, barrique aging, and new vinification techniques allow experimentation. In addition, each producer's assemblage is critical to the style. While the appellation’s regulations predate every other region in France, Châteauneuf-du-Pape is just beginning to modernize and explore its viticultural diversity. The Grapes of Châteauneuf-du-Pape Grenache (Noir/Blanc/Gris) Mourvèdre Syrah Cinsault Counoise Picpoul (Noir/Blanc/Gris) Terret Noir Bourboulenc Clairette/Clairette Rosé Roussanne Vaccarèse Picardan Muscardin While Châteauneuf-du-Pape is the most prestigious appellation, Côtes du Rhône AOP is the Southern Rhône’s largest appellation and the base designation for wines from the entire Rhône Valley. While the Northern Rhône may release its generic Syrah–based blended wines as Côtes du Rhône, the wines issue overwhelmingly from the south, where Grenache is the principal component. Over two-thirds of the Rhône Valley’s wines are released as Côtes du Rhône AOP. Most of the wine is red, although whites and rosés are allowed. Côtes du Rhône-Villages AOP is a superior designation for red, white, and rosé wine from a delimited area within the Southern Rhône. As of 2025, 21 communes may append their names to the appellation. Grenache, Mourvèdre, and Syrah are the principal red grapes for Côtes du Rhône-Villages. Several former Côtes du Rhône-Villages communes have been awarded distinct appellations. In 1971, the Gigondas AOP was created for red, rosé, and white wines sourced from the commune’s red clay alluvial soils. The red wines contain a minimum 50% Grenache, typically blended with smaller proportions of Syrah and Mourvèdre. Other Rhône grape varieties—excluding Carignan—are permitted to be present as a maximum 10% of plantings in the Gigondas vineyards. The wines are similar in style to Châteauneuf-du-Pape and can offer great value. In 1990, Vacqueyras AOP joined Gigondas as the second former Côtes du Rhône village to be promoted to full appellation status. The rustic Vacqueyras wines are usually red, although a small amount of white and rosé wine is produced. A minimum 50% Grenache is required for the red wines. Beaumes-de-Venise AOP and Vinsobres AOP joined the other appellations in 2005 and 2006, respectively, producing red wines based on a minimum 50% Grenache. Cairanne is the most recent arrival to the AOP pack; since early 2016, it merits appellation status for dry white and red wines. All five appellations share Châteauneuf-du-Pape’s 12.5% minimum potential alcohol requirement for red wines. On the western bank of the Rhône, opposite Châteauneuf-du-Pape, is Lirac AOP . Spread over four communes, the wines can be very similar to the Côtes du Rhône-Villages wines, and are made in red, white, and rosé versions. Grenache Noir and Blanc are prevalent in Lirac, although the white wines may see a significant proportion of Clairette and Bourboulenc added. Despite its sandier soils, the commune of Lirac in 1863 may have served as France’s doorway to the phylloxera incursion. Just south of Lirac, the Tavel AOP is one of the only communal appellations in France exclusively dedicated to rosé wines. Tavel has long been regarded as the premier French rosé appellation, although its reputation for ageworthiness is often exaggerated. The wines are based on Grenache and made in a dry style. Vin doux naturel , a sweet fortified wine, is found in greater quantities in Languedoc-Roussillon, but two appellations exist for the style in the Southern Rhône: Rasteau AOP and Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise AOP . The local co-operative, the Vignerons de Beaumes-de-Venise, produces 90% of the wine labeled as Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise AOP from grapes sourced throughout the communes of Beaumes-de-Venise and Aubignan. The white, red, and rosé wines retain natural grape sugar through mutage , wherein pure grape spirit is added to arrest fermentation in a proportion of 5 to 10%. Rasteau vin doux naturel wines may be white, rosé, or red, and they are based on the three colors of Grenache: Blanc, Gris, and Noir. The communes of Rasteau, Cairanne, and Sablet are eligible for the Rasteau AOP. Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise wines are typically fresher and more aromatic, whereas the Rasteau wines show more tawny flavors. In 2011, vignerons in Rasteau adopted the labeling terminology established by the producers of Rivesaltes in Roussillon: ambré and tuilé indicate, respectively, white and red VDN wines displaying a more oxidative character and subject to at least three years of aging prior to release . Fresher versions of white and red Rasteau VDN wines are now labeled blanc and grenat , whereas producers may affix the term Hors d'age to wines that have matured for at least five years prior to release. Rasteau AOP wines may also be rancio , a deliberately oxidative and maderized style in which the wine is left in open barrels, exposed to the ravages of sunlight and temperature. Since 2010, Rasteau AOP has permitted the production of dry, unfortified reds, but only from fruit grown in the commune of Rasteau itself. The Southern Rhône Valley's northernmost appellation is Grignan-les-Adhémar AOP , located directly south of Montélimar. Hoping to rebound sales and avoid an unsavory association with the troubled Tricastin nuclear plant, the producers of Côtes du Tricastin successfully rebranded their appellation as Grignan-les-Adhémar in 2010. Other appellations of the Southern Rhône include Luberon AOP , Ventoux AOP , and Côtes du Vivarais AOP . Each of these regional appellations produces red, white, and rosé wines from a large complement of Rhône varieties. To the west, Costières de Nîmes AOP adjoins the regions of the Southern Rhône Valley, Provence, and Languedoc. Formerly considered an appellation of Languedoc, INAO authorities transferred oversight of the Costières de Nîmes AOP to officials in the Rhône Valley in 2004. Wines of all three colors are made. Clairette de Bellegarde AOP , a single-commune appellation within Costières de Nîmes , produces white wines from the Clairette grape. BACK TO TOP Provence and Corsica Provence, the birthplace of French wine, lies to the east of the Rhône basin on the sun-drenched Mediterranean coast. Steeped in rich culinary tradition and flooded with tourists, the region finds a ready audience for its pale-hued, dry rosés. Côtes de Provence AOP , under which three-quarters of Provençal wine is bottled, is dedicated to rosé production. While red and white wine are made, rosé accounts for nearly 90% of the appellation’s output. The rosés must be blended from at least two varieties; they are given color through a short period of skin contact, saignage , or, in the case of the palest of wines, immediate pressing of whole grapes. Blending of white and red wines is not an approved method for still rosé production here or elsewhere in France. Cinsault, Grenache, Mourvèdre, Syrah, and the local, garrigue -scented Tibouren represent the bulk of both red and rosé blends. While many rosés may be bottled in a traditional, hourglass-shaped "skittle" bottle, this is not necessarily a mark of quality. Rosés and red wines may be bottled under one of five subzone designations: Pierrefeu, Sainte-Victoire, Fréjus, Notre-Dame des Anges, and La Londe, the last of which also permits white wines. Although Provençal rosé occupies the public imagination, the red wines of Bandol AOP are the true stars of the region. Bandol produces rosés and Clairette-based whites, but the red blends harbor the most potential. Bandol is the only appellation in France to require focus on the Mourvèdre grape: a minimum 50% is blended with Grenache, Cinsault, and—to a lesser extent—Syrah and Carignan. The resulting wines are full-bodied, plummy, dense, and often show an animal character. The wines must spend 18 months in wood prior to release and often need years in the bottle to demonstrate their full potential. Domaine Tempier, Château de Pibarnon, and Château Pradeaux are excellent sources. Vineyards in Bandol The dry, warm Mediterranean climate of Provence is aptly suited to viticulture without fear of mold or rot. Sustainable and organic methods of farming are widely employed. Vignerons in Les Baux-de-Provence AOP , a former subappellation of the larger Coteaux d’Aix-en-Provence AOP , have long pushed for a mandate for organic viticulture, but their efforts have yet to yield results. The warm hilltop appellation, protected from the Mistral wind, releases red and rosé wines, based on Grenache, Syrah, and Cinsault. A 2011 revision of the appellation's rules added white wines, based on Grenache Blanc, Clairette, Vermentino, and Roussanne. Domaine de Trévallon, one of the premier estates of southern France, is located within Les Baux-de-Provence, but the region's 1995 promotion to AOC and subsequent emphasis on Mediterranean varieties left the estate to release its Cabernet Sauvignon-based wines as IGP. The appellations of Cassis AOP , Palette AOP , and Bellet AOP produce wines of all three colors. The tiny Palette allows a dizzying variety of red and white grapes but boasts only one producer of note: Château Simone. Cassis and Bellet offer more promising whites than reds. Clairette and Marsanne account for the better Cassis wines and Rolle—Italian Vermentino—is increasingly used for the whites of Bellet. Coteaux Varois en Provence AOP was granted an appellation for red, white, and rosé wines in 1993, following its earlier promotion from IGP . Like Domaine de Trévallon, Domaine de Triennes—the most noteworthy producer in Coteaux Varois—chooses to release wines as IGP . The potential of Provence as a fine wine region is being explored: new appellations find their footing as encépagement regulations are in flux. As evidenced by the examples of serious producers resorting to the freedom of IGP , Provençal appellations will continue to adapt. A commitment to quality is in place: Côtes de Provence AOP is the only French appellation outside of Bordeaux to publish a ranking of grand cru classé estates. Originally, in 1955, 23 estates were classified. The island of Corse (Corsica) has long been a steady contributor to Europe’s surplus wine lake, although many of the island’s lowest quality vineyards have been uprooted. More productive vines, such as Carignan and Alicante Bouschet, have been torn out in favor of higher quality grapes. Nielluccio (a variant of Sangiovese), Sciaccarello, and Vermentino are indigenous to the island, demonstrating Corsica’s close connection to Italy. Nielluccio and Sciaccarello are blended with Grenache, Barbarossa, and a host of Rhône grapes for the red and rosé wines of the generic, island-wide Vin de Corse AOP . White Vin de Corse wines are blends of Vermentino and Ugni Blanc. Ajaccio AOP and Patrimonio AOP are the island’s two communal appellations. Muscat du Cap Corse AOP wines are vin doux naturel . BACK TO TOP Languedoc-Roussillon On the southern coast of France, Languedoc stretches in a crescent shape between Provence to the east and Roussillon to the south. Gaillac and the other regions of Southwestern France lie due west of Languedoc. The vine has always flourished in the Mediterranean climate of Languedoc, but wine quality has surged in the area only recently. When considered collectively, Languedoc-Roussillon is one of the largest winegrowing regions in the world by acreage, and is the only region in France to surpass Bordeaux in plantings. In 2006, when France recorded a production total of approximately 56 million hectoliters, Languedoc-Roussillon contributed 16 million hectoliters—nearly 30% of the national total. While Languedoc-Roussillon plantings—particularly those that do not qualify for anything beyond basic Vin de France—are on the decline, the region is still responsible for a large percentage of Europe’s low-end wine surplus. Many of the quality appellations are clustered within the western side of Languedoc. Fitou is one of the region’s oldest appellations, dating to 1948. The Fitou AOP is divided into two distinct, noncontiguous sectors: Fitou Maritime and Fitou Montagneux. The wines are red blends, usually dominated by Carignan. Both sectors of Fitou are embedded within the larger Corbières AOP , which produces reds, rosés, and a small amount of whites from extremely varied soils and microclimates. One subzone, Boutenac , has achieved full appellation status for Carignan-based red wines. North of Corbières is Minervois AOP , a designation for red, white and rosé wine. Like Corbières, Minervois is divided into several distinct subzones. The center of the appellation, La Livinière , received its own appellation in 1999 for red wines. In 2023, Sable de Camargue AOP was elevated from IGP status to showcase gris (rosé) wines from Grenache. Cabardès AOP and Malepère AOP produce red and rosé wines only. Cabardès wines maintain a balance between Grenache, Syrah, and the major Bordeaux red varieties. Malepère received full appellation status in 2007, and its encépagement stipulates a minimum 50% Merlot for red wines and 50% Cabernet Franc for rosé. Saint-Chinian AOP and Faugères AOP produce red, white, and rosé wines from Southern French grapes. White wines are a recent addition to the Saint-Chinian appellation, as are two subzone designations for red wines: