https://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/en-USTelligent Community 13https://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/209/champagne-and-sparkling-wineWed, 22 Apr 2026 18:53:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:82f197b3-eee7-42a5-8b7b-f72852f9a23dGuildSomm AdminTable of Contents From Still to Sparkling Wine in Champagne Viticulture and Climate in Champagne The Regions of Champagne The CIVC and Échelle de Crus Types of Champagne Producers The Méthode Champenoise Styles of Champagne Still wines of Champagne Other Traditional Method Sparkling Wines Other Sparkling Winemaking Methods From Still to Sparkling Wine in Champagne The techniques of sparkling winemaking did not originate with the Benedictine monk Dom Pérignon, nor was the first purposely sparkling wine produced in the region of Champagne. Regardless, through centuries of refinement Champagne has become the world’s leading sparkling wine and the vinous embodiment of luxury and celebration. The méthode Champenoise , a complicated process involving secondary fermentation in the bottle, is at the heart of Champagne’s character and has been adopted by sparkling winemakers worldwide. The term, like “Champagne” itself, is protected by the EU, and may only be applied to sparkling wines produced according to the prescribed method within the Champagne AOP. Wines made in the fashion of Champagne but produced elsewhere may be labeled as traditional method ( méthode traditionnelle ) or classic method ( méthode classique ). Some producers, particularly in the US, continue to label their sparkling wines as Champagne, but such wines are banned from the EU. Dom Pérignon’s lasting contributions to modern Champagne lie in the techniques of assemblage (blending) and viticulture, despite the persistent myth that anoints him as the inventor of sparkling winemaking. As cellar master at the Abbey of Hautvillers from 1668 until his death in 1715, Pérignon struggled with the problem of natural refermentation. The irrepressibly cold winters of the region created a danger: as the weather cooled off in the autumn and the yeasts became dormant, fermentation would sometimes prematurely stop, and the wines would be bottled with fermentable sugars still present. With the spring thaw and rising temperatures, yeasts would awaken inside the bottle, and refermentation occurred. The resulting sparkle was a fatal flaw, as the weak, wood-fired French glass of the past could not withstand the mounting gas pressure, and bottles would explode, often causing a chain reaction throughout the cellar. In the late 17th century, the English transferred Champagne from cask to stronger, coal-fired glass that could contain the pressure, and were likely the first to enjoy true sparkling Champagne—the merits of effervescence are praised in English literary works whose publication predates Pérignon’s tenure. Pérignon and his contemporaries endeavored to lessen the probability of refermentation, rather than encourage it. Throughout the 18th century most serious producers labored to make still red and white wines that could compete with the wines of Burgundy. However, in 1724 the word mousseux— implying effervescence—appeared in connotation with the wines of Champagne, although the Champenoise may have enjoyed intentionally sparkling wines as early as 1700. With the introduction of stronger glass, some vintners purposefully produced sparkling wines, but results were mixed—many bottles continued to explode, others displayed no foam whatsoever—and the fundamental logic of the process remained mysterious. Some attributed the sparkle to the phases of the moon, and this early unpredictability created a need for additional terminology— pétillant, demi-mousseux (crémant), and grand mousseux —to define the level of effervescence, which survive today in other sparkling wine appellations. Champagne made as a still wine has enjoyed a royal reputation for a long time—Louis, son of Charlemagne, was crowned at Reims in 816, establishing a precedent for future French monarchs and a reputation for the wines of the area. Vineyards date to at least the 5th century. Gosset, the oldest Champagne house still in operation today, was founded in 1584 as a still wine producer (Ruinart, established in 1729, can claim to be the oldest sparkling Champagne house). Before bubbles became common in Champagne, producers began to produce white wines from red grapes in an effort to improve quality and their competitiveness with the wines of Burgundy—an important stylistic innovation that required exacting pressing and harvest procedures to retain a purely white must. Vestiges of vin gris Champagne production would inform sparkling winemaking: a 1718 winemaking treatise highlights the division in quality between vin de cuvée and vin de taille when pressing red grapes for white wine. Nonetheless, producers strove to produce good red wines. Throughout the 18th century, the red wines of Burgundy were generally superior to the red wines of Champagne, and—in a form of paid advertisement—doctors called into question the health benefits of pale, pinkish Champagne in comparison to the more robust and vigorous red Burgundy. The Champenoise even colored their wines with elderberry, in an attempt to achieve the deeper hues of Burgundy. The sparkling wines of Champagne, however, earned praise and, in light of their capriciousness and rarity at the time, high prices. The houses of Ruinart, Taittinger, Moët et Chandon, Delamotte and Veuve Clicquot Ponsardin were founded in the 18th century, yet sparkling Champagne production would remain problematic and imprecise until the early 1800s, when several key developments in both method and science provided a great leap forward for sparkling wines. Madame Barbe-Nicole Ponsardin, the Veuve (“widow”) Clicquot, assumed control of the house that bears her name after her husband’s death shortly after the turn of the 19th century. Under her leadership, the house pioneered the process of remuage , or riddling—a procedure that allows sediment to be easily removed from a bottle during dégorgement (disgorgement). Jean-Antoine Chaptal, the French chemist and statesman for whom the process of chaptalization is named, identified the relationship between sugar and fermentation in a seminal 1801 work. A fundamental understanding of the connection between sugar and the second fermentation, coupled with the pharmacist André François’ measurement of the precise amount of sugar required to induce it without breaking the bottle, allowed Champagne houses to produce sparkling wines with greater confidence. Improvements in both cork and glass paralleled the advancing science, and Champagne quickly evolved into a huge industry; its major brands developed international reputations. Individual growers could simply not afford the expensive process of sparkling winemaking—they would sell fruit to the larger houses, which could manage the costs of both production and marketing. Champagne production jumped from 300,000 bottles in 1800 to 20 million bottles by the 1880s. Pommery put the first brut Champagne, Pommery “Nature,” on the market in 1874. Champagne counted the royal Tsars of Russia, the kings of Belgium and Greece, and most of the English aristocracy as regular customers, and a longstanding association with French royalty served to buttress the new status of sparkling wine as a luxury product worthy of conspicuous consumption. Marketing materials in the age of poster advertising were especially flamboyant for Champagne—the wines were linked to women, leisure, sport, history, and all things celebratory. Champagne and the image of Champagne were, and still are, inseparable. Despite provocative, modern advertising imagery, many in Champagne were eager to emphasize the region’s traditions and history. In 1908, the French government delimited the Champagne region, further defining the region and its means of production and viticulture in 1927—but not without controversy. Vignerons from the southern Aube region, who had long supplied Champagne houses with base white wine, protested and nearly rioted in 1911 after being excluded from the region. The Aube was reinstated as a full region of the appellation in 1927. In 1935 the Commission de Châlons, a consortium of growers and merchants, was formed to develop quality standards and regulate pricing. In 1936, Champagne was enshrined in the new Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée system. Champagne remains the only AOC/AOP that does not need to include Appellation Contrôlée (or Protégée) on the label. A century of nearly uninterrupted growth and prestige for Champagne ended as phylloxera, fraud, and war loomed. Phylloxera struck in the 1890s, leading unscrupulous producers to import other sparkling wines and pass the product off as true Champagne. The repression of fraud became a key component of the initial delimitation of the region in 1908, and a source of great friction between merchants and growers. Collusion amongst producers to drive down Champagne grape prices was common at the turn of the century, even as they sourced fruit from the Loire, the Languedoc, and other countries. The growers finally revolted in 1911, ransacking houses and rioting in the streets until the French military stepped in to secure order. Negotiations between the parties were still underway in 1914 when the German army entered Reims. War had threatened the region before—Champagne’s vineyards were devastated in the Hundred Years’ War, 16th century religious conflicts, and the Thirty Years’ War—but the bloody, nearly immovable Western Front of World War I cut right through the region. Reims suffered constant bombardment for nearly four years; the wives, children, and those too infirm or old to fight risked life and limb to haul in the harvests. Braving artillery explosions and suffering from a lack of manpower, horses and fertilizer, the Champenoise delivered one of the finest vintages of the 20th century in 1914. After the First World War ended, stocks built up as prices rose and the lucrative German, American, and Russian export markets closed in the face of depression, Prohibition, and revolution, respectively. Champagne found itself under Nazi occupation during World War II, and producers walled up millions of bottles in their cellar networks to hide them from looting soldiers and the Nazi-appointed agent Otto Klaebisch—nicknamed the “Weinführer”—who had taken up residence at the Veuve Clicquot Ponsardin estate. Despite hidden stores and sleight of hand—such as passing off inferior wines as “Reserved for the Wehrmacht,” a stunt that landed François Taittinger in jail—Klaebisch demanded huge sums of Champagne’s wines for Germany, and the Champenoise feared for their survival. From the existing but limited framework of the Commission de Châlons, Count Robert-Jean de Vogüé of Moët et Chandon in 1941 organized a new, broader consortium of growers, producers and shippers to represent the Champagne industry and protect its interests in the face of Nazi occupation. That organization, the Comité interprofessionnel du vin de Champagne (CIVC), remains a powerful force in the complex mediation between the large Champagne houses and the numerous smaller growers from whom they source grapes. Today, merchant houses own just over 10% of Champagne’s vineyards, as the Contrôle des Structures prohibits any firm from farming more than fifteen owned or rented hectares. As a collective, the approximately 20,000 growers have a very powerful voice, despite selling under a quarter of all wine produced. In the second half of the 20th century, the popularity of Champagne propelled forward. Co-operatives, the first of which were founded in Champagne before World War I, became major suppliers to the domestic market in France. The largest houses expanded in exponential fashion, through a boom in sales, incorporation, merger, and acquisition. Following the inaugural 1921 vintage of Moët et Chandon’s “Dom Pérignon," many houses released a tête de cuvée , or prestige cuvée—a premier bottling often carrying a vintage date. From the 1970s forward, Champagne’s biggest names began establishing sparkling winemaking operations in other countries, as the limits of finite production in Champagne itself could not satisfy the world’s appetite for the wines. Champagne now accounts for only one in 12 bottles of sparkling wine produced worldwide, a statistic that supports the INAO’s decision in 2009 to meet the burden of demand and broaden the appellation’s area—the first major change since 1927. The number of villages that can grow grapes for the appellation increased from 319 to 357, although the additional acreage is not forecast to have an effect on sales until at least 2021. In 2018, there were 16,000 growers and 340 houses, which shipped 362 million bottles worldwide, up 55 million from just the year before. Of these markets, the largest are the UK, USA, Germany, and Japan, which account for half of all Champagne exports. BACK TO TOP Viticulture and Climate in Champagne The region of Champagne is located between the 48th and 49th parallels. With a mean annual temperature of only 50°F, ripening is extremely variable, and quality can differ greatly from year to year, requiring the houses of Champagne to blend between vintages to achieve a consistency in their house styles. Grape acidity usually remains markedly high—an important attribute for sparkling wines. Frost, rain, fungal disease and hail are serious concerns for growers in the cold, Atlantic-influenced climate. Rain often interrupts flowering, resulting in a bouvreux , or second crop, that rarely ripens and is left on the vine. Porous, belemnite chalk subsoil is pushed to the surface on the appellation’s slopes, absorbing heat to protect the vines at night and providing excellent drainage in the wet climate. Belemnite chalk, derived from the fossilized remains of millions of extinct cephalopods, has a high limestone content, which allows vine roots to dig deeply and is linked to increased acidity. A second layer of micraster chalk, named for an extinct sea urchin, characterizes the valley vineyards. The Champagne region is renowned for its huge network of cellars carved out of the chalk and limestone subsoil, which provides a perfect natural storage environment of 53-54° F for millions of bottles. A thin layer of clay and sand covers much of the chalk in Champagne; in the Aube to the south clay is the dominant soil type. The houses of Champagne are quick to assert the importance of the region’s soil, but slower overall to embrace the tenets of modern organic and sustainable viticulture. Visitors to the region will no doubt notice shreds of blue plastic scattered throughout many of the vineyards—remnants of bags used to ship composted trash. The Champenoise have a long history of relying on recycled Parisian garbage to fertilize their vineyards. Composting is admirable, but the portion of inorganic and toxic waste grew over time, and the practice was outlawed in 1998. Les bleus de ville remain, a reminder to a new generation of growers and caretakers. The three principal grapes authorized for the production of Champagne are Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, and the black grape Meunier (formerly Pinot Meunier—“miller’s” Pinot—named for the dusty appearance of its leaves). In 2018, Pinot Noir accounted for 38% of total plantings, Chardonnay accounted for 31%, and Meunier accounted for 31%. Larger houses will often blend Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, or all three varieties, in order to create a consistent non-vintage house style. Each grape contributes a different element: Chardonnay provides elegance and longevity, Pinot Noir supports the wine’s structure, richness and body, and Meunier lends a youthful fruitiness and approachability. In select areas, Pinot Blanc Vrai (“true” Pinot Blanc, a white form of Pinot Noir), Arbane, Pinot Gris, and Petit Meslier are authorized for Champagne AOP production, but they are rare, totaling less than 0.3% of plantings. As in all French appellations, viticulture is regulated. Yields, which are often adjusted on a yearly basis, are quite high in comparison with other appellations. During the 2016 harvest, yields surpassed 100 hl/ha. Yields remain high because of the limits set to juice extraction. In 1992, the CIVC set a limit of 102 liters of must for every 160 kg of grapes, or 2,550 liters per 4,000 kg—a marc of grapes, the amount held in a traditional Coquard basket press. This restriction brings the final yield to 66 hl/ha. Only four pruning methods are permitted: Cordon de Royat, Chablis, Vallée de la Marne, and Guyot (double and simple). Average vine age hovers around twenty years, as the lowered productivity of old vines is undesirable to most houses in Champagne. BACK TO TOP The Regions of Champagne Vineyards in the village of Epernay. Many of the major commercial houses of Champagne are located in the city of Reims and the smaller towns of Épernay and Aÿ. The 357 villages authorized to grow grapes for Champagne are split between five districts: the Montagne de Reims, Vallée de la Marne, Côte des Blancs, Côte de Sézanne, and the Côte des Bar in the Aube département . Pinot Noir is the prominent grape in both Montagne de Reims and the Aube, whereas Chardonnay is dominant in the Côte de Sézanne and almost exclusively planted, as its name indicates, on the southeast- and east-facing slopes of the Côte des Blancs. Meunier is heavily cultivated in the sheltered vineyards of the frost-prone Vallée de la Marne, where its tendency to bud late and ripen early is prized by growers. The vineyards of the Montagne de Reims are, surprisingly, divided between south- and north-facing slopes. The plain beneath the northern Montagne de Reims is too cold for viticulture, but the higher slopes of the region’s plateau enjoy a pocket of warm air that allows the grapes to ripen. Cru status is awarded to entire villages in Champagne, rather than individual vineyards or properties. However, the areas authorized for cultivation within each commune are strictly defined. 17 villages have grand cru status and 42 are classified as premier cru according to their rankings in the Échelle de Crus . BACK TO TOP The CIVC and Échelle de Crus The CIVC, the regulatory body responsible for mediating relations between growers and producers, oversees the production methods and promotion of Champagne. The CIVC regulates the size of harvests, authorizes blocage and deblocage —respectively the reserve and release of wine stocks for use in future vintages—and safeguards the protected designation of Champagne. Until 1990, the CIVC set the price of grapes through the Échelle de Crus , a percentile system by which the villages, or crus, of the Champagne appellation are rated. Villages that achieved the maximum échelle (“scale”) of 100 were classified as grands crus ; villages that achieved an échelle of 90 through 99 were classified as premier cru . Mareuil-sur-Ay in the Vallée de la Marne and Tauxières in Montagne de Reims were the only premier cru villages with a 99% ranking. Villages with a rating below 90 were simply crus . Originally, the Échelle de Crus was a true percentile system; in 1985 a revision set the minimum rating of the scale at 80. Until 1990, a village’s échelle rating represented the set percentage of price that a grower could receive for fruit. Thus, growers in grand cru villages would receive the full price set by the CIVC, and other villages would receive a percentage equivalent to their échelle rating. Today, the CIVC recommends, rather than regulates pricing, and supervises the exchange between growers and Champagne houses in order to promote fairness. In the early 2000s, the CIVC abolished the system entirely, but the premier and grand cru villages retain their titles, and producers may continue to label wines from these villages as such. BACK TO TOP Types of Champagne Producers Every bottle of Champagne bears a series of digits—the matriculation number—a code assigned to each producer by the CIVC. A set of initials precedes the number, denoting the type of producer who made the wine. NM (Négociant Manipulant) : A house that purchases grapes and or base wines from growers and other smaller houses. Some NM houses own a significant portion of their own vineyards; others own none at all. Large Champagne houses with the most international presence are invariably in this category: Moët et Chandon, Louis Roederer, Veuve Clicquot Ponsardin, Billecart-Salmon, Lanson, Taittinger, Pol Roger, Perrier-Jouët, Mumm, and Laurent-Perrier. Quality varies widely, although prices are uniformly high. Many houses often fall under the same corporate parentage; for example, Moët et Chandon, Krug, Veuve Clicquot Ponsardin, and Mercier fall under the umbrella of the luxury conglomerate LVMH. RM (Récoltant Manipulant) : A grower-producer who makes Champagne from estate-grown fruit. 95% of the grapes must originate in the producer’s own vineyards. CM (Coopérative Manipulant) : A growers’ co-operative that produces the wine under a single brand. RC (Récoltant Coopérateur) : A grower whose grapes are vinified at a co-operative, but whose wines are sold under the grower's own label. SR (Société de Récoltants) : A firm, not a co-operative, set up by a union of often related growers, who share resources to make their wines and collectively market several brands. ND (Négociant Distributeur) : A middleman company that distributes Champagne it did not make. MA (Marque d’Acheteur) : A buyer’s own brand, often a large supermarket chain or restaurant, that purchases Champagne and sells it under its own label. BACK TO TOP The Méthode Champenoise Although certain standards of viticulture must be met, the méthode Champenoise truly begins in the press house. Black grapes must be pressed especially quickly after harvest, lest they color the must. As previously mentioned, extraction is limited to 102 liters from 160 kg of grapes, or 2,550 liters from 4,000 kg. The extracted juice is then divided into the vin de cuvée (the first 2,050 liters) and the vin de taille (the following 500 liters). The vin de taille is usually richer in pigment and tannin, and many producers sell off this lesser component of the must or include it in a minor proportion as a structural element in a blend. A third extraction, the rebêche , is required by law and must comprise 1-10% of the total. The rebêche is used for distillate, not Champagne. After pressing, the juice is allowed to settle ( débourbage ) at a cool temperature for eight to fifteen hours, so that remaining solids ( bourbes ) in the must can be removed by racking prior to fermentation. The must, which is often chaptalized, will then undergo primary fermentation, resulting in high-acid base wines ( vins clairs ) with an approximate alcohol content of 11%. Primary fermentation may occur in either stainless steel or oak—typically used barrels, although some producers do use a percentage of new wood. The base wines often undergo malolactic fermentation, although this is not a universal practice. After both the primary and malolactic fermentations have concluded, the base wines will generally be clarified, through fining, filtering, or centrifuge. The clarified base wines remain in either stainless steel or barrel (or, in rare cases, bottles) until late February or March of the year following the harvest. The most classic representation of Champagne is a blend, utilizing a number of grapes, growing areas, and vintages. At this stage the blender will taste the lots of base wine, and determine a house’s hallmark blend, drawing on reserve stocks from previous years to provide complexity and richness. A certain consistency in style from year to year is highly desired. For rosé wines, a small proportion of base red wine is generally added. After the assemblage and cold stabilization, the blend will be racked and bottled with the addition of liqueur de tirage , a mixture of still wine, yeasts, sugar, and fining agents that will serve to ignite the second fermentation. The second fermentation, or prise de mousse , is the heart of the méthode Champenoise . Each bottle is affixed with a crown cap (equipped with a bidule , a plastic capsule that will serve to capture the sediment during remuage ) or a cork after the liqueur de tirage is added, and yeast begins its work. The secondary fermentation lasts up to eight weeks, as the yeast slowly converts the additional sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide. The alcohol content of the wine rises approximately 1.2-1.3%, and the carbon dioxide creates a pressure inside the bottle of five to six atmospheres. During the second fermentation, the bottles are usually stored horizontally (“ sur latte” ). Autolysis, the breakdown of dead yeast cells, forms sediment, or lees, in the bottle as second fermentation occurs. The wine will be aged on the lees for an appropriate period—a minimum of 12 months is required for non-vintage wines—prior to their removal from the bottle through dégorgement. In preparation for dégorgement , the sediment must first be trapped in the neck of the bottle. Historically, producers performed an operation called pointage , in which each bottle would be briskly shaken in order to prevent the sediment from sticking to the sides of the bottle. Newer strains of yeast generally preclude the need for pointage , and most houses have abandoned the practice. Instead, producers proceed directly to remuage , or riddling, which manipulates the sediment into the neck and bidule through sharp twists and inversion of the bottle. The widow Clicquot’s breakthrough involved the development of the pupitre : two large wooden planks fastened together in an upright “A” shape, with sixty angled holes cut into each plank of wood. A remuer would fractionally turn and tilt each bottle over a period of about eight weeks, slowly inverting the bottles with the neck pointing downward. Despite the fact that a top remuer is rumored to handle upwards of 70,000 bottles a day, Champagne is an industry, and more efficient methods are required. The modern remuage operation is shortened to a week or less through the use of the gyropalette, an automated device that holds 504 bottles. The gyropalette has replaced hand-riddling at all of the major houses, although some prestige cuvée bottlings are still handled manually. Once the sediment is successfully collected in the neck of the bottle, the bottles remain in the upside-down vertical position (“ sur pointe ”) for a short period of time prior to dégorgement , although some houses will age the wine in this position for a number of years—Bollinger’s “RD” (“ Récemment Dégorgé ”) is kept sur pointe for a number of years, and only disgorged upon order. The modern method of dégorgement à la glace involves dipping the neck of the bottle in a freezing brine solution. The bottle can then be turned upright. The force of internal pressure will expel the semi-frozen sediment (and a small portion of wine) as the crown cap is removed. An older method, dégorgement à la volée, utilizes the same principle; however, without freezing the sediment excess wine is invariably lost along with it. As the wines are fully fermented to total dryness, the bottles are then topped off with dosage , or liqueur d’expédition , a liquid mixture of sugar syrup and wine. Rarely, bone-dry non-dosage styles are produced. The amount of sugar in the dosage is determined by the desired style of the wine. Brut is the most common sweetness level and the level at which most houses bottle vintage and prestige cuvées. Sweetness Levels for Champagne Designation Residual Sugar Brut Nature/Non-Dosé 0-3 grams per liter, no added dosage Extra Brut 0-6 grams per liter Brut 0-12 grams per liter Extra Dry 12-17 grams per liter Sec 17-32 grams per liter Demi-Sec 32-50 grams per liter Doux 50+ grams per liter After the addition of dosage , the bottle is secured with a cork and six half-twists of a muselet , or wire cage. The Champagne is then aged in bottle prior to release. Non-vintage styles must remain in the cellar for a total minimum of 15 months (including the period of lees aging), whereas vintage wines require 36 months in the cellar. In reality, many top vintage wines and prestige cuvées slumber in the caves of Champagne for much longer prior to appearing on the market. Some bottle aging, whether in one’s personal cellar or the cellars of a producer, is usually critical: apparent sulfur and youthful austerity can make recently bottled Champagne less rewarding. Champagne is bottled in a range of bottle sizes. The names of large bottles, from Jeroboam forward, have Biblical connotations. Bottle sizes larger than a Jeroboam and smaller than a half bottle may be filled by transversage or by the transfer method, from a tank or through the process of decanting multiple smaller bottles. Champagne Bottle Sizes Bottle Size Quarter Bottle (Piccolo) 187 ml Half Bottle (Demi) 375 ml Bottle 750 ml Magnum 1.5 L (2 bottles) Jeroboam 3 L (4 bottles) Rehoboam (discontinued in 1983) 4.5 L (6 bottles) Methuselah 6 L (8 bottles) Salmanazar 9 L (12 bottles) Balthazar 12 L (16 bottles) Nebuchadnezzar 15 L (20 bottles) Solomon 18 L (24 bottles) * Larger sizes, including the Sovereign, Primat, and Melchizedek are extraordinarily rare. Many sources cite the 18 L bottle as a Melchior, as it is called in Bordeaux. BACK TO TOP Styles of Champagne Non-Vintage (NV) : Generally brut in style, the NV cuvée represents a house’s signature style, and the blender’s job is to ensure its consistency from year to year. Non-vintage Champagne makes up at least three-quarters of the market. Vintage : 100% of the blend must come from the stated vintage, yet a maximum 80% of a year’s harvest may be sold as vintage Champagne. The better houses declare a vintage only in exceptional years. These are usually brut in style, and good examples can age for a decade or more. Blanc de Blancs : Only white grapes are permitted, but they are not always sourced from the Côte des Blancs. They may be vintage-dated or NV. The Blanc de Blancs category represents some of Champagne’s most ageworthy bottlings; while austere and often steely in youth, better examples develop an intense bouquet with maturity. Blanc de Noirs : White wine produced solely from black grapes. The wine usually displays richness, intensity, and weight, although it can lack the supreme elegance and finesse of Blanc de Blancs . Prestige Cuvée (Tête de Cuvée) : Usually the finest and most expensive bottling that a house offers, the prestige cuvée is typically (but not always) vintage-dated and aged for a number of years prior to release. Prestige Cuvées are usually only released in superior vintages, and may undergo more traditional vinification procedures, such as barrel fermentation, riddling by hand, and cork-finishing during the second fermentation. Many of the large houses produce prestige cuvées from their own vineyards—even single vineyards in exceptional cases. Prestige cuvées may be Blanc de Blancs, Blanc de Noirs or rosé in style. Not all houses produce a prestige cuvée, and some produce several. Classic examples include Moët et Chandon "Dom Pérignon," Taittinger "Comtes de Champagne," Louis Roederer "Cristal," Laurent-Perrier "Grande Siècle," Perrier-Jouët "Belle Époque" (previously bottled as "Fleur de Champagne" for the US market), Pol Roger "Cuvée Sir Winston Churchill," Ruinart "Dom Ruinart," and Veuve Clicquot-Ponsardin "La Grande Dame." For an exhaustive list, click here . Single Vineyard Champagne : Single Vineyard Champagne bottlings may be produced by a large house or a smaller grower-producer, and may or may not be advertised as a prestige cuvée. Single Vineyard wines are not required to carry a vintage date, although they invariably do, and the style represents a stark departure from the blending philosophy of the region. Philipponnat’s “Clos de Goisses,” originally released for the 1935 vintage from one of the few walled vineyards of the region, remains a benchmark bottling. Special Club Prestige Cuvée: The “Special Club” concept originated in 1971, with a dozen grower-producers. Lacking the marketing budgets of larger houses, these producers banded together to promote their prestige cuvées through identical packaging. The Club Trésors comprises 28 RM producers as members. The Special Club bottlings are estate-bottled, vintage-dated wines that represent the pinnacle of each individual grower’s style and production. Special Club bottles and labels share identical design. Current members include Marc Hébrart, Pierre Gimonnet, Paul Bara, J. Lassalle and Gaston Chiquet. For a complete membership, click here . Rosé Champagne : Vintage, NV, and prestige cuvées may also be produced in pink versions. The traditional saignée method, in which the wine gains its hue through extended skin contact, is less common than blending. Champagne is the only AOP in France that allows a rosé to be produced by blending red and white wine. A rosé prestige cuvée, a novelty in years past, is usually the most expensive and rare product a house offers. BACK TO TOP Still wines of Champagne Coteaux Champenois and Rosé de Riceys are still wine appellations within the region of Champagne. Coteaux Champenois covers still red, white, and rosé wines from the entire appellation; Rosé de Riceys is reserved for 100% Pinot Noir rosé wines produced in Les Riceys, a cru village in the Aube. BACK TO TOP Other Traditional Method Sparkling Wines While the exact aging requirements and grape varieties may change, the traditional method mirrors the méthode Champenoise and has at its heart the principle of a second fermentation in the bottle. The méthode traditionnelle has been adopted throughout France and worldwide as the most successful approach to quality, ageworthy sparkling wine production. In France, there are eight AOP regions for crémant wines produced by the traditional method: Crémant de Bordeaux , Crémant de Bourgogne , Crémant de Loire , Crémant de Limoux , Crémant de Die , Crémant du Jura , Crémant d’Alsace , and Vin de Savoie , which produces crémant under the designation Crémant de Savoie . The encépagement varies widely according to the appellation, and the limit on pressing is less strict (100 liters from 150 kg, or 2,666 liters from 4,000 kg) but otherwise the wines are produced by the method prescribed for Champagne. Other appellations in France producing traditional method sparkling wines include Vouvray , Montlouis-sur-Loire , and Saumur in the Loire; and Seyssel in Savoie. Fully sparkling wines from the aforementioned appellations will be labeled mousseux (or "crémant" in Savoie), whereas lightly sparkling wines are labeled pétillant . Blanquette de Limoux wines from the Limoux AOP in the Languedoc region are also produced by the traditional method, from a minimum 90% Mauzac that may be blended with Chardonnay and Chenin Blanc. In Italy, the best traditional method sparkling wines are produced in Lombardy, within the DOCGs of Franciacorta and Oltrepò Pavese Metodo Classico . All Spanish Cava and the highest quality German Sekt are produced by the traditional method. England is a new frontier for traditional method sparkling wines: the White Cliffs of Dover (and much of southeastern England’s subsoil) represent a natural continuation of the chalk of Champagne. Nyetimber and Ridgeview Estate, both located in Sussex, lead the way. Quality sparkling wines are made on America’s West Coast—in Carneros, Napa Valley, Anderson Valley, Willamette Valley, and Washington. Roederer established operations in Anderson Valley in Mendocino, whereas Taittinger and Moët et Chandon founded American projects in Carneros and Yountville, respectively. Traditional method sparkling wines are made in New York, Canada, and even New Mexico. Graham Beck is at the forefront of traditional method “Cap Classique” sparkling wines in South Africa. Major Champagne houses have established outposts in Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, Ukraine, and even Brazil. BACK TO TOP Other Sparkling Winemaking Methods Méthode Ancestrale : Also known as the méthode rurale, this is the oldest and most rudimentary of sparkling winemaking procedures. A single fermentation begins in tank, but the wine is transferred to bottles before the process is complete— liqueur de tirage is unnecessary. Yeasts continue to ferment the remaining sugars in the bottle, giving the wine its sparkle. The residual sweetness of the finished wines varies by appellation, but dosage is not allowed. The wine may be disgorged, filtered and rebottled in clean glass prior to sale. Bugey Cerdon , Clairette de Die Méthode Dioise Ancestrale , and Gaillac Mousseux Méthode Gaillaçoise are examples of the style. The Charmat Process/Cuve Close/Tank Method: Developed by Eugene Charmat in the early 20th century, the Tank Method is quicker, cheaper, and less labor-intensive than the traditional method. After the wine undergoes primary fermentation, liqueur de tirage is added to the wine, provoking a second fermentation, which occurs in a pressurized enamel-lined tank, or autoclave, over a matter of days. Once the appropriate pressure is reached (usually 5 atmospheres), the wine is chilled to arrest fermentation. Some appellations require the wine to remain in tank for a minimum period of time, such as one month for Asti DOCG. The wine is then filtered and bottled, usually with a dosage. The lack of extended lees contact in the tank method is not suitable for making quality wines in the style of Champagne. The bubbles, or bead, in tank method wines will be larger and coarser, and the wine will have a less uniform texture than wines made by the traditional method. However, this method is appropriate and even preferred for sparkling wines emphasizing fruit and varietal aromatics rather than the flavors derived from autolysis. Most Asti DOCG and Prosecco bottlings are produced in this method. Continuous Method/Russian Continuous Method: Developed in the USSR, this method is similar to the tank method, but the base wine is pumped through a series of interconnected (continuous) tanks while undergoing the second fermentation. Liqueur de tirage is constantly added to the wine, and lees accumulate in the first several tanks, offering a higher degree of autolyzed flavors than the standard tank method. The majority of German Sekt is produced by either the tank method or the continuous method. Carbonation: The cheapest method of sparkling winemaking involves a simple injection of carbon dioxide into still wine. The bubbles do not integrate into the texture of the wine at all, and fade quickly upon opening. This method is not used for quality wines. Alternative methods of sparkling winemaking cannot compete with the wines of Champagne in complexity, but they may be perfectly suited to less serious (and sometimes more exuberant) styles. However, traditional method sparkling wines from all over the world are approaching and in some cases surpassing basic Champagne bottlings in character and refinement. Differences between well-made traditional method wines and basic méthode Champenoise wines are sometimes very difficult to detect. However, at its top echelon of quality there is no substitute for Champagne—its finesse, longevity, and price are incomparable in the world of sparkling wine. BACK TO TOP Updated June 2024Previewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/212/viticulture-and-vinificationWed, 22 Apr 2026 15:50:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:0c88ac3d-bd82-4b60-b047-8cc22c9e9953GuildSomm AdminTable of Contents Viticulture A Year in the Vineyard Climate, Terroir, and the Grapevine Vine Training and Pruning Vine Diseases and Insect Threats Sustainable Models of Viticulture Vinification Red Wine Production White Wine Production Rosé Wine Production Oak The Future of Winemaking Viticulture Man first domesticated Vitis vinifera , the species of climbing vine responsible for fine wine production, nearly 5,000 years before the Common Era. Viticulture, the study of grape growing, slowly developed in conjunction with the cultivation of the vine, as growers over time learned from instinct and observation. The grower or viticulturist confronts decisions on vine training and pruning methods, canopy management, fertilization and irrigation, harvest dates, and disease control; and monitors the development of the vineyard in general. From Charlemagne’s directive to plant the vineyards of Corton where the snows melt first, to the widespread adoption of rootstock grafting to combat phylloxera, to the modern embrace of drip irrigation and mechanization, advances in viticulture aim to reduce the vagaries of weather and disease, and promote either the quantity or quality of wine. Rarely are these goals of quantity and quality aligned for the viticulturist. Today, viticulture is a highly evolved science, and the development of the vine (and its transformation in the winery) is highly calculated to provide a desired character of fruit. While cold science governed many of the viticultural advancements of the last century, newer movements of sustainability have sprouted in reaction, and several distinct paths of viticulture exist for conscientious growers. BACK TO TOP A Year in the Vineyard The annual life cycle of the vine begins in the spring, with budbreak. The vine, which started “weeping” or “bleeding” watery sap from pruned canes sometime in February (in the Northern Hemisphere), will finally emerge from dormancy as the average air temperature surpasses 50°F. During budbreak, which usually occurs in March or April, the first small shoots and leaves will break through buds left intact by winter pruning. At this stage, the vine is vulnerable to frost. The vine’s foliage continues to develop through the early spring, and small green clusters called embryo bunches form on the shoots by mid-April. Flowering occurs six to thirteen weeks after the initial budbreak, depending on the climate. During this period, the embryo bunches bloom into small flowers for about ten days, and the self-pollinating grapevine begins the process of fertilization, which leads to fruit set. As the vine flowers, it is extremely susceptible to the damaging effects of cold, frost, and wind. Successfully pollinated embryo bunches grow into true grape clusters during fruit set—each grape is the product of individual fertilization. Fruit set usually hovers around 30%—the remaining embryo berries “shatter,” falling from the cluster, a process also known as coulure. As the berries enlarge through July, they remain hard, high in acidity and low in sugar. Another danger that can impact yield at this time is millerandage, where some grape flowers fail to fertilize. They go on to mature at different rates; some grow ripe and large, while others stay very small and seedless. In August, however, veraison ( véraison ) begins and the grapes begin to truly ripen, as sugars are moved from the leaf system to the fruit. During veraison, the grapes soften and change color—turning from green to red-black or yellow-green—and acidity decreases. While veraison swiftly affects an individual grape, it may not evenly affect a whole bunch. Some varieties, such as Zinfandel, are characterized by extremely uneven ripening (also called asynchrony), in which veraison haphazardly affects each bunch. Cane ripening occurs in tandem with veraison, as the stems on each shoot begin to lignify, accumulating carbohydrates to sustain the plant through the winter. Once the grapes have achieved an optimal balance of sugar and acid, they are ready for harvest ( vendange ). Harvest, by either manual or mechanical means, begins as early as late August, and may last through the beginning of November. White grapes are generally harvested before red grapes, although some white grapes destined for the specialized botrytised dessert wines or icewine may hang on the vine until late November or December. New World winemakers have greatly advanced the idea of complete physiological ripeness—a concept of ripeness comprising not only must weight and pH, but also the ripening of tannin and other phenolics, the condition of the berry and its pulp, and seed lignification—which often requires longer “hang time” for the grapes on the vine. After harvest, work moves from the vineyard to the winery. The vines lose their leaves in the autumn, and enter a period of winter dormancy. Fertilization may be applied in the fall after harvest, and the vines will be pruned over the winter to prepare for next year’s growth. Note : For equivalent dates in southern hemisphere vineyards, add six months. BACK TO TOP Climate, Terroir, and the Grapevine Climate encompasses expected temperature, rainfall, sunshine, wind, and other atmospheric elements, and remains relatively stable from year to year—weather is the daily manifestation of climate, and is generally responsible for vintage variation. For temperature, the vine prefers a mean annual level between 50° and 68°F, with an ideal of 57°F. To successfully ripen, red grapes require an average summer temperature of approximately 70°F, whereas white grapes prefer an average of 66°F. This generally restricts viticulture to the temperate bands of latitude between 30° and 50° in both the northern and southern hemispheres. Certain pockets of viticulture exist, due to privileged exposures and climatic conditions, outside of these general bands of latitude, and climate change may expand the grapevine’s habitat in the coming years. One method of classifying climates solely by temperature—and therefore recommending varieties appropriate to that temperature—is the California Heat Summation Index (also known as the Winkler Index). This scale divides climates into five Regions based on the number of degree days. Degree days are calculated by multiplying the days in each month of the growing season (defined as April 1 through October 31) by the mean number of degrees over 50°F for that month. The months’ totals are then added together to arrive at the heat summation: Degree Days Region Ia 1,500-2,000° days F (850-1,111° days C) Region Ib 2,000-2,500° days F (1,111-1389° days C) Region II 2,500-3,000° days F (1,389-1,667° days C) Region III 3,000-3,500° days F (1,667-1,944° days C) Region IV 3,500-4,000° days F (1,944-2,222° days C) Region V 4,000-4,900° days F (2,222-2,700° days C) Temperature and sunshine are closely related. Sunshine, a requirement for photosynthesis—in which plants convert carbon dioxide into organic compounds, including sugars—is a necessary provider of both light and heat. The minimum amount of sunshine required to support viticulture is approximately 1,300 hours. As sunshine during the growing season increases the farther one moves away from the equator, vines in the cooler climates often enjoy more sunshine than vines in the warmer climates. Cloud cover will not greatly impact the transmission of light for the purposes of photosynthesis, but it will affect the amount of heat the sun bestows on a vine. Rainfall itself is another primary concern. The vine evolved as a drought-resistant plant, but it still requires approximately 10-30 inches of rainfall annually to produce an adequate crop, depending on the warmth of the climate. Irrigation can of course supplant actual rainfall in regions where its usage is legal. Many Mediterranean winegrowing regions receive an abundance of rain in winter and spring, and remain mostly dry through the summer—an ideal situation for the vine. If the vine receives too little rain, water stress will occur, a condition that promotes smaller berry size and yields but will lead to interrupted ripening and complete shutdown of the vine if the stress is too severe. Too much rain will not adversely affect the vine itself, but it will dilute fruit quality and create a friendly environment for fungal diseases. Wind, a final consideration of climate, is often a detriment to the vine if it blows persistently hard. At its most violent extreme, wind can undermine flowering and denude vines. In colder climates, wind chill can be especially devastating. On the other hand, wind can be a detriment to mold and mildew, and wind machines are often employed in the battle against frost to mix colder, settled air near the ground with warmer upper air. The French concept of terroir is often cited as a word with no direct English equivalent, but it has an umbrella of meaning: terroir , in a holistic sense, defines the complete system of the living vine. The concept of terroir comprises the choice of grapevine as it relates to its location, topography, soil, climate, and the hand of man upon it. Terroir is not only the soil; terroir is the entire system of factors that influence the development of the vine—factors that, depending on the style of viticulture and wine-making applied, may be magnified or subsumed in the resulting wine. Terroir begins with the vine’s macroclimate: the regional climate. Macroclimate varies in size depending on the factors affecting it: the Rheingau, on a single south-facing slope, and the Médoc, with its even landscape and constant maritime influence, are subject to single macroclimates. However, the Napa Valley may be divided into several distinct macroclimates between the different peaks and valley floor. One can draw broad assertions about a region’s suitability for viticulture from its macroclimate, but the subtler distinctions of mesoclimate—the climate of a particular vineyard—are of greater importance. At this level, the aspect (degree and direction of its slope) and shelter of a vineyard are essential to distinctions in mesoclimate. Slopes provide good drainage and may benefit from increased sunshine, but temperature falls steadily with added altitude. Mesoclimates are small: one must realistically speak of several in Corton, the largest grand cru vineyard in Burgundy, whereas La Tâche has a single mesoclimate. On an even smaller scale, microclimate refers to the climate in and around a vine canopy, the restricted space including all parts of the vine above the ground. Techniques of canopy management have been developed to adjust the microclimate of a vine, particularly in its exposure to sunshine and its eventual yield. These include winter pruning, leaf removal, shoot positioning, and the use of sophisticated trellising systems—man’s hand at work in the equation of terroir . Soil type is a major aspect of a vine’s success. In general, low-fertility soils produce better wines than rich soils, the latter being better suited for other types of agriculture. Conventional wisdom holds that the vine should always struggle to produce good fruit; that too much vigor results in commonplace wine. Well-drained, easily penetrable soils with good water-retention are desirable, as they permit the vine to dig deeply for water and minerals. The heat-retaining (and reflecting) character of a particular soil is also an important factor, especially in correlation with climate. High soil pH, common in limestone-rich soils, contributes to higher acidity (low pH) in grapes, and although such soils are typically inhospitable to most agriculture, viticulture thrives. Soil acidity (low pH) can, on the other hand, be a deterrent to viticulture. This can be countered by the application of lime. The choice of grapevine is inextricably linked to its terroir : would the terroir of Burgundy not be fundamentally altered if Pinot Noir was suddenly replaced with another grape? When a new vineyard is planted, the grower not only chooses the grape variety he or she desires, but also the specific clone or clones of that variety that best express the desired character. Clones, identical genetic reproductions of a single vine, are selected for a host of different attributes in both the field and the wine: disease resistance, hardiness, yield, aromatics, structure, and color are among the qualities to consider when selecting a clone. Once a vineyard is established, the grower may choose to propagate the vines by either clonal selection or mass selection ( selection massale ). The latter method, popular in Burgundy, enables the grower to select budwood for replanting from a number of vines throughout the vineyard, rather than single clones. In mass selection, a grower will attempt to reinforce positive traits and eliminate negative traits through appropriate selection—and while the results may be less precise than those gained through clonal selection, a broader genetic diversity is maintained. The budwood selection, or scion, is then usually grafted onto separate rootstock. Although some modern vineyards are still planted on their own rootstock, most of the world’s vines are grafted to American rootstock. Phylloxera, detailed under “Vine Diseases and Insect Threats” below, ravaged most of the world’s vineyards in the late 19th century. Salvation came in the form of lowly American grapevine species— Vitis riparia and others—that were highly resistant to the root louse. A grower may select a particular rootstock not just for its resistance to phylloxera, but also its ability to withstand other diseases and drought, its tolerance to salt and lime, and/or its effect on vine vigor. The combination of clonal and rootstock selection will have a great impact on the character and health of the vine. Once grafted and planted, the vine will not usually produce a crop of grapes suitable for harvest until its third year. In many European appellations, growers are prohibited from harvesting grapes for wine until the vine is at least three years old. By its sixth year, the grapevine is considered mature; shoot growth and the vine’s annual yield, in the absence of major stresses, stabilize. The root system will grow to maturity by the tenth year, although poorer soils will slow growth. The yield of many commercial vineyards will begin to decline after 20 years, and vineyards are often uneconomical to maintain after 50 years of age. However, exceptional old vine plantings of a century or more of age exist, producing small yields but highly concentrated fruit. Old vine plantings of Rhône varieties in Australia and Zinfandel in California are especially valued. BACK TO TOP Vine Training and Pruning Head trained spur pruned Zinfandel. The objective of vine training, which includes the processes of pruning, shaping, and trellising the vine, is to maximize the vine’s performance in local conditions and to keep its canes from touching the ground and establishing new roots. The grapevine does not have a self-supporting structure, and must often be tethered to another apparatus: a tree, stake, or a wire trellis. The type of trellis or support varies according to the manner in which the vine is trained. In addition, the principles of canopy management are voiced through the selection of a training system. Most vines can be classified as either head-trained or cordon-trained. In cordon training, the vine has at least one permanent cane that extends from the trunk, called an arm or cordon. It grows thick and gnarled over time, and fruit-bearing shoots will emerge from it each season. Head-trained vines have no permanent cordon, and the trunk ends in a knob, or head. Cordon-trained vines generally require a trellising system, whereas head-trained vines may be supported by a simple stake, or not at all. Although head-trained vines may technically be trellised (see the Guyot training system, below), head-training is commonly asserted as an alternative to trellising, synonymous with bush vines. Head-trained vines may be spur-pruned or cane-pruned, whereas cordon-trained vines are spur-pruned. If left on the vine, a green shoot (fruiting cane) will harden to become a woody cane after a season—along the cane are a number of buds, which will each produce a shoot during spring budbreak. The spur is a cane cut back to two buds. If a vine is spur-pruned, the upper cane growing from a spur will be removed during winter pruning, and the lower cane growing from the same spur will be cut back to two buds, creating a new spur. Thus, each spur will produce two fruiting canes each year, one of which will become the following year’s spur. Cordon-trained vines contain several spurs along the length of the arm. In its simplest form, cane pruning requires the grower to retain one spur and one cane. The number of buds left on the cane may range from six to over a dozen, and European appellation systems often establish a maximum number for each grape. The buds on the two-year-old cane each release shoots that will produce a season’s fruit, and the entire two-year-old main cane and its fruiting canes are removed after the growing season. In its place, one of the one-year-old canes from the spur is selected and retained to become the following season’s main cane. Although cane-pruning is usually only used on head-trained vines, some growers occasionally merge the style with cordon-training, retaining a “kicker cane” along an otherwise spur-trained cordon. VSP in New Zealand. One of the most basic systems of cane-pruning/head-training is the Guyot system, developed in the 1860 by Jules Guyot. The Guyot system requires a vertical trellis on which the canes can be suspended, and has one spur and one main two-year-old cane. The double Guyot variant supports two main canes, extending outward from the trunk on opposite sides. The simplest form of spur-pruning/head-training is the Gobelet system, an ancient technique common in the Southern Rhône and Southern Italy, wherein the vine, often unsupported, resembles a goblet, with each year’s fruiting canes extending from the spur-pruned, shortened arms atop the trunk. In Italy the Gobelet system is known as albarello ; in Spain, en vaso . Australians often refer to such vines as bush vines. One of the simplest spur-pruned/cordon-trained systems is the Cordon de Royat, the preferred training style for Pinot Noir in Champagne. The Cordon de Royat system is similar to the Guyot system, with a single spur-pruned permanent cordon extending horizontally from the trunk, rather than a two-year-old cane. The spur-pruned/cordon-trained Geneva system and a close variant, the Lyre system, are more complicated, as cordons extend outward from the trunk in a flat “U” shape, creating a divided canopy. Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP), a trellising system, may be used for either cane-pruned or spur-pruned vines. The Tendone system, known as pergola in Italy and enforcado in Portugal, is an alternative training system in which the vines are trained upward and overhead along wooden frames or trees, enabling workers to pass underneath. Tendone vines may be either spur- or cane-pruned. This list is by no means exhaustive; many other styles and combinations of training systems exist. BACK TO TOP Vine Diseases and Insect Threats Diseases that affect the vine can be broadly categorized into four main groups: fungal, viral, bacterial, and phytoplasma. Fungal diseases manifest as mildew or mold and are typically associated with warm and damp climates, attacking either the root system or the canopy of the grapevine. Fungal spores are spread by wind and rain and a disease, once entrenched in a vine, may infect an entire vineyard. Some of the most worrisome fungal diseases—including powdery and downy mildew—originated in America, arriving in Europe on cuttings in the 19th century. Fungal diseases, while problematic in the past, can be successfully controlled—if not wholly eradicated—through fungicide sprays and other applications. Bacterial diseases are less common but are difficult to control and can be extremely devastating to the health of the vine. Viral diseases, spread through grafting or transmitted by insects, are often less immediately destructive than bacterial diseases, yet there is no known cure for many common viruses affecting grapevines. Infected vines experience a shortened lifespan, reduced yields and a changed quality of fruit. Viral diseases are controlled through removal and appropriate selection for propagation. Phytoplasma diseases are caused by phytoplasmas, pathogens similar to bacteria, yet they are symptomatically similar to viral diseases and, like viruses, must be spread through an insect vector or rootstock grafting. Phytoplasma diseases, known as grapevine yellows, were first recorded in Europe in the mid-1990s, and may cause widespread difficulties in the 21st century. One of the most historically important and devastating blights on the vine is not a disease at all, but an infestation: phylloxera . The tiny Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (originally called Phylloxera vastatrix ), an aphid that feeds on the roots of vines, is native to the Eastern United States, but it quickly spread through Europe from cuttings imported to the Southern Rhône Valley in the early 1860s, and is now present in all of the world’s major winegrowing countries—with the notable exception of Chile. Phylloxera will kill vines by destroying its root system, and its arrival in Europe swelled fears of a total collapse of viticulture. Most of the world’s Vitis vinifera vines are today grafted onto native American vine rootstocks, which are naturally resistant to the phylloxera root louse. Sandier soils, such as those found in Colares in Portugal, act as a natural barrier, impeding the spread of phylloxera. Other insects—mealy bugs, nematodes, and glassy-winged sharpshooters—act as carriers, or vectors, of disease, and their appearance in the vineyard may be a harbinger of a coming infection. Fungal Diseases Powdery Mildew (Oidium): Native to North America, the Uncinula necator fungus has spread worldwide, and thrives in humid climates even without precipitation—rainfall is actually a detriment to the survival of its spores. The fungus, during its anamorph stage, is known as Oidium tuckerii . Powdery mildew affects all green parts of the plant, marking grapes, leaves, and shoots with its dusty white mildew growth. It prefers densely shaded canopies and overcast weather, and greatly inhibits bunch development and ripening. If infected prior to flowering, yields will be reduced; if infected after fruit set, berries will struggle to achieve veraison and reach full size. Fruit affected by powdery mildew is universally avoided in the winemaking process, as it creates off-flavors in the wine. Powdery mildew, first recorded in England in 1847, spread quickly throughout the Vitis vinifera vineyards of Europe but was soon controlled by applications of sulfur and other fungicides. Downy Mildew (Peronospora): Another fungal disease that emigrated to Europe on North American vine cuttings, downy mildew spread rampantly through France and the rest of Europe in the early 1880s. Plasmopara viticola , the agent of downy mildew, attacks the green portions of the vine, causing leaves to drop off the vine and limiting the vine’s ability to photosynthesize. The infection is first visible as an oil spot on vine leaves. As spores germinate a white, cottony growth develops on the underside of the leaves. The fungus survives the winter on fallen leaves in the soil, and its spores reach the vine again with the help of rain splatter in the spring. Arid regions prohibit its growth. The blue-staining Bordeaux Mixture , a spray of copper sulfate, water and lime, was developed by 1885 to prevent outbreaks of downy mildew. Eutypa Dieback: Also called dead arm, the disease is caused by the Eutypa lata fungus. Spores are carried by rain and enter the vine through pruning wounds. Common in Mediterranean climates, the disease is difficult to control as it affects a wide number of plants. Infected vines experience stunted shoot growth as the fungus releases toxins, and eventually an infected cane may die—the dead arm. This disease has a drastic effect on yield, but does not devalue the quality of the crop. In fact, Australia’s d’Arenberg ascribes a beneficial effect on quality to the dead arm, and markets its icon Shiraz under the disease’s nickname. A separate fungus, Phomopsis viticola , manifests as a similar disease. Esca (Black Measles): One of the earliest known fungal grapevine diseases, Esca thrives in warmer climates but exists worldwide, and there is no known control or cure. Unlike other fungal diseases, Esca is the result of a complex of fungi, rather than a single organism. On young vines, the disease will weaken growth, affect berry development and discolor leaves; in hot weather an affected young vine may suddenly die. In older vines, the disease affects the wood, causing the interior of the trunk and arms to soften and rot from the inside—a condition that led ancient Romans to use Esca-infected tree trunks for firewood, as its spongy interior quickly caught fire. Mature, Esca-infected vines will rarely live past 30 years of age. The disease is exacerbated by rainfall and can be spread by wind or on the pruning shears of careless vineyard workers. Black Rot: Native to North America, Black Rot spread to Europe with the importation of phylloxera-resistant rootstocks in the late 1800s. The disease is caused by the Guignardia bidwelli fungus, originating as a black spot on the vine’s shoots, leaves, and berries. Although yield reductions can be disastrous if unchecked, the disease can be controlled through fungicide sprays. Bunch Rot: Bunch rot is a grouping of similar diseases caused by a number of fungi species. In general, bunch rots reduce crop yields and may adversely affect the character of the wine, imbuing it with moldy off-flavors. One of the most common forms of bunch rot is Botrytis bunch rot. Known in its malevolent form as grey rot, the Botrytis cinerea fungus will break down the skin of berries and allow other yeasts and bacteria to rot the grapes. It spreads quickly throughout vineyards. However, if the fungus invades healthy white grapes under favorable conditions, it will instead result in the noble rot, a precondition for some of the world’s greatest sweet wines. Botrytis bunch rot requires warm weather and humidity of at least 90% to germinate. Bacterial Diseases Pierce’s Disease: Caused by the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa and most commonly transmitted by the glassy-winged sharpshooter—a leafhopping insect found near citrus orchards and oleander plants—Pierce’s Disease is a scourge, rendering vines incapable of producing chlorophyll and killing it within one to five years. The disease is common in the southern United States and Mexico but is steadily moving northward in California, with sightings of the glassy-winged sharpshooter and outbreaks of the disease provoking major alarm in both Sonoma and Napa counties. There is neither a cure nor a chemical control for the disease, and authorities in other countries are maintaining strict quarantines to prevent its incursion. Crown Gall (Black Knot): T he Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium causes the Crown Gall disease in a wide variety of plant species. When affected, a vine develops tumors (galls) on its trunk, which girdle and essentially strangle the vine, withering or killing outright the portions of the vine above. The bacteria thrive in colder climates, and systemically live inside the grapevine. During winter freezes, when the vine’s trunk may be ruptured, the bacteria invade the outer trunk, rapidly multiplying and fomenting the onset of disease. The disease is spread through the propagation of bacteria-infected budwood. Bacterial Blight: Caused by the Xanthomonas ampelina bacterium, Bacterial Blight often kills young grapevine shoots. They develop dark brown streaks in early spring, and eventually wither and die. Spread by rain and compromised pruning tools, the disease can be controlled by hot water treatments and copper sprays, such as the Bordeaux Mixture. Viral Diseases Leafroll Virus: Leafroll Virus, a condition caused by a complex of at least nine different viruses, may be responsible for as much as 60% of the world’s grape production losses. Although affected vines display radiant shades of red and gold in the autumn, such beautiful colors, combined with a characteristic downward curling of the leaves, signal the virus’s malevolent side: reduced yields and delayed ripening. Leafroll Virus, spread through propagation of infected vines or by an insect vector like the mealy bug, is currently incurable but it will not kill the vine; thus, infected vines are not always removed. Fanleaf Degeneration: Fanleaf Degeneration, a nepovirus spread by soil nematodes feeding on infected roots, severely curtails yields and affected vineyards must be removed. A complex of similar diseases, Fanleaf Degeneration deforms shoot growth, and leads to poor fruit set and shot (seedless) berries. The leaves on an infected vine are malformed, resembling fans in appearance, and may form yellow bands around the veins. The productive lifespan of the vine and its winter durability are diminished. Phytoplasma Diseases Flavescence Dorée: A form of grapevine yellows, Flavescence Dorée first appeared in Armagnac in 1949. Leafhopper insects and propagation of infected vines spread the disease, which will initially delay budbreak and slow shoot growth, eventually causing bunches to fall off the vine and berries to shrivel. The disease will discolor leaves, cause pustules and cracks to form, and may kill young vines. No cure exists, although insecticides may be used to control leafhopper insect populations and retard its spread. BACK TO TOP Sustainable Models of Viticulture The 20th century witnessed a series of great agricultural advancements—many of which grew from wartime applications—as modern chemistry paved the way for successful monoculture. The discovery of synthetic nitrogen led to the development of chemical fertilizers, a Nobel Prize-winning endeavor blemished by its subsequent use in the poison gases of World Wars I and II. Chemical disease and pest control became widespread. By the 1950s, agriculture amongst the world’s leading nations was industrialized, and farming yields climbed. Such intensive farming practices require high inputs of (fossil fuel) energy, and industrialized farms develop dependencies on chemical means of survival as the land is stripped bare. As the 21st century dawned, such chemical enhancements are being enhanced by precise genetic modification—perhaps the only possible result of a history in which mankind has continually refined the plant species of agriculture through one form of selection or another. GMOs (genetically modified organisms) have been banned in the EU since 1998, but genetically modified yeasts were first employed in North American winemaking in 2006. Viticulture—a commercial enterprise at its heart—parallels trends and advancements in the larger world of agriculture. However, a rapidly expanding generation of growers is taking the ethos of organic and sustainable viticulture to heart. The ideal of sustainable viticulture, an unregulated (and therefore abused) term, is ultimately to return the vineyard to a self-sustaining position in harmony with the larger ecosystem to which it belongs. Its many adherents interpret the idea in different ways and to different degrees. In the US, many advocates of greener agriculture have become fixated on the idea of organic farming. In order to grow grapes organically in the US or Australia, synthetic chemical treatments and certain filtration procedures are forbidden—although copper and sulfur treatments, such as Bordeaux Mixture, may still be allowed. When an American (or Australian) wine is labeled as organic, it must be produced from organically-grown grapes and contain no added sulfites—a stipulation which prevents most good bottles from qualifying, as sulfites are an important (and almost universal) preservative in wine. Instead, many bottles are labeled as “wine made from organically grown grapes,” a designation which permits the addition of sulfites. Despite the image of green, less than 3% of California’s acreage is certified organic. France only has about 9% of its vineyard area certified. In 2012, the EU elaborated upon existing laws for organic grapegrowing by laying out winemaking measures required in order to label a wine organic. This included limiting the amount of SO 2 allowed in winemaking (a maximum of 100 mg/L for reds and 150 mg/L for whites and rosé, with a 30 mg/L differential if residual sugar is greater than 2 g/L). It is important to remember, too, that many growers around the world practice organically but choose not to get certified for a multitude of reasons, not the least of which are economic as well as the fact that certification rules can be rigid in exceptionally challenging vintages. While organic viticulture is admirable, it functions legally by the elimination of negative practices, rather than implementation of positive ones. Other models of sustainability take a different approach in promoting the long-term health of the soil and the vine’s relationship to its environment. In this sense, sustainability may govern (but is not limited to) water usage, energy efficiency, pest and erosion control, the planting of cover crops, the degree of mechanization, planting decisions, and even labor practices. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is considered a sustainable approach to weed, insect, and disease problems that tolerates the targeted application of some synthetic products, but limits their use overall. Often, IPM is utilized as a vineyard transitions from conventional to organic viticulture, or it may be a part of a separate sustainability philosophy. New regional sustainability organizations include VINEA, a voluntary group of Walla Walla Valley winegrowers who promote a holistic, socially- and environmentally-responsible methodology. VINEA winegrowers may not be exclusively organic, but they do farm in accordance with the standards set forth by LIVE (Low Input Viticulture and Enology, a third-party certifying system) and the vineyards are certified as Salmon-Safe. Oregon’s producers are at the forefront of sustainable approaches, and may label their wines as Oregon Sustainable Certified Wine (OSCW) provided 97% of fruit is certified by Salmon-Safe. Another approved organization, such as LIVE or USDA Organic, must certify both the fruit and the winery. California Certified Sustainable Winegrowing (CERTIFIED SUSTAINABLE), administered by the California Sustainable Winegrowing Alliance (CSWA), provides incremental certification for wineries and vineyards based on a concept of continual improvement. While less than 3% of California’s grape acreage is certified organic, as of 2015, 25% of acreage and over 60% of the state’s case production was CERTIFIED SUSTAINABLE, Lodi Rules, Napa Green, and/or SIP. The controversial concept of biodynamic viticulture takes the concepts of organic and sustainable farming and combines them with an almost mystical sensibility. Observing the rhythms and forces of the Earth is, in the ideal of biodynamic farming, intrinsically tied to the success of any ecosystem—the farm, in concert with the cosmic periphery, becomes a whole organism, generating its own fertility as governed by the cycle of seasons and lunar activity. Truly biodynamic vineyard workers will time their various tasks by motions of celestial bodies—particularly the moon. Introduced by the Austrian Rudolf Steiner in 1924 and today personified by Nicolas Joly of the Loire, biodynamic agriculture requires the yearly application of homeopathic preparations, produced from such animal and mineral substances as dandelion flowers, stinging nettles, and “horn manure” to ritually treat and heal the soil. Biodiversity and soil rotation are emphasized. The Demeter Biodynamic Trade Association certifies biodynamic farms and vineyards internationally. Many are skeptical of the biodynamic model, and the resulting wines may be wasteful or revelatory—depending on whom one asks. BACK TO TOP Vinification The intricacies of vinification—the transformation of grape juice into wine—can vary considerably between different producers, different regions, and different styles of wine, but the principles remain the same. Vinification is dependent on sound viticulture. Ultimately, the job of the winemaker is to preserve the inherent quality of a grape as it becomes wine. However, the choices a winemaker faces in determining how a grape’s character may be best expressed—and the tools at his or her disposal—are numerous. The rather quaint notion of fermentation as a natural, unaided process—and of wine as a totally natural product—is a false premise in most cases, relieved of the burden of truth by the methods inherent to modern winemaking. Many modern enhancements of the basic principles of vinification have raised the overall quality of wine worldwide, and confer a greater control over the final product. As in the practices of viticulture, some producers choose to emphasize the natural form of wine in its levels of unpredictability; others prefer to make their wines with the assurances that result from an industrialized process. In the process of alcoholic fermentation, the metabolism of yeast cells converts sugar in grape must into ethyl alcohol (ethanol) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). Heat is generated during this process. The ratio of conversion is not perfect, and intermediate compounds must develop, bridging the transformation of sugar to alcohol. Traces of volatile compounds produced in this complex series of reactions, including acetaldehydes, ethyl acetate and fusel oils, remain in the finished wine and influence its aroma and character. While a small amount of sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) is also naturally produced as a byproduct of fermentation, SO 2 is generally added to the must or juice before fermentation to prevent oxidation and bacterial contamination, and to ensure rapid fermentation. Acetaldehyde, regarded as a sign of oxidation in finished wines, is actually the last link on the chain of intermediate compounds between sugar and alcohol, and will remain in the new wine in trace amounts. A small amount of the remaining acetaldehyde is inevitably converted to acetic acid, which in turn reacts with alcohol to produce ethyl acetate, a culprit of volatile acidity in wine. When volatile acidity is encountered as a fault, excessive acetic acid has been produced by the activity of acetobacter, the group of bacteria responsible for turning wine to vinegar in the presence of oxygen. Yeasts require nitrogen to work, and low levels of nitrogen in the must leads to the formation of hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), a highly volatile compound reminiscent of rotten eggs. Winemakers may supplement low nitrogen levels through nutrient additions, to avoid excessive sulfide production during fermentation. H 2 S levels may also be affected by elemental sulfur (S) coming in from the vineyard on the grapes if a treatment occurred close to harvest. In winemaking terms, the addition of sulfites refers to sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ); sulfides include hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), mercaptans and other foul-smelling compounds produced under reductive conditions. The size and complexity of a fermentation vessel can range from a small plastic bin to a barrique to a 2,500 hl-capacity stainless steel tank. The amount of heat generated by fermentation increases with the size of the must—without accounting for any temperature control, small vessels provoke slow, cool fermentations and large vessels lead to short, hot fermentations. Below 50°F, most yeasts will not act; above 105°F, yeasts will die. White wine fermentations usually take place on the cooler end, as fruit and freshness are preserved at lower temperatures. Red wine fermentations may reach into the 90s, although winemakers run the risk of volatalized (lost) flavor compounds and stuck fermentations as the thermometer passes 95°F. The benefit of hot fermentations for red wines is in the increased extraction of color, tannin and flavor compounds. The risk of stuck fermentation—a disastrous and sudden shutdown of yeast activity—has been greatly reduced in the age of temperature control and selected commercial yeasts. However, stuck fermentations still keep many winemakers up at night during, particularly if it has been a challenging vintage, yeast nutrition has been difficult to manage, and/or they have opted for using ambient yeasts to ferment. Large fermentation tanks with temperature control can accompany either cool or hot fermentations, without allowing the temperature to rise out of hand. Barrel fermentation , on the other hand, lacks temperature control but the relatively small size of the vessel prevents temperatures from rising too high. White grapes (such as Chardonnay) fermented in barrel will lose some of the initial fruit and fresh aromatics, yet gain a more cohesive expression of oak and a subtler color than those fermented in tank but aged in a new barrel. Barrel fermented wines are generally subject to the processes of lees contact and bâtonnage , or lees stirring, which add further complexity and richness. Other fermentation vessels include large wooden casks, ceramic amphorae and cement eggs—a less porous vessel than a barrel, yet still allowing some oxygen ingress. Bâtonnage. The agent of fermentation—yeast—is an important consideration for the winemaker. A wide number of cultured yeasts are available, developed in laboratories and designed to lend control over some aspect of the fermentation process or affect the character of the wine. Cultured yeasts promise reliability, and are often able to continue to work in higher levels of alcohol than ambient yeasts. Ambient yeasts—often inaccurately identified as native or wild—inhabit the winery and come to life in the presence of must, although they are by nature less predictable than cultured yeasts. Many winemakers believe ambient yeasts create a more complex wine. Some will hope for a smooth beginning to ambient yeast fermentation, but inoculate the must with cultured yeast if the progress is slow; others will inoculate with cultured yeasts and use SO 2 to eliminate any ambient yeast in the must in order to maintain total control. Depending on the type of yeast used, the wine will take as little as a week to more than a month to ferment dry. In the milder climates of the Old World, chaptalization—the addition of sugar to the must to increase the final alcohol and glycerin content of the wine—is frequently practiced. In the warmer climates of the New World, some producers respond to the problem of excessive ripening and the resulting high alcohol levels by removing alcohol from the wine through modern devices such as spinning cones. Another technique of alcohol adjustment, reverse osmosis , separates the wine into two constituent parts, permeate and retentate. The permeate, which contains water and ethanol, is then distilled to a proper level before being recombined with the retentate—the wine’s aromatic compounds—at a lower percentage of alcohol. Once banned in the EU, such processes of de-alcoholization by physical separation were legalized in 2009, provided the level of alcohol is not adjusted by more than 2%. Winemakers in warm regions may also choose to balance their wines through acidification: the addition of acid to must or to a finished wine. Tartaric acid and malic acid, the two principal acids in grape juice, may be used for acidification; tartaric acid, added prior to fermentation, is preferred. As (or after) the alcoholic fermentation occurs, the unrelated process of malolactic fermentation, also known as secondary fermentation or “malo,” may take place in the wine. In malolactic fermentation, lactic acid bacteria convert harsh malic acids into softer lactic acids and carbon dioxide. It rounds out a wine’s texture. Malolactic fermentation may be initiated by inoculation, or it may occur naturally, as lactic acid bacteria are naturally found alongside yeasts on grape skins. It may also be prevented or shortened by removing the organisms responsible. Malolactic fermentation often occurs in red wines, and most of the world’s fuller styles of white wines undergo either full or partial malo. Lighter, high-acid whites are sometimes treated to a degree of malo, although producers of certain varieties, like Riesling, scrupulously avoid it. Diacetyl, the compound responsible for buttery aromas in wine, is a byproduct of malolactic fermentation. Carbonic maceration ( macération carbonique ) is an alcoholic fermentation used for some red wines, wherein whole, uncrushed grapes in an anaerobic environment (under a protective blanket of CO 2 ) initiate an intracellular fermentation. Attempting to sustain itself, a berry will release enzymes to transform its own sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This occurs without the action of yeasts. However, such fermentations cannot produce more than a couple of degrees of alcohol, as the berry ceases activity in the presence of enough ethanol. Carbonic maceration must therefore be combined with a standard fermentation in wine production. In Beaujolais, where the process is often used for nouveau and other wines, a tank will be filled with whole berries. Berries at the bottom will be crushed under the weight of those above it and will ferment normally. The ensuing carbon dioxide will blanket the whole berries above, which will then begin to ferment by carbonic maceration. The grapes will eventually explode, or the winemaker will press the juice, and then the yeasts would begin their work. Carbonic maceration. BACK TO TOP Red Wine Production After harvest, grapes may be sorted (on a vibrating table or belt) prior to being crushed and destemmed. This initial sorting is labor-intensive and expensive, but allows the winemaker to remove MOG—material other than grapes. Crushing grapes, traditionally accomplished by foot, is usually carried out by machine—a crusher-destemmer. Alternatively, some producers may choose to use whole clusters (retaining the stems), whole berries (discarding the stems), or partially destemmed and partially crushed berries. The fermentation of whole berries—a common practice with Pinot Noir and Syrah—will encourage a level of carbonic maceration, whereas stems may be retained for spicy aromatic complexity and structure. Whole cluster fermentation requires less handling while improving the movement of juice and air through the cap. Damaged or unripe stems, however, can cause undesirable green flavors in the wine. If a winery uses whole berries—and spares no expense—the grapes may be sorted again after destemming to remove jacks (leftover pieces of grape stem) and any remaining MOG. Crushed red grapes will usually undergo a pre-fermentation maceration, which promotes the extraction of color and tannin. Traditionally, this maceration was the simple consequence of waiting for ambient yeasts to ignite fermentation, but today many inoculated musts undergo this period of aqueous extraction. Cold soak, a pre-fermentation maceration technique that relies on substantial SO 2 additions and a cold temperature, was developed in Burgundy in the 1970s and has been popularized by Pinot Noir producers worldwide. Proponents may cold soak grapes for nearly a week before fermentation. Occasionally, some juice will be run off prior to fermentation, in order for the producer to have a greater ratio of skins to juice, and therefore achieve more extraction. Punching down the cap (pigeage) of California Pinot Noir. Fermentation and maceration occur in tandem for red wines. Grape skins are always included in red wine fermentation, as the winemaker hopes to extract the phenolics contained within grape skins—tannin, color compounds (anthocyanins) and flavor compounds—with the help of heat and alcohol. The juice, in most cases, would be colorless without the skins. As red wine ferments, a cap ( chapeau ) of grape solids (pomace) develops on the surface of the must, pushed up by the action of CO 2 . Careful cap management is integral to red wine production: without intervention, the cap will dry out, solidify and prevent extraction. One traditional method of submerging and breaking up the cap is pigeage , or punching down. Pigeage may be performed manually—by workers using poles, paddles, or even their own feet—or mechanically. An alternate method of cap management is remontage , in which the fermenting wine is pumped over the top of the cap. Pumping over will agitate and aerate the wine to a greater degree. Both methods may be performed once or several times daily during fermentation. A third technique, délestage , allows the winemaker to fully drain the fermentation vessel. The wine is racked into a separate vessel while the cap drains fully, and is then pumped back over the cap in the fermentation vessel. Once fermentation has concluded, a fuller-bodied red may continue to macerate for a period of days or weeks before it is pressed off the skins. The most tannic and traditional styles of Nebbiolo-based wines in Piedmont often incur at least a month of post-fermentation maceration. After fermentation and any post-fermentation maceration, the winemaker will draw the high quality, free-run wine ( vin de goutte ) from the tank. The remaining pomace is then pressed to yield coarser, tannic press wine ( vin de presse ). A small proportion of press wine may be blended in to a top cuvée for structure, or it may be entirely reserved for lesser wines. The traditional basket press relies on vertical pressure to press the pomace, whereas the modern pneumatic bladder press exerts gentle pressure on the grapes by means of its inflation with air. The wines may be blended or kept as separate lots, and moved into the preferred aging vessel, if any. High quality red wines are generally matured in oak barrels—the size and percentage of new barrels is determined by the style of the wine. The maturation period ( élevage ) ranges from a few months to more than two years in wood for some top Bordeaux and Napa wines, and the wines racked periodically during the process. Racking, or soutirage , is the movement of wine from one vessel to another, providing aeration and clarification as the wine is removed from its lees, or sediment. Malolactic fermentation may occur quickly at the end of fermentation or slowly during maturation. SO 2 is often added during maturation, or just before bottling—an addition that is anathema to advocates of sans soufre (“without sulfur”), a newer doctrine of extreme natural winemaking. Prior to bottling, the wines will be racked a final time, and may be fined or filtered. Both processes ensure greater clarification in the finished wine, and filtration promotes stability in the bottle. Fining ( collage ) requires a fining agent to precipitate solids out of the wine: bentonite, casein, isinglass, gelatin, and egg white are commonly used. When employed in the fining process, casein (a milk protein), egg white, gelatin and isinglass (a material obtained from sturgeon bladders) may create a dilemma for vegans and vegetarians. Bentonite, a type of clay, escapes criticism from such quarters. Filtration, a more invasive and expensive process, is often accomplished through the use of pads or a membrane with microscopic openings. Many critics charge that fining and especially filtration strip the wine of character, and a growing number of winemakers are proclaiming their aversion to either method. BACK TO TOP White Wine Production Chardonnay undergoing a brief period of skin contact. White wine grapes are crushed and pressed prior to fermentation. The grapes may be crushed and destemmed, or crushed as whole bunches, as the stems provide good drainage channels for the juice during the pressing stage. White grapes may see some extended skin contact, usually measured in hours rather than days, between crushing and pressing. This maceration enables the extraction of aromatic compounds but may lead to excessive tannin and bitterness in the final wine if unchecked. White grapes are pressed in either a traditional style of vertical press or a modern pneumatic press, and—like red grapes after fermentation—first yield free-run juice, followed by pressed juice of decreasing quality. After pressing, the juice is allowed to settle ( débourbage ). This process allows the juice to be racked off suspended solids and clarified prior to fermentation. During all of these procedures, warm temperatures and oxygen are the enemy, and winemakers must keep musts cool and prevent spoilage or premature fermentation with the judicious use of SO 2 . Fermentation occurs at a cooler temperature for white wines than for reds, and there is no cap, as the grapes have already been pressed. White wines are frequently clarified after fermentation, and may undergo cold stabilization—a process that causes tartrate crystals to precipitate out of the wine at a temperature of approximately 25°F. In white wines that are not cold-stabilized, crystals may later form in the bottle. Light, aromatic white wines do not often undergo barrel maturation or malolactic fermentation, and will usually be bottled shortly after the conclusion of fermentation. White wines may be fermented to dryness, but fermentation is arrested for many aromatic white wines while some degree of residual sugar remains. In some cases, sweetness may also be added back to a wine after it ferments to dryness, in the form of sterilized fresh grape juice, known as Süssreserve in Germany. Off-dry and sweet white wines are often filtered, as the sugar content can lead to unexpected refermentation in the bottle. White wines matured in oak often undergo full or partial malolactic fermentation. The lees, or yeast sediment, build up in fermenting red wines as well as whites, but their impact is more noticeable in the development of white wines. Fermented wine, whether in tank or barrel, may be left in contact with the lees in order to encourage malolactic fermentation—lactic acid bacteria feed on the nutrients in lees—and supplement richness and body in the wines. The effects of lees contact may be punctuated by bâtonnage . White wines matured in oak, such as the classic wines of Burgundy or Graves, are typically bottled after 9 to 18 months in barrel. During the maturation period, the wines may be racked and the lees may be stirred frequently or not at all. They may be fined or filtered prior to bottling. BACK TO TOP Rosé Wine Production There are two basic methods of rosé winemaking: blending and limited skin maceration . A blended rosé is simply the product of red and white base wines blended together, a technique widely regarded as inferior. Blending is prohibited throughout the EU, but only for wines below the PGI level! While individual appellations typically preclude the use of blending in rosé winemaking, this does not rule out changes to PDO/PGI regulations in the future, and the world's most expensive rosé wine—Champagne—is almost always assembled as a blend of white and red base wines. Nonetheless, subjecting red grapes to a short period of skin contact prior to fermentation is generally upheld as the superior technique