Berlou and Roquebrun. Vineyards in Saint-Chinian appellation, Languedoc wine region South of Malepère and Cabardès is the Limoux AOP . Like Malepère, Limoux red wines are Merlot-based. Still whites are produced from Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, and Mauzac, and must be fermented in oak. The local Mauzac also makes up a minimum 90% of Blanquette de Limoux, a distinctive méthode traditionnelle wine that lays claim to being France’s oldest purposefully made sparkling wine. A sleeker, more modern style of sparkling wine is Crémant de Limoux AOP , which stipulates a maximum 20% Mauzac and Pinot Noir in favor of Chardonnay and Chenin Blanc. Tiny quantities of Limoux méthode ancestrale are made solely from Mauzac, wherein the wine’s fermentation arrests in the cold of winter, reawakening in the spring. The eastern half of Languedoc is dominated by the regional appellation Languedoc AOP . Formerly Coteaux du Languedoc AOC, this appellation encompasses nearly all of Languedoc-Roussillon, extending from the Spanish border to the city of Nîmes. Languedoc AOP covers the production of red, rosé, and white wines and encompasses 10 geographic designations. The Languedoc AOP reds generally require at least 50% combined Grenache, Syrah, Mourvèdre, and Lladoner Pelut; however, varietal makeup and percentages vary by geographic designation. There have been discussions and proposals regarding a grand cru system in Languedoc, which would likely create a hierarchy among its geographic designations and neighboring AOPs, but nothing concrete has emerged. Occasional promotions to AOP status occur, however: in 2014, Terrasses du Larzac , a former geographic designation of Languedoc AOP, received independent AOP status; La Clape followed in mid-2015. Lastly, the Languedoc contains several small fortified wine appellations, including Muscat de Mireval AOP , Muscat de Lunel AOP , Muscat de Saint-Jean-de-Minervois AOP , and Muscat de Frontignan AOP . Muscat de Frontignan wines are most common and may be either vin doux naturel or vin de liqueur . Roussillon, extending northward from the Spanish border, is singularly important for vin doux naturel production. Over 90% of France’s fortified wines are made in the region. Much of this wine is Rivesaltes AOP , a vin doux naturel appellation representing a myriad number of styles. Rivesaltes, meaning "high riverbanks" in Catalan, produces fortified ambré, grenat, tuilé, and rosé —that is, amber, red, tawny, and pink. The ambré and tuilé styles are aged in an oxidative environment until at least March 1 of the third year following the harvest. Grenat wines are aged reductively for one year, and must be bottled before June 30 of the second year. Producers will often follow these minimum guidelines with extended aging for the oxidative styles: some age the wines in glass bonbonnes under the relentless Roussillon sun; others employ a solera . Rivesaltes AOP wines aged for a minimum of 5 years may be called hors d’age ; in practice these may receive up to 20 years of aging prior to release. The fortified wines of Rivesaltes may be varietal wines or blends; the Mediterranean encépagement includes Grenache (Noir, Gris, and Blanc), Maccabéo, Tourbat, Muscat of Alexandria, and Muscat à Petits Grains. While Grenache Noir is the sole component of grenat wines, producers of tuilé styles may blend the grape with white varieties. When the wine is produced solely from the two Muscat varieties, it may be labeled Muscat de Rivesaltes AOP . The sweeter Muscat de Rivesaltes is typically released earlier and is better suited for youthful consumption, as the wine quickly loses its aromatic freshness. Rivesaltes was the birthplace of vin doux naturel —here, Arnaud de Villeneuve, a 13th-century physician, introduced the process of mutage as a means of medicinal elixir-brewing—but it is not the only modern appellation in Roussillon for the style. Maury AOP authorizes vin doux naturel in a similar range of styles, principally produced from Grenache Noir, Blanc, and Gris. In Banyuls AOP , the southernmost wine appellation in continental France, Grenache Noir accounts for at least 50% of the Traditionnel fortified reds; the Banyuls Grand Cru AOP requires at least 75%. To be labeled grand cru , Banyuls must spend a minimum 30 months in barrel. If destined to be vintage-dated, Banyuls is generally bottled within one year and labeled rimage. Banyuls is France’s richest, most full-bodied, and most consistently quality-minded VDN appellation. Vineyards of Roussillon Unfortified red, white, and rosé wines from the producers of Banyuls are released as Collioure AOP . Producers in Maury, on the other hand, have had the option of releasing dry red wines under the Maury AOP banner since 2011. Other dry wine appellations include Côtes du Roussillon AOP , a regional appellation for red, white, and a high percentage of rosé wines. Côtes du Roussillon Villages AOP is reserved for the red wines of more than 50 communes in the north of the Côtes du Roussillon. Five communes may add their names to the appellation: Latour-de-France, Caramany, Les Aspres, Lesquerde, and Tautavel. As ambitious producers discover a wealth of old vine plantings, trim yields, and rethink the worth of once-derided workhorse grapes like Carignan, Roussillon's reputation for wines beyond the traditional vins doux naturel will continue to rise. Despite so many disparate AOPs and acres under vine, the Languedoc-Roussillon region produces only 10% of France’s AOP wine. Although the European Union’s vine pull scheme has made a recent dent in the sheer amount of available wines, Languedoc-Roussillon covers a vast vineyard area, much of which has been classified as IGP. An enormous amount of IGP wines are produced, at every level of quality. Pays d’Oc IGP is the overarching classification for the entire Languedoc-Roussillon region. BACK TO TOP Southwestern France and the Dordogne The appellations of Southwest France— Sud-Ouest— draw considerable influence from Bordeaux, Spain, and Southeastern France. Southeast of Bordeaux’s Right Bank, the Dordogne River, flowing westward from its origin in the Massif Central, runs through the region of Bergerac. Bergerac AOP produces all three colors of wine from Bordeaux varieties. Sec denotes dry whites from the region. Côtes de Bergerac AOP , in the absence of actual hills, requires a higher amount of minimum alcohol. The blended reds of Pécharmant AOP are the longest-lived wines of Bergerac. Sweet wine appellations within Bergerac include Monbazillac AOP , Saussignac AOP , Rosette AOP , Haut-Montravel AOP , and Côtes de Montravel AOP . Monbazillac is the most notable, generating botrytised wines from Bordeaux varieties. Muscadelle particularly excels in the sandy soils of Monbazillac; multiple tries and a ban on mechanical harvesting are testament to the appellation’s commitment to quality. Montravel AOP wines, unlike Côtes de Montravel and Haut-Montravel, may be red or white and must be dry. South of the Bordeaux satellites of the Dordogne are numerous wine regions; the most important are Cahors AOP , Madiran AOP , Jurançon AOP , and Gaillac AOP . On the Lot River, Cahors offers robust, sometimes-rustic red wines produced from a minimum 70% Malbec, with Tannat and Merlot. The wines of Madiran in Gascony are tannic, concentrated reds—so tannic, in fact, that a Madiran winemaker, Patrick Ducournau, developed the technique of micro-oxygenation in the early 1990s to soften the blow of Tannat. Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, and the local Fer are the secondary grapes of Madiran. Producers in Madiran may produce semi-sweet and sweet white wines as Pacherenc du Vic-Bilh AOP , primarily utilizing Petit Manseng, Petit Courbu, and Arrufiac. Dry Pacherenc du Vic-Bilh is labeled sec . Jurançon produces distinctive white wines in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques département , principally from Gros and Petit Manseng. The Petit Manseng grape is better suited to sweet passerillage wines, and Gros Manseng provides the tangy dry whites of Jurançon Sec AOP. Petit Courbu, Camaralet, and Lauzet are secondary grapes for both styles. Other AOPs in the Basque-influenced Pyrénées-Atlantiques département include Irouléguy and Béarn . The vineyards of Gaillac AOP , established by the Romans of ancient Gaul in the first century CE, are among France’s oldest. The wines today may be red, white, or rosé. Duras, Fer, Syrah, and Prunelard account for the red blends, with a smaller allotment of Bordeaux red varieties now allowed. Gaillac's principal white grapes are Mauzac, Muscadelle, and Len de l’El. Len de l'El means "far from sight" in the old d'Oc language, conveying the clusters' long stalks and the distance to the "eye," or bud, from which they sprouted. The grape produces wines with a natural fleshy, soft character that complements the tarter acidity of Mauzac. A Premières Côtes appellation exists for the dry whites of 11 delimited communes. Sweet whites are labeled Gaillac Doux, whereas sparkling whites are produced as Gaillac Mousseux. These sparkling wines may be made by the traditional method or by méthode Gaillaçoise , a variant of the méthode ancestrale . Marcillac AOP is a unique appellation in France, producing varietal Fer reds—a minimum 90% is required in AOP vineyards. South of Bergerac, Buzet AOP and Côtes de Duras AOP produce Bordeaux-style wines in all three colors. Côtes de Marmandais AOP are similar in style, but allow a complement of regional grapes; the red wines in particular may show Syrah influence. Fronton AOP (formerly Côtes de Frontonnais) produces blended reds and rosés with a minimum 40% Negrette. The close of 2011 saw a number of former VDQS zones in the southwest catapulted to AOC/AOP status. BACK TO TOP Review Quizzes Rhône Valley: Beginner , Intermediate , Expert Provence: Beginner , Intermediate , Expert Languedoc and Roussillon: Beginner , Intermediate , Expert Southwest France: Beginner , Intermediate , Expert Updated November 2017Previewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/205/australia-and-new-zealandFri, 19 Dec 2025 16:38:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:a14e685c-e08d-45aa-96f0-8f722e4d338bStacy LadenburgerTable of Contents Australia Wine Australia New South Wales Victoria South Australia Western Australia Queensland Tasmania New Zealand Review Quizzes Australia Although Australia’s history of viticulture is relatively short—vines arrived on the continent with the First Fleet of British prisoners in 1788—the country has made its mark on the global wine market and is now a huge exporter of both its wines and its winemaking methodology. In its earliest days as an English penal colony, Australia’s winemaking suffered from little expertise. However, free settlers from Europe began to arrive, spurred by the promise of gold, and the vine flourished, spreading from New South Wales throughout the southeast by 1850. Over 6000 liters of wine was exported to Britain by 1854. A burgeoning population thirsted for wine in the colony as well, and many small wineries sprung up throughout New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, and South Australia to meet the new demand. Penfolds and Lindemans, two of Australia’s most recognizable brands—both are now owned by Treasury Wine Estates—launched during this early period. However, as the easily extractable surface and stream deposits of gold depleted, many prospectors followed, and domestic demand for wine fell. Lowered demand, coupled with restrictive state trade barriers, led some producers to export to survive, whereas others remained small and localized—a division that exists, in exacerbated form, to this day. Economic recession and phylloxera befell Australia in the latter half of the 19th century, further harming the industry, but officials took strict and immediate measures to combat the spread of phylloxera, confining it to Victoria and a portion of New South Wales. While the root louse decimated the Victorian wine industry—Australia’s most important wine area in the late 1800s—it cleared the way for South Australia to emerge as the continent’s largest region of production. A second key factor in South Australia’s rise to prominence was the creation of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, as federation brought a relaxation of the interstate trade barriers. Today, the state of South Australia annually produces 50% of the nation’s grapes, and most of Australia’s largest wine groups are headquartered there. As viticulture was shifting around the turn of the century to the newly irrigated lands surrounding the Murray, Darling, and Murrumbidgee Rivers, the focus largely turned to sweet, fortified wine production. From the post-phylloxera period until the 1960s, approximately 80% of Australia’s production consisted of sweet, fortified wines. Britain imported more wine from Australia than France in the decade before World War II, and Australian wineries eagerly provided assistance during a critical wartime beer shortage for the US Army! While these sweet, alcoholic wines remained in the majority until 1970, momentum was building for dry table wines. A surge in quality at the lowest level, coupled with the adoption of new technologies, changing consumer preferences, and skyrocketing domestic consumption, brought Australia to the forefront globally by the 21st century. The Australian wine industry began to offer premium varietal wines at value price points, led by Chardonnay, Shiraz (Syrah), and Cabernet Sauvignon; and these grapes eclipsed plantings of the high-yielding varieties previously utilized for port-style wines by the mid-1990s. Australians developed bag-in-the-box technology, and were early proponents of the Stelvin closure. The Australian varietal wines were fruity, clean, uncomplicated, soft, and technically sound at a time when many value bottlings from the Old World were simply poor wines, and by 2003 Australia’s gross annual wine sales reached 4.5 billion dollars—a target the Australians conservatively set for 2025. Today, Australia is the fifth largest wine exporter in volume, behind Italy, France, Spain, and Chile. At the heart of Australian commercial winemaking are technical proficiency, mechanical harvesting, irrigation, and blending. The Australian Wine Research Institute and the Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), both based in Canberra, have contributed greatly to the nation’s scientific understanding of the grape, and the University of Adelaide has an acclaimed oenology program. Australian winemakers rose to the forefront of viticultural innovation, utilizing modern techniques of canopy management and soil mapping, and they have spread their technical acumen across the globe as flying winemakers—a term that originated in reference to Australians. Cultured yeasts, acidification, and micro-oxygenation are common at the mass-market level, although chaptalization is not allowed—grapes have no problem ripening in Australia’s climate. Lacking a large population and a source of cheap labor, Australia’s vintners rely on mechanical harvesting and have planted their vineyards accordingly, on flat sites rather than unworkable hillsides. The mechanical harvests often occur at night, to preserve freshness and acidity. CSIRO developed the counterintuitive technique of minimal (zero) pruning, which actually restricts vigor, for Australia’s low cost vineyards. Irrigation in the extremely dry climate of Australia is essential—only through irrigation were large swaths of the country’s vineyard lands made accessible to the vine. Riverland in South Australia and Riverina in New South Wales, which together account for nearly 50% of Australia’s wine production, were unsuitable for viticulture prior to the use of irrigation. Today, vintners have to tread carefully when irrigating Australia’s high-saline soils, and they have become adept at moisture management. Despite an approximate 2,460 wineries, a small collection of Australia's largest companies control the majority of production and have the capability to make fruity, accessible wine cheaply, and sell it for less than many of their counterparts in California, South America, and the Old World. Furthermore, at the base level they can regulate and assure quality and a sense of brand consistency by blending over vast tracts of land, often spread over several states. This blending philosophy carries from the mass-market to the highest levels of quality in Australia, including the iconic Penfolds Grange, a Shiraz introduced by Max Schubert in 1951 as Grange Hermitage. Unlike most luxury wines, Grange, a renowned wine and one of the first New World collectible bottlings, is generally blended from many vineyards across several regions—a testament to the Australian style. As Penfolds’ Grange Shiraz illustrates, Australia’s global successes have not been solely on the inexpensive side of wine sales; Australia’s top reds, led by Grange and Henschke’s Hill of Grace Shiraz, built considerable momentum in the 1990s and 2000s. Despite more recent large-scale replanting to take advantage of the turn toward dry varietal wines, Australia’s success in combating and isolating phylloxera has bestowed the country with some of the oldest vines in the world—some are over 150 years old, and are planted on their own rootstock. Australia’s producers can coax extraordinarily rich and concentrated red wines from such vines, and an inky, dense, high-alcohol style became the darling of a number of influential American wine critics from the late 1990s to 2000s. While Australia’s larger producers could issue mass bottlings extremely competitively, old-vine Australian wines with cult status surged upward in price and demand. Some cult bottlings, such as Grange and Yalumba’s Octavius Shiraz, stem from Australia’s oldest and largest producers, whereas others—Clarendon Hills Astralis and Torbreck’s RunRig (Shiraz)—are the result of newer projects. All of the aforementioned wines are sourced from old vine parcels. With the successes of such limited, high-end bottles some producers are transitioning from the traditional American oak to French barrique, and placing more emphasis on the expression of single vineyard sites. By the mid-2000s, exports were surging, as was domestic consumption, and Australian wine was receiving lavish critical praise. The industry had a strong base of quality and efficiency, with a wide range of varietal offerings. Still, then and now, problems loom. Enthusiasm in the early 2000s led to overplanting, and the industry only recently emerged from a decade-long wine glut that began in 2009. The country’s southeastern winemaking regions have been gripped by severe and continuing drought, affecting several vintages in the past 20 years and leading to questions about the long-term sustainability of some of the country’s irrigated vineyards. Water rights are a huge concern. In 2009, terrible brush fires wreaked havoc on vineyards in the Yarra Valley and other wine-producing regions in Victoria—a direct effect of the dry weather and one of the worst natural disasters in Australia’s history. More recently, the bushfires of 2019 and 2020 did long-term damage to wineries in South Australia, New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland. Springtime and early fall frosts also create constant worry for winemakers. But a world-renowned innovative research center (Australian Wine Research Institute), marketing efforts on behalf of Wine Australia, and active emerging export markets like Asia have renewed Australia’s significance on the global scene. While volume has decreased, quality is rising, as Australia is seeing record growth in exports in the premium and fine wine sector. While the warm climate throughout much of the country naturally makes for fruit-driven, full-bodied, higher alcohol wine, some of the cooler zones are gaining recognition as well. The sommelier community has responded to the food friendliness of these wines, and there is a captive millennial audience with a preference for lower octane wine. A rising global trend reflected in Australia is that of cultivating more site-specific wines as well. As an added advantage in the export markets of Europe and the US, Australian vintage-dated wines always appear on shelves before Northern Hemisphere wines, as the harvest occurs six months earlier in the wine-producing countries of the Southern Hemisphere. The FOB (free on board) price includes the cost of delivery to the port of exit; in this arrangement, liability transfers from seller to buyer at that point (Graph courtesy of Wine Australia) Wine Australia Wine Australia, a government authority established in 1981 as the Australia Wine and Brandy Corporation, maintains oversight over the wine industry, regulating its label language, defining geographical boundaries of wine regions, moderating exports and trade, and promoting the product at home and abroad. It introduced the Label Integrity Program for the 1990 vintage, requiring any wines labeled by variety, vintage, or region to contain a minimum 85% of the stated grape, year, or region, respectively. If multiple varieties are to be listed on the label (i.e., Grenache, Syrah, Mourvèdre) the grapes must be listed in order of proportion in the blend. All components making up a minimum 85% of the blend must appear on the label, and no listed grape may be in lower proportion than an unnamed variety. Regions in Australia are defined by Wine Australia as Geographical Indications (GIs) and are listed on the Register of Protected Names, a means of formal appellation protection. As in other New World countries, Australia’s appellations are purely geographic in scope; there are no restrictions on grape varieties, yields, etc. Within each state, Australian appellations are subdivided into zones, regions, and subregions. Both regions and subregions are defined by Wine Australia as single tracts of land, comprising at least five independently owned vineyards of at least five hectares apiece, with a minimum output of 500 tons of wine grapes annually. Regions are not necessarily contained within a single zone, nor are zones necessarily contained within a single state. In one instance, blending can occur across state lines while maintaining a guise of regionality: in 1996, Wine Australia authorized the multistate zone of South Eastern Australia, which encompasses all of Victoria, Tasmania, and New South Wales, along with the winegrowing areas of South Australia and Queensland. Wines may also be labeled with the state (or country) of origin. Certain traditional expressions are protected label terms in Australia, but many of the more flagrant adoptions (Champagne, Tokay, Madeira, Port, etc.) have been slowly phased out by agreement with the EU. New South Wales New South Wales is Australia’s most populous state and the site of the country’s first vineyards, planted in 1788. The Great Dividing Range, a complex of mountain ranges running along the north-south axis of eastern Australia, separates the wetter coastal areas from the more arid interior. New South Wales accounts for approximately one-quarter of Australia’s wine production, with over half of the state’s production concentrated west of the Great Dividing Range in the heavily irrigated Riverina region, also known as the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area. Riverina represents Australian industrial viticulture at its most efficient; Casella, the producer of the runaway success [yellow tail], sources most of its fruit for the brand from Riverina. De Bortoli, another huge wine producer in Riverina, crowns its range with the impressive Noble One, a botrytised Semillon dessert wine. Occupying a gentle, flat river valley running eastward from the Brokenback Mountains to the coast, the Hunter region (the lower half of the Hunter Valley zone) is one of Australia’s most important GIs. Viticulture in the Lower Hunter Valley dates to 1830, and in 1855 Napoleon III sipped not Champagne, but rather a sparkling Hunter Valley wine during the closing ceremonies of the Paris Exhibition—that famous event in the wine world that christened the classified châteaux of Bordeaux. Hunter is subtropical, and has one of the warmest climates in Australia—a condition mitigated by high amounts of humidity, rain, and wind. Despite the heat, 60% of Hunter’s output is white wine; Semillon, or Hunter Riesling, is the region’s greatest white grape. Top Hunter Valley Semillon, such as Tyrrell’s Vat 1, may age for over two decades, surpassing an austere, grassy youth to develop richness, honey, and buttered toast tones over time. Surprisingly for such a warm climate, the grape rarely achieves more than 11–12% ABV. The Portuguese white variety Verdelho is also popular in the region, producing more aromatic, tropical-scented wines. Broke Fordwich, a subregion of Hunter, claims the oldest Verdelho plantings in the country and offers dynamic Semillon wines sourced from sandy, alluvial soils. Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon are the region's most important red grapes. In the inland Southern New South Wales zone, the Canberra District region is technically split between the state of New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory. Shiraz performs extremely well in the region’s continental climate, and Clonakilla’s Canberra District Shiraz, co-fermented with a small percentage of Viognier, has rapidly risen to the ranks of Australia’s finest. To the southwest of Canberra, the alpine, cool-climate Tumbarumba GI produces sparkling wines and still Pinot Noir and Chardonnay from the sun-drenched, basalt slopes of the Snowy Mountains. Victoria Victoria , the smallest and coolest state on the Australian mainland, has rebounded from the scourge of phylloxera—and the resulting forced devastation of many of its vineyards—to become one of Australia’s most diverse and vibrant wine-producing areas. Coastal Victoria is cooled by sea breezes blowing up from Antarctica, and the Port Phillip zone surrounding the city of Melbourne has a cool maritime climate, experiencing winter average temperatures lower than Bordeaux or Burgundy. A genuine range of depth, distinction and style is evident in the Pinot Noir wines of the Yarra Valley, Mornington Peninsula, and the warmer Geelong region within Port Phillip, as well as those from the coastal Gippsland zone to the east. The Yarra Valley GI, Victoria’s oldest wine region, was once the exclusive preserve of smaller boutique wineries, such as the outstanding Mount Mary, but investment and larger producers have arrived with the region’s modern successes. The French Champagne giant Moët & Chandon saw the Yarra Valley’s promise; they started the Australian Domaine Chandon here in 1987. In addition to Pinot Noir, elegant styles of Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, and Shiraz (often cofermented with Viognier, and generally called Syrah) are encouraging. Two distinct soil types—gray-brown sandy loam and red basalt-derived soils—divide the valley, and as producers continue to match soil, grape, and the wide diversity of altitude and site, Yarra Valley wines will continue to improve. The Mornington Peninsula, a sliver of land to the south of Melbourne that encloses the Port Phillip Bay, is an even cooler, windier region and one of Australia’s most profoundly maritime climates. Pinot Noir, Pinot Gris and Chardonnay thrive; much of the GI is too cool for late-ripening grapes like Cabernet Sauvignon. The inland zones of North West Victoria, Central Victoria, and North East Victoria experience a more continental climate, typified by a large diurnal temperature shift. The North West Victoria zone is the hottest of the three, and irrigation is essential. Murray Darling and Swan Hill, the zone’s two GI regions, are shared between Victoria and the state of New South Wales. Vineyards are dominated by Chardonnay and Shiraz and are generally industrial in scope, threatened by Australia’s recent water woes. Central Victoria is only slightly cooler. Red grapes, particularly Shiraz, thrive in the Bendigo, Heathcote, and Goulburn Valley GIs. Phylloxera spelled disaster for many wineries in Victoria, yet Tahbilk, a compelling producer in the Nagambie Lakes subregion of Goulburn Valley, protected its vineyards from the pest and today produces a flagship Shiraz from vines planted in 1860. The estate also boasts the oldest Marsanne vines in Australia, and possibly the world. In the North East Victoria zone, Rutherglen and Glenrowan are famous for sweet fortified wines. A fortified Topaque (formerly Tokay) style is produced from Muscadelle grapes. Rutherglen’s aged, fortified Brown Muscat (Muscat à Petits Grains Rouge) wines are incredibly rich, sweet, and raisinated, with the more mature wines displaying marked rancio character. The Muscat of Rutherglen Network, a producers syndicate established in 1995, has developed a voluntary four-tier classification system for the wines based on age, sweetness, and complexity. The ages and residual sugar ranges for each category are indicative of each classification but not absolute. Producers are responsible for classifying their own wines, based on taste alone, and member wines are denoted by the inclusion of a stylized R logo on the label. South Australia The wine state of South Australia is divided into eight zones, with production concentrated in the lower southeastern sector of the state. Much of the arid Far North zone, which covers the entire northern portion of the state, is not even suitable for agriculture. Despite the cluster of viticultural activity, the southeastern regions are homogenous in neither climate nor character, and a range of grapes and styles exists. Within the Limestone Coast zone, the cool, maritime-influenced region of Coonawarra produces what is often considered Australia’s best Cabernet Sauvignon. Defined by elegance, soft tannins, red fruit, and a telltale note of eucalyptus, Coonawarra’s best efforts include the wines of Majella, Wynns' John Riddoch, and Parker Estate’s First Growth. The vines enjoy a long, even growing season moderated by frequent cloud cover; spring frost is a chief hazard. Coonawarra is seemingly flat, yet a very slight ridge and the well-drained red terra rossa topsoil provides optimal conditions for Cabernet Sauvignon. While not unique to Coonawarra, terra rossa is famously associated with the region, leading to some consternation amongst terroir-minded producers when the GI’s boundaries were liberally defined to include areas of other soil types. To the north of Coonawarra, Padthaway GI also includes areas of terra rossa soil and produces a similar style of Cabernet. Despite its slightly warmer climate, 37% of its vineyards are planted to white grapes; Riesling, Pinot Grigio, and Chardonnay account for nearly 45% of the production. The newer GIs of Wrattonbully, Robe, Mount Benson, and Mount Gambier compose the remainder of the Limestone Coast regions. Overall, red grapes dominate this cool-climate zone. The Lower Murray zone is directly north of the Limestone Coast; the heavily irrigated Riverland GI, known for its production of bulk wine, is the zone’s sole region. Here, the climate is continental and hot, and the region’s low rainfall, high soil salinity, and water shortages make the future for agriculture less certain. West of Lower Murray are the zones of Fleurieu, Barossa, and Mount Lofty Ranges, the sources of some of Australia’s finest wines. The Fleurieu climate as a whole is essentially Mediterranean, tempered by Southern Ocean currents and the effects of the inland Lake Alexandrina, directly south of Langhorne Creek GI. The zone’s most important and warmest region is McLaren Vale GI, a predominantly red wine area focusing on Cabernet Sauvignon and Rhône varieties. Shiraz, Grenache, and Mourvèdre (Mataro) show rich, textural, full body and tend toward jam or dried fruit flavors. The three are often blended, although varietal Grenache is resurgent. The region’s best-known wines, such as D’Arenberg ’s Dead Arm Shiraz, Yangarra ’s High Sands Grenache, Drew Noon’s Grenache-based Eclipse, and the Clarendon Hills ’s Astralisdry-farmed Shiraz result from extremely old, low-yielding vines. North of the Fleurieu zone, Mount Lofty Ranges encapsulates the three regions of Adelaide Hills, Adelaide Plains, and Clare Valley. Adelaide Hills GI, the southernmost region in Mount Lofty Ranges, contains the Lenswood and Piccadilly Valley subregions. Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and sparkling wines retain good acidity in the region’s cool maritime climate. Despite Clare Valley’s warmer, continental climate and preponderance of red grapes in the vineyard, the GI offers Australia’s most classic and ageworthy interpretation of Riesling. Higher-altitude, west-facing slopes often produce the better wines, cooled by afternoon breezes and low nighttime temperatures. The unofficial subregions of Watervale and Polish Hill River are characterized by limestone and broken slate, respectively, offering piercing, dry Rieslings buoyed by lime candy, petrol, and tropical notes. Body and alcohol levels are generally a bit higher than those of their Old World counterparts, yet the wines can be just as austere in their youth. Grosset, an early and fervent convert to the screw-cap closure, is an acknowledged master of the style. Adelaide Hills and Adelaide Plains should not be confused with the Adelaide GI, a “super zone” allowing producers to blend freely from Barossa, Fleurieu, and Mount Lofty Ranges. Surrounded on three sides by Mount Lofty Ranges, the inland Barossa zone is Australia’s most important region for premium Shiraz. The Barossa Valley GI (a region within the Barossa zone) is home to 150-year-old vines, and ranks with the Hunter Valley as one of Australia’s most celebrated wine regions. High-end Barossa Valley Shiraz is a critical darling: opaque, dense, heavily extracted, and full of dark fruit and chocolate. Traditionally, American oak hogsheads (300 liters) are used to age the wines, although many producers are now implementing more and more French oak barriques. Co-fermentation with Viognier, in the style of Côte-Rôtie, is on the increase as some look to brighten and lift the wines, fixing color in the process. Penfolds is based in Barossa Valley, and the company’s iconic “Grange” bottling usually relies on a substantial portion of Barossa fruit. Torbreck, Peter Lehmann, and Rockford are excellent sources for Shiraz and other burly, prowerful reds. The vineyards of Eden Valley GI, Barossa Valley’s cooler counterpart in the zone, are more evenly distributed between white and red production. Riesling, Chardonnay, Viognier, Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon are all successful here, illustrating the region’s varied and dynamic climate. Eden Valley is home to Yalumba, Pewsey Vale, and Henschke, producer of the famed Hill of Grace and its precursor, the Mount Edelstone Shiraz. Western Australia Margaret River GI, a coastal region within the South West Australia zone, is the state’s most acclaimed appellation, with production almost evenly split between red and white wines. Chardonnay, Semillon, and Sauvignon Blanc—and blends of the latter two—are successful in the maritime climate, but gravelly, elegant Cabernet Sauvignon and Bordeaux-style red blends inspire the highest praise. Cullen, Vasse Felix, Leeuwin Estate and Cape Mentelle are among the region’s best-known producers. The large Great Southern GI, to the east of Margaret River along the southern coastline, is the state’s second-most prominent region. There are five subregions: Mount Barker, Frankland River, Albany, Porongurup, and Denmark. Mount Barker today excels with cool-climate Riesling, Shiraz, and Cabernet Sauvignon. Western Australia is the country’s largest state, and the wine regions within are the country’s most isolated—over 1,300 miles separate Perth, on Western Australia’s coast, from Adelaide in South Australia. Three enormous zones cover the inland and southern coast: Central Western Australia zone; Eastern Plains, Inland and North of Western Australia zone; and West Australian South East Coastal zone. The majority of viticulture is conducted along the state’s southwestern coast, in the zones of South West Australia and Greater Perth. In fact, wine production since 1970 has been steadily shifting from the hot regions within Greater Perth—Swan Valley GI is the hottest appellation in Australia—to the cooler regions of South West Australia. Queensland Queensland is not a major grape-growing state in Australia, although production is on the increase. Vineyards in the state’s two regions, Granite Belt and South Burnett, date to 1965 and 1993 respectively. Granite Belt experiences a continental climate with plentiful summer rain, yet growing patterns for Shiraz and Semillon in the region are moderated by high altitude and cooler mountain air. The more northerly South Burnett is subtropical. The unofficial region of Darling Downs, directly south of South Burnett, seems poised to become the state’s third GI in the future. Tasmania South of Victoria, the island state of Tasmania is Australia’s coolest wine-producing area. Tasmania is the sole GI, although unofficial regions exist and the island can be broadly divided between the northern and southern sectors. The climate of Northern Tasmania is similar to that of Champagne or the Rheingau, and Southern Tasmania is even cooler, although long sunshine hours during the growing season promote slow, even ripening. White grapes, particularly Chardonnay and Riesling, are popular, but PInot Noir is by far the most planted grape variety. Pinot Noir can flourish, especially in the Pipers River area, and cool-climate Cabernet Sauvignon can be successful in the Tamar Valley and Coal River areas. Overall, the island’s climate is perfectly suited for sparkling winemaking, as finesse, elegance, and acidity can be maintained. Tasmania’s traditional method sparkling wines are among Australia’s best efforts in the category. New Zealand Although a Christian missionary first planted vines on New Zealand’s North Island in 1819, the first record of actual wine production dates to the late 1830s, when James Busby, a British minister involved in early viticultural efforts in New South Wales, planted a small vineyard from French and Spanish cuttings at his estate in Northland. Busby’s enthusiasm—he wrote three treatises on viticulture prior to penning some of New Zealand’s seminal political documents—did not translate into rapid development; rather wine production slowly increased throughout the 1800s with an influx of Croatian, French, Spanish, and German settlers. Beer production outpaced wine; however, and near the turn of the century the Department of Agriculture charged Romeo Bragato, an Austrian viticulturist from Victoria, with the task of studying the nation’s vineyards and combating its newest scourge: phylloxera. Bragato identified many of New Zealand’s modern wine regions (with the important exception of Marlborough) and educated growers on the merits of grafting vines onto disease-resistant American rootstock. Unfortunately, a simmering temperance movement in the country stymied this promising start to the 20th century, and the Department of Agriculture’s Viticultural Division was disbanded in 1909. “Six o’clock swill,” an early closing hour for pubs instituted in both Australia and New Zealand during World War I, lasted until 1967 on the North and South Islands of New Zealand. The early closing time of six o’clock was a move by anti-alcohol forces in the country to return men to their wives at a respectable hour, and those in the business of selling alcohol capitulated, preferring such a restriction to outright prohibition. While New Zealand narrowly avoided national prohibition, calls for