for still rosé winemaking. In this method, a winemaker may purposefully craft rosé by leaving the juice in contact with its skins for a period of several hours to several days, depending on the desired extraction of color. Conversely, he or she may "bleed" juice from a maceration, producing rosé as a byproduct of red wine fermentation. In this variant, known as the saignée ("bleeding") method, pink juice is drawn from a vessel to concentrate the remaining must for red wine production, improving its color and structure. Finally, some winemakers may choose not to crush at all, achieving the palest of hues through direct pressing of whole red grapes or clusters. From a whisper of pink to salmon to orange to cherry red, the color of rosé wines can vary greatly, depending on the technique of production and the length of maceration. BACK TO TOP Oak Oak, a watertight, lightweight, and malleable wood, became a vessel of choice for wine during the era of ancient Rome. Oak allows gentle, slow oxidation to occur, rounding out and softening the texture of wine. The smaller the oak container, the more marked this effect is. New oak also contributes flavor—in the form of lactones and phenolic aldehydes such as vanillin—and wood tannin to wine, but this effect is dulled upon repeated usage—a barrel becomes neutral, ceasing to contribute flavor and aroma by its fourth to sixth year of use. Most of the barrel’s flavor is transmitted to the wine in its first year. However, a neutral barrel can still be useful, especially if new wood flavor is not desired. The use of new barrels is not just a stylistic concern, as new oak barrels are extremely expensive. The use of oak chips, staves, and powder are cheaper alternatives, although they will not provide an oxidative effect. Micro-oxygenation ( microbullage ), an aeration technique in which small amounts of oxygen are allowed to enter a stainless steel tank during either fermentation or maturation of the wine, may be combined with oak chips to approximate the effects of a new barrel at a fraction of the cost. The flavor imparted by an oak barrel is dependent on the level of toast and the type of wood. French oak barrels, produced from Quercus robur and Quercus petraea trees, are characterized by tight wood grain developed through slow growth. Faster-growing American white oak species ( Quercus alba ) usually display wider grain. Traditionally, French oak is split rather than sawn, a technique that produces fewer staves but prevents leakage in the final barrel. American oak is less porous and can be sawn without fear of leakage, but this method releases more vanillin and lactones, resulting in the coconut character of American oak. The drying process of the green staves also varies between European and American coopers. French oak is usually air-dried, a gentle process that leaches out some of oak’s more aggressive tannins and flavors, whereas American oak is quickly kiln-dried, and lactones are concentrated. The quality (and subtlety) of American oak is improving, however, and many American coopers now use air-drying techniques. In order to make an oak barrel, heat must be applied to bend each dry wooden stave into shape. This process is divided into three stages: warming ( chauffage ), shaping ( cintrage ), and toasting ( bousinage )—the latter stage has a significant effect on the wine. A barrel is subject to light, medium, or heavy toasting, and while the level of lactones (responsible for oaky aromas) and vanillin rises with increased toasting, they will subside with heavy toasting in place of spicier, smokier aromas. Light toast promotes the most extraction of wood tannin. BACK TO TOP The Future of Winemaking Wine has been an important commodity since ancient times, and winemaking decisions cannot be totally divorced from the business of wine, except in the most privileged of cases. Economic realities inform decisions in the winery and the vineyard. Striving for sustainability is necessary, but such wines are more expensive to produce, at least in the short term. While the downside of industrial viticulture and winemaking is easy to see, the search for sustainability and low-impact techniques may promote its own dangerous sensibility of doctrine and purity. Winemakers who advocate sustainable vineyard practices must determine if vinification practices should be altered to conform to the ethos guiding management of the vineyard. What is an unnatural manipulation in the winery and what is an accepted practice, necessary to the character of a particular wine? As the public continues to demand—and deserve—a right to understand what we consume, winery decisions will be thrust ever more into the spotlight. A “natural,” hands-off approach in the winery may lead to superior wines, or it may lead to bacterial spoilage and inconsistency. A winemaker may choose from many avenues of production, and must determine his or her own balance of quality, consistency, and level of intervention. BACK TO TOPPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/165/spainWed, 22 Apr 2026 15:50:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:e4acdcb5-c845-4bdb-9db7-3556e58b732dGuildSomm AdminTable of Contents Spain North-Central Spain Green Spain: Galicia and Basque Country Castilla y León Catalonia (Catalunya) Southern Spain Spain The Phoenicians, one of the first great maritime trading cultures, founded the city of Gadir (modern Cádiz) on the coast of southern Spain around 1100 BCE and established the value of viticulture and wine as a commodity in Andalucía. The wine trade of the eastern Mediterranean owes a significant debt to Phoenician ships: the grapes they carried from the Middle East to North Africa, the Mediterranean islands and the Iberian peninsula represent the genetic ancestors of some of the modern varieties of Spain. However, while the Phoenicians may have introduced viticulture in Spain, evidence of primitive grape cultivation reaches thousands of years back in time, and wild grapes preceded mankind in the region. Winemaking continued under the Romans, who improved on the fragile, large amphorae in use, but it remained a secondary pursuit under the conquering Moors, whose religion forbade the consumption of alcohol. Still, grapegrowing persisted and was often used for raisins and distillation for medicines, perfumes, and other goods. Despite the indifference of the Moors—the sale of wine was illegal, but often tolerated—Spanish wine became renowned for its strength, and found its way as a blending component into wines from France and Italy. During this time, the Catholic church began to expand slowly as well and would soon come to reign in Spain. In 1492, Christopher Columbus and the Spanish explorers opened up a new world for Spanish trade. Wine benefitted greatly from these related occurrences: with the law’s renewed approval, Spanish wine went forth with Spanish ships to supply the nation’s new colonies, and the inherently heavy wines were often made in a deliberately rancio style, or they nonetheless arrived in the West Indies that way. Sherry wines, possibly the first vinous export to North America, became increasingly popular with the English market from the end of the 15th century onward, despite a deteriorating relationship between the two nations that culminated in the English defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588. The Spanish colonies presented a captive audience for Spanish wines; 17th century Spanish law barred the colonies from producing their own—a move that would impede the nascent New World wine industries and protect Spanish exports like Málaga and Sherry. However, few of Spain’s table wines were of great quality, and Spain was falling behind the rest of Europe in the development of new viticultural techniques. When oidium and phylloxera struck France in the 1850s and 1860s, an abrupt change occurred, particularly in Rioja, where a sudden influx of French winemakers and merchants sought to bridge the interruption of their own disease-ridden vineyards with Spanish wine. During this period the Bordeaux-trained Marqués de Riscal and Marqués de Murrieta returned to Rioja with grape varieties and lessons from the Médoc, including barrique aging (called barricas in Spain) and estate bottling (performed at their newly constructed bodegas ). However, a significant alteration to the Bordeaux technique of barrique aging was implemented in Rioja: the Spaniards used American oak ( Quercus alba ) rather than French—an economic decision based on Spain’s history of transatlantic colonial trade. Many of today’s great traditionalist Rioja wineries got their start in the latter half of the 19th century: López de Heredia, CVNE, La Rioja Alta, and Berceo. The second half of the 19th century also saw the birth of Spanish traditional method sparkling wine— champaña , now known as Cava—at San Sadurní d’Anoia. The ravages of phylloxera and fungal diseases did not spare Spain, and the root louse arrived in Rioja near the dawn of the 20th century. Nonetheless, Spain focused on quality, and Consejos Reguladores were established for the major regions of Rioja, Jerez, and Málaga in the 1930s. Following a bloody civil war, fascism took hold in Spain under Francisco Franco in the late 1930s, and Spain remained the only major fascist country in Western Europe after World War II—a dark period for wine that would last until the dictator’s death in 1975. The suppression of economic freedom under Franco hindered winemakers, although several advances were made. Miguel Torres brought stainless steel and temperature-controlled fermentations to Catalonia in the 1960s, and the Denominación de Origen regulations were finally approved in 1970 for Rioja. Spain responded to its new freedom after Franco with a simultaneous celebration and diversification of its unique regional cultures. Many Spanish winegrowing regions were reborn in the latter decades of the 20th century, as enthusiastic young vignerons sought to showcase their Spanish identity through modern technique, looking both forward and backward for inspiration. Today, Spain is a diverse mix of experimental, modern, and traditional winemaking techniques, and the country’s wine laws are some of the most adaptable in Europe. In Spain, Denominación de Origen (DO) and the superior Denominación de Origen Calificada (DOCa) represent the two highest tiers of quality wine, equivalent to the EU’s Protected Designation of Origin (DOP) status. The first DOs were awarded in 1932. Vinos de Calidad con Indicación Geográfica (VCIG), once considered a steppingstone to DO, is also considered DOP in the new European appellation scheme. The lowest level of quality wine, Vino de la Tierra (VdlT), falls within the EU’s Protected Geographical Indication (IGP) scheme. The DO Pago (Vinos de Pago) estates represent a theoretically superior appellation to the basic DO. An estate within an existing DO must surpass the basic DO requirements in DO Pago legislation, typically through lowered yields and other measures suggestive of quality winemaking. In order to apply for DO Pago status, an estate should show international critical praise and a decade's worth of quality production, although some young Pagos have sped through official channels with astonishing speed. Interest in Pagos is notably absent in Spain's top quality appellations, such as Rioja and Ribera del Duero, where producers have nothing to gain from distancing themselves from a well-known brand. Spanish DO wines are generally eligible for a series of aging designations, provided the below requirements are met. Despite a suggestion of quality, these terms are rapidly disappearing from labels in a new, forward-looking Spain that perceives terms like crianza and reserva as old-fashioned. With the exception of a few major regions (including Rioja and Ribera del Duero) that have adapted more stringent requirements, the following label definitions are consistent throughout Spain. Additionally, any DOP wines may use the following aging terminology: Noble: min. 18 months aging in a cask of less than 600 L or bottle Añejo: min. 24 months aging in a cask of less than 600 L or bottle Viejo: min. 36 months aging, demonstrates marked oxidative character BACK TO TOP North Central Spain North-Central Spain essentially comprises the three autonomías of Navarra, La Rioja, and Aragón. Sheltered by the Pyrenees Mountains to the northeast, which divide France and Spain, and the Cantabrian Mountains to the northwest, the region’s highlands are in a rain shadow, and summer temperatures rise further inland. The Ebro River emerges from the eastern Cantabrian Mountains, and flows on a southeasterly course toward the Mediterranean, passing through the historic Rioja DOCa , Spain’s premier red wine region. Rioja, named not after the Ebro but for the Oja, a smaller tributary, was the first region in Spain to be christened as Denominación de Origen Calificada—in 1991—and has been a viable wine-producing area for over 2000 years. Here, as in the other many of the other major winegrowing regions of Europe, Christian monks guided viticulture in the Middle Ages. The 13th century Benedictine clergyman Gonzalo de Berceo, whose name is commemorated in Berceo’s reserva and gran reserva bottlings, extolled the virtues of Rioja wine in verse. Although he penned his theological works in Latin, he preferred to write his poetry in the “vulgar vernacular” of Spanish, hoping to reach the less educated peasantry. His short verses represent the first Spanish poetry committed to paper, more than a century after the king’s legal recognition of Rioja in 1102. Further decrees protecting the wines’ regional identity were issued by the 17th century, and in the 19th century the style of Rioja wines shifted, subject to French influence. Aging in American oak barrels became a standard, and the red wines started to resemble what is now considered the classic style: soft, with muted red fruit, firm acidity and the unmistakable oak aromas coconut, vanilla and cedar. Today, however, a new spectrum of styles emerges from Rioja, as many producers are emphasizing French oak, more extraction, and riper, darker fruit. A similar dichotomy exists in the region’s white wines: some are produced in a clean, fruity, modern style, whereas others are wood-toned, oxidative and textural. Occasionally, Rioja white wines may be off-dry. Tempranillo is the main grape of red Rioja and is the most planted grape in the whole country; its traditional blending partners are Mazuelo (Carignan), Graciano, and Garnacha. Together, these four grapes (along with Maturana Tinta, authorized for Rioja in 2007) must comprise a minimum 85% of the red Rioja blend, or 95% if destemmed. “Experimental” grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon may make up the remainder. Viura—known elsewhere as Macabéo—is the dominant white grape, followed by Garnacha Blanca, Malvasía Riojano, and Maturana Blanca. Chardonnay, Tempranillo Blanco, Sauvignon Blanc, Turruntés, and Verdejo are the only other white grapes permitted in blends. Rosado wines require a minimum 25% of the four previously mentioned primary red grapes of Rioja. As in Ribera del Duero, Rioja regulations for aging red wines supersede the standard requirements. Red crianza wines require a total two years of aging prior to release, with a minimum year in oak. Red reserva wines are aged for three years, including one year in oak. Gran Reserva red wines must age for at least two years in cask and two years in bottle, with a total aging of at least 60 months. Rioja casks must be 225 liters—the size of a barrique. Rioja white wines and rosados are also eligible for these categories: crianza wines age for eighteen months, reserva wines for two years, and gran reserva wines age for four. All three categories require a minimum six months in cask. Whereas producers may age white and rosado crianza wines in a non-oxidative environment like stainless steel, reserva wines must remain in oak or bottle for the minimum period of aging. From Haro in the northwest to Alfaro in the southeast, Rioja follows the path of the Ebro through three climatically distinct subzones: Rioja Alta, Rioja Alavesa, and Rioja Oriental (formerly Rioja Baja.) Rioja Alavesa is the smallest, northernmost zone (it is located within Basque country) and Tempranillo here often produces vino joven wines for early consumption. Carbonic maceration may be employed for such wines. Rioja Alta is the southwestern zone, and with its slightly warmer climate the zone is capable of producing classic, ageworthy Tempranillo, Mazuelo and Graciano. Rioja Alta and Rioja Alavesa share a similar soil structure, with a high proportion of calcareous clay, whereas Rioja Oriental, the hottest subregion, contains more alluvial soils and ferrous clay. Garnacha performs best in Rioja Oriental's hot climate. Many producers will source blends from all three subregions to create a base style, combining the freshness of Rioja Alavesa, the extract and alcoholic warmth of Rioja Oriental, and the acidity and structure of Rioja Alta. Others, however, prefer the typicity that results from single region and single vineyard bottlings: staunch traditionalist López de Heredia produces single vineyard wines from estate vineyards such as Bosconia and Tondonia; and Ysios—a modern winery renowned for its avant-garde architectural design—produces pure Tempranillo from its estate vineyards in the Rioja Alavesa region. Architecturally, Ysios is at the forefront of a new movement in spectacular modern bodega design sweeping through Rioja. Marqués de Riscal’s estate now includes an impressive new structure designed by Frank Gehry, famed architect of the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, and even de Heredia, the oldest winery in Haro, now features a sleek new visitors’ boutique designed by Zaha Hadid. Although many producers have made single vineyard bottles for decades, there was no official single vineyard category until legislation passed in 2017. As of 2018, producers may register their Viñedos Singulares and print official single vineyard names on their labels. To be a single vineyard, the vineyard's soil must be assessed, the vines must be at least 35 years old, the estate must have proof that it has been working with the vineyard for at least 10 years, and the wine must pass a tasting panel. The grapes must also be hand-harvested at a significantly lower yield than what is typically required of regional wines. Also in 2018, the Vino Espumoso de Calidad category was added for traditional method sparkling wine. To be labeled as such, the grapes must be hand-harvested, and the entire winemaking process must take place at the same facility (that is, it cannot be moved at any stage of the process). Brut Nature, Extra Brut, and Brut styles are allowed. Vino Espumoso requires a minimum of 15 months lees aging, whereas Reserva and Gran Anãda require 24 and 36 months, respectively. Gran Anãda wines must be produced with fruit harvested during a single vintage, and this date must be stated on the label. Artadi's "El Pison" vineyard in Rioja. Navarra DO is adjacent to the northern and eastern borders of Rioja, and has long been famous for rosado bottlings. Like Rioja, Navarra wines gained prominence in the Middle Ages due to clerical support, and the rosados of the region achieved recognition by the 15th century. Today, however, red wine accounts for approximately 60% of the Navarra’s production, with rosado wines representing only 30% of the region’s output. Garnacha and Tempranillo are the major red varieties. Chardonnay plantings have spiked in the last two decades, making it Navarra's most prominent white variety, but white grapes account for only about 7% of vineyard acreage. Red grapes of French origin, including Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Pinot Noir, are on the rise. Navarra contains five subzones: the higher altitude Valdizarbe, Baja Montaña and Tierra Estella in the north, Ribera Alta in the center of the zone, and Ribera Baja in the hot southern sector. As a testament to the rising quality of Navarra’s red wines, four estates earned their own DO Pago appellations: Señorío de Arínzano and Prado Irache in Tierra Estella, Bodegas Otazu in Valdizarbe, and Bolandín in Ribera Baja. The autonomía of Aragon, to the east of Rioja and Navarra, contains four DOs: Campo de Borja , Calatayud , Cariñena , and Somontano . The hot climate of Navarra’s Ribera Baja and Rioja’s Oriental (Baja) zone extends southward into the Campo de Borja DO, where Garnacha commands around two-thirds of the vineyard acreage. Red and rosado wines are produced, principally from Garnacha and Tempranillo, and white wines are based on Viura. Garnacha also dominates the vineyards of Calatayud DO and Cariñena DO to the south. Cariñena, one of Spain’s longstanding delimited zones (dating to 1932) is the ancestral home of the Carignan/Mazuelo grape, but today the grape is a secondary player in the region’s blends. Finally, the up-and-coming Somontano DO (“beneath the mountain”) lies in the foothills of the Pyrenees near Catalonia, producing wines from local grapes such as the white Alcañón and red Parraleta, as well as a larger complement of Spanish and international varieties. The region also contains two Pagos, Ayles and Urbezo. BACK TO TOP Green Spain: Galicia and Basque Country Green Spain includes the autonomía of Galicia, which borders Portugal in the northwestern corner of the country, and the autonomías of Asturias, Cantabria, and País Vasco (Basque Country) along the northern Costa Verde , or green coast. Galicia is a verdant region of lush vegetation and dense forests, riddled with rías (estuaries) and small rivers cutting through low mountain ranges. The cooler maritime climate of the region is ideal for the production of crisp, refreshing white wines, and Galicia is emerging as one of Spain’s best areas for such wines. As the nickname “Green Spain” implies, Galicia is a world removed from the popular conception of an arid Spanish landscape. Within Galicia, there are five DOs: Rías Baixas , Ribeiro , Valdeorras , Ribeira Sacra , and Monterrei . Rías Baixas DO (the “low estuaries”) borders Portugal on the coast and contains five subzones: Val do Salnés, Ribeira do Ulla, Soutomaior, O Rosal, and Condado do Tea. The white grape Albariño comprises classic wines from the region, and a wine labeled Rías Baixas Albariño will not contain any blending grapes. If the wine is instead labeled with one of the northern subzones (Val do Salnés or Ribeira do Ulla) it must contain a minimum 70% of recommended varieties: Albariño, Loureiro, Treixadura, and Caiño Blanco. The southern subzones of O Rosal and Condado do Tea vary slightly: the wines contain a minimum 70% of Albariño combined with, respectively, either Loureira or Treixadura—the favored white grapes in Portugal’s neighboring Vinho Verde—in any combination. Regardless, many of the best producers make pure varietal Albariño, sometimes subjecting the wine to malolactic fermentation and barrica aging, which is indicated on the bottle. Whether oaked or not, classic Albariño wines tend to show stone fruit and citrus flowers, with an undercurrent of minerality. Red wines are produced from grapes such as Caiño, Espadeiro and Mencía, but nearly 96% of the vineyard acreage in Rías Baixas is devoted to Albariño. With exports to England dating to the 17th century, Ribeiro DO is one of Spain’s oldest recognized wine regions, and the wines have always been popular with Spaniards. Located along the Miño River to the east of Rías Baixas, the region produces red and white wines based on Galician varieties—Treixadura is the favored white grape, gradually replacing the neutral, heavier Palomino, and Caiño is preferred for reds. A dried grape wine, Vino Tostado, is a local specialty. The “sacred bank” of Ribeira Sacra DO, named for its large concentration of churches, is located further inland and upriver. Ribeira Sacra encompasses five subregions: Amandi, Chantada, Quiroga-Bibei, Ribeiras do Sil and Ribeiras do Miño. Steeply terraced slopes recall the better-known regions of the northern Rhône—the Romans also built these terraces, some 2000 years ago. The remote region’s better red and white wines are based on Mencía, Treixadura, and Godello. Valdeorras DO is Galicia’s easternmost zone. While some pleasant red wines are produced, the region’s best wines are clean, fruit-driven, high-acid Godello whites. Monterrei, the southernmost DO in Galicia, is a small region with only a handful of wineries. Asturias and Cantabria do not produce any DO wine, but the País Vasco contains three principal DO zones: Getariako Txakolina , Bizkaiko Txakolina , and Arabako Txakolina . Wines from all three DOs may be white, red, or rosado , but the white wines, produced from the native Ondarrabi Zuri grape, are predominant. In Getariako alone, Ondarrabi Zuri (Hondarribi Zuri) accounts for 95% of vineyard acreage, with the remaining acreage planted to Ondarrabi Beltza, the preferred local red variety. The rare rosado wines, traditionally known as Ojo de Gallo, are often blends of the two grapes. The white wines, a perfect complement to oily seafood, are low in alcohol, high in lemony acidity, and retain a light effervescence. Txakoli wines should be consumed in their youth. BACK TO TOP Castilla y León Castilla y León, or Old Castile, is Spain’s largest autonomía . “The land of castles” includes a number of such fortifications built to repel the Moors in the early Middle Ages, and the dynastic union of Castilla y León and Aragon through marriage in the 15th century led to the birth of the Kingdom of Spain. Castilian Spanish was the only official dialect in Spain for two centuries prior to the ratification of the Spanish constitution in 1978. The region is generally characterized by a continental climate, slightly moderated by its proximity to the Atlantic and Mediterranean but still subject to extreme highs and lows. The terrain of Castilla y León consists of the northern part of the Meseta Central—the arid central plateau of Spain—and the mountains that encircle it. The Duero River flows westward through the center of the region and passes the DOs of Ribera del Duero , Rueda , Toro , Tierra del Vino de Zamora , and finally Arribes on its path toward Portugal. Arlanza DO is located directly north of Ribera del Duero, with Cigales DO to the west of both appellations. León DO and Bierzo DO are located in the mountainous northwestern corner of Castilla y León; Bierzo borders Valdeorras in Galicia. The Mencía grape is at home in the valleys of the Sil River and its tributaries in the Bierzo DO; it is often the dominant grape in red wines and rosé wines, and many of the region’s newer and more serious reds are solely produced from Mencía. The young Alvaro Palacios, already a marquee name in Priorat, founded Descendientes de José Palacios with his nephew Ricardo Pérez in 1999, and achieved instant recognition for Bierzo with their biodynamic “Corullón” bottlings: extracted, old-vine Mencía-based wines sourced from mountainside schist soils. The project, along with other modern trailblazers such as Dominio de Tares and Pittacum, is commanding top dollar for its wines. Whites are also produced, and while wines made from Godello and Doña Blanca show more promise, Palomino still dominates the vineyards. The León DO, upgraded from Vino de la Tierra in 2007, produces reds, whites, and rosados . Recommended red grapes include Mencía and the local Prieto Picudo. Ribera del Duero DO, which surrounds the towns of Aranda de Duero and Peñafiel in the Duero River Valley, is considered one of Spain’s top red wine-producing regions. The region’s flagship estate has long been Vega Sicilia, founded in by Don Eloy Lecanda y Chaves, who in 1864 planted a number of Bordeaux varieties and—curiously—a little Pinot Noir alongside Tinto del País (Tempranillo) in order to make brandy. In 1929, following an ownership change and a transition to estate-bottled table wines, new winemaker Domingo Txomin achieved international acclaim at the Barcelona World’s Fair with his 1917 and 1918 vintages of Único, Vega Sicilia’s benchmark wine. Único, blended from Tinto del País, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot and aged, often for a decade or more in American and French oak barrels, has long commanded extravagantly high prices, even as a simple vino de mesa —Ribera del Duero did not achieve DO status until 1982. Despite its mammoth influence, Vega Sicilia remained the only serious producer in the region until the 1980s, when the wines of Pesquera began achieving critical acclaim. Since the mid-1980s, however, quality, investment and interest have skyrocketed in Ribera del Duero, and the region now supports a number of cult wine estates, including Dominio de Pingus and Aalto. When Ribera del Duero received DO status, there were only 9 wineries in the region; today the number of producers is nearer to 300. Ribera del Duero produces reds as well as small amounts of whites, rosados, and claretes . Whites must contain at least 75% of the early-ripening Albillo Mayor grape. Rosados and claretes are composed of a minimum of 50% authorized red grapes for the area. Tempranillo, variously known as Tinto del País and Tinto Fino, is the region’s premier grape and enjoys a near monopoly on its vineyards; a minimum of 75% is required for its reds. Small amounts of Garnacha and international varieties like Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot are also cultivated. As in Rioja, the aging requirements for these categories differ slightly from the normal DO standards. Recent labeling changes allow for not only reds but also white wines, rosados , and claretes to be labeled crianza , reserva , and gran reserva . For crianza , reds must age for two years prior to release (including one year in cask). Reds labeled reserva must age for three years prior to release (including one year in cask). Gran reserva reds must age for a minimum two years in cask for a total of five years of aging altogether. Roble may be used for wines that see a minimum of three months oak aging; joven is for wines aged less than three months. Whether joven or gran reserva , however, no rule mandates that an aging classification needs to be stated on the label. (For a full list of aging requirements, refer to the Compendium .) Rueda received its DO shortly before Ribera del Duero, in 1980. The white Verdejo grape, easily prone to oxidation, was rejuvenated by Marqués de Riscal in the 1970s as a fresh, crisp counterpart to their red Rioja. Through careful handling, controlled temperatures and an anaerobic environment, Verdejo could provide delicate, aromatic wines, rather than the oxidative, sherry-style wines of the past. White wines simply labeled as Rueda now require a minimum 50% of Verdejo or Sauvignon, often blended with Viura. They may blend with Chardonnay and Viognier as well. Red wines are dominated by Tempranillo, and rosado wines contain a minimum 50% of red grapes. Espumoso , or sparkling wines, are produced in both rosado and white styles. Brut and Brut Nature Espumoso wines require a minimum 75% Verdejo or Sauvignon Blanc. The occasional dry fortified, oxidized Dorado wine is still encountered, although these wines are a dying style in a region energized by freshness, and are not often encountered outside Spain. Rueda Dorado oxidizing in glass. To the west of Rueda, Toro DO produces red, white and rosado wines, although it is the region’s red wines that have attracted the most international interest. Red wines require either a minimum of 75% Tinta de Toro or 85% Garnacha. However, they are often produced solely from Tinta de Toro, a local strain of Tempranillo, which ripens easily in the extremely hot, dry continental summers of Toro. White wines may be made with Verdejo or Malvasia along with Albillo Real and Muscat à Petit Grains, and rosados may be blends of any of these red or white grapes. Fariña and Numanthia-Termes are among the top names in the appellation, and the launching of Vega Sicilia’s Bodegas Pintia seems to cement Toro’s newfound success. Tierra del Vino de Zamora DO lies to the west of Toro, and produces red, white, rosado, and the lighter clarete (rosé) wines from similar grapes. Reds require a minimum 75% Tempranillo. Vega Sicilia’s Ribera del Duero rival Alejándro Fernández of Pesquera staked his claim in Zamora, with the founding of the Dehesa la Granja estate. Overall, Toro and Zamora can only continue to benefit from their proximity to Ribera del Duero. The river continues its westward path, flowing through Arribes DO at the border. Here, Rufete—reflecting the region’s proximity to Portugal—and several other red grapes join Tempranillo in the appellation's vineyards; white wines are produced from Malvasia, Verdejo, and Albilla. Cigales DO is located to the north of the old capital city of Valladolid, and to the northwest of Ribera del Duero. The region produces red wines made principally from Garnacha Tinta and Tinto del País (Tempranillo), but is particularly noted for its rosado and nuevo (primeur) rosado production. Arlanza DO, to the east of Cigales and directly north of Ribera del Duero, is one of Spain’s newest DOs, dating to 2007. A small core of wineries produces reds and whites from a complement of Duero Valley and Bordeaux varieties. As of 2021, Castilla y Leon received its first DO Pago, Urueña. Then it was joined by Abadía-Retuerta and Dehesa Peñalba in 2022. BACK TO TOP Catalonia (Catalunya) The autonomía of Catalonia, or Catalunya in the Catalan language, is a stone’s throw (and a trek over the Pyrenees) from Roussillon in France, a region with which it shares a common culture and lineage. Catalonia and Roussillon split in the 17th century, when the king of Spain ceded Roussillon to France, a political division that has existed to this day. Although the two regions fly a similar flag of red and yellow stripes as a reminder of an intertwined history, a shared interest in heavier, fortified and sweet red wines has ceded ground in Catalonia. Catalan wines reflect its industry, wealth, and modernization: when traditional method sparkling winemaking came to Spain, it debuted in Catalonia; when Miguel Torres introduced stainless steel fermentation to Spain in the 1960s, he introduced it in Catalonia; when René Barbier sought to create a bold new Spanish red wine in 1979, he planted his grapes in Catalonia. The region of Catalonia exemplifies the modern face of Spanish winemaking and technological innovation; however, amidst the new is a backbone of tradition and older styles—wines produced in the same fashion for generations. Priorat DOCa (DOQ in Catalan) in the southwest of Catalonia is the site of René Barbier’s project and home to some of Spain’s richest, most concentrated red wines. The second region in Spain to be promoted to DOCa, Priorat derives its name from Priorato de Scala Dei , a Carthusian monastery (priory) founded on the site of a boy’s vision of angels ascending to heaven. The region is overwhelmingly devoted to red wine production, although some white and rosado wine is produced. Garnacha and Cariñena are the traditional varieties of Priorat, struggling to achieve even small yields in the rock-strewn schist soils of the region. Llicorella , a mix of black slate and quartzite, characterizes the best vineyards, requiring vines to dig deeply for water. In 1979 Barbier, a winemaker for Alvaro Palacios, planted a mix of local and French vines in the llicorella soils of Gratallops, and convinced Palacios and several others to join him. In 1989, they cooperatively produced a first effort—a single red wine bottled under five different labels—and turned the eyes of the wine world towards Priorat. The five original “Clos” wines of Priorat, commonly acknowledged as Barbier’s Clos Mogador, Palacios' Clos Dofi, Clos Erasmus, Clos de l’Obac, and Clos Martinet, were released as vino de mesa , yet they represented a new pinnacle of quality for the region. After the 1991 vintage, the project split and the wines moved forward in separate production. Today, Clos Mogador, Alvaro Palacios, Clos Erasmus, Costers del Siurana (whose founder Carles Pastrana produced Clos de l’Obac), and Mas Martinet continue to build on their original legacy, alongside others like Vall Llach and Scala Dei. Priorat’s best red wines are usually dominated by Garnacha or blended from Spanish and French varieties, and subject to varying shades of French barrique treatment. Managing alcohol is a key factor in a warm, Mediterranean region where grapes can ripen unchecked to a potential alcohol of 18%. In 2009, Priorat established a village category (Vino de Pueblo, or Vi de Vila in Catalan) for estate-grown wines from 12 villages, including Gratallops. Schist soil at Scala Dei in Priorat. Priorat DOQ is almost entirely surrounded by the Montsant DO , a ring-shaped region that was until 2002 a subzone of Tarragona. Like Priorat, Garnacha and Cariñena are dominant, and the region seems poised to offer a value alternative as Priorat’s prices continue to rise. Tarragona DO is much larger, encompassing a swath of the Catalan coast to the west of Penedès DO. Historically, Tarragona wines were generally fortified rancio or mistela, the Spanish version of vin de liqueur . Today, much of the vineyard area has been converted to white varieties for Cava, but these old styles are still made in small quantities. Communion wines for Christian churches now represent the most substantial market for Tarragona’s wines. The Terra Alta DO is to the southwest of Tarragona and the Conca de Barberà DO is adjacent to northern Tarragona. Costers del Segre DO spans several noncontiguous subzones between Tarragona and Somontano: Pallars Jussà, Artesa de Segre, Valls del Riucorb, Segrià, Garrigues, Urgell and Raimat. Raimat, the smallest subzone, houses an estate of the same name that was integral to the formation of the zone. With far-reaching foresight, Manuel Raventós purchased arid, infertile land in the region for his Raïmat estate in 1914; over sixty years later, after a transformation of the parched land through canal construction and agricultural restoration, his estate produced its first commercial vintage. Northeast of Tarragona, along the Catalan coast, is the Penedès DO . The land rises steadily from the coast toward the inland Meseta, and Penedès is divided between three distinct altitude zones: Baix-Penedès, Medio-Penedès, and Alt-Penedès. The Alt-Penedès, one of Europe’s highest altitude winegrowing regions, is perfectly suited to cultivation of the white Parellada grape, one of the principal grapes in the Cava sparkling blend. Although Cava has its own DO, 95% of Cava is produced in the region of Penedès, and five of Cava’s authorized white grapes—Parellada, Xarel-lo, Macabéo (Macabeu), Malvasía, and Chardonnay—comprise a large majority of the Penedès vineyards. Ull de Llebre (Tempranillo) thrives in the Medio-Penedès. Sturdier Mediterranean red grapes like Garnacha (Garnatxa) and Monastrell are planted in the lower vineyards of the Baix-Penedès, producing high-alcohol red and rosado wines, which have replaced the sweet fortified reds popular in the past—and across the border in Roussillon. Although red grapes dominate in the Baix-Penedès, two producers—Vega de Ribes and the charity Hospital de Sant Joan Baptista—are perpetuating the Malvasía de Sitges variety, a historical specialty of the region nearly consigned to the dustbin of history. As a sweet fortified wine, Malvasía de Sitges recently received the coveted Slow Food “presidia” status, helping to insure its future survival as a unique product of the region. Sant Sadurní d’Anoia, the birthplace of Cava, lies in the Alt-Penedès. Here, Jose Raventós of Codorníu introduced método tradicional sparkling winemaking to Spain, in 1872. Today, Codorníu is second in size only to the competing house of Freixenet, the world’s largest producer of sparkling wines. Cava DO wines may be produced from the following grapes: Parellada, Xarel-lo, Macabeu, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Garnacha Tinta, Monastrell, Trepat, and Malvasia (Subirat). The recommended grapes Macabeu, Xarel-lo and Parellada provide the traditional blend for the wine; with new plantings and more appropriate viticultural practices they are providing better wines, deflecting past criticisms aimed at the blowsy, broad, neutral character of the wines. Cava wines require less time on the lees than Champagne at the C ava de Guarda level: nine months. For the C ava de Guarda Superior designations: eighteen months for reserva , and thirty months for gran reserva. Cava DO is the only Spanish Denominación de Origen that covers a style, rather than a region. Technically, Spain mapped and delimited the regions of Cava production in order to comply with EU regulations—the region just happened to coincide with the vineyards of many producers throughout Spain who were already making the wine. Today, the better Cava sparklers made from the traditional grapes are slightly earthy and citrus-tinged, whereas Chardonnay and Pinot Noir are better suited to lengthier lees aging and the flavors of autolysis. Bottles of Cava can always be spotted by the mark of a four-pointed star imprinted on the cork. The remaining Catalan appellations include Alella DO , to the northeast of Penedès, where Xarel-lo, known locally as Pansà Blanca, contributes to the DO’s own still dry white wines or the blends of Cava. Empordà DO is located in the northeastern corner of Spain, bordering Banyuls in Roussillon. The focus is on Cariñena rosados , although Garnacha and international varieties have also been successful. Pla de Bages —a derivative of Bacchus, the Roman god of wine—is a newer DO to the north of Penedès, with similar grapes. The Catalunya DO encompasses the entire autonomía , covering wineries not included in more specific DO zones and allowing more freedom of blending and expression from a range of sites and authorized grapes. The Balearic Islands, a chain off the coast of Catalonia, is an autonomía closely associated with Catalan culture. Two DO zones, Pla i Llevant and Binissalem Mallorca , produce wines from a range of international and indigenous grapes, including Manto Negro and Moll (Prensal Blanc). BACK TO TOP Southern Spain Wine is produced in every autonomía of Southern Spain, including Murcia and Valencia, which comprise the Levant region on the eastern coast; Castilla-La Mancha, the southern portion of the central Meseta; Madrid, the capital city; Extremadura in southwestern Spain; and Andalucía on the southern coast. Valencia , a region steeped in both Catalan and Moorish tradition, is simultaneously the name of the autonomía , its capital (and Spain’s third largest city) and a DO zone focusing on white wines produced from the local Merseguera grape and other varieties. The wines can be fairly neutral, and the region is better known for its oranges and its paella—Valencia is the birthplace of the famous Spanish rice dish. The other DO zones within the autonomía of Valencia are Alicante and Utiel-Requena . Alicante DO is known for dessert wines: a local specialty is Fondillón, a solera-style, oxidative dessert wine produced from overripe Monastrell (Mourvèdre) grapes aged for a minimum of ten years. Unlike Sherry, the famous solera wine of Andalucía, Fondillón is not fortified and it does carry the flavor of wood. Utiel-Requena DO red wines are primarily produced from the Bobal grape and doble pasta is a traditional style. Doble Pasta red wines are macerated and fermented with twice the normal amount of grape skins and pulp, resulting in a wine of intense concentration, tannin and color. Often, doble pasta wines are used to strengthen weaker blends, but this traditional role is ebbing away with the rising production of grape concentrate in Utiel-Requena. Murcia, the southern autonomía in the Levant, comprises three DO zones: Jumilla , Yecla , and Bullas . The sandy soils of Jumilla resisted phylloxera until the 1980s, nearly one hundred years after the bug entered Spain, and the resulting vineyard decimation allowed the region’s producers to refocus, pivoting away from generic bulk wine production to the cultivation of the drought-resistant, thick-skinned Monastrell. The region’s reds and rosados —white grapes perform less worthily in the desert-like climate of Jumilla—now represent some of Spain’s best values and make up over 95% of the DO’s output. Garnacha, Petit Verdot, and other grapes may be used for blending, but Monastrell alone occupies over 80% of the region’s vineyards. Monastrell vines in Jumilla. To the west of the coastal Levant appellations, La Mancha DO lies within the Castilla-La Mancha autonomía and is Europe’s largest single demarcated wine region. Windmills dot the flat plain, recalling Don Quixote, Cervantes’ delusional knight-errant, whose silhouette adorns the logo of the La Mancha DO Consejo Regulador . The principal grapes of the region are Cencibel (Tempranillo) and Airén, which thrive in La Mancha’s hot, dry environment—an inhospitable region for fungus and mold. Despite being found only in southern Spain, Airén until recently claimed more acreage than any other white grape in the world, due to vast tracts of low-density plantings in La Mancha. Today, it is the second most planted grape, after Chardonnay, and remains on the decline, with a significant amount of the vast annual harvest destined for distillation. Cencibel performs well and is highly recommended by the Consejo for replanting in La Mancha, yet some producers, as in every corner of Spain, are experimenting with international varieties. Within the Méntrida DO , the Marqués de Griñon estate planted Cabernet Sauvignon, Petit Verdot, Syrah, and Merlot and adopted the illegal practice of drip irrigation, releasing modern, concentrated wines as vino de mesa . Officials rewarded the estate’s controversial methodology and encépagement in 2003, granting Marques de Griñon an estate appellation: DO Pago Dominio de Valdepusa. The same year, the La Mancha estate of filmmaker Manuel Manzaneque received its own appellation, DO Pago Finca Élez. Other DO Pago estates followed: Guijoso in 2005, Dehesa del Carrizal in 2006, and Campo de la Guardia and Pago Florentino in 2009. Casa del Blanco and Calzadilla received DO Pago status in 2010 and 2011, respectively. Three additions were approved in 2019: DO Pagos Vallegarcía, La Jaraba, and Los Cerrillos. in 2024, Rosalejo became the newest addition to DO Pago status in the area. The Castilla-La Mancha pagos all implement an international blend, in the pursuit of wines of “expression.” Marqués de Griñon, founded in 1973, has the longest history of any of these pagos . The estate has enlisted both the Pomerol guru Michel Rolland and his mentor, Émile Peynaud, in its quest to quickly position itself at the top of Spain’s quality ladder. This approach—incorporating money and modern methodology in the quick pursuit of concentration, greatness, and expression, rather than the timeworn, terroir-driven methods of the Old World—is common among DO Pago proprietors, perhaps quixotically. Like Méntrida, Almansa DO was once administered by La Mancha's Consejo Regulador . For Almansa reds, producers rely principally on the Garnacha Tintorera grape, a teinturier characterized by red-pigmented juice. Manchuela DO is to the north of Almansa, bridging the Levant and La Mancha. As in Utiel-Requena, Bobal is the chief grape. Ribera del Júcar DO is located between Manchuela and La Mancha, and was a