abstinence imperiled the future of New Zealand’s small industry, as growers planted low quality fruit that could be sold as table grapes if the vote went against them. Furthermore, many of these lower quality grapes were hybrids and thus immune to the ravages of phylloxera—Bragato’s recommendations lay forgotten in a climate of hysteria. While hybrids offered relief from phylloxera, New Zealand’s wine industry was setting back its chances to find an international market by decades—in 1960, “Albany Surprise” was New Zealand’s most planted variety. Depression hampered sales in the 1930s, and cheap imported wines were readily available. Wine shops were not allowed to sell single bottles of wine until 1955, and restaurants first gained the right to sell wine in 1960. A winery itself could not sell a glass of wine until 1976, and the country’s last “dry” areas—relics of the temperance movement—persisted until the 1990s. Impediments confronted New Zealand’s domestic industry on all sides, and the country’s general isolation from the rest of the world left New Zealanders without much recourse. However, as the country relaxed alcohol law, and the advent of commercial jetliners made travel—particularly to Europe—more viable from the late 1950s onward, New Zealand’s wine industry could prepare itself to compete internationally. In the 1970s, European Vitis vinifera vines gradually began to replace the hybrid and table grape plantings—a process hastened by a government-sponsored vine pull scheme in 1986. An emphasis on the importance of canopy management and site selection in the 1980s and 1990s followed, vastly improving the mean quality of the wines. From 1960 to 2019, New Zealand’s vineyard acreage increased exponentially, from approximately 400 ha to over 38,000 ha. A total of approximately 100 wineries in the mid-1980s ballooned to 716 wineries in the country in 2019. New Zealand’s modern fortunes are founded on Marlborough on the South Island and the Sauvignon Blanc grape. Montana, New Zealand’s largest winemaking company, established Marlborough’s first commercial vineyard in 1973, released the country’s first varietal wine (Gisborne Chardonnay), and produced one of the first Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc wines in 1979; but Cloudy Bay Vineyards, launched in 1985, put the region on the map. Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc was something utterly upfront, piercing and pungent; highly intense aromas of passion fruit, jalapeño, ripe grapefruit, and grass filled out Sauvignon Blanc’s racy structure, and the wine became an international sensation. As of 2024, nearly 70% of New Zealand’s vineyards were located in Marlborough, and over 60% of the country’s total acreage was planted with Sauvignon Blanc. But it is not the country’s only variety of note; there are significant plantings of Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Pinot Gris, Merlot, Riesling, Syrah, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Gewürztraminer, and all are bottled as varietal wines. Sparkling wines of good quality are also produced, particularly in Marlborough. New Zealand is the world’s easternmost and southernmost winemaking country: the South Island lies on the same latitude as Tasmania, but over 1,200 miles of ocean separate the two. The South Island is the larger of the two landmasses, and is divided along its spine by the Southern Alps—rain clouds moving eastward from the Tasman Sea deposit all of their moisture high in the mountains, resulting in a rain shadow effect for the wine regions of the island. The warmer North Island is less mountainous, and generally much rainier. On the extreme uppermost end of the North Island, Northland’s latitude is comparable to that of Jerez in Spain—although its climate is more often likened to that of Bordeaux—whereas Central Otago, the southernmost wine region in the world, lies on the 45th parallel. Winemaking regions run along a north-south axis on the eastern coastline of the islands; however, the effect of the ocean mitigates temperature variation and moderates the growing season. Abundant sunshine hours on the South Island aid ripening while the consistently cool nights allow grapes to retain acidity and the zesty character so prized in the country’s whites. New Zealand’s vineyards are typically planted on flat expanses and most are located within twenty miles of the eastern coastline. As in Australia, mechanical harvesting is common—a consistently cheap source of manual labor is difficult to find in the sparsely populated country. Unlike Australia, with its huge irrigated agricultural zones, New Zealand has little land to spare; thus, modern bulk wine production is not economically feasible—there is no New Zealand equivalent to California’s Central Valley or Australia’s Riverland. Producers overall have concentrated on higher price points in the global wine market. In fact, New Zealand wine on average commands a higher price per bottle than any other country in the world. However, this position is threatened by the recent release and influx of cheaper Sauvignon Blanc wines, especially in the British market—an unfortunate turn of events for the country’s serious producers, who have worked so hard collectively to craft the modern image of premium New Zealand wines. All New Zealand producers and growers belong to New Zealand Winegrowers, an organization formed in 2002 as a joint initiative of the Grape Growers Council and the New Zealand Wine Institute. New Zealand Winegrowers promotes and presents a unified face for New Zealand wine, building on the past successes of its parent organizations. Undoubtedly, the organization will greatly influence the structure and codification of New Zealand’s emerging appellation system. In addition, a group of New Zealand producers pioneered the Screwcap Initiative in 2001, an international association committed to using the closure—even on ultra-premium bottlings. Although both Swiss and Australian wineries were using the closure prior to its widespread adoption in New Zealand, the screwcap has become synonymous with Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc, and the runaway success of the wine simultaneously raised public acceptance of the closure. Kim Crawford in Marlborough was the first to commercially release a New Zealand wine under screwcap; today over 90% of the country’s wines are finished with the closure. Major wine regions on the North Island include Northland, Auckland, Waikato/Bay of Plenty, Gisborne, Hawke ’ s Bay, and Wairarapa. The major regions of the South Island are Nelson, Marlborough, Canterbury, and Central Otago. In 2006, New Zealand passed the Geographical Indications (Wine and Spirits) Registration Act; however this act was not put into action until July 2017. Soon thereafter eighteen wine regions submitted applications for GI status. New Zealand has 22 official GIs , including New Zealand GI, North Island GI, and South Island GI, which cannot be changed or modified. In addition to increasing visibility abroad, GI status brings an added layer of protection in the international marketplace. In line with European standards, New Zealand wines must contain a minimum 85% of a stated grape or vintage. When labeled with a GI, 85% of grapes must come from the stated GI. For spirits that are labelled with a GI, 100% of the spirit must come from the GI. As in other New World countries, there are no laws governing enrichment, acidification, pruning, yields, or irrigation techniques. North Island New Zealand’s first vines were planted in Northland in 1819, but there is no record of wines being produced. The region is New Zealand’s northernmost and smallest area of production, contributing less than 1% of the country’s total production. In 2019, only 20 wineries were in operation. Waikato/Bay of Plenty covers a much larger area, but, with only 3 hectares planted to vines, it contributes little toward the region's total production—as of 2019, there were no registered wineries. Auckland, named for New Zealand’s largest city, is located between Northland and Waikato/Bay of Plenty. Despite its 1960s status as New Zealand’s largest region, production has shrunk significantly and now represents 1% of the national total. Chardonnay, Syrah, and Merlot lead in acreage with special attention paid to Merlot-based Cabernet blends. The subregions of Kumeu, Waiheke Island and Matakana, are highly regarded. Auckland is the traditional center of the wine business in New Zealand; both Montana (now under the Pernod Ricard NZ umbrella) and Villa Maria are headquartered here. All three regions have a moderate, rainy maritime climate; rot and frost are among the chief viticultural hazards. Among Auckland’s nested GIs, the hilly Waiheke Island has a singularly sunny, dry climate, especially on its lower western side, where many of the region's wineries are clustered. The bulk of the North Island’s production is concentrated in the central and southern regions of Gisborne, Hawke ’ s Bay, and Wairarapa. Hawke ’ s Bay is the second largest region in the country and the North Island's driest climate. Chardonnay and Merlot are the region’s most planted varieties, though Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Gris, Syrah, and Cabernet Sauvignon are all widely cultivated. Hawke ’ s Bay is one of the most important red-wine regions. A range of altitudes, along with a diverse and complex pattern of soils, from greywacke gravel to heavy silt to sandy loam, suggest the development of several future subregions. Gimblett Gravels, an area of deep shingle soils, is rapidly establishing a reputation as a source of good Syrah and Bordeaux-style blends, and already appears on a number of labels as a trademarked brand. Other notable subregions include Bridge Pa, Esk Valley, and Dartmoor Valley. Gisborne, also known as Poverty Bay, is overwhelmingly planted with white grapes—the first vines in the world to see the sun each day. Chardonnay has replaced Müller-Thurgau as the region’s most planted grape, as the region—New Zealand’s fifth largest producer—attempts to overcome its past reputation as a bastion of carafe wines and lower quality. Pinot Gris, Gewürztraminer, and Viognier also perform well in the region, but red grapes simply struggle to ripen in the cool climate. Wairarapa is the southernmost region on the North Island. The entire region is officially named Wellington—it includes New Zealand’s capital city—but Wairarapa is the only wine district in the region. Pinot Noir and Sauvignon Blanc are particularly successful, particularly in the subregion of Martinborough. South Island Nelson, the northernmost region on the South Island, is New Zealand’s sunniest wine-producing region. Paradoxically, it is also the rainiest region on the South Island. Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir, Pinot Gris, and Chardonnay compose over 90% of the region’s vineyard acreage, excelling in the cool climate. Despite its proximity to Marlborough, high land prices and low availability constrain the efforts of New Zealand’s major producers to make wine on a large scale, and the region contributes only 3% of New Zealand's total wine. In contrast, Marlborough produces nearly 70% of the entire country’s wine, with over 26,000 hectares of Sauvignon Blanc alone. Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Pinot Gris, and Riesling are the next most-planted grapes, although even the combined acreage trails that of Sauvignon Blanc significantly. Montana, through subsidiary wineries such as Brancott and Fairhall, controls nearly two-thirds of Marlborough’s vineyards, and maintains a solidly high quality despite its reach and size. The region has also gained a reputation for traditional method sparkling wines, from many of the same producers who made Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc a household name: Cloudy Bay, Kim Crawford, and Hunter’s. In 1988, a partnership forged between Montana and Deutz of Champagne to produce premium sparkling wines cemented Marlborough’s future in the world of bubbly. Average maximum summertime temperatures of 75 degrees Fahrenheit are moderated by cool nights, and the dry, lengthy growing season allows grapes to ripen while retaining fresh, crisp character—an asset for both sparkling production and Sauvignon Blanc. Soil in the three major subregions—the northern Wairau Valley, the central Southern Valleys, and the southernmost Awatere Valley—is generally composed of sandy, alluvial loam topsoil over gravel, providing excellent drainage and limiting vine vigor. Some sites are more water-retentive, and induce a more herbaceous character in the final wine. Irrigation is widespread. Vineyards at Felton Road in Central Otago. South of Marlborough, Canterbury was, in the early 2000s, New Zealand’s fastest-growing wine region, due in large part to the success of its northern subregion Waipara Valley. Growth has since tapered off, with total production from Waipara and Canterbury totaling 4% of wine production country wide. Although winemaking on the Banks Peninsula (an historical subregion, though not considered a subregion today) dates to 1840, the more recently developed Waipara contains the majority of the region’s vineyards. Pinot Noir, Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, and Pinot Gris are successful here. Pinot Noir takes center stage further south, in Central Otago—the world’s southernmost region, and the country’s highest in altitude. Central Otago is the only region in the country to experience a truly continental climate, with greater seasonal temperature extremes than any of the country’s maritime regions. Diurnal temperature swings are also quite significant, and winemakers take advantage of the sun by planting on northern hillside exposures—southern-facing slopes are often too cool for viticulture. Low humidity prevents rot, but spring frosts are a costly problem and in cooler years winemakers have great difficulty coaxing ripeness from the grapes at all. Pinot Noir emerged as the variety of choice in this marginal climate in the late 1990s, and as vine age and expertise with the grape grow, the future for Pinot Noir seems very bright. In fact, Central Otago Pinot Noir, epitomized by producers such as Felton Road, Mt. Difficulty, and Rippon, can compete with anything the New World has to offer. Central Otago’s best-known subregions include Wanaka, Gibbston, Alexandra, and Cromwell Basin. Review Quizzes Australia: Beginner , Intermediate , Expert New Zealand: Beginner , Intermediate , Expert Updated June 2024PreviewNew Zealandaustraliahttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/210/portugalMon, 08 Dec 2025 01:11:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:3877e90a-b14d-4210-bd78-bd470ce3d33cSandra BanTable of Contents Portugal The History of Port, Madeira and Portuguese Wine Portuguese Wine Classifications and Grape Varieties Minho and Vinho Verde Transmontano Duriense: Douro and Porto Beiras Lisboa Península de Setúbal Tejo and Alentejano Algarve Açores Terras Madeirenses Review Quizzes Portugal Portugal ranks as the world’s 10th largest producer of wine; the country is 1st in the world in per capita consumption. Although its fame in the world of wine rests squarely on the shoulders of two great fortified wines, the country is rapidly developing an arsenal of modern table wines, sourced from a diverse array of over 250 unique native varieties. Worldwide decline in the sales (and interest) of fortified wines has prompted Portuguese producers to look beyond Port and Madeira in an effort to compete, but years of geographical and—until the last decades of the 20th century—political isolation have left an inscrutable, perplexing vineyard terrain. Rather than adopt the same international varieties that characterize newer winemaking regions worldwide, Portuguese producers instead look to their own bounty of grapes and traditions. New research continues to identify the best indigenous varieties and clonal selections for quality table wines, and technological advancements in the winery allow Portugal’s table wines to overcome past criticisms of rapid oxidation and rusticity. BACK TO TOP The History of Port, Madeira, and Portuguese Wine The history of wine in Portugal closely parallels that of its Iberian neighbor Spain through the Age of Exploration. Wine in Portugal predates the Phoenicians, Greeks, Celts, and Romans, each of whom arrived in turn prior to the Common Era. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the ensuing Germanic and Moorish conquests of the region frustrated—but did not eradicate—viticulture. Portugal expelled the Moors and affirmed its national identity by 1250, over two centuries before Spain would conclude its Reconquista . In 1386, Portugal signed the Treaty of Windsor with England, establishing a diplomatic alliance that would pave the way for extensive trade between the two kingdoms. Portugal emerged from the Middle Ages with great interest in maritime trading routes and exploration, and developed the first great navy in modern Europe. At Prince Henry the Navigator’s instigation, Portuguese sailors explored the African Coast and discovered the Madeira archipelago in 1419, nearly 625 miles from the Portuguese mainland. The Portuguese colonized Madeira, the “isle of woods,” and promptly set fire to the forests to make it suitable for agriculture. Legend reports that the fires burned for seven years, consuming the entire island, although modern residents scoff at the suggestion. Madeira became an important port of call for ships heading either eastward toward India or westward toward the New World, as captains filled their ships with fresh food, sugar, and wine. In 1678, two Englishmen arrived in Lamego, a mountain town in the Douro Valley, and discovered Porto (Port), a sweet, fortified vinous concoction produced at a local monastery. The abbot of Lamego practiced mutage , arresting the fermentation of his wines with brandy while sugar was still present. The Englishmen sent the wines home to Liverpool, where the strength and richness of Port, nicknamed blackstrap, earned it wide popularity. War and trade embargoes with France at the end of the 17th century resulted in a boom for sales of Douro wines. A 1679 ban on French wines sales in England was lifted in 1685, only to be reinstated in 1688. The English replaced the total ban with heavy tariffs in 1697, and in 1703 signed the Treaty of Methuen with Portugal, establishing a long-lasting trade agreement between the two nations and preferential tariffs for Portuguese wines. The English had relied on the light reds of the Minho River Valley in northern Portugal as an alternative to claret since the early 12th century, but had always considered French wines superior. Port was, in style and strength, a wine that could rouse English tastes; the introduction of Port coincided not only with England’s difficulties with France, but also with Western Europe’s rising interest in sweetness, predicated by new trade with the West Indies. The concern over durability—a long voyage from Portugal to England created many opportunities for spoilage—led many Douro shippers to steadily adopt the practice of fortification throughout the 1700s. In 1678, the year the English discovered Port, Portuguese exports accounted for only 427 tuns (one tun equals an approximate 954 liters); in 1685 the English imported 14,000 tuns. By the mid-18th century, Portuguese wine accounted for nearly two-thirds of all imported wine in England, and Port was its most desirable product. Christiano Kopke, a German, founded the house of Kopke in 1638, four decades before the first recorded shipment of Porto to England, but the English market drove the wine’s fame and popularity. The English had established the Douro houses Warre & Co., Croft and Taylor’s by 1700, and in the decades after the Treaty of Methuen the English appetite for Douro wines grew rapaciously. The houses in Douro simply could not meet demand and many resorted to fraudulent practices to satisfy English thirsts: merchants aromatized wines, added excessive amounts of sugar and alcohol, and achieved deeper color with the addition of elderberry—a technique perhaps borrowed from the Champenoise. The English reacted with their wallets, and in the 1740s and 1750s the price of Port in England dropped precipitously. To restore English confidence and protect its own economic interests, the Portuguese government created the Companhia Geral dos Vinhos do Alto Douro, or Douro Wine Company. Charged with eliminating fraud and installing regulatory measures, the Douro Wine Company formally established the boundaries and practices of the Douro appellation in 1756. The Douro Wine Company developed a methodology for grading Port vineyards and authorized each individual farmer’s production allotment relative to the vineyard’s grade. Between 1758 and 1761, the 335 best vineyards were classified as feitoria and marked with stones, signifying fruit reserved for the English market. Lesser vineyards ( rama ) provided domestic wines. Although the reputation of the wine was saved, the British merchants—many of whom were responsible for perpetrating fraud in the first place—forfeited a measure of control over the trade. The Douro Wine Company now regulated grape prices, fixed pricing on the finished wines, managed exports and monopolized the sale of Portuguese brandy ( aguardente ) used in the fortification process. The company, whose dual role as a regulator and a shipper of wine caused stern criticism, survives as the Royal Oporto Wine Company, but its regulatory functions were lost over time. Today, the government-run Douro Port Wine Institute (IVDP) manages the appellation and its regulations. As Port became the favored Portuguese wine in England, Madeira’s British wine merchants developed a prosperous colonial trade—particularly with the English North American colonies and Brazil. By the middle of the 18th century, most Madeira wine was fortified to sustain its character over the long passage at sea, but a curious transformation occurred: as the pipes of Madeira completed their transatlantic voyage through the tropics, they were subject to wide temperature fluctuations, which heated and oxidized the contents, resulting in a distinctive character. Ship captains were even persuaded to use Madeira pipes as ballast, and Vinhos ao Roda —wines that had undergone the torna viagem (round trip) across the Atlantic, or to the East Indies and back—sold for much higher prices than Vinhos Canteiro , the wines that matured on the island. Although the estufagem process began to replace the lengthy voyage in the early 1800s, a few wines were deliberately, if impractically, matured at sea until the 1900s. Attributed by Shakespeare as the liquid in which the Duke of Clarence was sentenced to be drowned in, in 1478, fulfilling his sentence for treason against the King of England, a glass of Madeira was raised to commemorate both the signing of the Declaration of Independence and George Washington’s inauguration. The first President supposedly drank a pint of Madeira daily, and as colonial troops and Americans loyal to the crown fled the newborn country after the Revolutionary War, they took their love of the wine to England with them. Madeira, Port—which provided half of England’s wine in 1800—and the wines of Portugal in general reached their apex in the marketplace by the first decade of the 19th century. The French and Spanish invaded Portugal in 1807 to disrupt the country’s trade with England, and although vineyards themselves sustained relatively little damage, the production quality and prices were greatly affected, signaling new doubts abroad about the integrity of the wines. After Napoleon’s defeat and exile, Britain reopened trade with the European Continent and Portuguese wines steadily lost market share to French and Spanish wines, and even beer. Spanish Sherry replaced Port as England’s fortified wine of choice by the late 1800s. Portuguese producers attempted to replace losses in the waning British market with monopolistic controls over Portugal’s New World colonies, but these markets were steadily lost to independence movements. The American Civil War of 1861-1865 portended a significant decline in imports of Madeira wines—and a newly energized Russian market would provide only a temporary respite, reduced by revolution in the early 20th century. Powdery and downy mildew both struck Portugal in the 1850s, and phylloxera entered the Douro in 1867. The cumulative effect was devastative—only Colares, near Lisboa, was spared from the root louse. Portugal turned inward. Many vineyards were not replanted in the wake of phylloxera; during this time the cork industry took root in Portugal, and the country remains one of the foremost suppliers of cork closures for the wine industry. In the early 20th century, Portugal moved to protect its wine-producing regions, establishing Região Demarcada status for Madeira, Dão, Vinho Verde, and other areas by 1929. However, Portugal experienced great political upheaval throughout the early 20th century, silenced in 1932 by the inception of nearly four decades of authoritarian, right-wing rule. In 1937, the Junta Nacional do Vinhos was founded, revamping the Portuguese wine industry and consolidating small vineyards into a network of larger co-operatives. As under other European autocratic regimes, the quality of wine suffered. Alongside Port, two commercial brands of sweet, semi-sparkling rosé—Mateus and Lancers—became the face of Portuguese wine worldwide after World War II. Portugal finally began to transition to democracy with a left-leaning military coup in 1974, followed by its admission into the EU in 1986. With EU membership, Portugal’s co-operatives lost their monopolistic power, and government grants and foreign investment began to pour into the country. Many small estates ( quintas) severed their ties with co-operatives and started making their own wines. Portugal devised a new appellation system in line with EU standards, designating Regiões Demarcadas as Denominação de Origem Controlada (DOC). In late 2009, the DOCs were additionally classified as Denominação de Origem Protegida (DOP), in order to maintain EU protection. Port remains the world’s most prestigious fortified wine, yet Portugal’s producers, in the Douro and elsewhere, have a number of distinctive, native varieties to explore and refine for table wines. Like Spain, many of Portugal’s wines can compete with New World examples for ripeness and fruit, yet they maintain a unique identity. Despite the country’s rich heritage of storied fortified wines, Portugal is quickly creating a new tradition of vibrant table wines. BACK TO TOP Portuguese Wine Classifications and Grape Varieties To maintain eligibility for protection in the EU, Portugal has broadly reclassified its quality wines as either Denominação de Origem Protegida (DOP) or Indicação Geogràfica Protegida (IGP). DOP is the superior classification and it includes all Denominação de Origem Controlada (DOC) wines. There are currently 31 DOPs. If the nomenclature for a DOC was altered for the coinciding DOP in order to meet EU standards, the traditional DOC may be used within Portugal. Theoretically DOP is the equivalent of the French AOP, and may apply to wines and other foods worthy of a protected designation. Individual legislation for each DOP wine prescribes allowed styles, maximum yields, minimum alcohol content, and aging requirements, if applicable. Indicação de Proveniencia Regulamentada (IPR) has been eliminated as an official category, and former IPRs have been upgraded to DOP status. The lower, or less stringent, tier of quality wines in Portugal is the Indicação Geogràfica (IG), or wines with “geographical indication”. These wines are considered IGP for the purposes of EU protection, or Vinhos Regional (VR) if traditionally labeled within Portugal. All wines in this category must include a minimum 85% of grapes grown in the stated region. A wide range of grape varieties is permitted in each IGP, and a minimum alcohol content is stipulated. IGP or VR wines are often produced in DOP regions, but fail—or their winemakers choose not—to meet all of the DOP requirements. There are fourteen IGPs in Portugal: Minho, Transmontano, Duriense, Terras do Dão, Terras de Cister, Terras da Beira, Beira Atlântico, Tejo, Lisboa, Alentejano, Península de Setúbal, Algarve, Terras Madeirenses, and Açores. Wine produced in Portugal that does not meet any of the above criteria is considered Vinhos de Mesa, or simply Vinho—table wine. If produced as vintage-dated DOP or IGP, Portuguese table wines may be labeled as garrafeira (“private wine cellar”), indicating a minimum period of aging prior to release. Tinto (red) g arrafeira wines must age for a minimum 36 months, including at least 12 months in bottle. Branco (white) and rosado garrafeira wines must age for a minimum 12 months with at least 6 in bottle. The vintage garrafeira Port style as pioneered by Niepoort has a separate connotation: Wines that are aged in cask for at least 4 years, maximum 8 years, with an additional minimum 15 years in a glass container. Still Portuguese table wines of designated origin may also be labeled reserva , indicating an alcohol content of at least 0.5% higher than the legal minimum established by the respective DOP or IGP; however, stricter requirements in individual DOPs may supersede this standard. For traditional method sparkling wines, reserva instead indicates a minimum period of 12 months on the lees prior to dégorgement . Colheita Seleccionada indicates a minimum 1% higher alcohol content than that established by the regional appellation. All of these terms may be applied to wines produced in any of Portugal’s demarcated regions. Until recently, the most widely grown red casta (“grape variety”) in Portugal was Castelão, an adaptable variety producing typically full-bodied, tannic wines with meaty, red-fruit aromas. J.M. da Fonseca, whose sister company produced the hugely popular mid-20th-century brand Lancers, brought the Castelão grape from Tejo to Terras do Sado (now the Península de Setúbal), where they began bottling the grape under the “Periquita” brand. The brand was a great success, leading other producers to adopt the “Periquita” moniker as a synonym for the grape—a convention that J.M. da Fonseca successfully contested in court. Although its cultivation is not as widespread as Castelão, Touriga Nacional is perhaps Portugal’s finest red casta . Touriga Nacional, a variety cherished for Port blends, accounts for approximately 10% of the nation’s vineyard acreage, and yields inky, full-bodied, structured wines. Despite originating in the Dão, Touriga Nacional has been supplanted by Jaen (Mencía) in plantings in the region, and it only represents a small proportion of the Douro’s total acreage. The low-yielding vine produces extremely small berries, valued for their extraction potential and concentration in the red table blends of Dão, Douro, and Alentejo. The country’s premium red table wines often contain a percentage of Touriga Nacional, lavishly treated to new French oak in the manner of Bordeaux. Synonyms include Bical Tinto and Mortágua Preto. As of 2025, Aragonez (Tinta Roriz, known as Tempranillo in Spain) has the highest acreage under vine, followed by Touriga Franca. Castelão , Touriga Nacional, Trincadeira (Tinta Amarela), and Baga are other widely cultivated and promising red grape varieties in Portugal. Fernão Pires, known as Maria Gomes in Bairrada, is the most planted white casta in the country. The early-ripening, aromatic grape is found throughout Portugal, but it is concentrated in Bairrada and the southern plains of Tejo. It is a workhorse, producing fairly simple, honeyed wines that are often prone to oxidation and low acidity. Nobler white wines are produced from the Encruzado grape in the Dão, an elegant, balanced grape yielding floral and citrusy wines that gain complex nutty, resinous aromas with age. Oak is sometimes implemented in fermentation. Arinto, one of Portugal’s oldest indigenous varieties, produces lively, mineral-tinged whites and is grown throughout the country, although its most striking examples issue from the coastal regions, and from Bucelas in particular. The aromatic, tropical Antão Vaz is one of the most important white grapes in Alentejano, and Alvarinho (Spain’s Albariño) is highly regarded by the producers of Vinho Verde. One of Portugal's most thrilling indigenous white varieties is Sercial, a highly acidic grape prized for dry Madeira and known as Esgana Cão—the “dog strangler"—on the mainland. It is often confused with its homophone Cercial, which is used in Dão, Douro and Bairrada blends, but the two white grapes are genetically distinct. BACK TO TOP Minho and Vinho Verde Located in the northwestern corner of the country, Minho IGP and Vinho Verde DOP share exact geographical boundaries. A cool, rainy, Atlantic-influenced climate prevails, and grey rot can be problematic during the damp growing season. Traditionally, vines in the region have been trained high off the ground in a system called enforcado . Vines would grow up the trunks of trees, telephone poles, and stakes, creating an overhead canopy. The probability of fungal disease in the wet climate is thus lessened, and other crops are grown beneath the grapes in the densely farmed region, yet the method has been displaced by more modern trellising systems, and fewer than 10% of vines are today trained in this fashion. Vinho Verde—“green wine,” a reference to the wines’ youthful freshness and the verdant countryside—is the largest DOP in Portugal and represents around 15% of the nation’s total vineyard acreage, producing red, white, and rosado wines from an assortment of grapes. The region’s nearly 24,000 hectares of vineyards stretch northward from the city of Oporto to the Spanish border (the Minho River), and share lush landscape features and some grape varieties with Rías Baixas, Vinho Verde’s neighbor to the north. Gentle slopes of shallow granitic soils are predominant, although steeper, terraced vineyards are common in the mountains further inland. Loureiro is the region's most heavily planted white grape and the primary component of traditional Vinho Verde blends. Other white grapes include Trajadura (Treixadura), Avesso, Pedernã (Arinto), and the Spanish Albariño. Known as Alvarinho in Portugal, the grape is chiefly bottled as a varietal wine near the northern town of Monção, situated directly across the Minho River from Rías Baixas' Condado do Tea region. Monção e Melgaço Alvarinho remains a bright spot for quality in a region driven by high yields and mass production. Red and rosado wines, produced from grapes like Vinhão, Espadeiro, Borraçal, and Alvarelhão, represent a minority of exports. The light, floral white wines of the region are more common in both Europe and the US and are marked by lively acidity and low alcohol levels, and are slightly sparkling—a result, generally, of carbon dioxide injection prior to bottling. The red wines, also pétillant , gain their sparkle from malolactic fermentation in the bottle, a process usually avoided for white wines. The wines, whether white or red, are at their best in the year after release. BACK TO TOP Transmontano Transmontano IGP is located to the east of Minho along the Spanish border to the north of Duriense. Within the region are three non-contiguous subregions of the Trás-os-Montes DOP : Chaves, Valpaços, and Planalto Mirandés. The region is dry, hot, and mountainous, and the resulting wines are typically ripe and full-bodied, although the cooler, higher-altitude vineyards can preserve acidity. Important red grapes include Touriga Nacional, Tinta Roriz, Bastardo (Trousseau), Touriga Francesa and Trincadeira. Fernão Pires, Síria, Viosinho, Gouveio, Malvasia Fina and Rabigato are the most planted white grapes. Douro and Porto were once included in the region, prior to the creation of the Duriense IGP. BACK TO TOP Duriense: Douro and Porto The Duriense IGP is a slender region that encompasses the eastern, mountainous Douro River Valley south of Transmontano. It includes the DOPs of Douro and Porto . The Douro is Portugal’s first demarcated wine region—one of the first such appellations recognized in Europe—and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The river and its tributaries carve deep valleys through the granite Marão and Montemuro Mountains, and vineyards run from the riverside up the terraced, precipitous slopes. Schist, the preferred soil type for Port, is in abundance throughout the zone, often broken up by the actions of man. The Douro Valley experiences a continental climate of severely hot summers and cold winters, when temperatures often dip below freezing. The region’s craggy mountains act as barriers to the humid Atlantic winds, and the Douro becomes progressively drier toward the Spanish border. There are three subzones in Douro; Baixo Corgo to the west has the highest density of plantings, Cima Corgo has the highest total vineyard acreage, and Douro Superior, which stretches to the Spanish border, is the largest, most arid, and most sparsely planted region in Douro. Table wines and the occasional licoroso (fortified) Moscatel do Douro are produced as Douro DOP; fortified Port from the Douro region is released as Porto DOP. Approximately 50% of the region’s wine is released as Porto. Vineyards along the Douro River. Douro table wines may be red, white, or rosado. The list of approved grape varieties of either color is extensive, but the best red wines are usually produced from Touriga Nacional, Touriga Franca, Tinta Roriz, Tinta Cão, and Tinta Barroca. These grapes are equally suited to Port production, although clonal choices and preferred mesoclimates may differ for table wines. White varieties include Malvasia Fina, Viosinho, Rabigato, and Gouveio. Both white and red wines may be simple, fruity and fresh, or subject to new oak treatment and higher degrees of sophistication and polish in the winery. Moscatel Galego is used for fortified Moscatel wines, which may carry an age designation in the manner of tawny Port. In the Douro, reserva wines must achieve a minimum alcohol of 11.5% or 12% for white and rosado wines or red wines, respectively, instead of the standard minimum 10.5% (white/rosado) or 11% (red) for the appellation. White reserva wines must be aged for six months; red reserva wines must be aged for one year. The IVDP must certify all Douro wines; those that meet reserva criteria and score exceptionally well in blind tasting analysis may use the term grande reserva . Espumanto do Douro (sparkling wines) and Colheita Tardia (late harvest wines) may be produced as Douro DOP. Although the Minho region separates the Douro DOP from seaside Oporto (Porto), the major port houses have historically used the port city as a commercial nexus for the trade. In the past, the houses would transport Port casks in Barco Rabelo ships from Pinhão in the Cima Corgo downriver to Vila Nova de Gaia, a suburb of Oporto for maturation in their lodges. Until 1986, when membership in the EU disrupted the monopolistic demands of the Port trade, all Port wines were required by law to be aged and shipped from Vila Nova de Gaia. Removing such restrictions has enabled a new generation of small quintas to produce and ship Port and table wines from their premises in the Douro. The 1990s witnessed the birth of a number of smaller estates. Nonetheless, the larger Port houses and shippers are responsible for establishing the phenomenon of dry Douro table wines. Casa Ferreirinha , a house now under the ownership of Sogrape, launched Barca Velha in 1952, pioneering the style. The Port houses of Niepoort, Quinta do Crasto and Ramos Pinto are at the forefront of the table wine revolution. The 