subzone of the latter until it received its own DO status in 2003. Valdepeñas DO —the “valley of rocks”—is surrounded by La Mancha, yet the region received formal recognition in 1932, over forty years earlier than its much larger neighbor. Here, too, Airén is the most planted grape, followed by Cencibel. Although the climate of the two regions is quite similar, the vines in Valdepeñas benefit from a higher concentration of chalk bedrock, which provides better retention of water in the arid environment. Reserva and gran reserva wines, often produced exclusively from Cencibel, can be of excellent quality—particularly those sourced from the western sector of Los Llanos and the northern sector of Las Aberturas . To the northeast of La Mancha, the newer Uclés DO is off to a promising start, focusing on the red varieties Cencibel, Garnacha, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Syrah. White wines, sparkling wines, and sweet, dulce wines are also produced. The DO requires vines bearing red grapes to be in their sixth year of age before the fruit may be harvested, and mature vines are divided into three age categories; maximum yields decrease with the vine’s age. North of La Mancha, Mondéjar DO permits wines of all three colors from Cencibel, Cabernet Sauvignon, Macabéo, and the white Malvar grape. To the west of the zone is Vinos de Madrid DO , an appellation for the wines produced in four areas—San Martín de Valdeiglesias, Navalcarnero, Arganda, and el Molar—comprising three noncontiguous zones around the capital city. Airén, Malvar, Tinto Fino, and Negra de Madrid (Garnacha) are widely planted in the appellation; most of the wines are consumed within the city itself. To the southwest of Madrid and Méntrida, in the Extremadura autonomía , is the sole DO of Ribera del Guadiana . The large DO contains six subzones: Ribera Alta de Guadiana, Ribera Baja de Guadiana, Matanegra, Cañamero, Montánchez, and the superior Tierra de Barros. Although some good value wine is produced, much of the region’s large harvest ends up in the copper stills of Jerez, and the region is overall better known for its contributions to gastronomy: jamón serrano and the prohibitively expensive jamón ibérico . Tierra de Barros, which encompasses nearly 80% of the DO, is the home of Bodegas Inviosa, a longstanding and key proponent of the region’s wines—and the only producer of Cava in southwestern Spain. Spanning Spain’s southern coastline, Andalucía includes the DO zones of Grenada , Málaga , Sierras de Málaga , Montilla-Moriles , Condado de Huelva , Jerez-Xérès-Sherry , and Manzanilla Sanlúcar de Barrameda . This is the Spain of bullfighting, of flamenco, of authentic gazpacho—the stereotypes of Andalucían culture that often serve to characterize all of Spain. The Strait of Gibraltar bridges Africa and Europe: it represents a historically important trading route and may have even been the route by which man first crossed into Europe. Before the Moorish conquest of 711, the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Visigoths, and even the Byzantines exerted control over the region, to varying degrees of success. It was the Moors, however, who transformed Andalucía, or Al-Andalus, into a hub of Mediterranean trade, learning and culture. The city of Jerez de la Frontera was known as “Sherish” in Arabic—key to a successfully prosecuted case in more recent times contesting British use of the term Sherry. The Moorish culture persisted longest here, until the fall of Granada in 1492 ended Moorish rule on the Iberian Peninsula. Eight months later, Columbus set sail from Andalucía to find his ocean route to the East Indies. This event, sparking the race for colonial power and discovery in the Americas, was to have a profound effect on the future of Spanish wine—particularly the fortified wines of Andalucía and the Canary Islands, which, along with Porto and Madeira, supplied the New World. Ferdinand Magellan, who led the first circumnavigation of the globe in 1519, spent more of his budget on sherry than weapons. The wines of Jerez, known to English-speakers as "sack," also found a market in England, France, and Flanders. A singular plunder of nearly 3000 barrels of “sherris sack” in 1587 by the English Admiral Frances Drake cinched English tastes for the wine—a preemptive strike against Cádiz and the king’s armada, which sailed unsuccessfully against England in the following year. Sherry became an incredibly popular export to Great Britain in the ensuing three centuries; Samuel Pepys, who famously extolled the virtues of “Ho-Bryan,” also visited Sanlúcar de Barrameda, and Shakespeare regularly cited the wine in his works. High demand led to increased supply, and the Jerez bodegas began to purchase wine stocks from more distant areas of Andalucía, such as Condado de Huelva and Montilla-Moriles, to fill their soleras. British firms—Osbourne, Garvey, John Harvey (now Domecq)—arrived in the 17th and 18th centuries to found bodegas. Sherry was in worldwide demand by the late 1800s, but the arrival of phylloxera in 1894, coupled with a rise in production of “Sherry” styles throughout Europe, curtailed the industry. With the establishment of a Jerez Consejo Regulador and the attainment of DO status in 1933, Sherry rebounded. By 1979, Jerez was exporting 200 million bottles a year. Unfortunately, much of the wine was cheap and of questionable quality, and Jerez suffered considerably as a result. Today, efforts to reduce vineyard acreage and increase quality overall have largely been successful, and Sherry is the product of one of the world of wine’s most laborious, artisan processes, often for a very good price. There are two DO zones today, sharing the same vineyards and Consejo Regulador : Jerez-Xérès-Sherry and Manzanilla-Sanlúcar de Barrameda. Three towns—Jerez de la Frontera, Sanlúcar de Barrameda, and El Puerto de Santa Maria—form a “golden triangle” that is the historic area of production. The three authorized grapes are, in descending order of importance, Palomino, Pedro Ximénez and Moscatel. Palomino, or Listán, produces characterless table wines but is the preferred variety for dry Sherry. It thrives in the white albariza soils of the region, which characterize the best pagos , or vineyards. The lower-lying vineyards usually contain more barros (clay), whereas coastal vineyards are characterized by sandy soils called arenas , and are principally suitable for Moscatel grapes. For more information on the production and styles of Sherry, click here . Montilla-Moriles DO, to the northeast of Jerez, lent its name to the style of Amontillado , although it is legally barred from using the term Sherry on its labels. Pedro Ximénez (PX) is the zone’s principal grape, and Jerez has received dispensation to import PX must from Montilla-Moriles to compensate for its own declining acreage of the grape. Wines in the style of Sherry—Fino, Oloroso, and Amontillado—are produced in both fortified and unfortified versions. As the PX grape ripens extremely well in Montilla-Moriles’ hot climate, the wines can naturally ferment to 15.5% alcohol—the ideal strength for flor to survive and the post-fortification strength of Fino sherry. Thus, typically only Olorosos and dessert styles are fortified. The coastal Málaga DO is directly south of Montilla-Moriles. Once a prosperous wine region, both in its own right and as a supplier to the Jerez soleras, Málaga suffers from lowered international interest in both fortified and sweet wines—the specialties of the zone. Moscatel and PX grapes are the region’s principal grapes. Classically, the grapes are dried for a period of up to 20 days on esparto grass mats (a process known as the soleo ) prior to fermentation. Today, the wines of Málaga are either naturally sweet wines—produced either from soleo or simply overripe grapes—or fortified sweet wines. The fortified wines either retain natural sweetness, or the winemaker restores it through the addition of arrope . The fortified wines undergo solera aging in American oak. Five age categories exist for Málaga: Málaga Pálido (no aging requirement), Málaga (at least six months in oak), Málaga Noble (two to three years), Málaga Añejo (three to five years), and Málaga Trasañejo (minimum five years). Table wines from the region are released under the Sierras de Málaga DO. Off the coast of Africa, the Canary Islands lie nearly 700 miles from the Iberian Peninsula. The archipelago is of volcanic origin and has a sub-tropical climate. Nonetheless, wine is produced on most of the inhabited islands, and there are ten DO zones. Five are located on the island of Tenerife; the other five each cover a whole island: La Palma, El Hierro, Gran Canaria, La Gomera and Lanzarote. Phylloxera reached the Canaries in 2025, and century-old vines are still not an uncommon sight. Red wines are usually produced from Listán Negro, Negramoll (Tinta Negra), Malvasía Rosada, and Listán Prieto (Mission), whereas whites may result from a larger combination of grapes, including Malvasía, Gual, Forastera Blanca, Moscatel, and Listán Blanco (Palomino). The fortified wines of the past have ceded ground to the fresh vino joven styles popular with the islands’ tourists. BACK TO TOPPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/206/south-americaWed, 22 Apr 2026 15:47:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:b85e65a1-7938-4b14-9f4d-e8452085a20bGuildSomm AdminTable of Contents South America Chile Argentina Other Countries of South America South America Winemaking arrived in the New World with Spanish conquistadores in the 16th century. From Mexico, where viticulture was first established in the Americas, the vine spread southward through other Spanish colonies, from Peru to Chile and Argentina by 1560. The Portuguese brought the vine to Brazil as early as 1532. Whether Spanish Catholics and missionaries hold responsibility for propagation of the vine, or colonists were simply interested in preserving a staple of their old lives, viticulture flourished in most of South America. However, despite promising early origins, South American viticulture suffered under a prohibitive 17th century Spanish law that restricted wine production (unrelated to the Church) in the New World in favor of Iberian producers. While some nascent wine-producing colonies were hindered by Spanish calls to uproot their vineyards, others, such as Chile, did their best to ignore the ban on production. The matter was settled definitively as the early 1800s brought a new era of political autonomy to former colonies, and Argentina, Chile, and Brazil (South America’s three leading wine producers) gained independence, though not without a great degree of turbulence and strife. An influx of European immigration in the 19th century, along with the development of a national rail system, resulted in a rapid expansion of viticulture in Argentina. Chile also benefited from European expertise: in 1830 the Frenchman Claudio Gay set up a Chilean repository of pre-phylloxera Vitis vinifera vines at the University of Chile’s Quinta Normal department. These vine specimens served Chile well; its geographic isolation, due to the Andes, prevented phylloxera from entering the country. Today, Chile is the only major winemaking country to remain totally phylloxera-free; in the late 1800s the country was able to capitalize on Europe’s vineyard devastation and a large domestic consumption to advance its own industry. The 20th century in South America was plagued by political and economic difficulties, and wine industries in both Chile and Argentina faced a number of challenges. The extraordinarily high domestic consumption of the early 20th century in both countries fell throughout the second half of the century; Argentineans were drinking nearly 90 liters of wine per person annually in the early 1970s, but by the late 1990s consumption dropped by over half. Throughout much of the 20th century, protective state policies prevented Chilean wine producers from participating in an international market, but foreign investment began to pour in during the 1980s, and Chile began to aggressively export its wines. Argentinean winemakers, beleaguered by economic woes, hyperinflation, and a sudden drop in domestic demand in the 1980s, looked to Chile’s recent success for inspiration, and began to focus on quality wine production meant for international markets. Chile has developed a reputation for quality varietal wines at value prices, as well as a number of super-premium red blends—often the product of joint projects between Chile’s great domestic houses and some of the more lauded names of Bordeaux and California. Argentina, meanwhile, touts its status as the world’s fifth largest wine-producing country, and owes a great deal of its successes to the appeal of the Malbec grape. One of the earliest grapes to arrive in the Americas was the black Mission grape. While it is often suggested that the Spanish planted this vine from seed, modern DNA research has revealed that Mission is identical to a grape found in the Canary Islands, Listán Prieto, and that it originated in Spain itself. Various offshoots from the grape provided early viticultural material for Central and South America, and even California. Until the 21st century, País (the Chilean synonym for the Mission grape) was the most planted grape in Chile. The grape, known as Criolla Chica in Argentina, played a similarly important role in historical viticulture, although plantings are not prevalent today. Two related grapes, the pink-skinned Cereza and Criolla Grande, while on the decline, still account for huge swaths of vineyard—Cereza was, until very recently, Argentina’s most planted grape. International varieties in both countries are rapidly increasing, led by Cabernet Sauvignon in Chile and Malbec in Argentina. Argentina successfully forged an international reputation for red varietal wines produced from Malbec, a previously overlooked Bordeaux blending variety introduced into the country in 1860. The country’s winemakers hope for similar success with Torrontés Riojano, a unique, highly aromatic crossing of Criolla Chica x Muscat of Alexandria. Two other varieties, Torrontés Mendocino and Torrontés Sanjuanino, may be labeled as "Torrontés" but they tend to produce lower quality wines. Torrontés Sanjuanino is also a Criolla Chica x Muscat of Alexandria crossing, and Torrontés Mendocino is a crossing of Muscat and an as-yet-unidentified other grape. Chile, on the other hand, has had mixed success with the development of a similarly popular and distinctive variety with which it can be readily identified. Part of the problem may stem from Chile’s own confusion over what is actually planted in the nation’s vineyards: ampelographical research determined that much of Chile’s Sauvignon Blanc was actually Sauvignon Vert, or Friulano, and a significant portion of the country’s Merlot turned out to be Carmenère, the sixth “lost” grape of Bordeaux. Many Chilean producers consider Carmenère to be the nation’s claim to a unique varietal expression, but the grape’s tendency to show pronounced green flavors has heretofore prevented it from capturing the public imagination to the same degree as Argentinean Malbec. BACK TO TOP Chile Chile stretches for nearly 3,000 miles up the west coast of South America, separated from the remainder of the continent by the Andes Mountains. Viticulture occupies around 800 of these coastal miles, with most major regions of production to the south of the capital city, Santiago. From north to south, the six regional Denominations of Origin (DOs) in Chile are Atacama, Coquimbo, Aconcagua, the Valle Central (Central Valley), Sur (the Southern Regions), and a new area at the southernmost limit of grapegrowing in the country, the Austral Region . Even with moderating maritime influence, Chile’s climate varies enormously from the northern to southern latitudes. The northernmost regions of Atacama and Coquimbo are dry and desert-like, with grapes historically destined for Pisco production or the table. The country’s most suitable vineyards for fine wine are mostly situated in the Central Valley to the south of Santiago, where the proximity of the Andes cools nighttime temperatures, and along the coast, where the cold, maritime Humboldt Current cools the vines. Although the Coastal Mountains (between the Central Valley and the Pacific) provide some shelter, the Humboldt Current forces cool sea air inland through the river valleys to affect the Central Valley vineyards during the day. While neither zone is as dry as the deserts to the north, irrigation is still essential in both the Central Valley and Aconcagua. In the country’s southernmost areas of viticulture, rainfall is higher and the overall growing season is cooler and shorter. Significant variations in altitude exist in most of Chile’s major regions, as vineyard plantings climb from the coast into the Coastal Ranges, and from the valleys into the Andean foothills. Chilean wine law, established in 1995, instituted the 75% rule: vintage, variety, and denomination of origin must, if listed on the bottle, comprise a minimum 75% of the blend. Many wineries observe an 85% minimum for all three categories, in order to comply with EU standards for export. Only permitted varieties may be used, and hybrid grapes are forbidden. Chilean law requires all wines to show a minimum alcohol content of 11.5%. Wines labeled Reserva and Reserva Especial must have a minimum 12% abv, and wines labeled Reserva Privada and Gran Reserva require a minimum 12.5% abv. In addition, Reserva Especial and Gran Reserva wines spend mandatory time in oak. Leading grape varieties in Chile after Cabernet Sauvignon include Sauvignon Blanc (and Sauvignon Vert), Merlot, Chardonnay, Carmenère, and Syrah. Muscat of Alexandria retains a large share of plantings, but the grape is used chiefly for distillation. Red grapes account for over 70% of the total acreage in Chile. In Atacama , the northernmost winegrowing region in Chile, viticulture is only possible through irrigation, and the region’s wines are generally distilled. Pisco and table grape production is also prominent in Coquimbo , but the region’s two northern valleys—Elqui and Limarí—are starting to develop a reputation for their wines, and vineyard acreage devoted to wine grapes has dramatically increased since the 1990s. Syrah is gaining attention in the Elqui’s cool, high-altitude vineyards, while the limestone soils and cooler climate of coastal Limarí are proving to be a match for Chardonnay. Coquimbo's third subregion, Choapa, is located in a narrow area to the south, where the Andes and Coastal Mountains converge. The Aconcagua DO takes its name from the Aconcagua River, rather than the nearby Argentinean peak—the highest mountain in the Americas. The sunny, dry Aconcagua Valley subregion follows the river as it flows from the Andes to the Pacific. Soils in the Aconcagua Valley are generally alluvial, and red grapes dominate the valley’s vineyards, particularly Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot. Although much of the valley is distressingly hot for grape-growing, the commune of Panquehue, home to Errázuriz, one of Chile’s most prominent estates and winemaking families, experiences a more moderate climate. Errázuriz’s “Seña,” an iconic Bordeaux-style blend and one of the premier reds of Chile, placed ahead of both Château Lafite and Château Margaux in the 2004 Berlin Tasting—a milestone for the Chilean wine industry likened to the famous 1976 Judgment of Paris. Aconcagua's other subregions—Casablanca and San Antonio—are located along the coast, and are among Chile’s coolest new winemaking zones, in stark contrast to the heat of the interior Aconcagua Valley. With a relatively short history, Casablanca has become the Aconcagua DO’s most prominent zone of production and one of Chile’s most exciting areas for fresh, crisp and fruity Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay. The emerging area of San Antonio, directly south of Casablanca, has the DO zone of Leyda Valley and five DO areas. Like Casablanca, San Antonio is predominantly a white wine region, with Pinot Noir also showing promising results. The Central Valley DO , located between the Andes and the hills and ranges along the coast, is Chile’s oldest and most established winemaking region. From north to south, the DO’s subregions are Maipo Valley, Rapel Valley, Curicó, and Maule Valley. The warm Maipo Valley is Chile’s most famous winemaking area, and the classic region in the country for Cabernet Sauvignon. Over 50% of the region’s more than 10,000 hectares are devoted to the grape, followed by Merlot, Syrah and Carmenère. Due to its proximity to Santiago, many of Chile’s established houses are based in the region, including Concha y Toro (Chile’s largest producer), Santa Rita, and Cousiño Macul. Cabernet thrives on the well-drained, low slopes of the Andes, and some of Chile’s most premium red wines issue from the subregion of Puente Alto, such as Concha y Toro’s “Don Melchor” and Errázuriz’s “Viñedo Chadwick” Cabernet Sauvignon varietal wines, and “Almaviva”, a joint project between Baron Philippe de Rothschild (Mouton-Rothschild) and Concha y Toro. The 2000 “Viñedo Chadwick” took first place in the 2004 Berlin Tasting. The Rapel Valley, divided into Cachapoal and Colchagua, is located to the south of Maipo. Although Cabernet Sauvignon’s position as the leading grape in both regions is firmly secure, Carmenère is growing in importance, and may soon eclipse Merlot as the valley’s second most cultivated grape. Colchagua is the larger, central portion of the valley, and is characterized by a warm climate and fertile soils. Although Colchagua is historically a bulk wine region, producers are finding success with premium wines sourced from higher-altitude eastern subregions with greater diurnal variation, such as San Fernando and Chimbarongo. Two areas were elevated to DO status in 2018: Los Lingues and Apalta. The latter, in eastern Colchagua, is the source of Casa Lapostolle’s “Clos Apalta” and Viña Montes “Alpha M,” two of Chile’s iconic Bordeaux-style blends. Viña Montes also produces “Purple Angel,” one of Chile’s highest-profile Carmenère varietal wines, from Colchagua fruit. Colchagua Chile. The Maule Valley and Curicó comprise the remainder of the Central Valley DO. Maule, one of Chile’s largest regions, has much more vineyard acreage than the Maipo Valley, but the quality is variable. Although Cabernet recently overtook País as the region’s most planted grape, bulk wines meant for local consumption still comprise a large share of the Maule Valley’s output. Curicó, with its two DO zones of Lontué and Teno, achieved some international recognition when Miguel Torres set up Chilean operations here in the late 1970s. Cabernet Sauvignon again dominates the vineyards, but a range of red and white grapes are represented, including Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay. Chile’s Southern Regions DO (Sur) contains three valleys: Itata, Bío Bío, and the southernmost Malleco. Cultivation is sparser in these southern valleys, and País and Muscat de Alexandria are the most planted grapes in both Itata and Bío Bío—nearly 6,000 acres of the Muscat variety in the Southern Regions, while on the decline, account for its status as Chile’s third most planted white variety, after Sauvignon (Blanc and Vert) and Chardonnay. Malleco is a tiny region, with just a few hectares of Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. In 2024, Chile continues to push the boundaries of viticulture as they approved two DOs in new portions of the country. Rapa Nui DO in the Pacific Ocean and Chiloé DO in Patagonia. All of the aforementioned DOs have a north-south orientation. In 2012, the Chilean Ministry of Agriculture amended wine law to support three new geographic terms: Costa, Entre Cordilleras, and Andes. On labels, producers may now append pre-existing DOs with one of these three new designations, which signify the proximity of a vineyard to the coast (Costa) or to the mountains (Andes). Entre Cordilleras ("between mountains") describes the valley areas between the coastal range and the Andes, a region in which over three-quarters of Chilean wine grapes are grown. In order for a wine to qualify for one of the new designations, at least 85% of the grapes must be harvested in the appropriate region. The enormous influence wielded by the sea and Chile's mountains upon viticulture is thrust into the limelight with these new geographic indications, but, as with most changes to appellation systems, early criticism of its meaningfulness to the consumer is robust. BACK TO TOP Argentina As of 2018, Argentina is the world’s fifth largest wine producer in the world and the tenth largest wine exporter. The country’s vineyards are mostly confined to the western sector of the country, in the plains and foothills near the Andes, where they experience a continental climate. In the rain shadow of the Andes, Argentina’s wine producing regions are very dry, a condition exacerbated by the Zonda, a fierce, dusty, hot afternoon wind that blows down from the mountains in the late spring and early summer, sometimes adversely affecting flowering. The general lack of humidity in most Argentinean winegrowing regions keeps vineyards free of fungal problems, and snowmelt provides plentiful water for irrigation—in those years that the Andes receive heavy winter snowfall. Unfortunately, the little moisture that does precipitate in the vineyards often comes in the form of dangerous spring and summer hail. As expected in a continental climate, summer temperatures can reach 100° F and above, although the country’s higher elevation vineyards—some of the world’s highest vines (3,000 meters above sea level) are located in Salta, at Donald Hess’ Colomé estate—serve to mitigate such extreme highs and prolong the growing season. As Argentinean vineyards are generally situated on the slopes of the Andean foothills and plains, the average national elevation for vineyards is approximately 900 meters above sea level. The lack of major nearby urban centers keeps Argentinean vineyards rather free from the effects of pollution; the Maipo, just across the mountains, is covered in Santiago’s smog by comparison. In descending order of importance, the country’s most important red grapes include the flagship Malbec, Bonarda, Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Merlot, and Tempranillo. Argentina ’ s Bonarda, the country ’ s second most planted red grape, is genetically distinct from the Northern Italian grape of the same name, but recent DNA studies have identified it as Savoie's Corbeau—a variety known as Charbono in the United States. The country’s most planted white grape is Pedro Giménez, a variety unrelated to Spain’s Pedro Ximénez, a blending grape often mainly suitable for bulk wines or grape concentrate. The distinctive, floral Torrontés is second among white grapes, followed by Chardonnay and Chenin Blanc. The Mendoza Chardonnay clone, developed at the University of California at Davis, has become popular throughout the country; despite being prone to millerandage the resulting grapes have a greater skin-to-juice ratio . Pink-skinned varieties, including Cereza, Criolla Chica, and Criolla Grande, occupy nearly 30% of the nation’s vineyard acreage. When working with premium wine grapes (such as Malbec or Gewürztraminer, but not Cereza or Criolla Chica), winemakers have the option of labeling both red and white wines as Reserva or Gran Reserva . Reserva implies a minimum 6 months of aging for white wines and one year for reds; Gran Reserva indicates at least one year for whites and two for reds. These two new designations, introduced in 2008, also limit maximum yields. The winemaking areas of Argentina are divided among the northwestern provinces, the central provinces of Cuyo, and the southern provinces of Patagonia. Approximately three-quarters of the country’s entire wine production occurs in the province of Mendoza in Cuyo, where more than 150,000 hectares are cultivated. To the north, the province of Salta, despite fewer than 3,000 total hectares under vine, is gaining a reputation for high-altitude Torrontés—a variety prone to high alcohol levels at lower, hotter elevations. Red grapes, such as Malbec and Cabernet Sauvignon, are also successful in the cooler mountain climate. Cafayate is a promising department within Salta, and is increasingly appearing on bottles of Torrontés—Susana Balbo’s “Crios” is a widely exported hallmark of the style. Etchart, the winery that first brought Michel Rolland to Argentina, and Yacochuya, Arnaldo Etchart's new project, are two prominent producers based in Cafayate. In the province of Catamarca, located directly south of Salta, Torrontés, Syrah, Malbec, and Cabernet Sauvignon lead in acreage. Cuyo comprises the wine-producing provinces of Mendoza, La Rioja, and San Juan. La Rioja is the northernmost of the three provinces; its most famous wine region is the Famatina Valley. Torrontés is again the most cultivated grape, followed by Malbec. Although production is significantly higher than in the northern provinces, La Rioja’s output is dwarfed by the massive production of Mendoza and San Juan to the south. San Juan, Argentina’s second-largest wine-producing province, has more than 45,000 hectares under vine in the Tulum, Zonda, Ullum, Jáchal, Calingasta, Pedernal and Fértil Valleys. Much of this acreage has historically been devoted to Argentina’s pink-skinned varieties, although Syrah and Bonarda—sometimes confusingly called Barbera Bonarda—are capturing critical attention. San Juan’s hot summer climate is ideal for grapes destined for brandy and vermouth production, and the region’s sherry-style wines are reasonably good in quality. Mendoza, the center of the Argentinean wine industry, is broadly divided into North, Central (Primera Zona), South, and East sectors, and the Uco Valley—a western subregion and home to the province’s highest vineyards. Soils in the region are generally comprised of loose, alluvial sand over clay, a structure that, when coupled with the gale-force Zonda wind, helps to keep phylloxera and other diseases at bay. As in Chile, almost all vines in Mendoza are planted on their own rootstock. The climate is desert-like, and irrigation is absolutely necessary, whether in the traditional form of furrow irrigation—a technique developed centuries ago by the Incas, in which the rivers' water, swelled by Andes snowmelt, is directed through the vineyards in channels—or by more modern methods of drip irrigation. Red grapes account for over half of the entire province’s acreage; Malbec, the most planted grape, covers around 35,000 hectares of vineyard. Despite being planted in Cahors, Bordeaux, and the Loire Valley, the grape achieves its most classic and identifiable varietal expression in Mendoza, offering brambly black and red mountain fruit tones, rich and robust texture, and sweet floral tones. The wines usually undergo some degree of French and/or American oak treatment, with some of the more serious examples, such as the single-vineyard Achaval Ferrer wines, spending over a year in 100% new barrels. In some applications, such as the blended Cheval des Andes, Malbec may convey a texture and style reminiscent of velvety Pomerol; other offerings are simpler, fresher, and best enjoyed in youth. The departments of Luján de Cuyo (one of Argentina’s two DOCs, authorized only for Malbec wines) and Maipú, in Central Mendoza, provide some of the best traditional sites for the grape. Highly regarded estates include Catena, Susana Balbo’s Dominio del Plata, Bressia, and Achával Ferrer. In addition to Malbec, Cabernet Sauvignon is finding complexity and popularity here at roughly 7% of the acreage. While white grapes, such as Chardonnay and Sémillon, are cultivated with success in the high elevation vineyards of Uco Valley and its Tupungato department. In Southern Mendoza's department of San Rafael DOC, Malbec is the principal grape. Southern Mendoza is also home to General Alvear, which focuses on the Criolla varieties and is not known for fine wines. Criolla Grande and Cereza still account for about 20% of the plantings in Mendoza, but they are relegated to bulk wine and grape concentrate production, and are losing acreage to a plethora of international and Italian varieties. South of Mendoza, the winemaking provinces of Patagonia are Río Negro, Neuquén, and Chubut. These are smaller regions of production, and markedly cooler than those to the north. White grapes, such as Torrontés and Sémillon, perform well in the provinces’ chalky soils and longer growing seasons, although cool-climate, elegant versions of Malbec, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Pinot Noir are promising. Bodegas Chacra, spearheaded by the family behind Tuscany’s Sassicaia, rapidly emerged as Patagonia’s most famous estate in the mid-2000s, selling super-premium Río Negro Pinot Noir. Bodega Noemía de Patagonia, another premier producer in the province, is winning acclaim for Malbec. La Pampa, an adjacent province to the north of Río Negro, is an emerging area for wine. BACK TO TOP Other Countries of South and Central America Beyond Chile and Argentina, viticulture is gaining steam in Brazil and Uruguay. Brazil’s production is predominantly red, although nearly a quarter of the country’s output is sparkling, and the country has attracted significant foreign investment, including the Champagne firm Moët et Chandon. Most of the country’s viticultural activity takes place in the southern state of Rio Grande do Sul, on the Argentinean border. Within Rio Grande do Sul, Serra Gaúcha is the country's most developed viticultural region and accounts for approximately 90% of Brazilian wine. Other southern regions include São Joaquim, Serra do Sudeste, and Campanha. São Francisco Valley is a tropical winegrowing region in the northern part of the country, where growers are able to harvest twice a year. A new system of Origin Indications in Brazil is unique among New World countries; both yields and grape varieties are restricted in the manner of European appellations. Vale dos Vinhedos , a subregion within Serra Gaúcha, received Brazil’s first Origin Indication in 2002. Bordeaux and other international grapes are planted in Brazil, alongside Iberian varieties like Aragonez and Touriga Nacional. Uruguay, South America’s fourth largest producer, exports over half of its production to Brazil. Tannat—rechristened Harriague, after Don Pascual Harriague, the Frenchman who introduced the grape to Uruguay—is the dominant red variety for quality wines. Smaller wine industries exist in Paraguay, Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador. BACK TO TOPPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/207/south-africaWed, 22 Apr 2026 15:47:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:330eacd4-e9bd-439a-85a4-92cea9a9617aGuildSomm AdminTable of Contents South Africa Coastal Region Breede River Valley Region Klein Karoo Region Olifants River Region Cape South Coast Region Toward the Future South Africa The history of the vine in South Africa can be traced to 1652, when Jan van Riebeeck of the Dutch East India Company founded Cape Town and established its first vineyard. The first wines of the colony, derided by contemporaries for their “revolting sourness,” emerged seven years later to sustain sailors bound for the East Indies on the long ocean voyage. But with the arrival of French Huguenots fleeing religious persecution in their homeland in the late 1680s and early 1690s came a new wealth of winemaking knowledge. The Huguenots settled between Paarl and Stellenbosch in a region that became known as Franschhoek (meaning “French Quarter”) and established vineyards. Around this same time, Governor Simon van der Stel’s Constantia estate eclipsed the modest winemaking tradition of his predecessors and introduced sweet Vin de Constance, then called the "governor's wine," to the world. This wine would be coveted throughout the courts of Europe and holds its prestige even now, over 300 years later. Founded near Cape Town in 1685, Constantia—now a ward of the Coastal Region—was divided into three estates upon van der Stel’s death in 1712. In 1778, Groot Constantia, one of these estates, was sold to Hendrik Cloete, who renovated the property and brought international acclaim to the wines. Bush vine Pinotage (Photo credit: Kelli White) South African wines flourished under British colonial rule, but in the latter half of the 19th century, powdery mildew and phylloxera struck. Compounding the industry’s misfortunes, the British finally abolished preferential tariffs in 1861, renewing competition with French wines. In the absence of such tariffs, Cape wines—often heavily treated with sulfur dioxide and fortified with poor brandy—simply could not compete in quality against French and German wines abroad or even at home. In addition, wines from the southernmost tip of Africa faced expensive ocean transit rather than a short hop across the English Channel, and the Cape’s export trade suffered greatly. The state purchased Groot Constantia in 1885, and the root louse appeared on the property, ravaging the famous vineyards. A golden era for Constantia ended, and South African vineyards, decimated by phylloxera and colonial war at the turn of the century, entered a period of decline. In the wake of phylloxera, South African producers turned to American rootstocks and high-yielding vines, but surplus soon outstripped local demand, and overproduction—a longstanding problem for the South African industry—continued. In the face of plummeting prices and oversupply, the Ko-operatieve Wijnbouwers Vereniging van Zuid-Afrika (KWV) formed in 1918 with the support of 90% of South Africa’s growers. The KWV, a cooperative of wine producers and growers, fixed minimum prices, determined areas of production, and established production limits—powers formalized in the 1924 Wine and Spirits Control Act. It pulled the industry back from the brink of disaster but favored large producers and rewarded lower quality, as it set viable prices even for distillation wine. Surpluses, essentially subsidized by the KWV, continued through the 1980s, and despite a shift in domestic drinking habits from fortified wines to table wines in the mid-20th century, South Africa’s wine industry did not encourage high quality. Apartheid, the segregationist system instituted by South Africa in the late 1940s, further hampered efforts at renewing international interest in the country's wines. However, the end of apartheid in 1994 and the transformation of the KWV into a private company in 1997 spurred a great renewal in the industry. International eco-nomic sanctions and boycotts were lifted, opening export markets, and the KWV relinquished its statutory powers and scrapped quotas as early as 1992, encouraging growers to focus on quality. In 1999, the South African Wine Industry Trust (SAWIT) was established to speed transformation of South African wine and to empower black workers in an industry that had long relied on slave- and apartheid-era labor practices. In 2002, the South African Wine and Spirit Board began to offer quality certification through SAWIS (South African Wine Industry Information and Systems) in accordance with the Wine of Origin (WO) scheme, South Africa’s appellation system. By 2005, South Africa was exporting 280 million liters annually—nearly five times the amount exported in 1994. Today, South Africa ranks seventh in volume among wine-producing countries worldwide, accounting for 3.9% of global wine production. The regions of South Africa (Courtesy of SAWIS) The Wine of Origin system, introduced in 1973, compels producers seeking certification to submit a sample of their wines for evaluation by a tasting panel, which confirms that each wine shows the correct organoleptic qualities for its cultivar (variety) and age. The wine also undergoes scientific analysis. An approved cultivar—approximately 90 are authorized, irrespective of region—must be used to attain WO status, and as of 2006, the wine must contain 85% of the stated grape. Blends may list several grapes, if vinification occurred separately and each listed grape comprises a minimum 20% of the wine. A minimum 85% of the stated vintage is also required. If an area of production appears on the label, 100% of grapes must come from the stated area. There are four types of production areas, in descending order of size: geographical unit, region, district, and ward. A single vineyard may be listed on a label if the wine is sourced solely from a vineyard that is appropriately registered and of less than six hectares. Estate wines must be produced from contiguous parcels of vineyard land and vinified and bottled on a single property. A WO seal appears on all bottles of South African wine that pass certification. While it is an entirely voluntary process, none of the above claims—vintage, variety, or area of production—may legally appear on any bottle that forgoes certification. In 1998, South Africa launched the Integrated Production of Wine Scheme (IPW), a voluntary means of certification for WO producers wishing to comply with sustainable environmental standards. The IPW sets guidelines for agricultural, manufacturing, and packaging practices, and certification falls under the jurisdiction of the SA Wine and Spirit Board. Wineries are judged on a number of points, including worker safety measures, handling of wastewater, carbon emissions, use of pesticides and other chemicals, and vineyard biodiversity. Starting with the 2010 vintage, wines that meet a minimum score in IPW evaluation (60% or better) and qualify for WO certification are marked with a joint seal, indicating a "sustainable wine of origin," rather than the basic WO seal. Today, over 95% of South African WO wines carry this seal. South Africa’s wine-producing areas are divided into seven large geographical areas based on political boundaries (GIs): Western Cape, Northern Cape, Eastern Cape, North West, Kwazulu-Natal, Limpopo, and Free State. Northern Cape consists of only six production areas: the region of Karoo-Hoogland, the Douglas, Sutherland-Karoo, and Central Orange River districts, and the independent Hartswater and Prieska wards. Eastern Cape has a single ward (St. Francis Bay) and Kwazulu-Natal contains the Central Drakensberg and Lions River districts. Limpopo and North West do not contain further delineations. The Free State holds an independent ward, Rietrivier FS. The districts of South Africa (Courtesy of SAWIS) Most South African wine production occurs in the Western Cape, a small area in the southwestern corner of the country. Most WO areas are contained within it, including the Coastal Region, Cape South Coast, Breede River Valley, Klein Karoo, and Olifants River. At a latitude of 27° to 34°, the Western Cape’s climate is essentially Mediterranean, with warm, sunny growing seasons, although the Benguela Current flows north from Antarctica to cool the coastal areas. The Cape Doctor, a notoriously strong southeasterly wind, blows across the Western Cape throughout the spring and summer, inhibiting fungal disease and moderating temperature—but also ferociously battering the vines. The Cape South Coasts’ Elgin, offers the coolest climate in the country. In contrast, the Northern Cape production areas along the Orange River experience a hot, arid climate and are generally only suitable for bulk wines. Since the early 1990s, South African producers have replanted nearly half of the nation’s vineyards with quality focused varieties. White varieties make up the majority of South Africa's vineyard landscape. Chenin Blanc, known locally as Steen, is the most planted white grape, occupying about 18.4% of the nation’s vineyards. Other important white grapes include Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Hanepoot ( Muscat of Alexandria) , Colombard, Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains, and Semillon. Red grapes have surged in acreage since the mid-1990s. Pinotage, a crossing of Cinsault and Pinot Noir developed by Professor Abraham Perold in 1924, has been referred to by some as South Africa’s signature red grape. Depending on viticulture and vinification the variety cal yield different styles of wines. Until recently, it was infamous for distinctively smoky and pungent aromas. Today, it is a variety driven by producer style with Kanonkop leading the way. Cinsault itself, one of the grapes responsible for much of the past surplus, has lost its status as South Africa’s most planted red variety to Cabernet Sauvignon (10.6% of plantings) with Syrah/Shiraz as a close second (10% of plantings). Merlot, Cinsault, and Pinot Noir are among the other important commercial red cultivars. Pontac, a teinturier grape linked to the old red wines of Constantia, enjoys a limited revival among dedicated producers. Traditional method sparkling wines known as Méthode Cap Classique (MCC) are increasingly produced from Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, and fortified styles include Cape Port and Sherry—terms that were phased out in 2012. Cape Port today is generally named according to its style: Cape Tawny, Cape Ruby, and so forth. Coastal Region South Africa’s Coastal Region is located around the original colony of Cape Town and along the western coast of the Cape. Most of the country's high-quality wine originates here. The region is subdivided into nine districts: Stellenbosch , Cape Town , Paarl , Tulbagh , Darling , Franschhoek Valley , Lutzville Valley , Wellington , and Swartland . Cape Town was introduced in 2017 and contains the wards of Constantia, Hout Bay, Durbanville, and Philadelphia. Five estates occupy the historic Constantia vineyard on the eastern, decomposed granite slopes of Constantiaberg, including the state-owned Groot Constantia, Klein Constantia, and Buitenverwachting (translating to “Beyond Expectations”). Despite the fabled glory of Vin de Constance, several of the new proprietors are focusing on international grapes and dry wines. However, Klein (meaning “little”) Constance revived the virtually extinct style with new Muscat de Frontignan plantings in the 1980s. Cool sea breezes blow northward from False Bay, and average February temperatures hover around 70 degrees Fahrenheit, promoting a lengthy growing season ideal for dessert wines and cool-climate white grapes like Sauvignon Blanc. Stellenbosch (Photo credit: Kelli White) Across False Bay from the Cape Peninsula is the Stellenbosch district, South Africa’s most prominent winemaking region. With viticultural roots dating back to the 17th century, the “Town of Oaks” has become the epicenter of viticultural and oenological research for the country, and it is a source of high-quality red wines. The valleys surrounding Stellenbosch, cradled between the Simonsberg, Stellenbosch, and Helderberg peaks, harbor just over 15% of South Africa’s vines and contain some of the world’s most ancient soils, ranging from alluvial loam over shale on the valley floors to decomposed granite and sandstone on the hillsides. Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon Blanc are the district’s two most planted varieties, followed by Merlot, Shiraz, and Chenin Blanc. With a maritime-influenced climate comparable to—but warmer than—Bordeaux, blended reds based on Cabernet Sauvignon, such as Warwick Estate’s “Trilogy” and Meerlust’s “Rubicon,” garner high praise. Kanonkop (a champion of Pinotage), Rust en Vrede, and Neil Ellis round out a sampling of highly regarded producers in the district. Wards within Stellenbosch include Devon Valley, Jonkershoek Valley, Papegaaiberg, Simonsberg-Stellenbosch, Bottelary, Banghoek, and the Polkadraai Hills. North of Stellenbosch, the warmer inland Paarl (meaning “pearl”) district is home to the KWV, a founding partner in SAWIT. With over 40 bottlings in its range, Nederburg is the district’s largest producer and the first house to produce a botrytised dessert wine in South Africa. The renowned Nederburg Wine Auction, an auction of rare Cape wines, has taken place in Paarl since 1975. In its first year, the oldest annual wine auction outside of Europe showcased Golden Liquid Nederburg Edelkeur. The district rivals Stellenbosch in production and is successful with varieties like Cabernet Sauvignon, Shiraz, Pinotage, Chenin Blanc, and Chardonnay. Until 2010, Paarl included Franschhoek Valley, the site claimed by French Huguenot settlers in the late 17th century, among its wards, but the historic valley has now achieved status as a separate district. In 2012, Wellington followed suit. Tulbagh is a smaller district located to the north of Paarl. Its higher altitude creates a significant diurnal temperature shift, and MCC production there is increasing. Breede River Valley Region The Breede River Valley comprises three districts: Robertson , Worcester , and Breedekloof . A fourth district, Swellendam, shifted to the Cape South Coast region in late 2010. Breedekloof and Worcester, the largest district in South Africa in terms of production, produce over 25% of the national volume of wine and spirits (generally brandy), and nearly 20% of the nation’s vine acreage is located in these two districts. In Worcester, there are sizable plantings of Colombard, Chenin Blanc, and Ruby Cabernet. Robertson is a higher quality area, known equally for its MCC and red wine production. Shiraz is emerging as one of the district’s finest varietal wines. Klein Karoo Region Klein Karoo is an arid inland region with two districts: Langeberg-Garcia and Calitzdorp . The region’s six wards are not contained within either district. Fortified and sweet wine production is the dominant focus. Muscat and Tinta Barroca are the most promising grapes of the region. Olifants River Region The Olifants River Region includes two districts— Citrusdal Mountain and Citrusdal Valley —and is located to the north of Swartland. Colombard and Chenin Blanc are chiefly purposed for bulk wines, and South Africa’s largest co-operative winery, Namaqua , is based here. The region is home to two of the country's most famous sites, the ward of Piekenierskloof is well known for Grenache, and the single vineyard of Skurfburg which is famous for old vine Chenin Blanc South Africa’s highest elevation vineyards are located in Cederberg, an unincorporated ward located to the east of the Olifants River Region. Cape South Coast Region Hemel-en-Aarde (Photo credit: Kelli White) Seven districts comprise the Cape South Coast Region. Four of these districts— Overberg , Elgin , Walker Bay , and Cape Agulhas —line the southwestern Atlantic Coast of South Africa. A fifth, Plettenberg Bay , lies over 250 miles to the east, along the southern coast of Africa. Swellendam , borders Overberg to the east, near the Breede River Valley, and the small Lower Duivenhoks River district lies even further east. Overberg is divided into four wards: Klein River, Theewater, Elandskloof, and Greyton. Elgin, previously a fifth ward of Overberg, received district status in early 2012. Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir, and even Riesling are showing good results in the cooler maritime climate of both districts. The Walker Bay district, a whale-watcher's delight, surrounds the coastal town of Hermanus and is showing success with Pinot Noir and Chardonnay as well as consistently high-quality examples of Pinotage. Hamilton Russell Winery, a pioneer in the district, was an early proponent of the Burgundy grapes as well as Pinotage. Walker Bay contains seven wards; its top areas of production are Bot River and Hemel-en-Aarde (or “Heaven and Earth”) Valley. The windy Cape Agulhas sits on the southernmost point of the continent, with vineyards concentrated in the single ward of Elim. This district’s cool climate is provoking excitement for the region’s Sauvignon Blanc, Semillon, and Shiraz. Toward the Future Despite the rich history of Constantia, South Africa is still in its infancy as a winemaking region. Styles and regions continue to evolve at a rapid pace as producers carve out a distinct South African identity in a global wine market. Chenin Blanc has achieved success in the country and offers a uniquely marketable varietal expression. South Africa's unique Pinotage is also showing more potential in the right hands in recent years. With proper understanding, careful viticulture, and thoughtful winemaking, this grape can offer a singular expression for the country. Indeed, South Africa is a developing frontier for wine and a country to watch over the coming decade. Updated January 2025Previewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/155/rhone-valley-and-southern-franceWed, 22 Apr 2026 15:46:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:274bcbd0-93a3-4f38-921a-2f87abc47462GuildSomm AdminTable of Contents Rhône Valley Northern Rhône Valley Southern Rhône Valley Provence and Corsica Languedoc-Roussillon Southwestern France and the Dordogne The Rhône Valley The Rhône Valley in France is overwhelmingly devoted to red wine production. While the Rhône River is dotted with vineyards from its headwaters in Switzerland to its mouth on the French Mediterranean coast, the Rhône Valley properly refers to two clusters of appellations along the banks of the river in Southern France. The Northern Rhône, or Rhône septentrionale , occupies a narrow band of vineyards hugging the river just south of Beaujolais, from Vienne to Valence. The vineyards of the Southern Rhône, or Rhône méridionale , funnel outward south of Montélimar toward Avignon, near the river’s Mediterranean basin. While these two separate stretches are often considered collectively, the Northern and Southern Rhône are climatically and viticulturally distinct. The Rhône Valley and its environs boast a long history of enological importance. The introduction of winemaking in France can be traced to the Greeks, who established vine cultivation at their Massalia settlement—modern-day Marseilles—in approximately 600 BCE. At the height of Greek trade, some 10 million liters of wine in amphorae were shipped through Massalia into the heart of Gaul via the Rhône River. The Romans continued this trend with their arrival in the Southern Rhône in 125 BCE, and viticulture spread to the Northern Rhône by the first century CE. The Northern Rhône’s picturesque, hallmark terraces were first constructed by Roman workers. Vienne evolved as an important Roman provincial capital, and the Viennese vinum picatum, or "pitched wine," was exported to Rome itself. Whether vinum picatum was simply a reference to the wine’s character resulting from its mode of transport (amphorae lined with resin) or an allusion to the tarry flavors of Syrah is unclear. Winemaking continued in the Rhône Valley after the fall of Rome, but the trade of wine declined greatly during the Dark Ages. As in Burgundy, the Catholic Church was primarily responsible for reviving the culture of the vine in the ninth century. In 1309, the Southern Rhône suddenly became the center of Christian Europe as Pope Clement V moved his court from Rome to Avignon. His successor, Pope John XXII, began construction of the now-ruined summer papal palace, Châteauneuf-du-Pape, and planted the surrounding vineyards. The Roman Catholic popes presided in Avignon until 1378, and Châteauneuf-du-Pape remained property of the papacy until 1791. However, the wine sourced from the papal vineyards— vin d’Avignon —was not bottled as Châteauneuf-du-Pape until the 19th century. In the 17th century, traders carried Rhône wines to the Loire Valley, and by the 18th, they were being exported via the Loire to England. The “manly” wines of Hermitage were among the most famous in France in the 18th and 19th centuries, and many merchants of Bordeaux blended them with their own reds to strengthen the wines. The Southern Rhône was the first quality region in France to be struck by phylloxera when it first appeared in 1863. As wine fraud took hold in France during the decades of grafting and replanting following the epidemic, the growers of Châteauneuf-du-Pape prepared and imposed a set of rules for production. These rules became the prototype for the Appellation Contrôlée system, and in 1936, Châteauneuf-du-Pape became the first AOC (now AOP) in France. In the late 20th century, these wines were often overlooked in favor of Burgundy and Bordeaux; today, however, they achieve critical acclaim and capture public interest. BACK TO TOP The Northern Rhône While the Southern Rhône’s climate is firmly Mediterranean, the Northern Rhône is more continental. Some 75 miles north of Avignon, the Northern Rhône benefits from its southerly position but experiences greater seasonal temperature shifts, more rainfall, and fewer annual hours of sunshine than the southern appellations. The cold, dry Mistral wind , a defining climatic element of the Southern Rhône and Provence, blows down from the Massif Central and affects the Northern Rhône in winter and spring. Although the wind is strong enough to strip the vines—many trees in the valley grow leaning southward, bent by the wind—it dries the vineyards, preventing mold and mildew from taking hold. Heat-retaining granitic and schistous soils define much of the north: the steeply sloped vineyards of Côte-Rôtie, Condrieu, and Hermitage are carved out of this bedrock. Fine sand and loess topsoil throughout the Northern Rhône are prone to erosion, a threat partially mitigated by terrace construction. Near the commune of Condrieu, the thin topsoil is rich with powdery, decomposed mica, known locally as arzelle . The soils become heavier with clay in the southern section of Saint-Joseph, Crozes-Hermitage, and Saint-Péray. In the Northern Rhône, the Syrah grape achieves its classic status. The wines are full-bodied, firm, and savory, and they manifest a host of signature secondary aromas including smoke, grilled meat, olive, lavender, and peppercorn. The wines are typically fermented and aged in large oak foudres, although some producers are now experimenting with new barriques. There are five appellations for Syrah: Hermitage AOP , Crozes-Hermitage AOP , Cornas AOP , Côte-Rôtie AOP , and Saint-Joseph AOP . In Cornas, Syrah is bottled as a 100% varietal wine. The other appellations allow a small percentage of white grapes to be blended (and often fermented together) with the Syrah grape. In Côte-Rôtie, up to 20% Viognier may be added. In Crozes-Hermitage and Hermitage, producers have the option of adding a combined total of 15% Marsanne and Roussanne. Saint-Joseph producers may add up to 10% Marsanne and Roussanne. Co-fermentation offers the almost counterintuitive advantage of stabilizing red wine color and moderating tannin extraction. Generally, a smaller percentage of white grapes than the allowable maximums is used, if any. Côte Rôtie vineyards Côte-Rôtie, the northernmost appellation in the Northern Rhône Valley, is home to some of France’s steepest vineyards. On parts of the slope, the gradient is a precipitous 55 degrees or more. Côte-Rôtie, the “roasted slope,” rises up a southeasterly aspect behind the riverside town of Ampuis, home to E. Guigal, the largest producer in the appellation. While Côte-Rôtie has grown to include other communes, the two slopes nearest Ampuis—the Côte Brune and Côte Blonde—are considered the heart of the appellation’s terroir. The wines derived from these two hillsides are said to mirror their namesake: Côte Blonde yields softer, alluring wines, whereas the wines of Côte Brune are stronger and more assertive. La Landonne, a cru bottled as a vineyard designate by Guigal, René Rostaing, and others, fetches prices that can equal those commanded by the first growths of Bordeaux. Rising up from the village of Tain-l’Hermitage, the south-facing hill of Hermitage produces equally compelling Syrah. Four major producers dominate the terraced hill: the singular Jean-Louis Chave and the négociants Delas, M. Chapoutier, and Jaboulet. “La Chapelle,” Jaboulet’s premier wine, is named for a small hillside chapel that stands in commemoration of Gaspard de Stérimberg, the legendary Crusader-turned-hermit who lived a life of asceticism atop the hill. The chapel is located within the climat of L’Hermite. Other important climats of Hermitage include le Méal, les Bessards, Gréffieux, Beaume, and Péléat. Behind the hill of Hermitage are the vineyards of Crozes-Hermitage. The red wines of Crozes-Hermitage are generally lighter and less ageworthy, although the better wines can approach Hermitage in quality. Hill of Hermitage In Cornas, the Syrah wines are traditionally rustic, impenetrable in their youth, and slow to develop in the bottle. The vineyards of Cornas are among the warmest in the Northern Rhône. The sun’s warmth is magnified by the naked granite soil (gore ) in the vineyards, and the appellation is shielded from the Mistral wind. There are four noteworthy lieux-dits : Les Reynards, La Côte, Les Chaillot, and Les Mazards. At just over 100 hectares of planted land, Cornas is physically the smallest red wine appellation of the Northern Rhône, although Hermitage is not far behind. Auguste Clape has long been considered the standard-bearer for the traditional wines of the appellation, eschewing destemming for whole-cluster fermentation and new oak barriques for the old demi-muids of the region. North of Cornas, Saint-Joseph produces variable wines. The appellation’s borders have been greatly enlarged from the original delimited area near the commune of Tournon-sur-Rhône, opposite the hill of Hermitage. Today, the AOP extends through Condrieu in the north to Saint-Péray in the south. Along with Crozes-Hermitage, Saint-Joseph provides a basic level of quality in the Northern Rhône. Cornas and Côte-Rôtie may produce only red wine; Saint-Joseph, Crozes-Hermitage, and Hermitage also produce small amounts of white wines, from the Marsanne and Roussanne grapes. Near Valence, the cool Saint-Péray AOP exclusively produces Marsanne and Roussanne wines, which may be made in méthode traditionelle mousseux style. Often but not always blended, the more delicate Roussanne adds acidity and waxy minerality to Marsanne’s broader, oily texture and marzipan character. In Hermitage, producers have the traditional option of drying either grape for the rare dessert wine vin de paille , a style revived by Gérard Chave in the 1970s and again by Chapoutier in 1990. Condrieu AOP is a white wine appellation just south of Côte-Rôtie for the Viognier grape. With less than 200 delimited hectares in the appellation, these wines are rare. In the 1960s, the wine approached extinction as it had fallen out of commercial favor and only a handful of hectares were still planted to Viognier. Today, it experiences a small resurgence in the hands of producers such as Georges Vernay, Yves Cuilleron, and André Perret. Viognier wines tend toward honeyed lushness, intriguing floral aromas, and rich texture; however, important stylistic decisions, such as the use of oak and the desirability of malolactic fermentation, vary widely by producer. The Viognier wines of Château Grillet AOP , a monopole within Condrieu, enjoy historical acclaim but are perhaps more notable today for their scarcity than their intrinsic value. Château Grillet is often incorrectly cited as the smallest appellation in France; this distinction belongs to La Romanée in Burgundy. Southeast of Valence, four minor appellations of the Northern Rhône lie on the Drôme River, a tributary of the Rhône. Coteaux de Die AOP and the sparkling wine appellation Crémant de Die AOP offer whites based entirely and partially, respectively, on Clairette. Clairette de Die AOP provides two styles of sparkling wines: méthode traditionnelle and méthode Dioise ancestrale. While Clairette is the sole grape in the traditional method wines, the méthode Dioise ancestrale requires its rustic sparkling wines to contain, confusingly, a minimum 75% Muscat à Petit Grains. The méthode ancestrale is an old technique of sparkling wine production in which the wine is bottled without dosage before fermentation has concluded. The wines are disgorged into pressurized tanks and rebottled without l iqueur d’expédition . A minimum 35 grams per liter residual sugar remains, implying demi-sec sweetness. Méthode traditionnelle wines are basically brut in style, with a maximum 15 grams per liter of sugar after dosage . Near Die, Châtillon-en-Diois AOP is an anomaly for Gamay-based reds and rosés and whites based on Aligoté and Chardonnay. BACK TO TOP The Southern Rhône The Southern Rhône accounts for about 95% of all wine produced in the Rhône Valley and it is overwhelmingly devoted to red wine. Unlike the Northern Rhône, wines from the southern appellations are generally blends. Grenache—a Spanish import—is the most planted red grape, offering richness of body, sweet fruit, and warmth. Mourvèdre and Syrah constitute a significant percentage of plantings, adding structure and depth of color to the blend. Cinsault provides finesse and freshness, and is often utilized for rosé wines as well. Carignan is the last major red grape of the Southern Rhône, but acreage is on the decline. The climate of the Southern Rhône is distinctly Mediterranean; the landscape shifts to become rugged garrigue scrubland. The Mistral blows fiercely across the flat southern valley. Many growers plant their vines at an angle so that the wind will blow them upright over time. Hot summers are tempered by significant diurnal swings, and mild winters follow typically heavy autumnal rains. A wealth of alluvial soils exists in the Southern Rhône, deposited over limestone subsoil in the river’s course. Sand, gravel, and clay have been left in the river’s wake, and larger stones have been dumped in the valley’s mounds by post-ice age glacial melt. In Châteauneuf-du-Pape, these deposited “pudding stones” are called galets . Made of quartzite and smoothed by the river, the galets store heat, releasing it to warm the vines at night. Châteauneuf-du-Pape AOP offers red and white wines and is the premier southern appellation. With 13 accepted varieties—or 18, depending on how one counts the grapes—Châteauneuf-du-Pape embodies the Southern Rhône’s blending philosophy. While Grenache is generally the principal variety in red wines from the appellation, Château de Beaucastel Rouge includes a significant proportion of Mourvèdre and is famously produced from a blend of every authorized variety. On the other end of the spectrum, Château Rayas often releases their Châteauneuf-du-Pape Rouge as a 100% varietal Grenache. Regardless of the individual producer’s encépagement and assemblage , the red wines generally show more ripeness, richness, and alcohol than their northern counterparts. At 12.5%, the required minimum potential alcoholic strength is the highest in France for dry AOP wines, and can result in surprisingly high-alcohol wines, reaching 15% or more in some producers' top-end cuvées. Additionally, AOP regulations mandate that producers declassify or discard at least 2% of harvested grapes ( le râpé), a process that serves as a safeguard against underripeness. Vine growing in the famed soil of Châteauneuf-du-Pape Château La Nerthe released the first estate-bottled Châteauneuf-du-Pape in 1785. Today, a papal crest embossed on the shoulder of the bottle marks many estate-bottled wines from the appellation. Knowledge of a producer’s individual style is key, as so many elements contribute to the character of the final wine. The appellation’s size is a factor: in comparison to Cornas’ 100 hectares, Châteauneuf-du-Pape has over 3,000. Thus, the soil of the appellation is vastly varied beyond the iconic galets ; distinct pockets of alluvial sediment exist for gravel, calcareous clay, and sand. Traditional producers tend to use old oak foudres for extended aging, and some may even bottle a vintage from cask as it is sold, creating great variation in individual bottlings of the same wine. Carbonic maceration, barrique aging, and new vinification techniques allow experimentation. In addition, each producer's assemblage is critical to the style. While the appellation’s regulations predate every other region in France, Châteauneuf-du-Pape is just beginning to modernize and explore its viticultural diversity. The Grapes of Châteauneuf-du-Pape Grenache (Noir/Blanc/Gris) Mourvèdre Syrah Cinsault Counoise Picpoul (Noir/Blanc/Gris) Terret Noir Bourboulenc Clairette/Clairette Rosé Roussanne Vaccarèse Picardan Muscardin While Châteauneuf-du-Pape is the most prestigious appellation, Côtes du Rhône AOP is the Southern Rhône’s largest appellation and the base designation for wines from the entire Rhône Valley. While the Northern Rhône may release its generic Syrah–based blended wines as Côtes du Rhône, the wines issue overwhelmingly from the south, where Grenache is the principal component. Over two-thirds of the Rhône Valley’s wines are released as Côtes du Rhône AOP. Most of the wine is red, although whites and rosés are allowed. Côtes du Rhône-Villages AOP is a superior designation for red, white, and rosé wine from a delimited area within the Southern Rhône. As of 2025, 21 communes may append their names to the appellation. Grenache, Mourvèdre, and Syrah are the principal red grapes for Côtes du Rhône-Villages. Several former Côtes du Rhône-Villages communes have been awarded distinct appellations. In 1971, the Gigondas AOP was created for red, rosé, and white wines sourced from the commune’s red clay alluvial soils. The red wines contain a minimum 50% Grenache, typically blended with smaller proportions of Syrah and Mourvèdre. Other Rhône grape varieties—excluding Carignan—are permitted to be present as a maximum 10% of plantings in the Gigondas vineyards. The wines are similar in style to Châteauneuf-du-Pape and can offer great value. In 1990, Vacqueyras AOP joined Gigondas as the second former Côtes du Rhône village to be promoted to full appellation status. The rustic Vacqueyras wines are usually red, although a small amount of white and rosé wine is produced. A minimum 50% Grenache is required for the red wines. Beaumes-de-Venise AOP and Vinsobres AOP joined the other appellations in 2005 and 2006, respectively, producing red wines based on a minimum 50% Grenache. Cairanne is the most recent arrival to the AOP pack; since early 2016, it merits appellation status for dry white and red wines. All five appellations share Châteauneuf-du-Pape’s 12.5% minimum potential alcohol requirement for red wines. On the western bank of the Rhône, opposite Châteauneuf-du-Pape, is Lirac AOP . Spread over four communes, the wines can be very similar to the Côtes du Rhône-Villages wines, and are made in red, white, and rosé versions. Grenache Noir and Blanc are prevalent in Lirac, although the white wines may see a significant proportion of Clairette and Bourboulenc added. Despite its sandier soils, the commune of Lirac in 1863 may have served as France’s doorway to the phylloxera incursion. Just south of Lirac, the Tavel AOP is one of the only communal appellations in France exclusively dedicated to rosé wines. Tavel has long been regarded as the premier French rosé appellation, although its reputation for ageworthiness is often exaggerated. The wines are based on Grenache and made in a dry style. Vin doux naturel , a sweet fortified wine, is found in greater quantities in Languedoc-Roussillon, but two appellations exist for the style in the Southern Rhône: Rasteau AOP and Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise AOP . The local co-operative, the Vignerons de Beaumes-de-Venise, produces 90% of the wine labeled as Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise AOP from grapes sourced throughout the communes of Beaumes-de-Venise and Aubignan. The white, red, and rosé wines retain natural grape sugar through mutage , wherein pure grape spirit is added to arrest fermentation in a proportion of 5 to 10%. Rasteau vin doux naturel wines may be white, rosé, or red, and they are based on the three colors of Grenache: Blanc, Gris, and Noir. The communes of Rasteau, Cairanne, and Sablet are eligible for the Rasteau AOP. Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise wines are typically fresher and more aromatic, whereas the Rasteau wines show more tawny flavors. In 2011, vignerons in Rasteau adopted the labeling terminology established by the producers of Rivesaltes in Roussillon: ambré and tuilé indicate, respectively, white and red VDN wines displaying a more oxidative character and subject to at least three years of aging prior to release . Fresher versions of white and red Rasteau VDN wines are now labeled blanc and grenat , whereas producers may affix the term Hors d'age to wines that have matured for at least five years prior to release. Rasteau AOP wines may also be rancio , a deliberately oxidative and maderized style in which the wine is left in open barrels, exposed to the ravages of sunlight and temperature. Since 2010, Rasteau AOP has permitted the production of dry, unfortified reds, but only from fruit grown in the commune of Rasteau itself. The Southern Rhône Valley's northernmost appellation is Grignan-les-Adhémar AOP , located directly south of Montélimar. Hoping to rebound sales and avoid an unsavory association with the troubled Tricastin nuclear plant, the producers of Côtes du Tricastin successfully rebranded their appellation as Grignan-les-Adhémar in 2010. Other appellations of the Southern Rhône include Luberon AOP , Ventoux AOP , and Côtes du Vivarais AOP . Each of these regional appellations produces red, white, and rosé wines from a large complement of Rhône varieties. To the west, Costières de Nîmes AOP adjoins the regions of the Southern Rhône Valley, Provence, and Languedoc. Formerly considered an appellation of Languedoc, INAO authorities transferred oversight of the Costières de Nîmes AOP to officials in the Rhône Valley in 2004. Wines of all three colors are made. Clairette de Bellegarde AOP , a single-commune appellation within Costières de Nîmes , produces white wines from the Clairette grape. BACK TO TOP Provence and Corsica Provence, the birthplace of French wine, lies to the east of the Rhône basin on the sun-drenched Mediterranean coast. Steeped in rich culinary tradition and flooded with tourists, the region finds a ready audience for its pale-hued, dry rosés. Côtes de Provence AOP , under which three-quarters of Provençal wine is bottled, is dedicated to rosé production. While red and white wine are made, rosé accounts for nearly 90% of the appellation’s output. The rosés must be blended from at least two varieties; they are given color through a short period of skin contact, saignage , or, in the case of the palest of wines, immediate pressing of whole grapes. Blending of white and red wines is not an approved method for still rosé production here or elsewhere in France. Cinsault, Grenache, Mourvèdre, Syrah, and the local, garrigue -scented Tibouren represent the bulk of both red and rosé blends. While many rosés may be bottled in a traditional, hourglass-shaped "skittle" bottle, this is not necessarily a mark of quality. Rosés and red wines may be bottled under one of five subzone designations: Pierrefeu, Sainte-Victoire, Fréjus, Notre-Dame des Anges, and La Londe, the last of which also permits white wines. Although Provençal rosé occupies the public imagination, the red wines of Bandol AOP are the true stars of the region. Bandol produces rosés and Clairette-based whites, but the red blends harbor the most potential. Bandol is the only appellation in France to require focus on the Mourvèdre grape: a minimum 50% is blended with Grenache, Cinsault, and—to a lesser extent—Syrah and Carignan. The resulting wines are full-bodied, plummy, dense, and often show an animal character. The wines must spend 18 months in wood prior to release and often need years in the bottle to demonstrate their full potential. Domaine Tempier, Château de Pibarnon, and Château Pradeaux are excellent sources. Vineyards in Bandol The dry, warm Mediterranean climate of Provence is aptly suited to viticulture without fear of mold or rot. Sustainable and organic methods of farming are widely employed. Vignerons in Les Baux-de-Provence AOP , a former subappellation of the larger Coteaux d’Aix-en-Provence AOP , have long pushed for a mandate for organic viticulture, but their efforts have yet to yield results. The warm hilltop appellation, protected from the Mistral wind, releases red and rosé wines, based on Grenache, Syrah, and Cinsault. A 2011 revision of the appellation's rules added white wines, based on Grenache Blanc, Clairette, Vermentino, and Roussanne. Domaine de Trévallon, one of the premier estates of southern France, is located within Les Baux-de-Provence, but the region's 1995 promotion to AOC and subsequent emphasis on Mediterranean varieties left the estate to release its Cabernet Sauvignon-based wines as IGP. The appellations of Cassis AOP , Palette AOP , and Bellet AOP produce wines of all three colors. The tiny Palette allows a dizzying variety of red and white grapes but boasts only one producer of note: Château Simone. Cassis and Bellet offer more promising whites than reds. Clairette and Marsanne account for the better Cassis wines and Rolle—Italian Vermentino—is increasingly used for the whites of Bellet. Coteaux Varois en Provence AOP was granted an appellation for red, white, and rosé wines in 1993, following its earlier promotion from IGP . Like Domaine de Trévallon, Domaine de Triennes—the most noteworthy producer in Coteaux Varois—chooses to release wines as IGP . The potential of Provence as a fine wine region is being explored: new appellations find their footing as encépagement regulations are in flux. As evidenced by the examples of serious producers resorting to the freedom of IGP , Provençal appellations will continue to adapt. A commitment to quality is in place: Côtes de Provence AOP is the only French appellation outside of Bordeaux to publish a ranking of grand cru classé estates. Originally, in 1955, 23 estates were classified. The island of Corse (Corsica) has long been a steady contributor to Europe’s surplus wine lake, although many of the island’s lowest quality vineyards have been uprooted. More productive vines, such as Carignan and Alicante Bouschet, have been torn out in favor of higher quality grapes. Nielluccio (a variant of Sangiovese), Sciaccarello, and Vermentino are indigenous to the island, demonstrating Corsica’s close connection to Italy. Nielluccio and Sciaccarello are blended with Grenache, Barbarossa, and a host of Rhône grapes for the red and rosé wines of the generic, island-wide Vin de Corse AOP . White Vin de Corse wines are blends of Vermentino and Ugni Blanc. Ajaccio AOP and Patrimonio AOP are the island’s two communal appellations. Muscat du Cap Corse AOP wines are vin doux naturel . BACK TO TOP Languedoc-Roussillon On the southern coast of France, Languedoc stretches in a crescent shape between Provence to the east and Roussillon to the south. Gaillac and the other regions of Southwestern France lie due west of Languedoc. The vine has always flourished in the Mediterranean climate of Languedoc, but wine quality has surged in the area only recently. When considered collectively, Languedoc-Roussillon is one of the largest winegrowing regions in the world by acreage, and is the only region in France to surpass Bordeaux in plantings. In 2006, when France recorded a production total of approximately 56 million hectoliters, Languedoc-Roussillon contributed 16 million hectoliters—nearly 30% of the national total. While Languedoc-Roussillon plantings—particularly those that do not qualify for anything beyond basic Vin de France—are on the decline, the region is still responsible for a large percentage of Europe’s low-end wine surplus. Many of the quality appellations are clustered within the western side of Languedoc. Fitou is one of the region’s oldest appellations, dating to 1948. The Fitou AOP is divided into two distinct, noncontiguous sectors: Fitou Maritime and Fitou Montagneux. The wines are red blends, usually dominated by Carignan. Both sectors of Fitou are embedded within the larger Corbières AOP , which produces reds, rosés, and a small amount of whites from extremely varied soils and microclimates. One subzone, Boutenac , has achieved full appellation status for Carignan-based red wines. North of Corbières is Minervois AOP , a designation for red, white and rosé wine. Like Corbières, Minervois is divided into several distinct subzones. The center of the appellation, La Livinière , received its own appellation in 1999 for red wines. In 2023, Sable de Camargue AOP was elevated from IGP status to showcase gris (rosé) wines from Grenache. Cabardès AOP and Malepère AOP produce red and rosé wines only. Cabardès wines maintain a balance between Grenache, Syrah, and the major Bordeaux red varieties. Malepère received full appellation status in 2007, and its encépagement stipulates a minimum 50% Merlot for red wines and 50% Cabernet Franc for rosé. Saint-Chinian AOP and Faugères AOP produce red, white, and rosé wines from Southern French grapes. White wines are a recent addition to the Saint-Chinian appellation, as are two subzone designations for red wines: Berlou and Roquebrun. Vineyards in Saint-Chinian appellation, Languedoc wine region South of Malepère and Cabardès is the Limoux AOP . Like Malepère, Limoux red wines are Merlot-based. Still whites are produced from Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, and Mauzac, and must be fermented in oak. The local Mauzac also makes up a minimum 90% of Blanquette de Limoux, a distinctive méthode traditionnelle wine that lays claim to being France’s oldest purposefully made sparkling wine. A sleeker, more modern style of sparkling wine is Crémant de Limoux AOP , which stipulates a maximum 20% Mauzac and Pinot Noir in favor of Chardonnay and Chenin Blanc. Tiny quantities of Limoux méthode ancestrale are made solely from Mauzac, wherein the wine’s fermentation arrests in the cold of winter, reawakening in the spring. The eastern half of Languedoc is dominated by the regional appellation Languedoc AOP . Formerly Coteaux du Languedoc AOC, this appellation encompasses nearly all of Languedoc-Roussillon, extending from the Spanish border to the city of Nîmes. Languedoc AOP covers the production of red, rosé, and white wines and encompasses 10 geographic designations. The Languedoc AOP reds generally require at least 50% combined Grenache, Syrah, Mourvèdre, and Lladoner Pelut; however, varietal makeup and percentages vary by geographic designation. There have been discussions and proposals regarding a grand cru system in Languedoc, which would likely create a hierarchy among its geographic designations and neighboring AOPs, but nothing concrete has emerged. Occasional promotions to AOP status occur, however: in 2014, Terrasses du Larzac , a former geographic designation of Languedoc AOP, received independent AOP status; La Clape followed in mid-2015. Lastly, the Languedoc contains several small fortified wine appellations, including Muscat de Mireval AOP , Muscat de Lunel AOP , Muscat de Saint-Jean-de-Minervois AOP , and Muscat de Frontignan AOP . Muscat de Frontignan wines are most common and may be either vin doux naturel or vin de liqueur . Roussillon, extending northward from the Spanish border, is singularly important for vin doux naturel production. Over 90% of France’s fortified wines are made in the region. Much of this wine is Rivesaltes AOP , a vin doux naturel appellation representing a myriad number of styles. Rivesaltes, meaning "high riverbanks" in Catalan, produces fortified ambré, grenat, tuilé, and rosé —that is, amber, red, tawny, and pink. The ambré and tuilé styles are aged in an oxidative environment until at least March 1 of the third year following the harvest. Grenat wines are aged reductively for one year, and must be bottled before June 30 of the second year. Producers will often follow these minimum guidelines with extended aging for the oxidative styles: some age the wines in glass bonbonnes under the relentless Roussillon sun; others employ a solera . Rivesaltes AOP wines aged for a minimum of 5 years may be called hors d’age ; in practice these may receive up to 20 years of aging prior to release. The fortified wines of Rivesaltes may be varietal wines or blends; the Mediterranean encépagement includes Grenache (Noir, Gris, and Blanc), Maccabéo, Tourbat, Muscat of Alexandria, and Muscat à Petits Grains. While Grenache Noir is the sole component of grenat wines, producers of tuilé styles may blend the grape with white varieties. When the wine is produced solely from the two Muscat varieties, it may be labeled Muscat de Rivesaltes AOP . The sweeter Muscat de Rivesaltes is typically released earlier and is better suited for youthful consumption, as the wine quickly loses its aromatic freshness. Rivesaltes was the birthplace of vin doux naturel —here, Arnaud de Villeneuve, a 13th-century physician, introduced the process of mutage as a means of medicinal elixir-brewing—but it is not the only modern appellation in Roussillon for the style. Maury AOP authorizes vin doux naturel in a similar range of styles, principally produced from Grenache Noir, Blanc, and Gris. In Banyuls AOP , the southernmost wine appellation in continental France, Grenache Noir accounts for at least 50% of the Traditionnel fortified reds; the Banyuls Grand Cru AOP requires at least 75%. To be labeled grand cru , Banyuls must spend a minimum 30 months in barrel. If destined to be vintage-dated, Banyuls is generally bottled within one year and labeled rimage. Banyuls is France’s richest, most full-bodied, and most consistently quality-minded VDN appellation. Vineyards of Roussillon Unfortified red, white, and rosé wines from the producers of Banyuls are released as Collioure AOP . Producers in Maury, on the other hand, have had the option of releasing dry red wines under the Maury AOP banner since 2011. Other dry wine appellations include Côtes du Roussillon AOP , a regional appellation for red, white, and a high percentage of rosé wines. Côtes du Roussillon Villages AOP is reserved for the red wines of more than 50 communes in the north of the Côtes du Roussillon. Five communes may add their names to the appellation: Latour-de-France, Caramany, Les Aspres, Lesquerde, and Tautavel. As ambitious producers discover a wealth of old vine plantings, trim yields, and rethink the worth of once-derided workhorse grapes like Carignan, Roussillon's reputation for wines beyond the traditional vins doux naturel will continue to rise. Despite so many disparate AOPs and acres under vine, the Languedoc-Roussillon region produces only 10% of France’s AOP wine. Although the European Union’s vine pull scheme has made a recent dent in the sheer amount of available wines, Languedoc-Roussillon covers a vast vineyard area, much of which has been classified as IGP. An enormous amount of IGP wines are produced, at every level of quality. Pays d’Oc IGP is the overarching classification for the entire Languedoc-Roussillon region. BACK TO TOP Southwestern France and the Dordogne The appellations of Southwest France— Sud-Ouest— draw considerable influence from Bordeaux, Spain, and Southeastern France. Southeast of Bordeaux’s Right Bank, the Dordogne River, flowing westward from its origin in the Massif Central, runs through the region of Bergerac. Bergerac AOP produces all three colors of wine from Bordeaux varieties. Sec denotes dry whites from the region. Côtes de Bergerac AOP , in the absence of actual hills, requires a higher amount of minimum alcohol. The blended reds of Pécharmant AOP are the longest-lived wines of Bergerac. Sweet wine appellations within Bergerac include Monbazillac AOP , Saussignac AOP , Rosette AOP , Haut-Montravel AOP , and Côtes de Montravel AOP . Monbazillac is the most notable, generating botrytised wines from Bordeaux varieties. Muscadelle particularly excels in the sandy soils of Monbazillac; multiple tries and a ban on mechanical harvesting are testament to the appellation’s commitment to quality. Montravel AOP wines, unlike Côtes de Montravel and Haut-Montravel, may be red or white and must be dry. South of the Bordeaux satellites of the Dordogne are numerous wine regions; the most important are Cahors AOP , Madiran AOP , Jurançon AOP , and Gaillac AOP . On the Lot River, Cahors offers robust, sometimes-rustic red wines produced from a minimum 70% Malbec, with Tannat and Merlot. The wines of Madiran in Gascony are tannic, concentrated reds—so tannic, in fact, that a Madiran winemaker, Patrick Ducournau, developed the technique of micro-oxygenation in the early 1990s to soften the blow of Tannat. Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, and the local Fer are the secondary grapes of Madiran. Producers in Madiran may produce semi-sweet and sweet white wines as Pacherenc du Vic-Bilh AOP , primarily utilizing Petit Manseng, Petit Courbu, and Arrufiac. Dry Pacherenc du Vic-Bilh is labeled sec . Jurançon produces distinctive white wines in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques département , principally from Gros and Petit Manseng. The Petit Manseng grape is better suited to sweet passerillage wines, and Gros Manseng provides the tangy dry whites of Jurançon Sec AOP. Petit Courbu, Camaralet, and Lauzet are secondary grapes for both styles. Other AOPs in the Basque-influenced Pyrénées-Atlantiques département include Irouléguy and Béarn . The vineyards of Gaillac AOP , established by the Romans of ancient Gaul in the first century CE, are among France’s oldest. The wines today may be red, white, or rosé. Duras, Fer, Syrah, and Prunelard account for the red blends, with a smaller allotment of Bordeaux red varieties now allowed. Gaillac's principal white grapes are Mauzac, Muscadelle, and Len de l’El. Len de l'El means "far from sight" in the old d'Oc language, conveying the clusters' long stalks and the distance to the "eye," or bud, from which they sprouted. The grape produces wines with a natural fleshy, soft character that complements the tarter acidity of Mauzac. A Premières Côtes appellation exists for the dry whites of 11 delimited communes. Sweet whites are labeled Gaillac Doux, whereas sparkling whites are produced as Gaillac Mousseux. These sparkling wines may be made by the traditional method or by méthode Gaillaçoise , a variant of the méthode ancestrale . Marcillac AOP is a unique appellation in France, producing varietal Fer reds—a minimum 90% is required in AOP vineyards. South of Bergerac, Buzet AOP and Côtes de Duras AOP produce Bordeaux-style wines in all three colors. Côtes de Marmandais AOP are similar in style, but allow a complement of regional grapes; the red wines in particular may show Syrah influence. Fronton AOP (formerly Côtes de Frontonnais) produces blended reds and rosés with a minimum 40% Negrette. The close of 2011 saw a number of former VDQS zones in the southwest catapulted to AOC/AOP status. BACK TO TOP Updated November 2017Previewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/210/portugalWed, 22 Apr 2026 15:45:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:3877e90a-b14d-4210-bd78-bd470ce3d33cGuildSomm AdminTable of Contents Portugal The History of Port, Madeira and Portuguese Wine Portuguese Wine Classifications and Grape Varieties Minho and Vinho Verde Transmontano Duriense: Douro and Porto Beiras Lisboa Península de Setúbal Tejo and Alentejano Algarve Açores Terras Madeirenses Portugal Portugal ranks as the world’s 10th largest producer of wine; the country is 1st in the world in per capita consumption. Although its fame in the world of wine rests squarely on the shoulders of two great fortified wines, the country is rapidly developing an arsenal of modern table wines, sourced from a diverse array of over 250 unique native varieties. Worldwide decline in the sales (and interest) of fortified wines has prompted Portuguese producers to look beyond Port and Madeira in an effort to compete, but years of geographical and—until the last decades of the 20th century—political isolation have left an inscrutable, perplexing vineyard terrain. Rather than adopt the same international varieties that characterize newer winemaking regions worldwide, Portuguese producers instead look to their own bounty of grapes and traditions. New research continues to identify the best indigenous varieties and clonal selections for quality table wines, and technological advancements in the winery allow Portugal’s table wines to overcome past criticisms of rapid oxidation and rusticity. BACK TO TOP The History of Port, Madeira, and Portuguese Wine The history of wine in Portugal closely parallels that of its Iberian neighbor Spain through the Age of Exploration. Wine in Portugal predates the Phoenicians, Greeks, Celts, and Romans, each of whom arrived in turn prior to the Common Era. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the ensuing Germanic and Moorish conquests of the region frustrated—but did not eradicate—viticulture. Portugal expelled the Moors and affirmed its national identity by 1250, over two centuries before Spain would conclude its Reconquista . In 1386, Portugal signed the Treaty of Windsor with England, establishing a diplomatic alliance that would pave the way for extensive trade between the two kingdoms. Portugal emerged from the Middle Ages with great interest in maritime trading routes and exploration, and developed the first great navy in modern Europe. At Prince Henry the Navigator’s instigation, Portuguese sailors explored the African Coast and discovered the Madeira archipelago in 1419, nearly 625 miles from the Portuguese mainland. The Portuguese colonized Madeira, the “isle of woods,” and promptly set fire to the forests to make it suitable for agriculture. Legend reports that the fires burned for seven years, consuming the entire island, although modern residents scoff at the suggestion. Madeira became an important port of call for ships heading either eastward toward India or westward toward the New World, as captains filled their ships with fresh food, sugar, and wine. In 1678, two Englishmen arrived in Lamego, a mountain town in the Douro Valley, and discovered Porto (Port), a sweet, fortified vinous concoction produced at a local monastery. The abbot of Lamego practiced mutage , arresting the fermentation of his wines with brandy while sugar was still present. The Englishmen sent the wines home to Liverpool, where the strength and richness of Port, nicknamed blackstrap, earned it wide popularity. War and trade embargoes with France at the end of the 17th century resulted in a boom for sales of Douro wines. A 1679 ban on French wines sales in England was lifted in 1685, only to be reinstated in 1688. The English replaced the total ban with heavy tariffs in 1697, and in 1703 signed the Treaty of Methuen with Portugal, establishing a long-lasting trade agreement between the two nations and preferential tariffs for Portuguese wines. The English had relied on the light reds of the Minho River Valley in northern Portugal as an alternative to claret since the early 12th century, but had always considered French wines superior. Port was, in style and strength, a wine that could rouse English tastes; the introduction of Port coincided not only with England’s difficulties with France, but also with Western Europe’s rising interest in sweetness, predicated by new trade with the West Indies. The concern over durability—a long voyage from Portugal to England created many opportunities for spoilage—led many Douro shippers to steadily adopt the practice of fortification throughout the 1700s. In 1678, the year the English discovered Port, Portuguese exports accounted for only 427 tuns (one tun equals an approximate 954 liters); in 1685 the English imported 14,000 tuns. By the mid-18th century, Portuguese wine accounted for nearly two-thirds of all imported wine in England, and Port was its most desirable product. Christiano Kopke, a German, founded the house of Kopke in 1638, four decades before the first recorded shipment of Porto to England, but the English market drove the wine’s fame and popularity. The English had established the Douro houses Warre & Co., Croft and Taylor’s by 1700, and in the decades after the Treaty of Methuen the English appetite for Douro wines grew rapaciously. The houses in Douro simply could not meet demand and many resorted to fraudulent practices to satisfy English thirsts: merchants aromatized wines, added excessive amounts of sugar and alcohol, and achieved deeper color with the addition of elderberry—a technique perhaps borrowed from the Champenoise. The English reacted with their wallets, and in the 1740s and 1750s the price of Port in England dropped precipitously. To restore English confidence and protect its own economic interests, the Portuguese government created the Companhia Geral dos Vinhos do Alto Douro, or Douro Wine Company. Charged with eliminating fraud and installing regulatory measures, the Douro Wine Company formally established the boundaries and practices of the Douro appellation in 1756. The Douro Wine Company developed a methodology for grading Port vineyards and authorized each individual farmer’s production allotment relative to the vineyard’s grade. Between 1758 and 1761, the 335 best vineyards were classified as feitoria and marked with stones, signifying fruit reserved for the English market. Lesser vineyards ( rama ) provided domestic wines. Although the reputation of the wine was saved, the British merchants—many of whom were responsible for perpetrating fraud in the first place—forfeited a measure of control over the trade. The Douro Wine Company now regulated grape prices, fixed pricing on the finished wines, managed exports and monopolized the sale of Portuguese brandy ( aguardente ) used in the fortification process. The company, whose dual role as a regulator and a shipper of wine caused stern criticism, survives as the Royal Oporto Wine Company, but its regulatory functions were lost over time. Today, the government-run Douro Port Wine Institute (IVDP) manages the appellation and its regulations. As Port became the favored Portuguese wine in England, Madeira’s British wine merchants developed a prosperous colonial trade—particularly with the English North American colonies and Brazil. By the middle of the 18th century, most Madeira wine was fortified to sustain its character over the long passage at sea, but a curious transformation occurred: as the pipes of Madeira completed their transatlantic voyage through the tropics, they were subject to wide temperature fluctuations, which heated and oxidized the contents, resulting in a distinctive character. Ship captains were even persuaded to use Madeira pipes as ballast, and Vinhos ao Roda —wines that had undergone the torna viagem (round trip) across the Atlantic, or to the East Indies and back—sold for much higher prices than Vinhos Canteiro , the wines that matured on the island. Although the estufagem process began to replace the lengthy voyage in the early 1800s, a few wines were deliberately, if impractically, matured at sea until the 1900s. Attributed by Shakespeare as the liquid in which the Duke of Clarence was sentenced to be drowned in, in 1478, fulfilling his sentence for treason against the King of England, a glass of Madeira was raised to commemorate both the signing of the Declaration of Independence and George Washington’s inauguration. The first President supposedly drank a pint of Madeira daily, and as colonial troops and Americans loyal to the crown fled the newborn country after the Revolutionary War, they took their love of the wine to England with them. Madeira, Port—which provided half of England’s wine in 1800—and the wines of Portugal in general reached their apex in the marketplace by the first decade of the 19th century. The French and Spanish invaded Portugal in 1807 to disrupt the country’s trade with England, and although vineyards themselves sustained relatively little damage, the production quality and prices were greatly affected, signaling new doubts abroad about the integrity of the wines. After Napoleon’s defeat and exile, Britain reopened trade with the European Continent and Portuguese wines steadily lost market share to French and Spanish wines, and even beer. Spanish Sherry replaced Port as England’s fortified wine of choice by the late 1800s. Portuguese producers attempted to replace losses in the waning British market with monopolistic controls over Portugal’s New World colonies, but these markets were steadily lost to independence movements. The American Civil War of 1861-1865 portended a significant decline in imports of Madeira wines—and a newly energized Russian market would provide only a temporary respite, reduced by revolution in the early 20th century. Powdery and downy mildew both struck Portugal in the 1850s, and phylloxera entered the Douro in 1867. The cumulative effect was devastative—only Colares, near Lisboa, was spared from the root louse. Portugal turned inward. Many vineyards were not replanted in the wake of phylloxera; during this time the cork industry took root in Portugal, and the country remains one of the foremost suppliers of cork closures for the wine industry. In the early 20th century, Portugal moved to protect its wine-producing regions, establishing Região Demarcada status for Madeira, Dão, Vinho Verde, and other areas by 1929. However, Portugal experienced great political upheaval throughout the early 20th century, silenced in 1932 by the inception of nearly four decades of authoritarian, right-wing rule. In 1937, the Junta Nacional do Vinhos was founded, revamping the Portuguese wine industry and consolidating small vineyards into a network of larger co-operatives. As under other European autocratic regimes, the quality of wine suffered. Alongside Port, two commercial brands of sweet, semi-sparkling rosé—Mateus and Lancers—became the face of Portuguese wine worldwide after World War II. Portugal finally began to transition to democracy with a left-leaning military coup in 1974, followed by its admission into the EU in 1986. With EU membership, Portugal’s co-operatives lost their monopolistic power, and government grants and foreign investment began to pour into the country. Many small estates ( quintas) severed their ties with co-operatives and started making their own wines. Portugal devised a new appellation system in line with EU standards, designating Regiões Demarcadas as Denominação de Origem Controlada (DOC). In late 2009, the DOCs were additionally classified as Denominação de Origem Protegida (DOP), in order to maintain EU protection. Port remains the world’s most prestigious fortified wine, yet Portugal’s producers, in the Douro and elsewhere, have a number of distinctive, native varieties to explore and refine for table wines. Like Spain, many of Portugal’s wines can compete with New World examples for ripeness and fruit, yet they maintain a unique identity. Despite the country’s rich heritage of storied fortified wines, Portugal is quickly creating a new tradition of vibrant table wines. BACK TO TOP Portuguese Wine Classifications and Grape Varieties To maintain eligibility for protection in the EU, Portugal has broadly reclassified its quality wines as either Denominação de Origem Protegida (DOP) or Indicação Geogràfica Protegida (IGP). DOP is the superior classification and it includes all Denominação de Origem Controlada (DOC) wines. There are currently 31 DOPs. If the nomenclature for a DOC was altered for the coinciding DOP in order to meet EU standards, the traditional DOC may be used within Portugal. Theoretically DOP is the equivalent of the French AOP, and may apply to wines and other foods worthy of a protected designation. Individual legislation for each DOP wine prescribes allowed styles, maximum yields, minimum alcohol content, and aging requirements, if applicable. Indicação de Proveniencia Regulamentada (IPR) has been eliminated as an official category, and former IPRs have been upgraded to DOP status. The lower, or less stringent, tier of quality wines in Portugal is the Indicação Geogràfica (IG), or wines with “geographical indication”. These wines are considered IGP for the purposes of EU protection, or Vinhos Regional (VR) if traditionally labeled within Portugal. All wines in this category must include a minimum 85% of grapes grown in the stated region. A wide range of grape varieties is permitted in each IGP, and a minimum alcohol content is stipulated. IGP or VR wines are often produced in DOP regions, but fail—or their winemakers choose not—to meet all of the DOP requirements. There are fourteen IGPs in Portugal: Minho, Transmontano, Duriense, Terras do Dão, Terras de Cister, Terras da Beira, Beira Atlântico, Tejo, Lisboa, Alentejano, Península de Setúbal, Algarve, Terras Madeirenses, and Açores. Wine produced in Portugal that does not meet any of the above criteria is considered Vinhos de Mesa, or simply Vinho—table wine. If produced as vintage-dated DOP or IGP, Portuguese table wines may be labeled as garrafeira (“private wine cellar”), indicating a minimum period of aging prior to release. Tinto (red) g arrafeira wines must age for a minimum 36 months, including at least 12 months in bottle. Branco (white) and rosado garrafeira wines must age for a minimum 12 months with at least 6 in bottle. The vintage garrafeira Port style as pioneered by Niepoort has a separate connotation: Wines that are aged in cask for at least 4 years, maximum 8 years, with an additional minimum 15 years in a glass container. Still Portuguese table wines of designated origin may also be labeled reserva , indicating an alcohol content of at least 0.5% higher than the legal minimum established by the respective DOP or IGP; however, stricter requirements in individual DOPs may supersede this standard. For traditional method sparkling wines, reserva instead indicates a minimum period of 12 months on the lees prior to dégorgement . Colheita Seleccionada indicates a minimum 1% higher alcohol content than that established by the regional appellation. All of these terms may be applied to wines produced in any of Portugal’s demarcated regions. Until recently, the most widely grown red casta (“grape variety”) in Portugal was Castelão, an adaptable variety producing typically full-bodied, tannic wines with meaty, red-fruit aromas. J.M. da Fonseca, whose sister company produced the hugely popular mid-20th-century brand Lancers, brought the Castelão grape from Tejo to Terras do Sado (now the Península de Setúbal), where they began bottling the grape under the “Periquita” brand. The brand was a great success, leading other producers to adopt the “Periquita” moniker as a synonym for the grape—a convention that J.M. da Fonseca successfully contested in court. Although its cultivation is not as widespread as Castelão, Touriga Nacional is perhaps Portugal’s finest red casta . Touriga Nacional, a variety cherished for Port blends, accounts for approximately 10% of the nation’s vineyard acreage, and yields inky, full-bodied, structured wines. Despite originating in the Dão, Touriga Nacional has been supplanted by Jaen (Mencía) in plantings in the region, and it only represents a small proportion of the Douro’s total acreage. The low-yielding vine produces extremely small berries, valued for their extraction potential and concentration in the red table blends of Dão, Douro, and Alentejo. The country’s premium red table wines often contain a percentage of Touriga Nacional, lavishly treated to new French oak in the manner of Bordeaux. Synonyms include Bical Tinto and Mortágua Preto. As of 2025, Aragonez (Tinta Roriz, known as Tempranillo in Spain) has the highest acreage under vine, followed by Touriga Franca. Castelão , Touriga Nacional, Trincadeira (Tinta Amarela), and Baga are other widely cultivated and promising red grape varieties in Portugal. Fernão Pires, known as Maria Gomes in Bairrada, is the most planted white casta in the country. The early-ripening, aromatic grape is found throughout Portugal, but it is concentrated in Bairrada and the southern plains of Tejo. It is a workhorse, producing fairly simple, honeyed wines that are often prone to oxidation and low acidity. Nobler white wines are produced from the Encruzado grape in the Dão, an elegant, balanced grape yielding floral and citrusy wines that gain complex nutty, resinous aromas with age. Oak is sometimes implemented in fermentation. Arinto, one of Portugal’s oldest indigenous varieties, produces lively, mineral-tinged whites and is grown throughout the country, although its most striking examples issue from the coastal regions, and from Bucelas in particular. The aromatic, tropical Antão Vaz is one of the most important white grapes in Alentejano, and Alvarinho (Spain’s Albariño) is highly regarded by the producers of Vinho Verde. One of Portugal's most thrilling indigenous white varieties is Sercial, a highly acidic grape prized for dry Madeira and known as Esgana Cão—the “dog strangler"—on the mainland. It is often confused with its homophone Cercial, which is used in Dão, Douro and Bairrada blends, but the two white grapes are genetically distinct. BACK TO TOP Minho and Vinho Verde Located in the northwestern corner of the country, Minho IGP and Vinho Verde DOP share exact geographical boundaries. A cool, rainy, Atlantic-influenced climate prevails, and grey rot can be problematic during the damp growing season. Traditionally, vines in the region have been trained high off the ground in a system called enforcado . Vines would grow up the trunks of trees, telephone poles, and stakes, creating an overhead canopy. The probability of fungal disease in the wet climate is thus lessened, and other crops are grown beneath the grapes in the densely farmed region, yet the method has been displaced by more modern trellising systems, and fewer than 10% of vines are today trained in this fashion. Vinho Verde—“green wine,” a reference to the wines’ youthful freshness and the verdant countryside—is the largest DOP in Portugal and represents around 15% of the nation’s total vineyard acreage, producing red, white, and rosado wines from an assortment of grapes. The region’s nearly 24,000 hectares of vineyards stretch northward from the city of Oporto to the Spanish border (the Minho River), and share lush landscape features and some grape varieties with Rías Baixas, Vinho Verde’s neighbor to the north. Gentle slopes of shallow granitic soils are predominant, although steeper, terraced vineyards are common in the mountains further inland. Loureiro is the region's most heavily planted white grape and the primary component of traditional Vinho Verde blends. Other white grapes include Trajadura (Treixadura), Avesso, Pedernã (Arinto), and the Spanish Albariño. Known as Alvarinho in Portugal, the grape is chiefly bottled as a varietal wine near the northern town of Monção, situated directly across the Minho River from Rías Baixas' Condado do Tea region. Monção e Melgaço Alvarinho remains a bright spot for quality in a region driven by high yields and mass production. Red and rosado wines, produced from grapes like Vinhão, Espadeiro, Borraçal, and Alvarelhão, represent a minority of exports. The light, floral white wines of the region are more common in both Europe and the US and are marked by lively acidity and low alcohol levels, and are slightly sparkling—a result, generally, of carbon dioxide injection prior to bottling. The red wines, also pétillant , gain their sparkle from malolactic fermentation in the bottle, a process usually avoided for white wines. The wines, whether white or red, are at their best in the year after release. BACK TO TOP Transmontano Transmontano IGP is located to the east of Minho along the Spanish border to the north of Duriense. Within the region are three non-contiguous subregions of the Trás-os-Montes DOP : Chaves, Valpaços, and Planalto Mirandés. The region is dry, hot, and mountainous, and the resulting wines are typically ripe and full-bodied, although the cooler, higher-altitude vineyards can preserve acidity. Important red grapes include Touriga Nacional, Tinta Roriz, Bastardo (Trousseau), Touriga Francesa and Trincadeira. Fernão Pires, Síria, Viosinho, Gouveio, Malvasia Fina and Rabigato are the most planted white grapes. Douro and Porto were once included in the region, prior to the creation of the Duriense IGP. BACK TO TOP Duriense: Douro and Porto The Duriense IGP is a slender region that encompasses the eastern, mountainous Douro River Valley south of Transmontano. It includes the DOPs of Douro and Porto . The Douro is Portugal’s first demarcated wine region—one of the first such appellations recognized in Europe—and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The river and its tributaries carve deep valleys through the granite Marão and Montemuro Mountains, and vineyards run from the riverside up the terraced, precipitous slopes. Schist, the preferred soil type for Port, is in abundance throughout the zone, often broken up by the actions of man. The Douro Valley experiences a continental climate of severely hot summers and cold winters, when temperatures often dip below freezing. The region’s craggy mountains act as barriers to the humid Atlantic winds, and the Douro becomes progressively drier toward the Spanish border. There are three subzones in Douro; Baixo Corgo to the west has the highest density of plantings, Cima Corgo has the highest total vineyard acreage, and Douro Superior, which stretches to the Spanish border, is the largest, most arid, and most sparsely planted region in Douro. Table wines and the occasional licoroso (fortified) Moscatel do Douro are produced as Douro DOP; fortified Port from the Douro region is released as Porto DOP. Approximately 50% of the region’s wine is released as Porto. Vineyards along the Douro River. Douro table wines may be red, white, or rosado. The list of approved grape varieties of either color is extensive, but the best red wines are usually produced from Touriga Nacional, Touriga Franca, Tinta Roriz, Tinta Cão, and Tinta Barroca. These grapes are equally suited to Port production, although clonal choices and preferred mesoclimates may differ for table wines. White varieties include Malvasia Fina, Viosinho, Rabigato, and Gouveio. Both white and red wines may be simple, fruity and fresh, or subject to new oak treatment and higher degrees of sophistication and polish in the winery. Moscatel Galego is used for fortified Moscatel wines, which may carry an age designation in the manner of tawny Port. In the Douro, reserva wines must achieve a minimum alcohol of 11.5% or 12% for white and rosado wines or red wines, respectively, instead of the standard minimum 10.5% (white/rosado) or 11% (red) for the appellation. White reserva wines must be aged for six months; red reserva wines must be aged for one year. The IVDP must certify all Douro wines; those that meet reserva criteria and score exceptionally well in blind tasting analysis may use the term grande reserva . Espumanto do Douro (sparkling wines) and Colheita Tardia (late harvest wines) may be produced as Douro DOP. Although the Minho region separates the Douro DOP from seaside Oporto (Porto), the major port houses have historically used the port city as a commercial nexus for the trade. In the past, the houses would transport Port casks in Barco Rabelo ships from Pinhão in the Cima Corgo downriver to Vila Nova de Gaia, a suburb of Oporto for maturation in their lodges. Until 1986, when membership in the EU disrupted the monopolistic demands of the Port trade, all Port wines were required by law to be aged and shipped from Vila Nova de Gaia. Removing such restrictions has enabled a new generation of small quintas to produce and ship Port and table wines from their premises in the Douro. The 1990s witnessed the birth of a number of smaller estates. Nonetheless, the larger Port houses and shippers are responsible for establishing the phenomenon of dry Douro table wines. Casa Ferreirinha , a house now under the ownership of Sogrape, launched Barca Velha in 1952, pioneering the style. The Port houses of Niepoort, Quinta do Crasto and Ramos Pinto are at the forefront of the table wine revolution. The 270-hectare Douro Superior estate Quinta do Vale Meão, formerly the primary source of fruit for Barca Velha, has established itself as one of the region’s young cult stars. (For further information on the viticulture, production process, and categories of Porto DOP wines, please refer to the Compendium .) BACK TO TOP Beiras and Terras do Dão The traditional province of Beiras lies south of Duriense and Minho, spanning the entire width of Portugal, from the fertile littoral coast to the mountainous interior. Until early 2011, a single IGP represented the entire region, but Portuguese authorities dismantled the expansive zone, dividing its territory among four new IGPs: Terras do Dão, Terras de Cister, Terras da Beira, and Beira Atlântico. Dão DOP and Lafões DOP lie within the newly unveiled Terras do Dão IGP, which borders Minho IGP to the north and claims a large swath of the central, inland territory formerly assigned to Beiras IGP. Bairrada DOP is located within Beira Atlântico, a coastal IGP with one designated subzone, Terras do Sicó. Távora-Varosa DOP , a center of sparkling wine production, is a small appellation immediately south of the Douro River and north of Terras do Dão. It is located within the Terras de Cister IGP, the "land of the Cistercians," another reminder of the medieval Church's influence in spreading the vine. Beira Interior DOP is a larger appellation near the Spanish border, within the Terras da Beira IGP. Despite its size, the region has relatively few growers, and much of the winemaking is performed by cooperatives. Beira Interior contains three subzones: Beira Castelo Rodrigo, Cova da Beira, and Pinhel. Some of Portugal’s best dry reds are produced in Dão DOP. Dão’s producers have worked to emphasize freshness and fragrance from the 1990s forward. Although it has been eclipsed in volume of acreage, Touriga Nacional is a signature component of Dão blends; the wines are typically more elegant, sharper, and more floral than their counterparts in the Douro. Sheltered by three mountain ranges, the Dão is partially protected from the harsh winds of the continental interior, yet insulated from the wet, cool maritime weather systems coming in from the coast. Ultimately, the region is hot and dry in the growing season, but receives adequate rainfall in the cold winter months. Altitude helps to preserve acidity, and the best vineyards are often located between 400 and 500 meters above sea level, where the preferred granitic soils are in abundance. The Dão is not densely planted: approximately 5% of the total region is utilized for viticulture. There are seven subregions, each with distinct mesoclimates: Serra da Estrela (named for Portugal’s highest mountain range), Alva, Besteiros, Castendo, Silgueiros, Terras de Azurara, and Terras de Senhorim. Dão wines may be red, white, rosado or espumante ; but red wines account for over three-quarters of the total output. Recommended red grapes are Touriga Nacional, Jaen, Touriga Franca, Alfrocheiro, Aragonez, Bastardo, Rufete, Trincadeira, and Tinta Cão. Recommended white grapes include (but are not limited to) Encruzado, Bical, and Cercial. A number of other grapes are additionally “authorized” but not recommended. Finally, certain experimental grapes, such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Sémillon, can be utilized but may not comprise more than 40% of a blend. Dão producers may label their wines as garrafeira according to the standard aging regimen, but the minimum abv is increased to 11.5% (from 11%). Red wines may be labeled as reserva with two years of aging, whereas whites must be aged for only six months to qualify. Both red and white Dão wines may be labeled nobre (“noble”), provided certain requirements are met. Red nobre wines must contain a minimum 15% Touriga Nacional and at most 85% of combined Jaen, Rufete, Alfrocheiro, and Aragonez. Red nobre wines must undergo a minimum three years aging prior to release and contain a minimum 13% alcohol. White nobre wines must contain a minimum 15% Encruzado and a maximum 85% of Cercial, Bical, Malvasia Fina, and Verdelho. They undergo one year of aging prior to release and must contain a minimum 12% alcohol. To the west of Dão, Bairrada DOP experiences a milder, rainier climate. Like Dão, Bairrada predominantly produces red wines, although white and rosado wines are authorized. The late-ripening, notoriously astringent Baga, the main red grape of the region, thrives in the barros (clay) soils, whereas white grapes, including Maria Gomes and Arinto, are usually planted in sandier soils. Red wines are typically blends, featuring Baga along with grapes such as the native Touriga Nacional, Camarate, Castelão, Jaen, and Alfrocheiro. While a new wave of experimentation has paved the way for the incursion of many international varieties, winemakers who remain faithful to the native grapes (and provide a minimum 12.5% abv in the case of Tinto or 12% abs for Branco, rather than the 11% required by the DOP) earn the right to label their wines as Bairrada Clássico. BACK TO TOP Lisboa The coastal Lisboa IGP runs southward from Beiras to Portugal’s capital city, where the Tagus River meets the Atlantic Ocean. Lisboa contains nine individual DOPs: Bucelas , Colares , Carcavelos , Arruda , Torres Vedras , Alenquer , Óbidos , Lourinhã , and Encostas d'Aire . Encostas d'Aire overlaps Alta Estremadura and Estremadura, subzones of the northern half of Lisboa IGP. Collectively, the region releases a larger volume of wine than any other in Portugal, but it has long carried a reputation of low quality, dominated by co-operatives and Vinhos de Mesa production. However, the southern DOP zones nearest the city of Lisboa have produced exemplary wines, and Alenquer and Encostas d'Aire in the north show promise. Lourinhã produces aguardente rather than wine. The three DOPs nearest the capital—Bucelas, Colares, and Carcavelos—are slowly disappearing due to the inexorable pressures of the expanding urban population. Bucelas produces dry white wines from a minimum 75% Arinto. Colares wines may be red or white. The sandy soils of Colares provided a bulwark against phylloxera incursion, and the vines of the region were traditionally planted in trenches to protect them from the salty marine winds. The majority of Colares' red and white wines are produced, respectively, with grapes from ungrafted Ramisco and Malvasia vines. A second, harder soil type, chao rija , is located further inland in the Colares DOP, and Castelão is more frequently planted there. Carcavelos has suffered the most at the hands of suburban sprawl—only 25 hectares of vineyard remain. Red wines are produced from a combined minimum 75% Castelão and Preto Martinho, and white wines are a blend of Arinto, Galego Dourado, and Ratinho. The wines are fermented dry, then fortified and sweetened with vinho abafado , a partially fermented must preserved with alcohol. After fortification, Carcavelos wines are aged in barrel for at least two years, followed by at least six months in bottle. BACK TO TOP Península de Setúbal The Península de Setúbal IGP, formerly Terras do Sado, includes the DOP zones of Setúbal and Palmela , located across the wide Tagus estuary from the city of Lisboa. The IGP itself encompasses the peninsula, defined by the Tagus and Sado estuaries, and a section of the Atlantic Coast. The region’s climate is Mediterranean. Palmela DOP comprises two distinct areas: low-lying, sandy plains spreading eastward from the hilltop town of the same name, and the clay-limestone lower slopes of the Arrabida Mountains. The sandy plains provide the best terroir for Castelão, the region’s premier grape and dominant component of Palmela reds—a minimum 66.7% is stipulated. White wines are typically blended with a high proportion of Fernão Pires and Arinto. Rosado, espumante and licoroso wines are also authorized. The DOP’s rather liberal encépagement includes a number of international varieties for both red and white wine production, including Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Sémillon, Syrah, Sauvignon Blanc, Merlot, and Tannat. The vinhos licoroso of Setúbal gained popularity in the heyday of Portugal’s fortified wine trade, benefiting—like Madeira—from the torna viagem maturation process. The region was one of the first in Portugal to be demarcated in the early 20th century (1907). Sweet white and red fortified wines are produced, from a minimum 67% Moscatel de Setúbal (Muscat d’Alexandria) or Moscatel Roxo, respectively. In keeping with EU regulations, the wine may be labeled by variety if either grape comprises a minimum 85% of the blend. The wines have a particularly pungent, floral fragrance, developed through a lengthy maceration on Muscat skins—for up to six months—following the fermentation and fortification. The wines develop a tawny, burnt orange color and raisin spice character while maturing in large wooden casks for up to five years prior to release. Some examples age for upwards of 20 years, unfolding mature molasses and caramel tones while darkening in color. J.M. da Fonseca is the appellation’s largest and most storied producer; in the company’s cellars are stocks of wine dating to the 19th century, some of which crossed the equator at sea. BACK TO TOP Tejo and Alentejano Both Tejo and Alentejano derive their names from the Tagus, or Tejo, River. The landlocked Tejo IGP is surrounded by Lisboa to the west, Beiras to the north, Alentejano to the east, and the Península de Setúbal to the south. The Tagus River flows through the alluvial plains of the fertile region, which, like Lisboa, is characterized by bulk production and basic quality. The IGP contains the single unrestrictive DoTejo DOP (formerly Ribatejo), in which only 1850 of the IGP’s 22,300 hectares of vineyards are included. DoTejo in turn encompasses six subregions: Coruche, Chamusca, Cartaxo, Santarém, Tomar, and Almeirim. Red, white, and rosado wines are produced from a bewildering number of native and international varieties. Castelão and Fernão Pires are the dominant red and white grapes; white wines outnumber reds. The Alentejano IGP, covering 30% of Portugal’s landmass, borders the eastern edge of both Tejo and the Península de Setúbal, extending southward to the Atlantic Coast north of Algarve. Alentejano’s hot growing season manifests in the perennial problems of low acidity and high alcohol, and irrigation is absolutely necessary in the region’s arid plains. The Alentejo DOP within Alentejano highlights eight subzones: Moura, Granja-Amareleja, Évora, Vidigueira, Reguengos, Redondo, Borba, and Portalegre—the latter, located on the cooler, granitic slopes of the São Mamede Mountains in the northernmost sector of the DOP, is the most promising area in the region. Red wine production in Alentejo exceeds that of whites, and Trincadeira is the region’s most prominent grape. Large swaths of Quercus suber —cork trees—are widespread through the region. BACK TO TOP Algarve Algarve is the southernmost IGP on the Portuguese mainland. It contains four DOP zones— Lagos , Lagoa , Portimão , and Tavira —each dominated by a co-operative. Traditional grape varieties in the region include Castelão and Tinta Negra Mole for red wines, and Arinto and Síria for white wines. Algarve’s hot seaside climate is not particularly suited for the production of fine wines, and in any event resort tourism has displaced many of the region’s vineyards. BACK TO TOP Açores The volcanic Açores (Azores) islands are located in the middle of the Atlantic, nearly 1,000 miles from the coast of Portugal. Three of the nine islands—Pico, Graciosa, and Terceira—have DOP zones, although conditions in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean are not tremendously conducive to viticulture. The fortified white wines of Pico DOP are the most highly regarded wines of the archipelago, yet they are generally consumed locally and viticulture occupies only a sliver of the island. The island’s apex is its volcano—the highest point in Portugal at 7,500 feet above sea level. The island’s vineyards, sheltered from sea winds by walls hewn from the black volcanic stone, have been designated as a World Heritage Site. Pico DOP Licoroso wines must achieve a minimum 16% abv after fortification, and are aged for a minimum two years in barrel. Verdelho, Arinto and Terrantez are authorized for production. Biscoitos DOP , on the island of Terceira, and Graciosa DOP also produce fortified white wines from the same grapes, as well as unfortified, dry white table wines and sparkling wines. BACK TO TOP Terras Madeirenses The Terras Madeirenses IGP encompasses both of the inhabited isles of the subtropical Madeira archipelago: Madeira and Porto Santo. Two DOP zones, Madeira and Madeirense , cover the fortified and unfortified wines, respectively, of both islands. Madeirense wines may be red, white, or rosé. Produced from grapes as dissimilar as Verdelho, Arnsburger (a Riesling crossing developed at Geisenheim), Cabernet Sauvignon, Tinta Negra, and Syrah, they are rarely exported. Madeira wine's regulatory body, the IVBAM, operates a cooperative winemaking facility for Madeirense DOP. For further information on the fortified wines of Madeira, click here BACK TO TOPPreviewPortugalhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/211/port-sherry-and-fortified-winesWed, 22 Apr 2026 15:45:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:b855560e-6249-4aa6-920f-23fd8c177a88GuildSomm AdminTable of Contents Fortified Wine Port Styles of Port Madeira Sherry Marsala Fortified Wine Fortified wines, like sparkling wines, are the result of a process beyond simple vinification. Fortified wines are manipulated through the addition of neutral grape spirit, in order to strengthen the base wines for the purpose of added body, warmth, durability or ageworthiness. Through centuries of effort, the world’s premier fortified wine regions have developed unique regimes of production and aging; these methodologies—or manipulations of the base material—have become inextricably linked to the terroir of the wines. Port, Madeira, and Sherry represent the three great archetypes of fortified wine, yet each is utterly distinct. Sicily’s Marsala; France’s vin doux naturel ; many of Greece’s PDO wines; Portugal’s Setúbal, Carcavelos, and Pico; Sherry’s close cousins Málaga, Montilla-Moriles, and Condado de Huelva; the many fading traditional styles of the Iberian peninsula—Tarragona Clásico, Rueda Dorado, etc.—and a myriad number of New World adaptations constitute the remaining stratum of fortified wine styles. Vermouth and quinquinas, fortified wines flavored by maceration with additional herbs and spices (cinchona bark is essential to the flavor of quinquinas) are properly considered aromatized wines. There are three general methods of fortification. A wine’s fermentation may be arrested through the addition of spirit while sugars remain (as in the case of Port) or the wine may be fortified after the fermentation has concluded (as in the case of Sherry). The latter method produces a dry fortified wine, although the winemaker may restore sweetness by the addition of sweetened wine or grape syrup. The third method, in which grape must is fortified prior to fermentation, produces a mistelle rather than a fortified wine. This category was once exclusively known as vins de liqueur (liqueur wines), but the EU has extended its definition to include all fortified wines. The popular connotation reigns in France, where many grape-growing regions are associated with a style of vin de liqueur : in Champagne, there is Ratafia; in Cognac, Pineau des Charentes; in Armagnac, Floc de Gascogne; in the Jura, Macvin du Jura. BACK TO TOP Port Port , the famous fortified wine of Portugal’s Douro Valley, enjoys the protection of one of the world’s oldest appellations—the Douro was first demarcated in 1756—yet has become one of the world’s most co-opted wine styles. Fraud and the appropriation of unique regional identities has been an endemic and ongoing struggle for many of the world’s most process-driven wines, particularly Champagne, Sherry, and Port. “Port” is now a protected term in the EU; the production of Port is overseen and enforced by the Douro Port Wine Institute, or Instituto dos Vinhos do Douro e Porto (IVDP) a regulatory body that absorbed the powers of the Commissão Interprofissional da Região Demarcada do Douro in 2003, which in turn replaced the Casa do Douro in 1995. The Casa do Douro, a syndicate of growers’ guilds established in 1932 that assumed control over the regulation of viticulture, lost many of its regulatory functions after it bought controlling shares in Royal Oporto, a port shipper and the surviving remnant of the Companhia Geral dos Vinhos do Alto Douro, the original oversight “company” established in the Douro in 1756. Today, the government-run IVDP supervises the promotion, production, and trade of all Porto and Douro DOP wines. Both growers and shippers must submit to its authority. The IVDP requires Port houses to maintain compliance with the lei do terço (“law of the third”), a decree restricting sales of Port to one-third of a house’s total inventory annually. In addition, the IVDP guarantees label integrity and age designations, and samples all appellation wines for authenticity. Terraces at Quinta do Noval. The IVDP grants each grower’s beneficio authorization—the maximum amount of wine that may be fortified in a given year—based on a matrix of twelve factors. Each factor has a minimum and maximum point score associated with it, and there are a total of 2,361 points available. Vineyards that score over 1,200 are awarded an “A” grade, “B” vineyards score between 1,001 and 1,200 points, and so on through “I”—the lowest grade. A-level sites are licensed to vinify the greatest percentage of Port, whereas vineyards classified G or lower cannot even produce Port. Points are given based on 12 criteria, also known as the Moreira da Fonseca method. Seven soil and climate factors are scored: location, altitude, exposure, bedrock, rough matter, slope and shelter. The next five factors relate to the vine itself: type of vine, planting density, yield, training system, and vine age. Maximum yields in the Douro for red grapes are set at 55 hl/ha; for white grapes the maximum yield is 65 hl/ha. For Porto, the preferred red grapes are Touriga Nacional, Touriga Francesa, Tinta Roriz, Tinta Cão, Tinta Barroca, Tinta Amarela, Tinta Francisca, Bastardo and Mourisco Tinto. They must constitute a minimum 60% of a vineyard's plantings. Preferred white Port grapes include Gouveio, Malvasia Fina, Viosinho, Rabigato, Esgana Cão, and Folgasão. Many of the Douro’s vineyards are planted on steep, terraced slopes—although one new planting system abandons traditional terraces in favor of planting vines in vertical rows leading directly up the slopes ( Vinhos ao Alta) . Patamares —wider terraces that can be navigated by tractor—are more common. Grapes are harvested by hand. After the harvested fruit arrives at the winery, the grapes are destemmed (fully or partially) and crushed. Traditionally, grapes were foot-crushed and fermented in low, open granite troughs called lagares . Smaller quintas may continue this practice, sometimes set to music for the benefit of both worker and tourist, but most large Port houses have switched to more modern means. Autovinifiers, an Algerian vinification technology in which the fermenting wine would be pumped over the cap by virtue of its own buildup of gas, became more and more common during labor shortages in the 1960s and 1970s. Powered only by their own internal pressure, the original autovinification tanks were a useful tool in the remote Douro Valley, although temperature control and other improvements are now widely incorporated. Automated treading machines, designed in the 1990s, and open-top fermenters with pump-over systems are newer alternatives for the region. Ultimately, the goal of the short, two-to-three day Port fermentation is to maximize extraction of color and flavor in the limited available time. Once the winemaker has reached the desired amount of residual sugar, the fermenting wine is pressed off the solids and prepared for fortification. Beneficio —the fortification of wine with spirit—occurs when approximately one-third of the sugar content has been converted to alcohol. The wine is fortified to 19-22% abv by the addition of aguardente— “burning water”—a 77% abv neutral grape spirit. The spirit is raw and uncomplicated; it is a young, fiery alcohol that contributes nothing to the character of the wine, rather it imparts the robustness necessary for the new Port to reach a proper maturity. The process of beneficio (known to the French as mutage ) halts fermentation, killing the yeasts and preserving sweetness in the Port. The winemaker relies on a complex series of calculations to determine the amount of aguardente to add to the base wine. For most Port, aguardente will be added to the fermenting wine in a 1:4 ratio, although lower alcohol (and drier) styles of white Port are produced. White and rosé Ports—the latter a category pioneered in the late 2000s by Croft—are made with lesser degrees of maceration, but otherwise all Port wines essentially follow this guideline of production. The choices following fortification, namely the length of aging and the type of vessel, determine the final style of the wine. A pipe , the traditional barrel used for both aging and shipping Port wine, varies in size: pipes used in the Douro Valley usually hold 550 liters, whereas pipes in Vila Nova de Gaia may often contain 620 liters. The size of a pipe used for shipping Port is set at 534.24 liters, although pipes used for shipping Madeira or Marsala are smaller. BACK TO TOP Styles of Port There are two broad, fundamental styles of Port: Ruby and Tawny. Ruby Ports, which include Vintage Ports, are bottle-aged. With the exception of well-aged, venerable Vintage Ports, Ruby Port wines will display darker color, more youthful fruit and spice tones, and a more aggressive, fiery character. Tawny ports are cask-aged, and develop more complex, mature tones of toffee, dried fruits, and toasted nuts with time. Tawny Port, naturally, develops lighter, amber tones of color as it ages in wood. Aging has historically occurred in the Port lodges of Vila Nova de Gaia, a suburb of Oporto, although this ceased to be mandatory in 1986. While the cooler air of coastal Oporto is preferable to the warmer Douro DOP for long-term maturation, modern climate control makes this a moot point. Today, many smaller quintas choose to age their Port wines at their facilities in the Douro Valley. Ruby Ruby Port: Ruby Port is often aged in bulk (in wood, cement, or stainless steel) for two to three years prior to bottling. The wine is uncomplicated, deeply colored, and inexpensive. Ruby Port does not carry a vintage date. Ruby Reserve Port: Ruby Reserve, or Premium Ruby, replaced the term “Vintage Character” and offers more complexity and character than a basic Ruby Port. Vintage Port: Vintage Port is the most expensive style of Port to purchase and constitutes approximately 1-3% of production. A Port house will usually declare a vintage year only in exceptional harvests—often a given house will, on average, declare a vintage three years out of every decade. Vintage Port must be authorized by the IVDP, and is aged in cask before being bottled by July 30 of the third year after harvest. Vintage Port will continue to develop in the bottle for decades, shedding brash fruit in favor of more complex attributes, although many bottles are consumed in their youth—particularly in the US. Mature Vintage Port requires decanting, as it will develop a significant deposit in the bottle. Quality is a chief factor in determining a vintage year, and a house will utilize the best vineyards available to it when creating a vintage blend, yet market concerns also play a role. Back-to-back, or “split” vintages are rare, as few shippers want to flood the market lest prices plunge. Single Quinta Vintage Port: A single quinta Vintage Port is the product of one estate’s harvest. Often, if a Port house cannot confidently declare a vintage, it may nonetheless showcase the fruit of one of its better estates as a vintage wine. In a vintage year, such an esteemed estate would usually provide the backbone of a shipper’s Vintage Port. Examples include Warre’s Quinta da Cavadinha, Taylor’s Quinta de Vargellas, and Dow’s Quinta do Bomfim. Many smaller quintas release their own vintage wines as well. Single quinta wines are made in the same fashion as other Vintage Ports, and will improve with additional bottle age. Late-Bottled Vintage Port: Late-Bottled Vintage Port (LBV) spends between four and six years in cask prior to bottling. Thus, the wines obtain some of the mellowed tones of a Tawny Port, while retaining the youthful fruit and directness of a Ruby Port. LBV Port is always the product of a single vintage, but quality may vary greatly. The majority of LBV wines are filtered prior to bottling; they will not require decanting and do not usually improve with additional bottle age. However, superior styles may achieve quality nearer that of a true Vintage Port and improve with bottle age, although they will always reach full maturity sooner than a Vintage Port. Such styles are often unfiltered, and may be labeled as Envelhecido em Garrafa , indicating an additional minimum three years of bottle aging. Tawny Tawny Port: Many wines labeled as Tawny Port do not undergo the extensive cask aging that is critical to the style, but are simply paler wines—due to the provenance of grapes, a less-thorough extraction, or the addition of white Port to the blend. Lesser vineyards and vintages constitute these wines, which are a popular aperitif in France. Reserve Tawny: Reserve Tawny Port ages for at least seven years prior to bottling. Reserve Tawny wines are blended from several vintages, and retain some youthful freshness while gaining a hint of the creamy, delicate nature of a true old Tawny. Tawny Port will not improve with additional bottle age. Tawny with Indication of Age: Tawny Port may be labeled as 10, 20, 30, 40, or 50 Years Old. These wines show a progressively more concentrated and developed character, reaching a pronounced oxidative, rancio state by forty years of age. Tawny Ports that display an age indication result from high-quality fruit, and are matured in seasoned wood. Typically, such Ports are racked once annually, often freshened with additional spirit or wine as evaporation takes its natural course, and are finally blended together prior to bottling. The age indication is not an average age of the blended wines in the bottle, but rather an approximation: for example, the IVDP deems a Port labeled “10 Year Old Tawny” to taste like a 10 Year Old Tawny, regardless of the wine’s actual age. Many Port connoisseurs prefer Tawny Port at 20 years of age, when the balance of fruit and mature characteristics is even, the spirit is finely integrated and the wine is not overtly oxidized. Colheita Tawny: Colheita Tawny Port is a vintage-dated Port that spends a minimum of seven years in cask—many stay in cask for decades. Some producers, such as Calem, a Port house that specializes in the Tawny style, will not bottle Colheita Tawny Ports until an order is received. Thus, Colheita Tawny Port from a particular vintage may vary in character from bottle to bottle. For a more complete history of Port and an overview of the Douro Valley, click here . BACK TO TOP Madeira The fortified wines of Madeira , a subtropical island rising sharply from the Atlantic nearly 625 miles off the coast of Portugal, are among the longest-lived wines in the world. The wines of Madeira originally developed their distinctive character on lengthy ocean voyages through the tropics, where the wines would be subjected to repeated heating and cooling. The torna viagem (“round trip”) is approximated today by heating the wine during the production process. When coupled with lengthy cask aging, the resulting wine is nearly indestructible—the ravages of heat and air are embraced, as they impart Madeira’s distinctive character! Madeira DOP wines may be produced on Madeira itself, or on the neighboring Porto Santo, the only other inhabited isle in the Madeira archipelago. On Madeira itself, walls of basalt stone sustain terraces known as poios ; they ring the island’s perimeter like steps on the nearly vertical mountainside, and support viticulture on the vertiginous incline. Grapevines, bananas, sugarcane, and even passion fruit vines grow in close proximity in the island's fertile volcanic soils. Most of the vineyards are trained in a pergola system, with vines suspended on low trellises known as latadas , in order to combat the dangers of fungal disease in the damp subtropical environment. Madeira rises to a high altitude, and the perpetual cloud cover over its mountainous interior results in abundant rainfall on the higher peaks, which feeds a system of levadas , or canals, and makes agriculture possible. Mechanization is essentially impossible in Madeira’s vineyards: the obstacle of terraces and the small size of vineyard holdings render mechanical harvesting unworkable. The average grower’s estate is 0.3 hectares, often separated among several plots; thus, production is concentrated in the hands of several large companies. As the IVDP oversees and regulates production of Port in the Douro Valley, the Wine, Embroidery and Handicraft Institute of Madeira (IVBAM) regulates harvesting and production methods of Madeira wines. There are three types of companies involved in the Madeira wine trade. The production companies make the wine, and most are based in Funchal, Madeira’s capital. There are currently eight production companies registered with the IVBAM, but only six actively export wine. Vinhos Justino Henriques is the largest company today in Madeira, and is responsible for half of the island's exports. The Madeira Wine Company, which was formed as an association of exporters and producers in 1913, commands the second largest market share and produces recognizable brands such as Blandy’s and Cossart Gordon. Henriques & Henriques is the largest independent producer, as well as the only company that owns a significant amount of vineyards. Shipping companies trade wine, rather than make it, and are usually based in London. A shipper will select wines from a producer, who will then bottle the wine under the shipper’s brand. Broadbent Selections, a company founded by Bartholomew Broadbent (son of Michael) that selects wines produced by Justino's, is an example of a Madeira trader. Partidistas , who store wine and sell it at maturity to other traders for a profit, make up the third category. Partidistas are similar to the almacenistas of the Sherry trade. Madeira Production Companies H.M. Borges (founded 1877) Henriques & Henriques (founded 1850) Madeira Wine Company (originally formed in 1913 as the Madeira Wine Association, the MWC formally changed its title in 1981) Pereira D'Oliveira (founded 1850 as a partidista) Vinhos Barbeito (founded 1946) Vinhos Justino Henriques (founded 1870) Faria & Filhos (founded 1949) Madeira Vintners (Cooperativa Agrícola do Funchal) (founded 2013) The principal noble white grapes of Madeira today are Sercial (Esgana Cão), Verdelho, Boal (Bual, Malvasia Fina), and Malmsey (originally Malvasia Candida, now more commonly Malvasia Branca de São Jorge). However, these four grapes account for only a small minority of the total production on the island. Tinta Negra (formerly called Tinta Negra Mole) is the island's workhorse, accounting for nearly 85% of its total production. The grape has been vilified in the wine press time and again, but it is capable of producing good quality wines across a wide range of sweetness levels. In support of its potential, Tinta Negra was upgraded to a recommended grape in 2015 and may now appear on labels. If a variety is included on the label, the wine must contain a minimum 85% of the stated grape if the wine is a multi-vintage blend, or 100% of the stated variety if a vintage is indicated. The incursion of phylloxera in 1872 served as a precursor to many significant and long-lasting changes to the Madeiran viticultural landscape. Tinta Negra displaced Verdelho as the island's most planted grape in the decades after its arrival. In the 19th century, Verdelho held a similarly mundane reputation, yet critics now accord it noble status; many hope that Tinta Negra will likewise evolve in stature. American hybrid grapes (Cunningham, Jacquet, Isabella, and others) were introduced to the island during the crisis, and two great noble varieties of the 19th century, the red Bastardo and the white Terrantez, were not replanted. Terrantez, which delivers a miniscule yield and is difficult to graft, is prized today but commercially insignificant. Bastardo is virtually extinct on the island: in 2017, 314 liters were produced. When combined with the coming economic difficulties of the 20th century, phylloxera's most disastrous effect on winegrowing in Madeira was one of scale: prior to the 1870s, as many as 3,000 hectares of vines existed on the island; today there are just under 500. Bananas fetch growers a higher wage. The varietal wines, in order from sweetest to driest, are as follows: Malvasia, Boal, Verdelho, and Sercial—the latter a piercingly acidic dry wine that can often require decades to soften. The rare Terrantez, unrelated to Argentina’s Torrontés, also produces compelling Madeira wines at a level of sweetness comparable to Verdelho. Sercial and Verdelho are actually harvested last, and are separated from their skins prior to fermentation, whereas Boal and Malmsey are picked first, and may undergo a shorter fermentation on the skins. For fine wines fortification with 96% abv grape spirit, imported from France, will occur during fermentation if a sweeter style is desired. Malvasia may only ferment for a few hours prior to fortification, so that most of the sugar remains. If a medium dry or dry wine is the goal, a winemaker will allow fermentation to continue for a longer period of time, but even the "dry" wines of the island contain significant amounts of residual sugar. After fortification, the young wine is then subjected to either the Estufagem or Canteiro process, the two modern heating methods that lend Madeira its distinctive character. Most wines are transferred to the estufa , a stainless steel vat that warms the wine by circulating hot water through serpentine coils inside the tank. In this method, the wine is heated to a temperature of 45-50° C (113-122°F) and held there for at least three months; during this period sugars in the wine will slowly caramelize and give the estufa wine its distinctive character. Once the Estufagem process is completed, the wine enters a period of rest ( estágio ) for a minimum 90 days before being transferred to cask for aging. Estufagem wines may not be released until two years after the harvest. A more delicate variation on the Estufagem process involves placing the wine in armazens de calor , rooms warmed by nearby tanks or steam pipes rather than the direct heat of the estufa . This variant technique, chiefly utilized by the Madeira Wine Company, utilizes lower temperatures over a longer period of time—sometimes up to one year. Finally, producers use the Canteiro method for their best wines. In this process, the wines are cask-aged for a period of at least two years in lodge attics. In this manner, the wine is exposed to the gentler, natural warmth of the sun as it undergoes a much slower process of maturation, preventing the burnt caramelization of sugars and resulting bitter flavors associated with rapid heating. Although Canteiro wines may be bottled at a minimum three years of age, the best Vinhos de Canteiro will remain in cask for 20 years or more, developing into the rarest and most treasured wines of the island: Frasqueiras . Main Varietal Styles of Madeira Sercial: The driest varietal Madeira, Sercial displays searing acidity and, over time, its youthful citrus notes evolve into a more complex almond bouquet. Sercial is a suitable aperitif, and often a good accompaniment to light soups and consommés. While considered dry these wines may still contain around 18 to 65 grams per liter of residual sugar. Verdelho: Verdelho produces a medium dry wine of high acid, with a smoky, honeyed character. The wines are slightly fuller in body than Sercial. Considered medium dry, these wines may still contain around 49 to 78 grams per liter of residual sugar. Boal: Boal produces a medium sweet, rich style of wine, in which the acidity is still powerful enough to dominate the finish. Highly aromatic, the wines tend to display classic chocolate, roasted nut, and coffee notes. With age, Boal tends to be the darkest Madeira wine in color. These wines, considered medium sweet, may contain around 78 to 96 grams per liter of residual sugar. Malvasia (Malmsey): The Malvasia wines represent the sweetest and softest style of Madeira. On the nose, Malmsey evokes toffee, vanilla, and marmalade aromas. The wine can frame a cheese course or dessert flavors of nut, caramel, and dried fruits equally well. Malmsey is considered sweet and may contain around 96 to 135 grams per liter of residual sugar. Madeira Multi-Vintage Blends Rainwater: A popular style in the US, Rainwater Madeira is usually 100% Tinta Negra. The wine is medium dry, and light in style. Seleccionado: Such bottles are often labeled “Finest,” “Choice,” or “Select,” and include a blended wine that is at least 3 years old (but below five years of age). These wines are dominated by the Tinta Negra grape, heated in Estufagem and aged in tank rather than cask. Reserve (Reserva): Madeira that is 5 years of age or older (but below 10 years of age) may use this designation. Special Reserve (Reserva Especial): Madeira that is 10 years of age or older (but below 15 years of age) may use this designation. Wines of this category (and all older designations) are often made of a single noble variety, heated by the Canteiro method. Extra Reserve: Madeira that is 15 years of age or older (but below 20 years of age) may use this designation. 5 Years Old, 10 Years Old, 15 Years Old, 20 Years Old, 30 Years Old, 40 Years Old, Over 50 Years Old Solera: Madeira wines produced by fractional blending and the Canteiro method. A maximum 10% of a solera's stock may be drawn off each year, and only 10 total additions may be made to each solera. Solera wines will be bottled with the starting date of the solera, but wines added to the solera may actually be older than the original wine—a solera on Madeira often served to extend the lifespan of a particular vintage, when there was little or no wine to sell in the following year. To accomplish this, producers refreshed soleras with stocks of older, rather than younger, wines. Madeira with a Vintage Date Colheita (Harvest): Colheita Madeira is produced from a single vintage (85% minimum required) and is aged for a minimum 5 years prior to bottling. It may be a blend or a single varietal wine. Colheita offers the consumer a “vintage” Madeira without the extended cask aging, complexity, or cost of a true Vintage Madeira, or Frasqueira. The word "harvest" is sometimes used in place of Colheita but producers are not allowed to use the word "vintage" on labels. Frasqueira: Vintage Madeira aged for a minimum 20 years in cask. Frasqueira must be produced from a single "noble" variety. Since only a minimum 85% of the vintage is required, these wines are topped up with younger wines throughout the aging process. Vintage wines are produced by the Canteiro method and may be aged for additional time—sometimes decades—in glass demijohns after the period of cask aging. Frasqueira is the epitome of Madeira, and one of the world’s legendary and long-lived wines. Vinho da Roda/Vinho da Torno/Vinho da Volta: An exceptional rarity, wines so labeled underwent an ocean journey across the equator. Shortridge Lawton, now a brand of the Madeira Wine Company, produced wines in this traditional style as late as the early 1900s. For more on the history of the Madeira trade, click here . BACK TO TOP Sherry Sherry is a fortified wine from Andalucía on the southern coast of Spain. It reached its apex as a British favorite by the 1870s, and it became one of the first protected Spanish appellations in 1933 with the establishment of a Consejo Regulador . Jerez, the hottest wine region in Spain and the home of Sherry production, is located within the coastal province of Cádiz, flanked by the Guadalquivir River to the northwest. The town of Chiclana de la Frontera marks the southeastern border of the roughly triangular region. The three towns of Jerez de la Frontera, El Puerto de Santa María, and Sanlúcar de Barrameda are at the center of Sherry production. Sherry is the product of two DO zones: Jerez-Xérès-Sherry and Manzanilla-Sanlúcar de Barrameda. The two DOs share an identical production zone and similar production guidelines, but the latter must be aged in the seaside town of Sanlúcar de Barrameda. On the coast, the cool Atlantic breezes alleviate the heat of the region, but the effect quickly dissipates as one moves inland: summer average temperatures may be nearly 20° F higher in Jerez de la Frontera than in Sanlúcar de Barrameda. The hot, dry levante wind intensifies the region’s heat, blowing from the east and essentially cooking the grapes on the vine during ripening. The humid Atlantic poniente wind alternates with the levante , and promotes the growth of flor , a film-forming yeast necessary in the maturation of Sherry. Three principal soil types characterize the Jerez region: albariza , barros , and arenas . Albariza , a chalky, porous, limestone-rich soil of brilliant white color, produces the best Sherry. The moisture-retentive albariza retains water from autumn and winter rains, while the friable soil structure allows vine roots to penetrate deeply in a search for water trapped beneath its baked, impermeable surface during the arid growing season. The snow-white albariza soils are concentrated on the gentle slopes of Jerez Superior, a sub-region between Sanlúcar de Barrameda and the Guadalete River, which flows into the Bay of Cádiz just to the south of Jerez de la Frontera. 80% of the appellation’s vines are located in Jerez Superior, and most pagos (vineyards) are located within the area of Jerez de la Frontera, including Macharnudo, Añina, and Carrascal. Macharnudo, at over 2000 acres, is the largest pago in Jerez. The more fertile—but more difficult to work— barros soils have a higher proportion of clay and are prominent in low-lying valleys. The sandy arenas soils are most common in coastal areas. Albariza Soil. Three white grapes are authorized for the production of Sherry: Palomino (Listán), Pedro Ximénez (PX) and Moscatel (Muscat of Alexandria). For Manzanilla, only Palomino is allowed. Palomino, a neutral grape that usually yields lackluster, low-acid table wines, is overwhelmingly preferred for Sherry and constitutes approximately 95% of the vineyard acreage in Jerez. Two sub-varieties, Palomino Fino and Palomino de Jerez, are encountered in the region, but the former is more prevalent, prized for its higher yields and disease resistance. Moscatel and Pedro Ximénez are predominantly used for sweetening Sherry; varietal bottlings of either grape are extremely rare in Jerez. Moscatel is mainly cultivated in the arenas soils near Chipiona. Plantings of Pedro Ximénez in Jerez have diminished so greatly that the Consejo Regulador has granted special dispensation allowing producers to import Pedro Ximénez must from the nearby Montilla-Moriles DO. Generally, growers submit both varieties to the soleo process for a period of one to three weeks, in which grape bunches are dried in the sun on esparto grass mats prior to pressing. Palomino may also be sunned, but rarely for longer than 24 hours and often not at all. In Jerez, each vine is commonly trained in the traditional manner of vara y pulgar , in which growers prune alternate spurs each year: one year’s vara (stick) will be pruned back after harvest to become the following year’s pulgar (thumb). Today, the harvest typically occurs in late August, and many of the region's vineyards are harvested by machine. Maximum yields are set at 11,428 kg of grapes per hectare and a press yield of 70 liters of juice per 100 kg of grapes . Although modern mechanical methods now reign, grapes were traditionally crushed and pressed under the feet of pisadores (laborers) wearing zapatos de pisar— cowhide boots with angled nails on the soles. Palomino Fino, the grape used for the majority of Sherry wines, must be pressed quickly after picking as it is prone to rapid oxidation. A maximum 70 liters of juice may be pressed from 100 kg of grapes; any additional amount is relegated to the production of non-classified wines or distillate. The must ( mosto de yema ) is divided into three stages of quality: the primera yema (free-run juice, accounting for 60-70% of the total mosto de yema ), segunda yema (press wine), and mosto prensa (poorer quality press wine for distillation). The free-run primera yema and pressed segunda yema are fermented separately. Before fermentation commences, the must is acidified—Palomino provides a notoriously low-acid must—and sulfured, then allowed to settle. Traditionally, producers adhered yeso (plaster) to the grapes prior to pressing, which aided clarification and—when combined with cream of tartar—produced tartaric acid. Today, most producers add tartaric acid directly and use a system of racking ( desfangado ) to clarify the must before fermentation begins. Classically, Sherry base wines underwent alcoholic fermentation in new American oak butts of 600 liters, a seasoning technique that would both impart tannin to the wine and leech oak flavor, neutralizing the wood before it was employed in the aging processes. Today, however, most Sherry is fermented in temperature-controlled stainless steel tanks of 50,000 liter capacity. In either case, the fermentation is divided into two stages: the tumultuous fermentation, a hot and vigorous initial phase lasting up to a week, and the lenta , or slow fermentation, in which high temperatures subside and any remaining sugar in the wine is converted to alcohol over a period of weeks. For producers deciding to undergo fortification, the delicate base wine of 11-12.5% ABV is then separated from its lees, and the process of transformation begins. Two divergent paths of biological and oxidative aging divide Sherry wines. Traditionally, Sherry was a fortified wine; today, producers have the opportunity to forgo fortification and vinify to the required minimum alcohol levels. At the conclusion of fermentation, the wine is classified: each tank is either classified as palo and marked with a vertical slash, or as gordura , marked with a circle. Wines marked as palo must reach 15-15.5% ABV and are destined to become the more delicate Fino or Manzanilla styles. Wines marked as gordura must reach 17-18% ABV—a high level of alcohol that will not permit the growth of flor —and will become Oloroso Sherries. When producers fortify, they do not directly add spirit but instead use a gentler mixture of grape spirit and mature Sherry, mitad y mitad , to avoid shocking the young wine. Both sets of wines are transferred to old Sherry butts of American oak. Fino and Manzanilla styles undergo biological aging, whereas Oloroso Sherry undergoes oxidative aging. At the heart of the biological aging process in Sherry is the film-forming yeast known as the flor del vino —the “flower.” While the normal yeasts responsible for alcoholic fermentation die as the wine’s sugar is wholly consumed, a specialized set of yeast species (of the genus Saccharomyces ) arrives to metabolize glycerin, alcohol, and volatile acids in the wine. Humid air carried on the poniente wind, a moderate temperature between 60°-70° F, an absence of fermentable sugars, and a particular level of alcoholic strength (15-15.5% ABV) are prerequisites for the development of flor . As flor requires contact with oxygen, it forms a film on the surface of the wine that will protect the liquid from oxidation. The flor grows vigorously in the spring and autumn months, forming a frothy white veil over the wine’s surface; in the heat and cold of the summer and winter it thins and turns gray. In the past, the growth of flor determined a particular wine’s future; it was a mysterious gift. Today, producers are much more aware of the process, and plan each wine’s future accordingly. Wines destined to undergo biological aging are sourced from grapes grown in the finer albariza soils, and are produced from the primera yema , whereas those destined for the oxidative aging path of the Oloroso are produced from the pressed segunda yema must. Once a wine has been marked to become Oloroso , its future is certain. Wines that develop under flor will enter an intermediary stage, the Sobretablas , for a period of six months to a year, during which the course of the wines’ evolution may be redirected. The wines, now kept in used 600-liter American oak butts, will be monitored and classified for a second time. The classifications are as follows: Palma : Fine, delicate Sherry in which the flor has flourished, protecting the wine from oxidation. Such wines will generally develop as Fino styles. Palma Cortada : A more robust Fino, which may eventually emerge as Amontillado . Palo Cortado : A rarity. Although flor is still present, the wine’s richness leads the cellar master to redirect the wine toward an oxidative aging path. The wine can be fortified after Sobretablas to at least 17% ABV, destroying the veil of flor that protects it from oxygen. Raya : Despite its initial promise, flor growth is anemic, or the protective yeast has died completely. The wine’s robust character is reinforced by further fortification to 17-18% ABV, and the wine emerges from Sobretablas as an Oloroso . Dos Rayas : The wine’s flor has disappeared, but its character is rough and coarse. Characterized by high levels of volatile acidity, these wines are either blended and sweetened for lower-quality Sherry or removed from the Sherry-making process, often finding new life as Sherry vinegar. After the second classification, the Sherry wines are ready to begin the long aging process. In 2010, authorities decreased the minimum solera aging required before bottling from three years to two. Rarely are Sherry wines marketed as vintage wines; most enter a system of fractional blending known as the solera , wherein new añada (vintage) wines enter an upper scale, or tier, of butts known as a criadera . Several descending criadera scales separate the young wines from the solera —the tier of butts from which wine is drawn and bottled. There may be as few as 3 to 4 criaderas , or as many as 14. For every liter of wine drawn from the solera , two (formerly three) must remain; thus the solera butts are only partially emptied, and refreshed with wines from the first criadera in movements of wine known as trasiegos . The first criadera is then refreshed with wines from the second criadera , and so forth. In this manner a solera —derived from the Latin solum , or “floor”—will theoretically continue some small portion of its original wine, regardless of its age. S olera wines are often marked with the year the solera was started. The solera system is integral to biological aging, as flor requires certain nutrients and oxygen to survive. The movement of wine from one butt to another provides oxygen; the addition of añada wines provides a constant influx of nutrients for the flor to prosper. While not necessary for oxidative aging, many Oloroso wines are nonetheless aged in their own solera systems. Amontillado Solera. Fino Sherry is a light, delicate, almond-toned style characterized by a high concentration of acetaldehydes, a salty tang, and a final alcohol content of 15-17%. As Fino matures, the flor may finally disappear. In this case, the Fino begins to age oxidatively, taking on a more robust, hazelnut character and slowly increasing in alcohol. If the loss of its protective veil is not ruinous and the wine is of good quality, it has the capacity to evolve into a Fino-Amontillado , finally becoming an Amontillado as its flavor, strength and color deepen. The final alcohol content of Amontillado must be between 16% and 22%. The production of true Amontillado is a laborious process, and soleras devoted to the wine are expensive to maintain. The darker Oloroso, meaning “fragrant,” demonstrates spicy, walnut tones and a smooth mouthfeel. Oloroso must range from 17% to 22% ABV. The rare Palo Cortado combines the rich body and color of an Oloroso with the penetrating yet delicate bouquet of an Amontillado , and is greatly prized by Sherry aficionados. These styles— Fino, Amontillado, Oloroso, and Palo Cortado —are generoso wines, totally dry in character. Sanlúcar de Barrameda has its own classifications for wines: Manzanilla Fina , Manzanilla Pasada, and Manzanilla Añada . Manzanilla Fina is similar in style to Fino , although the harvest occurs about a week earlier, and the resulting wines are lower in alcohol and historically fortified to a lower degree. In addition, Manzanilla wines are entered into—and moved through—the solera more quickly than a standard Fino . Manzanilla Pasada , like Fino-Amontillado wines, lose the protection of flor and begin to show some oxidative characteristics. Generoso Sherry Styles Fino Amontillado Oloroso Palo Cortado Manzanilla Fina Manzanilla Pasada Manzanilla Añada Although Sherry may be bottled as a dry generoso wine directly from the solera , it is more likely to be sweetened and blended before sale. The final blend is assembled on a small scale—often in a glass or test tube—and then applied proportionally to the wine at large. This process is known as the cabeceo . Base wines entered into the cabeceo must have a minimum ABV of 17.5%. Several sweetening agents are available to the Sherry producer: dulce pasa, dulce de almíbar, and mistela produced from the must of sunned Moscatel or Pedro Ximénez grapes. Pedro Ximénez is preferred, but expensive. Dulce pasa—mistela produced from sunned Palomino—is the most common sweetening agent in modern Jerez. Dulce de almíbar , a blend of invert sugar and Fino , is rare. A Sherry house may also adjust the color of the final wine with vino de color , a non-alcoholic concoction produced by a combination of boiled, reduced syrup and fresh must. If reduced to one-third of its original volume, the syrup is called sancocho; if reduced to one-fifth, the syrup is called arrope . Vino de color , naturally, also adds a level of sweetness to the wines. Generoso Liqueur wines produced by this blending process include Pale Cream, a lighter, fresher style blended from Fino wines; Cream, a darker, denser product of blended Oloroso ; Dry, a paler style that actually contains a fair amount of sweetness; and Medium, a rich amber Sherry that may include Amontillado in the blend. Producers may legally label Medium Sherries with additional traditional terms, such as “Golden,” “Milk,” or “Brown.” Such terminology reinforces the longstanding importance of the British market—and the historic British control of the shipping houses and bodegas of Jerez. In the past, shippers relied heavily on almacenistas when configuring their blends. Like the partidistas of Madeira, almacenistas would purchase young wines, age them, and sell the wines to shippers at proper maturity. The role of almacenistas today is minor, and the term itself has been trademarked by Lustau. Although the role of Moscatel and Pedro Ximénez in Sherry production is often supporting, wines produced solely from sunned grapes are occasionally sold as Vino Dulce Natural , or “naturally sweet wine.” The moniker is misleading, as the wines are fortified after a partial fermentation. Sugar content for both wines ranges from 180 to 500 grams per liter. In 2000, the Consejo Regulador for Jerez created two new categories for Sherry Wines of Certified Age: VOS and VORS. VOS— Vinum Optimum Signatum , or “Very Old Sherry”—may be applied to solera wines with an average age of over 20 years. For every liter of VOS Sherry drawn from the solera, at least 20 liters must remain. VORS— Vinum Optimum Rare Signatum , or “Very Old Rare Sherry”—may be applied to solera wines with an average age of over 30 years. 30 liters must remain in the solera for every liter withdrawn. A tasting panel certifies all VOS and VORS wines, and only Amontillado, Oloroso, Palo Cortado , and Pedro Ximénez wines are authorized for consideration. Approval to use either label only applies to an individual lot of drawn wine, not the entire solera . The Consejo Regulador may certify an indication of age of either 12 or 15 years for use on a label; in such cases the certification applies to the entire solera , not just a particular lot of wine. For information on the other fortified wines of Spain, click here BACK TO TOP Marsala Marsala is a fortified wine from the island point of Sicily, first manufactured in 1773 by the English Port and Sherry merchant, John Woodhouse. Marsala wines are fortified with grape spirit either during or after fermentation, depending on the desired level of sweetness. The addition of either mosto cotto (cooked must) or sifone , a mistelle produced by fortifying the unfermented must of overripe grapes, are used to adjust both color and sweetness. Marsala DOC wines are available in three colors: ambra, oro (golden), and rubino . The ambra and oro styles are produced from the white grapes Grillo, Catarratto, Inzolia (Ansonica), and Damaschino. Grillo and the more delicate Inzolia are preferred; Catarratto and Damaschino are high-yielding grapes of less interest. The ambra style is of lower quality and is the only style that permits the practice of concia: the addition of mosto cotto . Rubino wines are produced from Perricone, Calabrese (Nero d’Avola), and Nerello Mascalese. White grapes may comprise a maximum 30% of the rubino production. The three colors of Marsala will also have their sugar content defined on the label: secco indicates a maximum 40 grams per liter of residual sugar, semisecco indicates 40 to 100 g/l of residual sugar, and dolce indicates a minimum 100 g/l of residual sugar. Marsala is further classified by the time it spends in cask: one year for Fine, two years for Superiore, four years for Superiore Riserva, five years for Vergine, and a minimum ten years for Vergine Stravecchio. Vergine Marsala is fortified after fermentation and the style does not permit the addition of either mosto cotto or sifone ; thus, it must be secco in style. Solera versions also exist, and must spend at least five years in the solera prior to bottling. Marco de Bartoli, one of the most revered producers of Marsala, releases his Vergine-quality “Vecchio Samperi” as Vino (without GI) due to its lack of fortification. Vintage Marsala does exist and the vintage refers to the year of fortification. BACK TO TOPPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/161/northern-italyWed, 22 Apr 2026 15:44:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:e374d3b7-a5a4-4c97-98cc-2aecc2a45ff7GuildSomm AdminTable of Contents Italian Wine Law Northern Italy Piedmont (Piemonte) Valle d'Aosta Lombardy Liguria Emilia-Romagna Trentino-Alto Adige Veneto Friuli-Venezia Giulia Italian Wine Law The Denominazione di Origine Controllata (DOC) system was introduced in 1963 as a means of formalizing and protecting Italian wine appellations. The French AOC system acted as a model for Italian authorities, as they established maximum yields, approved varieties and viticultural practices, set geographical boundaries, and authorized vinification techniques, styles, and minimum (or maximum) alcohol levels for each DOC wine. The Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG) category, a more prestigious and—theoretically—higher quality designation designed to represent the best of Italian wine, was also introduced in 1963, although the first DOCG was not awarded until 1980, when Brunello di Montalcino, Barolo and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano were upgraded from DOC. Most DOCGs (and many DOCs) stipulate minimum aging requirements for the wines—a notable departure from the legal requirements set by most French appellations. Over time, the system became unwieldy and too lenient; yields and geographical restrictions became too generous. Hundreds of DOC zones were established, leading to consumer confusion. Even the DOCG category, which should only include the recognizable benchmarks of Italian wine, was watered down by such unlikely promotions as Romagna Albana. As criticism of the system amplified in the 1970s and 1980s, many of Italy’s finer producers resorted to the Vino da Tavola category, releasing experimental wines produced in a manner conflicting with DOC legislation. Vino da Tavola, or table wine, cannot bear any geographical designation other than “Italy” itself, yet some of Italy’s most iconic wines—in particular the “Super Tuscans” Sassicaia and Tignanello—got their start as simple Vino da Tavola. The 1992 Goria’s Law represented an attempt at reform. This law established the category of Indicazione Geografica Tipica (IGT), a more relaxed regulation, offering winemakers wider freedoms. The first IGTs appeared in 1994. IGT wines are often varietally labeled, and IGT wines range from basic quality to some of Italy’s most sought-after bottles. Today, IGT wines are considered PGI (Protected Geographical Indication) by the European Union, whereas DOC and DOCG wines are considered PDO (Protected Designation of Origin), on par with France’s AOC/AOP. IGT status may be used as a springboard to DOC, and regions recognized as DOC for at least five years may apply for DOCG status. As the EU Common Market Organisation reforms came online from 2008 through 2011, jurisdiction over the final approval of new appellations transferred from Rome to Brussels, the political center of the EU. An unintended effect of this administrative power shift witnessed a host of new, unknown, or heretofore unremarkable appellations apply for DOC or DOCG status while Rome still held authority over the process, resulting in a wave of new appellations. From 2009 to late 2011 the number of DOCGs shot from under 50 to 73, as officials rushed to fulfill over 300 requests to approve or change the status of appellations across the country. DOCs likewise multiplied. The critical backlash was quick and nearly unanimous: Italy's appellation system, never a model of clarity for the consumer, was finally and truly broken. Nevertheless, progress: Italy's 79th DOCG (Casauria) was approved in 2025. Italian Wine Classifications Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG) / Denominazione di Origine Protetta (DOP) Denominazione di Origine Controllata (DOC) / Denominazione di Origine Protetta (DOP) Indicazione Geografica Tipica (IGT) / Indicazione Geografica Protetta (IGP) Vino (formerly Vino da Tavola) BACK TO TOP Northern Italy The wines of Italy elude easy categorization and definition. An ever-expanding host of DOCGs, coupled with an enormous range of DOC and IGT styles, provides a wide variety of wines culled from both indigenous and international grapes. Italy's axis runs north-south, resulting in a spectrum of climactic zones, and the country's terrain is generally rugged: the Apennine Mountains serve as the spine of Italy and the Alps bracket the northern regions. The culture of Italy is as fractured and segmented as its landscape. Despite its ancient prestige as the center of Roman civilization, modern Italy was unified as recently as 1861, and the province of Trentino-Alto Adige was not added until the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the end of World War I. Today, German and Slavic influences abound in the Tre Venezie, and the regions of Friuli-Venezia Giulia and Trentino-Alto-Adige are nearly autonomous. Lombardy, Italy's most populous and most industrialized region, stands in stark modern contrast to the Valle d'Aosta, Italy's most sparsely populated. The Valle d'Aosta includes French as an official language, and Piedmontese viticulture shows a depth of French influence. Furthermore, the northern Italy of Turin in Piedmont is wholly dissimilar from the southern Italy of Naples in Campania: the climates, the cultures, even the languages—all are distinct. These permutations, influences and sharp differences are reflected in the country's unique pantheon of wines. BACK TO TOP Piedmont (Piemonte) The region of Piedmont produces some of the finest wines in Italy, and is cited alongside Tuscany as one of Italy’s two most significant wine regions. Piedmont—“the foot of the mountain”—is cradled on three sides by the Apennines and the Alps. The Po River cuts through the heart of the region as it flows eastward from its headwaters in the Western Alps, creating a fertile alluvial plain well-suited for standard agriculture but too rich for viticulture. Thus, most of Piedmont’s grape-growing occurs in the foothills south of the Po Valley, in the provinces of Asti, Alessandria, and Cuneo. Within these three provinces, the Monferrato and Langhe hills are peppered with vineyards. Thinner, calcareous marl and sandstone soils with varying percentages of clay and sand, coupled with the sub-mountainous landscape, create a number of distinct mesoclimates throughout the region. Piedmont experiences a continental climate and the Alps provide a “rain shadow” effect, although autumn hail can be a worry in the Langhe hills—Barbaresco producers of lore were fond of firing cannons into the skies, attempting to disperse threatening cloudbanks. In the Langhe and Monferrato hills, many of the prized southern exposures, known as sorì in the Piedmontese dialect, are home to the region’s most noble and ageworthy red grape: the native Nebbiolo. The thin-skinned Nebbiolo, purportedly named for the morning fog ( la nebbia ) that prolongs the grape’s ripening process in the fall, produces wines of high acid, alcohol and extreme tannin, yet the best examples offer haunting aromatic complexity and great longevity. Nebbiolo’s worth was recognized centuries ago: a 1431 statute of La Morra in the Langhe extracts a punishment ranging from the loss of a right hand to death for uprooting the vine. The late-ripening Nebbiolo, Dolcetto and Barbera form the trio of major Piedmontese red grapes. Dolcetto, the “little sweet one,” is the earliest to ripen and provides tannic, fruity wines that are lower in acid and are generally designed for youthful consumption. Barbera, Piedmont’s most planted red grape, demonstrates high acidity but low tannin and is now subject to a range of stylistic interpretations. The incursion of modern winemaking techniques has, in some cases, diminished some of the obvious varietal differences between Nebbiolo, Barbera, and Dolcetto. Other lesser indigenous red grapes of Piedmont include Brachetto, Grignolino, Ruchè, Croatina, Vespolina, and Freisa. Moscato Bianco (Muscat à Petits Grains) is Piedmont’s most planted white grape and is generally funneled into the production of the sparkling wines of Asti. Cortese, Arneis, Erbaluce and Favorita (Vermentino) are also grown in the region, in diminishing order of importance. International grapes—Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Merlot, Syrah, Sauvignon Blanc, etc.