270-hectare Douro Superior estate Quinta do Vale Meão, formerly the primary source of fruit for Barca Velha, has established itself as one of the region’s young cult stars. (For further information on the viticulture, production process, and categories of Porto DOP wines, please refer to the Compendium .) BACK TO TOP Beiras and Terras do Dão The traditional province of Beiras lies south of Duriense and Minho, spanning the entire width of Portugal, from the fertile littoral coast to the mountainous interior. Until early 2011, a single IGP represented the entire region, but Portuguese authorities dismantled the expansive zone, dividing its territory among four new IGPs: Terras do Dão, Terras de Cister, Terras da Beira, and Beira Atlântico. Dão DOP and Lafões DOP lie within the newly unveiled Terras do Dão IGP, which borders Minho IGP to the north and claims a large swath of the central, inland territory formerly assigned to Beiras IGP. Bairrada DOP is located within Beira Atlântico, a coastal IGP with one designated subzone, Terras do Sicó. Távora-Varosa DOP , a center of sparkling wine production, is a small appellation immediately south of the Douro River and north of Terras do Dão. It is located within the Terras de Cister IGP, the "land of the Cistercians," another reminder of the medieval Church's influence in spreading the vine. Beira Interior DOP is a larger appellation near the Spanish border, within the Terras da Beira IGP. Despite its size, the region has relatively few growers, and much of the winemaking is performed by cooperatives. Beira Interior contains three subzones: Beira Castelo Rodrigo, Cova da Beira, and Pinhel. Some of Portugal’s best dry reds are produced in Dão DOP. Dão’s producers have worked to emphasize freshness and fragrance from the 1990s forward. Although it has been eclipsed in volume of acreage, Touriga Nacional is a signature component of Dão blends; the wines are typically more elegant, sharper, and more floral than their counterparts in the Douro. Sheltered by three mountain ranges, the Dão is partially protected from the harsh winds of the continental interior, yet insulated from the wet, cool maritime weather systems coming in from the coast. Ultimately, the region is hot and dry in the growing season, but receives adequate rainfall in the cold winter months. Altitude helps to preserve acidity, and the best vineyards are often located between 400 and 500 meters above sea level, where the preferred granitic soils are in abundance. The Dão is not densely planted: approximately 5% of the total region is utilized for viticulture. There are seven subregions, each with distinct mesoclimates: Serra da Estrela (named for Portugal’s highest mountain range), Alva, Besteiros, Castendo, Silgueiros, Terras de Azurara, and Terras de Senhorim. Dão wines may be red, white, rosado or espumante ; but red wines account for over three-quarters of the total output. Recommended red grapes are Touriga Nacional, Jaen, Touriga Franca, Alfrocheiro, Aragonez, Bastardo, Rufete, Trincadeira, and Tinta Cão. Recommended white grapes include (but are not limited to) Encruzado, Bical, and Cercial. A number of other grapes are additionally “authorized” but not recommended. Finally, certain experimental grapes, such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Sémillon, can be utilized but may not comprise more than 40% of a blend. Dão producers may label their wines as garrafeira according to the standard aging regimen, but the minimum abv is increased to 11.5% (from 11%). Red wines may be labeled as reserva with two years of aging, whereas whites must be aged for only six months to qualify. Both red and white Dão wines may be labeled nobre (“noble”), provided certain requirements are met. Red nobre wines must contain a minimum 15% Touriga Nacional and at most 85% of combined Jaen, Rufete, Alfrocheiro, and Aragonez. Red nobre wines must undergo a minimum three years aging prior to release and contain a minimum 13% alcohol. White nobre wines must contain a minimum 15% Encruzado and a maximum 85% of Cercial, Bical, Malvasia Fina, and Verdelho. They undergo one year of aging prior to release and must contain a minimum 12% alcohol. To the west of Dão, Bairrada DOP experiences a milder, rainier climate. Like Dão, Bairrada predominantly produces red wines, although white and rosado wines are authorized. The late-ripening, notoriously astringent Baga, the main red grape of the region, thrives in the barros (clay) soils, whereas white grapes, including Maria Gomes and Arinto, are usually planted in sandier soils. Red wines are typically blends, featuring Baga along with grapes such as the native Touriga Nacional, Camarate, Castelão, Jaen, and Alfrocheiro. While a new wave of experimentation has paved the way for the incursion of many international varieties, winemakers who remain faithful to the native grapes (and provide a minimum 12.5% abv in the case of Tinto or 12% abs for Branco, rather than the 11% required by the DOP) earn the right to label their wines as Bairrada Clássico. BACK TO TOP Lisboa The coastal Lisboa IGP runs southward from Beiras to Portugal’s capital city, where the Tagus River meets the Atlantic Ocean. Lisboa contains nine individual DOPs: Bucelas , Colares , Carcavelos , Arruda , Torres Vedras , Alenquer , Óbidos , Lourinhã , and Encostas d'Aire . Encostas d'Aire overlaps Alta Estremadura and Estremadura, subzones of the northern half of Lisboa IGP. Collectively, the region releases a larger volume of wine than any other in Portugal, but it has long carried a reputation of low quality, dominated by co-operatives and Vinhos de Mesa production. However, the southern DOP zones nearest the city of Lisboa have produced exemplary wines, and Alenquer and Encostas d'Aire in the north show promise. Lourinhã produces aguardente rather than wine. The three DOPs nearest the capital—Bucelas, Colares, and Carcavelos—are slowly disappearing due to the inexorable pressures of the expanding urban population. Bucelas produces dry white wines from a minimum 75% Arinto. Colares wines may be red or white. The sandy soils of Colares provided a bulwark against phylloxera incursion, and the vines of the region were traditionally planted in trenches to protect them from the salty marine winds. The majority of Colares' red and white wines are produced, respectively, with grapes from ungrafted Ramisco and Malvasia vines. A second, harder soil type, chao rija , is located further inland in the Colares DOP, and Castelão is more frequently planted there. Carcavelos has suffered the most at the hands of suburban sprawl—only 25 hectares of vineyard remain. Red wines are produced from a combined minimum 75% Castelão and Preto Martinho, and white wines are a blend of Arinto, Galego Dourado, and Ratinho. The wines are fermented dry, then fortified and sweetened with vinho abafado , a partially fermented must preserved with alcohol. After fortification, Carcavelos wines are aged in barrel for at least two years, followed by at least six months in bottle. BACK TO TOP Península de Setúbal The Península de Setúbal IGP, formerly Terras do Sado, includes the DOP zones of Setúbal and Palmela , located across the wide Tagus estuary from the city of Lisboa. The IGP itself encompasses the peninsula, defined by the Tagus and Sado estuaries, and a section of the Atlantic Coast. The region’s climate is Mediterranean. Palmela DOP comprises two distinct areas: low-lying, sandy plains spreading eastward from the hilltop town of the same name, and the clay-limestone lower slopes of the Arrabida Mountains. The sandy plains provide the best terroir for Castelão, the region’s premier grape and dominant component of Palmela reds—a minimum 66.7% is stipulated. White wines are typically blended with a high proportion of Fernão Pires and Arinto. Rosado, espumante and licoroso wines are also authorized. The DOP’s rather liberal encépagement includes a number of international varieties for both red and white wine production, including Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Sémillon, Syrah, Sauvignon Blanc, Merlot, and Tannat. The vinhos licoroso of Setúbal gained popularity in the heyday of Portugal’s fortified wine trade, benefiting—like Madeira—from the torna viagem maturation process. The region was one of the first in Portugal to be demarcated in the early 20th century (1907). Sweet white and red fortified wines are produced, from a minimum 67% Moscatel de Setúbal (Muscat d’Alexandria) or Moscatel Roxo, respectively. In keeping with EU regulations, the wine may be labeled by variety if either grape comprises a minimum 85% of the blend. The wines have a particularly pungent, floral fragrance, developed through a lengthy maceration on Muscat skins—for up to six months—following the fermentation and fortification. The wines develop a tawny, burnt orange color and raisin spice character while maturing in large wooden casks for up to five years prior to release. Some examples age for upwards of 20 years, unfolding mature molasses and caramel tones while darkening in color. J.M. da Fonseca is the appellation’s largest and most storied producer; in the company’s cellars are stocks of wine dating to the 19th century, some of which crossed the equator at sea. BACK TO TOP Tejo and Alentejano Both Tejo and Alentejano derive their names from the Tagus, or Tejo, River. The landlocked Tejo IGP is surrounded by Lisboa to the west, Beiras to the north, Alentejano to the east, and the Península de Setúbal to the south. The Tagus River flows through the alluvial plains of the fertile region, which, like Lisboa, is characterized by bulk production and basic quality. The IGP contains the single unrestrictive DoTejo DOP (formerly Ribatejo), in which only 1850 of the IGP’s 22,300 hectares of vineyards are included. DoTejo in turn encompasses six subregions: Coruche, Chamusca, Cartaxo, Santarém, Tomar, and Almeirim. Red, white, and rosado wines are produced from a bewildering number of native and international varieties. Castelão and Fernão Pires are the dominant red and white grapes; white wines outnumber reds. The Alentejano IGP, covering 30% of Portugal’s landmass, borders the eastern edge of both Tejo and the Península de Setúbal, extending southward to the Atlantic Coast north of Algarve. Alentejano’s hot growing season manifests in the perennial problems of low acidity and high alcohol, and irrigation is absolutely necessary in the region’s arid plains. The Alentejo DOP within Alentejano highlights eight subzones: Moura, Granja-Amareleja, Évora, Vidigueira, Reguengos, Redondo, Borba, and Portalegre—the latter, located on the cooler, granitic slopes of the São Mamede Mountains in the northernmost sector of the DOP, is the most promising area in the region. Red wine production in Alentejo exceeds that of whites, and Trincadeira is the region’s most prominent grape. Large swaths of Quercus suber —cork trees—are widespread through the region. BACK TO TOP Algarve Algarve is the southernmost IGP on the Portuguese mainland. It contains four DOP zones— Lagos , Lagoa , Portimão , and Tavira —each dominated by a co-operative. Traditional grape varieties in the region include Castelão and Tinta Negra Mole for red wines, and Arinto and Síria for white wines. Algarve’s hot seaside climate is not particularly suited for the production of fine wines, and in any event resort tourism has displaced many of the region’s vineyards. BACK TO TOP Açores The volcanic Açores (Azores) islands are located in the middle of the Atlantic, nearly 1,000 miles from the coast of Portugal. Three of the nine islands—Pico, Graciosa, and Terceira—have DOP zones, although conditions in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean are not tremendously conducive to viticulture. The fortified white wines of Pico DOP are the most highly regarded wines of the archipelago, yet they are generally consumed locally and viticulture occupies only a sliver of the island. The island’s apex is its volcano—the highest point in Portugal at 7,500 feet above sea level. The island’s vineyards, sheltered from sea winds by walls hewn from the black volcanic stone, have been designated as a World Heritage Site. Pico DOP Licoroso wines must achieve a minimum 16% abv after fortification, and are aged for a minimum two years in barrel. Verdelho, Arinto and Terrantez are authorized for production. Biscoitos DOP , on the island of Terceira, and Graciosa DOP also produce fortified white wines from the same grapes, as well as unfortified, dry white table wines and sparkling wines. BACK TO TOP Terras Madeirenses The Terras Madeirenses IGP encompasses both of the inhabited isles of the subtropical Madeira archipelago: Madeira and Porto Santo. Two DOP zones, Madeira and Madeirense , cover the fortified and unfortified wines, respectively, of both islands. Madeirense wines may be red, white, or rosé. Produced from grapes as dissimilar as Verdelho, Arnsburger (a Riesling crossing developed at Geisenheim), Cabernet Sauvignon, Tinta Negra, and Syrah, they are rarely exported. Madeira wine's regulatory body, the IVBAM, operates a cooperative winemaking facility for Madeirense DOP. For further information on the fortified wines of Madeira, click here BACK TO TOP Review Quizzes Beginner Intermediate ExpertPreviewPortugal