—have been growing in significance since the 1980s, although usage of such non-traditional grapes is currently limited to the less-specific DOCs. Piedmont is home to more DOC zones than any other region in Italy—as of 2023, Piedmont claims 19 DOCGs and 41 DOCs—and almost half of the region’s vinous production is of at least DOC quality. The most prestigious DOCGs in Piedmont are Barolo and Barbaresco , located along the Tanaro River in the Cuneo Province, an area encapsulated by the larger Langhe DOC . Both zones produce red wines from the Nebbiolo grape; Barolo wines are typically more powerful and long-lived, whereas Barbaresco is slightly softer and more approachable due to its warmer climate and less time in oak. The aromas of tar, truffle, rose petals, and dried fruits are classically attributed to both wines, and their color is characteristically moderate in concentration and orange-tinged even in youth. Although Barolo wines may be produced in 11 communes, the five communes of La Morra, Barolo, Serralunga d’Alba, Monforte d’Alba, and Castiglione Falletto represent almost 90% of the DOCG’s demarcated land. Only sites with appropriate aspects can produce fully ripe Nebbiolo, and a division between soil types marks subtle differences in each commune’s wines. Tortonian soils, which contain a higher proportion of calcareous marl, characterize the vineyards of La Morra and Barolo and provide a softer style of wine. Serravallian (Helvetian) sandstone soils are more common in Monforte d’Alba, Serralunga d’Alba, and Castiglione Falletto and supply more structure in the wine. Nevertheless, Barolo is a massively tannic wine by nature, and prior to 2010, regulations called for a minimum three years of aging before release, two of which were in oak—or, rarely, chestnut—casks. Today, Barolo must be aged at least 38 months from November 1 of the harvest year, but only 18 months need be in wood. Barolo Riserva requires a total 62 months prior to release. Historically, longer periods of aging occurred in large neutral casks after extended macerations of 30-50 days, requiring the consumer to cellar the wine for years—sometimes decades—before it was approachable, but a modernization in technique entered the region by the 1980s, resulting in an often-too-convenient split amongst producers. Barolo was divided between the "traditionalists” who retained faith in older winemaking techniques—Giacomo Conterno, Bartolo Mascarello, Giuseppe Rinaldi—and the “modernists” who embraced barriques, shorter macerations, and a rounder style of wine—Paolo Scavino, Luciano Sandrone, Elio Altare. This is a useful division in Barolo (and Barbaresco) although the distinction is becoming more fluid in many cases today. Nebbiolo Vines in Barolo. Like Barolo, the Nebbiolo wines of Barbaresco DOCG are perfumed, tannic, and ageworthy, yet slightly lighter in body and more elegant. Although a portion of Alba is permitted to make the wine, production is concentrated in the three towns of Barbaresco, Neive, and Treiso. The wines must be aged for a minimum of 26 months from November 1st of the harvest year (including at least 9 months in cask) prior to release, or for a minimum of 50 months if labeled riserva . The wines have a much shorter history than Barolo and are really a phenomenon of the 20th century, achieving acclaimed cult status through the efforts of the modernist Angelo Gaja. The less iconic but equally talented Bruno Giacosa espouses the traditionalist approach in Barbaresco, and the local co-operative, Produttori del Barbaresco, offers great value and exemplifies the terroir of the region. Barolo and Barbaresco are frequently compared to Burgundy—the wines show similar aromatic richness, and the Langhe’s climate, the importance of single vineyards, and the modern emphasis on domaine bottling parallel the structure of Burgundy. In the past, large commerciant ( négociant ) houses dominated the business, but an emphasis on domaines and estate-bottling sparked in the 1960s, leading to an unofficial yet critical determination of the single vineyards ( crus ) of both Barolo and Barbaresco. Single vineyard bottlings from the best crus , such as Cannubi in Barolo or Rabajà in Barbaresco, fetch high prices. In 2007, the Barolo/Barbaresco/Langhe Consorzio finally voted to enshrine the crus of Barbaresco as legal menzioni geografiche aggiuntive (geographic areas) of the DOCG; in early 2010 Barolo followed suit. Barolo Chinato is a curiosity; a DOCG aromatized wine that is flavored with quinine. Once ridiculed by the wine press, Barolo Chinato has been resurgent—particularly amongst sommeliers. Cappellano is the standard bearer. The Roero DOCG , elevated from DOC in 2004, lies on the northwestern bank of the Tanaro River, opposite Barolo and Barbaresco. While the DOCG's red wines are based on a minimum 95% Nebbiolo, Roero also produces fresh and floral white wines from the Arneis grape. The sandy soils of Roero, north of the commune of Alba, provide a lighter style of Nebbiolo than Barolo or Barbaresco, and many producers here are experimenting with modern approaches. Two other Nebbiolo-based DOCG reds are produced in the hills north of the Po River, as Gattinara DOCG and Ghemme DOCG . These appellations straddle the Sesia River and offer Nebbiolo-based reds exclusively. Vespolina and Bonarda grapes are often blended with Nebbiolo—here known as Spanna—to produce the wines, which are typically lighter and even more focused on acidity than their southern counterparts. Uva Rara, or Bonarda Novarese, is used for blending in Ghemme, whereas another clone, Bonarda di Gattinara, is used in Gattinara. Neither grape is related to the Bonarda of Argentina. The Lessona and Sizzano DOC zones near Ghemme produce similar Nebbiolo-based red blends, and the more isolated Carema DOC near the border of the Valle d'Aosta produces fragrant Nebbiolo wines, especially in warmer vintages. In 2008, the Barbera grape finally came into the DOCG fold, with two appellations in the Monferrato hills east of the Langhe: Barbera d’Asti and Barbera del Monferrato Superiore . Both reflect a newer, more serious approach to Barbera production in the region. Barbera d’Asti may be released as normale after a short four-month aging period, whereas Barbera del Monferrato must be superiore and spends 14 months aging prior to release, including six months in cask. Modern Barbera often sees new wood. The Monferrato hills received a third DOCG in late 2010: Ruchè di Castagnole Monferrato , an aromatic red wine produced from the local Ruchè grape. The grape's name suggests either a strong resistance to the viral disease roncet (grapevine fanleaf virus), which plagues other varieties of the region, or its arrival in Piedmont alongside French monks, who dedicated a medieval monastery to Saint Rocco in the region. The region's fourth DOCG, Nizza , was approved for 100% Barbera varietal wines at the end of 2014. Formerly a subzone of the Barbera d'Asti DOCG, Nizza was the shot that broke a three-year silence in DOCG elevations, showing the world that Italy's top category was alive and well in the post-EU reform era. Three DOCG wines are produced from 100% Dolcetto: Dogliani , Dolcetto di Ovada Superiore (Ovada), and Dolcetto di Diano d'Alba (Diano d'Alba). Ovada wines must be superiore to qualify for DOCG status, whereas Dolcetto di Diano d'Alba and Dogliani may be released in both normale and superiore versions, with the latter designation stipulating a heightened level of alcohol. The minimum aging for all three superiore styles is ten months. Like Barolo and Barbaresco, Diano d'Alba DOCG wines may include menzioni geografiche aggiuntive on the label—75 sorì are classified as superior exposures. Dogliani’s fame rests, in part, on the wines of Luigi Einaudi, who was elected as the second President of the Italian Republic in 1948. The Dolcetto wines show sweet black fruit in a typically rustic frame, although denser and more polished interpretations are available. Gavi (Cortese di Gavi) was the first still white wine in Piedmont to be promoted to the DOCG level. The appellation is located in the extreme southern portion of Alessandria province and shares its western border with Ovada. Gavi’s dry, mineral-tinged whites are produced from the Cortese grape. Although the wines are generally still ( tranquillo ), spumante or frizzante versions are sometimes encountered. Erbaluce di Caluso , an appellation just south of Carema, transitioned from DOC to DOCG in late 2010. The white wines, produced from the high-acid, herbal-scented Erbaluce grape, may be still, spumante , or passito in style, with the latter type generally provoking the most praise. Of far more importance are the sparkling wines of Asti/Moscato d’Asti DOCG . Nearly 650,000 hl (or more) is produced each year, making Asti the largest producer of DOCG wine in Italy. Asti shed the pejorative “Asti Spumante” label with its move from DOC to DOCG, but the wines are always fully sparkling ( spumante ). The wines are comprised solely of Moscato Bianco and blended from vast vineyards across the southern provinces of Piedmont. Once pressed, the must is reserved and chilled for batch fermentation throughout the year on demand to offer the freshest bottlings to market. Unlike many sparkling wines, these will only see a single fermentation using the Charmat (or Martinotti) method to avoid any autolytic character from interfering with this wine's delicate primary fruit and floral aromas. Moscato d’Asti is a rarer and more artisanal product crafted from riper Moscato Bianco grapes. Moscato d’Asti is only slightly sparkling ( frizzante ), with a maximum pressure of 2.5 atmospheres, rather than spumante , and the wine remains delicate, with an alcohol level between 4.5% and 6.5%. Both wines are sweet, but the hedonistic fragrance of the Moscato grape is preserved more effectively in Moscato d’Asti. In 2023, a former subzone of Asti DOCG was promoted to its own separate Canelli DOCG. More serious traditional method sparkling wines are produced as Alta Langa DOCG from Pinot Noir and Chardonnay grapes, made in the style of Champagne or Franciacorta. In deference to the qualities impacted by aging on the lees, Alta Langa spumante wines spend 30 months en tirage , and riserva versions, a full three years. Despite the fact that Chardonnay and Pinot Noir have been planted in Piedmont since the early 1800s, the DOCG, awarded in early 2011, represents a rapid culmination of successes for an appellation that earned its DOC as recently as 2002 and contained only a scant 20 hectares of experimental plantings in 1994. While Alta Langa's producers, including notable Nebbiolo craftsmen Fontanafredda and Enrico Serafino, aim for greatness and international appeal with their sparkling wines, the sparkling reds of Brachetto d’Acqui DOCG retain local rustic charm. The wines are usually sweet and suitable as a dessert accompaniment. Both dry and still versions of Brachetto exist, although they are increasingly rare. BACK TO TOP Valle d'Aosta High altitude vineyards of the Valle d'Aosta. The landlocked, mountainous Valle d’Aosta is Italy’s smallest and least populous region. Nestled in the western Alps, the region experiences a continental climate with long, cold winters and short, hot summers. The Valle d’Aosta ranks last amongst Italy’s twenty regions in volume of production, and its vineyards are concentrated in a narrow band of land carved out by the Dora Baltea River. The Valle d’Aosta DOC is the sole DOC zone, but there are seven sub-appellations: Arnad-Montjovet, Blanc de Morgex et de la Salle, Chambave, Donnas, Enfer d’Arvier, Nus, and Torrette. A number of grapes, both local and international, provide a basis for the different red, white, and rosé blends and varietal wines of the DOC. The Petit Rouge grape is primary in wines from Torrette, Chambave, and Enfer d’Arvier. Picotendro—a local synonym for Nebbiolo—provides a high proportion of the blend for Donnas and Arnad-Montjovet reds. Blanc de Morgex, or Prié, is the white grape responsible for the still and sparkling wines of La Salle, grown at one of Europe’s highest vineyard elevations on the slopes of Mont Blanc. In addition, Valle d’Aosta DOC wines may be labeled as varietal wines. Examples of authorized varieties include Petite Arvine, Gamay, Petit Rouge, Fumin, and Premetta (Premetta is usually bottled as rosé). BACK TO TOP Lombardy Lombardy is a region of vast industrial, agricultural and viticultural importance. While Lombardy’s winegrowing appellations tend to be far removed from the capital Milan, the presence of such an important and wealthy city has provided Lombardy’s producers with a very thirsty, constant market for their wines. Lombardy is highly regarded for the modern quality of its sparkling wines, and the region’s still wines are improving. Franciacorta DOCG is the most important DOCG zone in Lombardy and the only true rival to the style of Champagne in Italy. Producers of Franciacorta are limited to sparkling winemaking—still wines from the region may be released as Curtefranca (formerly Terre di Franciacorta) DOC or Sebino IGT. While Franciacorta appears in a 1570 Italian treatise on the production of naturally sparkling wine, the zone’s recent origins can be traced to an influx of entrepreneurial spirit and ambition spearheaded by Guido Berlucchi, whose house released the region’s first modern sparkling wines in the early 1960s, and Maurizio Zanella of Ca’Del Bosco, whose prestige cuvee “Annamaria Clementi” is on par with Champagne’s more serious offerings. Franciacorta earned its DOCG for sparkling wines made by metodo classico (the traditional method) in 1995, and produces wines that, like Champagne, are driven by flavors derived from secondary fermentation and autolysis. Chardonnay, Pinot Nero (Noir), and a maximum 50% Pinot Bianco are permitted for use in the wine. Non-vintage Franciacorta DOCG wines must spend a minimum 18 months maturing on the lees and may not be released until 25 months after the harvest. Wines labeled as Satèn must include only white grapes and are bottled at less than five atmospheres, a lower pressure than the five to six atmospheres required for standard bottlings. Franciacorta Rosé requires a minimum 35% Pinot Nero grapes and is produced by blending rather than the saignée method. Vintage ( millesimato ) Franciacorta may not be released for a minimum 37 months, although in practice many producers allow their vintages wines to age for a much longer period. Unlike vintage Champagne, vintage Franciacorta requires only 85% of the grapes to be harvested in the stated year. Finally, vintage Franciacorta may be labeled riserva if it ages a minimum five years on its lees, with release after a minimum 67 months. With the exception of the exclusively brut Satèn style, non-vintage Franciacorta may be released in wide range of final sweetness levels, determined by the dosato ( dosage ). The residual sugar scale in Franciacorta mirrors that of Champagne. Traditional method sparkling wines are also produced in the southern reaches of Lombardy as Oltrepò Pavese Metodo Classico DOCG . The Pinot Nero grape is emphasized in this zone and the wine must contain a minimum 70% of the grape. If Pinot Nero accounts for at least 85% of the wine it may be labeled varietally. The aging regime for Oltrepò Pavese is shorter than that prescribed for Franciacorta: non-vintage wines must spend 15 months on the lees and vintage wines must spend two years on the lees. Still wines from the region may be released as Oltrepò Pavese DOC . To the north of Franciacorta is Valtellina, Lombardy’s most important zone for red wines. The Nebbiolo grape, known as Chiavennasca in Valtellina , provides a lighter and more angular style here than in neighboring Piedmont. Valtellina’s vineyards represent the Nebbiolo grape’s northernmost outpost in Italy; despite the region’s alpine location and high altitude, an abundance of sunshine makes the slow ripening process of the grape possible. Although Valtellina itself is DOC, two DOCG zones exist within it. Valtellina Superiore DOCG represents the heart of the viticultural region and has five subzones: Valgella, Inferno, Grumello, Sassella, and Maroggia. Valtellina Superiore wines are labeled as Stagafassli if bottled in the neighboring territory of Switzerland. Valtellina Superiore is aged for a compulsory 24 months (12 in cask), and riserva wines are aged three years prior to release. The second DOCG zone of the region is Sforzato di Valtellina , or Valtellina Sfurzat. Sforzato is a style similar to recioto , produced from Nebbiolo grapes that are dried prior to fermentation, yielding no more than half the equivalent juice content of a freshly harvested grape. The resulting wine is aged for at least two years, is dry in character, and has a minimum 14% alcohol content. The Moscato di Scanzo DOCG surrounds the town of Bergamo to the west of Franciacorta, and produces sweet passito red wines from a red Moscato grape. The wines must be aged for a minimum two years but may not be aged in wood. Moscato di Scanzo is often bottled in a slender 500 mL futura— a bottle shape familiar to fans of Inniskillin icewine. BACK TO TOP Liguria The region of Liguria occupies a narrow band of mountainous coastland south of Piedmont, and viticulture, while on the decline, has long been established in the region's steep, treacherous coastal terrain. Liguria enjoys a Mediterranean climate, and Pigato (Vermentino) is particularly successful here, especially in the DOC wines of Colli di Luni and Riviera Ligure di Ponente . The local red grape Rossese may also be produced as Riviera Ligure di Ponente DOC varietal wines, or as Rossese di Dolceacqua DOC. Despite advances in quality in these appellations, the basic, light Bosco-based white wines of Cinque Terre DOC remain amongst Liguria's most well known. BACK TO TOP Emilia-Romagna While the gastronomic creations of the Emilia-Romagna region are world-renowned—this is the home of Parmigiano-Reggiano, Prosciutto di Parma, and Modena’s Balsamic vinegar—the wines are less remarkable. Emilia-Romagna currently has two DOCG appellations, but neither is considered a wine of tremendously high repute. Promoted to DOCG status in 1987, Romagna Albana is most notable for being Italy’s first (and most regularly ridiculed) white wine DOCG, and it covers white (golden, really) wines made from the Albana grape in a range of possible styles. The most promising versions are passito . Colli Bolognesi Pignoletto is Emilia-Romagna's second DOCG, awarded in 2011. These are typically tart, dry varietal white wines produced from the Grechetto grape in an area encircling the city of Bologna. Prior to 2014, Pignoletto was a commonly accepted synonym for Grechetto, a grape popular in nearby Umbria. Emilia-Romagna’s indifferent standard of quality (barely 15% of the region’s output is DOC level) is underpinned by the region’s huge quantities of production. In the central provinces of Modena and Reggio, this production is nearly monopolized by Lambrusco. Several DOCs, including Lambrusco Grasparossa di Castelvetro , Lambrusco di Sorbara , and Lambrusco Salamino di Santa Croce , produce frizzante red wines from over sixty subvarieties of the Lambrusco variety. Sparkling Lambrusco wines, made in a range from dry to dolce , are prevalent in Emilia-Romagna but not exclusive to the region: the Lambrusco Mantovano DOC lies just over the regional border in Lombardy. In the 1970s, Banfi’s “Riunite” brand catapulted Lambrusco into the international spotlight and became one of Italy’s biggest export success stories, but the image of the wine today suffers from low expectations. Regardless, quality Lambrusco exists and good bottles provide a refreshing partner for the cured meats of the region. BACK TO TOP Trentino-Alto Adige The mountainous, landlocked Trentino-Alto Adige region is subdivided into two nearly autonomous provinces: the Italian-speaking Trentino in the south and the German-speaking Alto-Adige or Südtirol, in the north. The two provinces share a tradition of the grape that dates to pre-Roman times, and today focus on varietal wines. However, the two areas are culturally distinct and the inhabitants of the northern capital of Bolzano (Bozen in the original German) and surrounding areas are likely to refer to Italians in the third person. The multi-regional Valdadige DOC encapsulates Trentino-Alto Adige and Verona in Veneto, but the majority of wines are released under the separate Trentino and Alto-Adige (Südtiroler) DOCs. These designations permit a wide number of varietally labeled wines: Chardonnay, Pinot Grigio, Pinot Bianco, Müller-Thurgau, and Sauvignon Blanc are just a sampling of the many varieties encountered in Trentino DOC whites. These grapes form a major part of white Alto Adige DOC production as well; however, Gewürztraminer—a grape whose name (if not its actual origin) is linked to the local village of Tramin—is heavily utilized and makes intensely aromatic wines. Although many white wines in both zones are light in style and crisp in acidity, the sheer number of grapes and resulting styles renders generalization ineffective. Within the northeastern reaches of Alto Adige, the official subzone of Valle Isarco (Eisacktaler in German) is quickly gaining recognition for high-quality wines, frequently produced from German and Austrian varieties such as Silvaner, Veltliner and Kerner (a modern Schiava Grossa x Riesling crossing). Pinot Bianco finds its best expression in the Oltradige just south of Bolzano, near the town of Appiano. The DOC subzone of Terlano, just west of the capital in the Val d'Adige growing zone, has a long history of white wines blended from Chardonnay, Pinot Bianco, and Sauvignon Blanc, delivered in both oaked and unoaked styles. It is also the home of one of Italy's most respected cooperatives. Vineyards in the hills of Alto-Adige near Terlano. Trentino-Alto Adige is primarily known for its white wines, but the region supplies a larger quantity of reds than whites. Schiava (Vernatsch) is the predominant grape (technically there are four genetically distinct varieties) in both provinces, and it produces light red wines. Alto Adige’s historically important Santa Maddelena (St. Magdalener) subzone is the premier geographical appellation for Schiava varietal wines; the Casteller DOC in Trentino allows Schiava to be blended with Merlot and Lambrusco. Lago di Caldaro DOC (Kalterersee) in the south of Alto Adige is shared by both provinces and is similar in style to Santa Maddelena. The Lagrein grape is native to Trentino but thrives in Alto Adige, where it produces a denser, spicier wine than Schiava. The finest growing area for Lagrein is centered in the flatter growing area of Gries, just outside of Bolzano; the wines here are released under the general DOC but often with an indication of the area on the label. Higher elevations are favored growing areas for white grapes, but the majority of the valley is almost exclusively dedicated to apple growing—10% of Europe's entire production of apples occurs here. Pinot Nero is becoming increasingly important in the region, and the best examples come from the eastern side of the Bassa Atesina, Alto Adige's southernmost growing zone. The red Teroldego grape can produce deeply colored wines in Trentino’s Teroldego Rotaliano DOC . The ancient Marzemino, a genetic progeny of Teroldego and sibling of Lagrein, is one of the major Trentino DOC red varieties. Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Merlot, and Pinot Nero have been steadily increasing in importance and plantings in both provinces, where producers have the opportunity to underscore the grapes’ fragrant qualities. Trentino-Alto Adige does not contain any DOCG zones; however, as of 2020, 99% of the region’s production is of DOC quality, placing it foremost amongst Italy’s twenty regions in relative percentage of DOC production. Nonetheless, over three-quarters of the region’s output is dominated by co-ops, and Trentino-Alto Adige struggles to overcome a reputation of median quality. BACK TO TOP Veneto Veneto, with its capital at Venice, is the most significant of the three regions that comprise the Tre Venezie. It produces more wine than any other region in Italy, yet much of this falls at a lower level—an ocean of neutral, cheap Pinot Grigio (Pinot Gris) and sparkling wines comprises much of the bottom tier of Venetian winemaking. While over a quarter of the region’s production is DOC quality, the expansion of DOC zones like Soave and Valpolicella into markedly inferior areas fuels criticism of the DOC system and lends credence to lesser wines. Distressingly high yields and the presence of some of Italy’s largest mass-production wine companies compound difficulties in raising the base level of quality. Despite its generally low margin, Veneto produces some exciting wines, including the famous Amarone della Valpolicella—Amarone—one of the perennially expensive luxury wines of Italy. The raisinated styles of Amarone della Valpolicella and Recioto della Valpolicella represent the height of complexity for the Valpolicella region. The cherry- and bitter almond-tinged red Valpolicella DOC wines are produced from 45-95% Corvina, blended with Rondinella. Other non-aromatic grapes of the region, such as Molinara, Negrara and Oseleta, may not exceed a total 15% of the blend. The standard DOC wines are usually refreshing, lively and uncomplicated. Wines labeled superiore show a rounder character, with a higher minimum alcohol and a minimum of one year of aging. The Valpolicella Classico region is at the western end of the appellation, near the shores of Lake Garda, and consists of the several “fingers,” or valleys, surrounding the communes of Fumane, Marano, Negrar, Sant'Ambrogio, and San Pietro in Cariano. Although the Classico wines tend to be more ambitious in scope, wines from the eastern Valpolicella DOC valleys of Valpantena and Illasi, home of the unparalleled Venetian modernist Romano Dal Forno, can be equally compelling. Single vineyard ( vigna ) bottlings are becoming more common throughout the hierarchy of Valpolicella styles. The recioto style did not develop as an extension of the simpler Valpolicella wines; rather it was the modern Valpolicella’s precursor and a historical specialty of the region. Today, the style represents a small subset of Valpolicella’s total production. Recioto della Valpolicella and Amarone wines are produced through the expensive appassimento process; the grapes—varietal requirements for recioto wines are identical to the basic Valpolicella DOC—are dried for over three months in special lofts ( fruttai ) before fermentation, effectively concentrating sugar and extract. Grapes destined for Recioto della Valpolicella are typically dried for an additional month, and the resulting wine is semi-sweet to sweet, whereas Amarone is fermented to dryness or near-dryness. The appassimento process adds complex dried fruit tones, additional alcoholic warmth and a round, glycolic mouthfeel to the final wines. Amarone spends an additional two years aging prior to release; some producers (Dal Forno, Allegrini) are utilizing new barriques to add spice and density to the wines, whereas others (Giuseppe Quintarelli) remain traditional, aging the wine in large, neutral Slavonian botti . Amarone may be labeled riserva if aged for a minimum four years. Both Recioto della Valpolicella and Amarone della Valpolicella were finally approved for DOCG status in early 2010, and may be labeled as Classico or Valpantena if they originate in the respective areas. Recioto della Valpolicella wines may be spumante . Valpolicella Ripasso , finally granted its own DOC in 2010 as well, is a steppingstone in style between Valpolicella and Amarone: a wine “re-passed” over and re-fermented with the unpressed skins of grapes previously fermented for Amarone or Recioto wine. Ripasso wines require a minimum alcohol of 12.5%; Valpolicella Ripasso Superiore must achieve 13%. The Bardolino DOC zone lies between Valpolicella Classico and the eastern shores of Lake Garda. Corvina and Rondinella grapes dominate the blend of Bardolino, but the final wine is usually slightly lighter and more neutral than Valpolicella. Bardolino Superiore DOCG requires a year of aging prior to release and an additional one percent of alcohol. A rosé is produced as Bardolino Chiaretto. Grape drying at Dal Forno, Maule, Pieropana and Quintarelli. Soave DOC is the principal and most important white wine zone in Veneto, and its wines are comprised of a minimum 70% Garganega and a maximum of 30% Trebbiano di Soave and/or Chardonnay (as well as a maximum of 5% other authorized white wine grapes). Cheered, perhaps dubiously, by its own consorzio as “Europe’s largest vineyard,” Soave is a cautionary example among Italy’s frequent vinous expansions and allowances: the region has been so enormously extended from its hilly Classico zone that it has lost much of its original meaning and distinction. A formalized effort to classify Soave into geographical entities was approved in 2019 and recognized 33 individual crus . Two DOCGs exist in Soave: Recioto di Soave DOCG and Soave Superiore DOCG . Soave Superiore represents an attempt by the region to remedy its marred reputation, and covers wines from a specified subregion (Classico or Colli Scaligeri), typically vinified in stainless steel. Soave Superiore is aged for at least six months, and it may be called riserva with at least one year of aging. Recioto di Soave is produced from grapes dried from four to six months in the same delimited area as Soave Superiore. Barrel fermentation is common in Recioto di Soave and the growth of botrytis cinerea is encouraged. Soave DOC and Recioto di Soave DOCG wines may be spumante ; Soave Superiore DOCG wines may not. The wines of Gambellara DOC to the immediate east of Soave are similar in style and makeup. As in Soave, the semi-aromatic Garganega is the principal grape, making up at least 80% of the wine. Recioto di Gambellara achieved DOCG status in 2008 for sweet still and sparkling wines produced from 100% dried Garganega grapes. Just north of Gambellara, Fausto Maculan crafts singular Breganze Torcolato DOC wines. The local, acidic Vespaiolo grape is exclusively authorized for the production of these passito wines. A number of varietal dry wines are produced as Breganze DOC from both local and international varieties. The sparkling wines of Veneto are a world apart from neighboring Lombardy’s serious-minded, metodo classico wines. Here, over one million hectoliters of inexpensive, refreshing sparkling wine are annually churned out of the Glera grape; a variety whose inherent peachiness remains unadulterated by leesy, yeasty aromas as it undergoes transformation into frizzante or spumante wine via the Charmat method. The spumante wines are fully sparkling, with a minimum 3.5 atmospheres of pressure; the frizzante wines are slightly sparkling, with 1.0-2.5 atmospheres of pressure. Both usually undergo secondary fermentation in large stainless steel autoclaves, which keep the wine under pressure. The Prosecco wines, at their worst, are bland sparklers masked by a healthy addition of sugar; at their best the wines are semi-sweet or nearly dry, energetic, and fresh—the perfect Venetian aperitivo, as well as a component of the classic Bellini cocktail. Two DOCG zones are in place for Prosecco from the 2009 vintage onward: Conegliano Valdobbiadene Prosecco DOCG and the more obscure Asolo Prosecco DOCG , formerly known as Prosecco Montello e Colli Asolani. While both may produce still wine in addition to sparkling, the focus is on the frizzante and the spumante superiore styles. Fully sparkling superiore wines from both appellations may be produced from brut to demi-sec in sweetness; in practice the wines are principally extra dry or brut . The semi-sparkling styles sometimes undergo secondary fermentation in the bottle—a style indicated on the label . The hilly zone between the communes of Conegliano and Valdobbiadene represents the historical heartland of Prosecco production; in accordance with the area’s new recognition as DOCG, the producers’ consorzio ambitiously aims for the development of crus in the region. The most noteworthy cru is Cartizze, comprising a mere 107 of the DOCG’s approximate 8,000 hectares. Wines from the subzone are labeled Valdobbiadene Superiore di Cartizze, are fully sparkling in style, and are generally “dry,” with 17-35 grams per liter of residual sugar. Prosecco vines above the town of Valdobbiadene. Most Prosecco is released as non-vintage; the wine may be released with a vintage date if the wine is comprised from a minimum 85% of the stated year’s harvest. The Glera grape makes up a minimum 85% of the wine from both DOCG zones. While the DOCGs represent a renewed effort in establishing quality and image, the majority of wine is released below even the blanket Prosecco DOC level. If the wine is not at DOC level, the name Prosecco may no longer be used on labels. In 2010, Colli Euganei Fior d'Arancio , Piave Malanotte , and Lison , a region shared with Friuli, were promoted to DOCG status. Others followed suit the following year. The ascendance of such unlikely (and unknown) appellations further fuels criticism that the DOCG system in Italy is in need of serious repair. BACK TO TOP Friuli-Venezia Giulia The winemaking tradition of Friuli-Venezia Giulia borrows heavily from the neighboring Slavic, German, and Italian cultures. Techniques adapted from Germany and Austria ushered in a new age of clean, modern white winemaking in the 1960s, a move credited to producer Mario Schiopetto. The introduction of controlled cold fermentations in stainless steel, coupled with the region’s moderate temperatures, led to the Friulian style: crisp, aromatic, fruit-driven varietal white wines designed for quick consumption. This style has been refined through the years, bolstered by additional non-invasive practices like gravity flow and a minimized use of sulfur, yet critics contend that winemaking has become too clean—even clinical. Producers are continually experimenting in Friuli, as the fresh style pioneered here has become commonplace through much of Italy now. Modern Friulian whites can be blended, barrel-fermented and aged, powerful and lush rather than lean. A small subset of idiosyncratic producers spearheaded by Josko Gravner is taking another approach, making “orange” white wines with lengthy skin contact in ancient Slavic fashion. The international grapes Pinot Bianco, Chardonnay, Pinot Grigio, and Sauvignon Blanc—simply called Sauvignon in Friuli—are often bottled as varietal wines in the region, but Friuli also has a wealth of notable native grapes. For example, Verduzzo Gialla (Ramandolo) and Picolit produce sweet passito wines under two DOCG zones, Ramandolo DOCG and Colli Orientali del Friuli-Picolit DOCG . The coolest and highest-elevation area within Colli Orientali del Friuli-Picolit DOCG is its sole subzone, Cialla, a monopole of the Ronchi di Cialla estate, a property more renowned for shepherding the indigenous red grape Schioppettino back from extinction than for their small plot of Picolit vines. Indeed, despite their DOCG recognition it is not Friuli's sweet wines that earn the region international interest. The orange wines of Gravner and Radikon; the dry and powerful white wines of producers like Miani and Livio Felluga; Sauvingnon Blanc from Venica e Venica and Ronco del Gnemiz—these are the stars of modern Friuli. And Friuli's most impressive wines may be the product of native or international grapes. Sauvignon and Chardonnay win accolades, while Ribolla Gialla has achieved more recent fame as the subject of Gravner’s amphorae treatments. The aromatic Malvasia Istriana is consistently good, and Friulano—the region’s trademark white variety, formerly known as Tocai Friulano, also called Tai—is a fleshy, refreshingly almond- and mineral-tinged wine that provides the perfect foil for the famous Prosciutto di San Daniele of Friuli. Friulano is the core grape in the Rosazzo DOCG blend, a white-wine appellation modeled on Felluga's iconic "Terre Alte," and it is produced as a varietal wine in Lison DOCG , a growing region that crosses the Veneto border in western Friuli. Although Friuli receives the most acclaim for its white wines, a significant portion of the area's vineyards are planted to Merlot. Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon may be blended with or vinified separately from Merlot, producing wines that tend toward lighter, fragrant, herbal flavors. Refosco, Schioppettino, Terrano, and Pignolo are the most noteworthy indigenous red grapes. Refosco is the most planted of the three but typically shows the least promise, producing light, fruity reds. Refosco in Friuli is usually Refosco dal Peduncolo Rosso or Refoesco di Faedis. Schioppettino and Pignolo are both much rarer, but produce wines of more density, spice, and ageworthiness. Terrano, a grape that originated in Carso/Kras, is related to--and often confused with-- Friulian Refosco. Terrano is also known as Refosco d'Istria or Refosk. In the right hands it can provide an unexpected value--fruity and meaty, with firm tannins and lively acidity. Collio DOC (Collio Goriziano) and Colli Orientali del Friuli DOC are the most relevant and quality-minded of Friuli’s twelve DOC zones. Grave del Friuli DOC , meanwhile, is its most prolific. Eleven geographic DOCs of Friuli all produce varietally labeled red and white wines. The twelfth DOC appellation is Veneto’s Prosecco DOC , which extends into Friuli. Overall, Friuli ranks third amongst Italy’s regions in the percentage of DOC wine production, behind Trentino-Alto Adige and Piedmont.Previewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/208/north-americaWed, 22 Apr 2026 15:42:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:7d066d99-d437-4e2d-bc4e-c0a3f8b1d65dGuildSomm AdminContents The United States History of Wine in America The AVA System and Labeling Requirements California California: The North Coast California: The Central Coast California: The Central Valley and Sierra Foothills Washington Oregon New York Other Winemaking Areas of the US Canada Ontario British Columbia Mexico The United States The United States of America is the world’s fourth largest producer of wine and claims the world’s sixth highest acreage of land under vine. California produces approximately 85% of all American wine, followed by Washington, New York, and Oregon. Compared with traditional wine-producing countries, the US has a large population, surpassing France in early 2011 to become the world’s largest wine consumer. Despite this, the US ranked only 62 nd in per capita consumption by 2016, with just 30% of the population identifying as wine drinkers. In 2019, the US experienced its first decline in wine consumption in 25 years, as the industry lost market share to fast-growing categories such as canned hard seltzers, spirits, and craft beer. Still, the US continues to provide the world’s most substantial market for fine wines. Further, over the past 20 years, powerful American critics have had a significant influence on winemakers and markets worldwide. History of Wine in America In the early eleventh century, the Viking Leif Eriksson brought his boat aground at L’Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, Canada, becoming the first European to definitively set foot on the North American continent. He christened his discovery Vinland—possibly a reference to the meadows before him or, as recounted in the 13 th -century poem “ Saga of the Greenlanders, ” a tribute to the wealth of native grapevines. Unlike in South America, several species of wild grapevines awaited the first colonists of North America, including Vitis labrusca , Vitis rotundifolia , and Vitis aestivalis . Vitis vinifera , the source of fine wine grapes, unfortunately did not. Following Columbus’s journey in 1492 and the subsequent rush to explore and colonize the New World, European colonists attempted to produce wines from the native grapes but were generally repelled by the grapes’ inherently foxy odors and turned to imported vines. A 1619 Virginia law required every male colonist at Jamestown, the first successful English settlement on North American soil, to plant and tend at least 10 vines—the earliest record of vinifera vine plantings on the East Coast. This experiment, like many others along the Eastern seaboard, ended in failure as the European vines succumbed to new vine diseases and the phylloxera pest. Interest in winemaking in the British colonies of America dwindled; cider, beer, and whiskey became the alcoholic beverages of choice in the 18 th century. Thomas Jefferson, a gourmand devoted to the best wines of Bordeaux, showed relentless enthusiasm for wine, lingering on business in the Médoc on the very day in 1787 that the Constitutional Convention opened in Philadelphia. Jefferson viewed wine as a mark of genteel society, and “the only antidote to the bane of whiskey.” Jefferson planted vinifera at his Virginia estate, hoping that the young country could produce its own fine wine and assert its self-sufficiency in the process. Unfortunately, his efforts (along with those of George Washington) were met with continual failure, and more than 30 years of vineyard cultivation ended without a single bottle of wine. The Founding Fathers had to settle for the best of Europe, as Madeira, Sherry, and the wines of France graced state tables. Unbeknownst to them, Spanish settlers beyond the western frontier were achieving success with vinifera grapes. The Mission grape, introduced to Mexico in the early 1500s, made its way northward to Rio Grande settlements in present-day Texas and New Mexico as early as 1629. Franciscan monks brought the Mission grape to what would become the state of California and established vineyards at each of their historic missions along the West Coast. In 1783, Franciscans at the San Juan Capistrano Mission produced California’s first wine from the grape. In 1823, the Franciscans built the San Francisco de Solano Mission, the last of the missions and the northern terminus of the Spanish Empire in North America—a site now occupied by Sonoma’s town square. By 1839, George Yount had arrived in Napa as the first American settler to set foot in the valley and had planted its first vineyard. The annexation of California from Mexico in 1847 and the discovery of gold at Sutter’s Mill in 1848 brought a wave of prospectors, American soldiers, and pioneers to the San Francisco Bay, and wine production increased correspondingly. The Hungarian-born, self-styled “Count” Agoston Haraszthy arrived in Sonoma in 1849, where he founded Buena Vista, one of California’s oldest commercial wineries. Dubbed the father of California wine, the colorful Haraszthy introduced more than 300 varieties to the state, collected as vine cuttings during his European travels. He is often credited with introducing Zinfandel in California, though this claim has been disproven. The mythology of the man—who is also reported to have operated the first commercial steamboat on the Mississippi, founded Wisconsin’s oldest incorporated town, and served as San Diego’s first town marshal—may greatly exceed the reality, but his story has become Californian wine legend. Fittingly, the legend ends with his spectacular demise in the jaws of alligators, deep within the jungles of Nicaragua. Credit: Brandon Lee Wise After working for Haraszthy, Charles Krug moved in 1861 to St. Helena in Napa Valley and founded his eponymous winery—the oldest in the valley. Jacob Schram built Schramsberg in 1862. Beringer, Napa’s oldest continuously operating winery, was established in 1876, and the Finnish immigrant Gustav Niebaum founded the legendary Inglenook Winery in 1880. By the last decade of the 19th century, Napa Valley had nearly 20,000 acres under vine; Sonoma Valley had over 22,000. The rising interest in Californian wine stood in stark contrast to the near total devastation of European vineyards due to phylloxera in the late 19th century, which in turn drove even more investment to the state. But California was not immune to phylloxera, which was discovered in Napa and Sonoma in the early 1870s. It wreaked havoc on the state’s vineyards throughout the 1880s and 1890s. Salvation for the decimated vines on both sides of the Atlantic came from the much maligned but phylloxera-resistant American vine species, particularly Vitis riparia and its hybrids. Since the late 19th century, Vitis vinifera vines throughout the world have generally been grafted on American rootstocks. While California’s pioneers built a foundation for a future in fine wine based on European varieties, American grapes and hybrids continued to populate the vineyards of the Eastern United States. Although French Huguenots and Dutch settlers experimented with winemaking in 17th-century New York, commercial winemaking can be traced to the 1840s, when Robert Prince produced wine from native grapes on Long Island. American nurseries began crossing vinifera vines with American species, hoping to produce a hardier vine that retained vinifera characteristics for superior wines. The Finger Lakes region in upstate New York was extensively planted with such hybrids from 1850 onward. Along with the native Concord, the American hybrids Catawba and Delaware dominated vineyards. The nation’s first bonded winery, Pleasant Valley Wine Company, was established in 1860 and is still operating today, near Hammondsport in the Finger Lakes. By the end of the 19th century, the Finger Lakes claimed over 24,000 acres under vine. Viticulture also thrived in Ohio: at the height of his winemaking career in the mid-19th century, Nicholas Longworth annually produced 150,000 bottles of traditional method, hand-riddled sparkling Catawba. In Missouri, German immigrants were by 1856 producing 100,000 gallons annually, and Stone Hill Winery in Hermann became the third largest winery in the world by the turn of the century. American grapevines and their hybrids were vitally important in Missouri. To this day, the Norton grape remains the pride of the state—connoisseurs of Norton can now enjoy their favorite Vitis aestivalis grape out of a Riedel glass commissioned especially for the wine. Charles Valentine Riley, a Missouri entomologist, earned his place in the history of wine for being the first to understand the innate resistance of American grape species to phylloxera. The French even erected a statue in Montpellier in his honor. In 1920, America’s young wine industry faced its greatest crisis: the “noble experiment” of Prohibition. Christian temperance movements gained power throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, resulting first in a series of state-level prohibitions—Maine outlawed the sale of alcohol in 1851, followed by Kansas in 1881—and culminating in the nationwide ban on the manufacture and sale of “intoxicating liquors” with the ratification of the 18th Amendment to the Constitution. Prohibition led to a near-total shutdown of America’s wine industry, although a few wineries survived by producing still-legal Christian sacramental wines. The Frenchman Georges de Latour’s Beaulieu Vineyards actually thrived during the dry times, declaring itself the House of Altar Wine. The 21st Amendment, ratified in 1933, finally ended Prohibition, but American tastes (and winemakers’ skills) had atrophied. Sweet, fortified jug wine accounted for 81% of California’s production in 1935. Cheap, generic table wines sold under the guises of Burgundy, Chablis, Port, and Sherry flooded the American market in the decades after Prohibition ended. From the end of Prohibition through the early 1970s, America’s wine industry became truly industrial, as it focused on inexpensive, lower-quality wines for a generally uneducated domestic market. This period also marked a firm shift in the bulk of the industry to California. To Kalon Vineyard in Napa Valley (Photo credit: Shawn DeMartino) While the Italian-born Gallo Brothers were churning out oceans of cheap Thunderbird and Night Train Express from California’s Central Valley, a small core of wineries in Napa and Sonoma continued to pursue quality. In 1938, Georges de Latour hired André Tchelistcheff, a Russian winemaker trained in France, to oversee the production at Beaulieu. He introduced the Georges de Latour Private Reserve Cabernet Sauvignon, a new benchmark in quality for American wine, and brought updated standards of hygiene and techniques to California, including temperature-controlled fermentations and controlled malolactic fermentation. Tchelistcheff mentored many of California’s young talents—including Robert Mondavi, Louis Martini, Joe Heitz, and Mike Grgich—who became industry giants and helped reshape the image of Napa and California wines in general. Prohibition survivors like Inglenook, Beringer, and Beaulieu in Napa were surpassed by ambitious new wineries of the next generation by the late 1960s. Following his departure from Charles Krug due to a family feud, Robert Mondavi, a man many credit with creating the “brand” of Napa Valley, launched his winery’s first harvest in 1966. In 1967, table wines surpassed fortified wines in domestic consumption for the first time. In 1968, Mondavi singlehandedly made Sauvignon Blanc saleable by renaming it Fumé Blanc and aging it in oak. By the mid-1970s, a segment of American wine consumers was maturing and started to look for wines tied to their region of origin. Unlike most European wines, the new breed of American fine wines were labeled by variety, with Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay emerging as the grapes of choice for Napa’s producers. The struggle to achieve higher quality was not limited to Napa: Hanzell, Martin Ray, and Simi were early modern pioneers in Sonoma, and winemaker Paul Draper in 1969 took over production of Monte Bello at Ridge in the Santa Cruz Mountains. The nearby Mount Eden Vineyards, originally established by Paul Masson in 1878, produced its first vintage under its new name in 1972. The first Chalone Vineyard bottling (Monterey’s oldest commercial vineyard) debuted in 1960. In 1970, disregarding much advice to the contrary, Richard Sanford planted Pinot Noir in his new Sanford & Benedict Vineyard in Santa Barbara’s Sta. Rita Hills . Interest in the winemaking tradition of nearby Paso Robles was slowly reviving. By the late 1970s, both Oregon and Washington had small, quality-conscious wine industries, and the Ukranian-born Dr. Konstantin Frank demonstrated in the face of tremendous skepticism that Vitis vinifera could grow successfully in the Finger Lakes. His Vinifera Wine Cellars, founded in 1962, received praise for its Riesling and sparkling wines and ignited a new interest in noble varieties in New York. In 1965, David Lett of the Eyrie Vineyards planted his first Pinot Noir grapes in the Willamette Valley, pioneering the varietal style for which the valley would become internationally known. America’s reputation for fine wine was slowly improving. In 1976, that reputation catapulted forward. Results of the 1976 Judgment of Paris, a blind tasting organized by a young Steven Spurrier, surprised the globe, as two Napa Valley wines—Stag’s Leap Wine Cellars Cabernet Sauvignon and Chateau Montelena Chardonnay—placed first in a blind tasting against a sampling of first and second growth Bordeaux, and premier cru and grand cru Burgundy, respectively. Boom times for Napa and for the California wine industry in general resulted, bringing foreign investment and heightening domestic interest. In 1978, a Diamond Creek Cabernet Sauvignon was the first Napa Valley bottling to top the $100 mark at release. By 1991, California’s plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon reached 30,000 acres and its Chardonnay 50,000 acres. By the new millennium, total acreage for both grapes doubled. New wineries opened at a seemingly exponential rate as America’s wine country became associated with a lifestyle of luxury. The market—and the business of wine criticism—grew alongside them. Phylloxera recurred in California’s vineyards in the 1980s. In Napa alone, over half of the vineyards had to be torn out and replanted—a new opportunity for producers to reassess grapes and clonal selections for each site. The 1990s signaled a stylistic shift in California, as ripeness, body, and higher alcohol levels found champions among influential critics, and many producers adjusted both viticulture and winemaking decisions to support more weight and fruit. In Napa, a new wave of upstart cult producers, including Screaming Eagle, Colgin, and Harlan Estate, emerged with stratospheric price tags previously reserved for Europe’s most pedigreed wines. Lifestyle, aesthetic, and the inherent quality of wine became suddenly more difficult than ever to disentangle, as hundreds of new producers, devoid of history, followed their lead into the premium wine market. Though consumption patterns have dipped, Americans drank over 900 million gallons of wine in 2018 and lead the world in wine consumption. As viticultural science and techniques continue to improve, quality moves forward overall. Older winemaking areas have been refined or rediscovered, and the importance of matching grapes to appropriate sites is becoming clearer, leading to the exploration of new vineyard areas. Wine is now made in all 50 states, and the United States has become a world leader in production, consumption, and criticism of wine. Still, the American wine industry is not without its own crises. New rootstocks may keep phylloxera at bay in California, but it is a rising concern in Washington, where it is a slow but gradual threat, as many winegrowers still have ungrafted vineyards. The Pacific Northwest also struggles with red blotch as well as fungal trunk diseases. Throughout California, Pierce’s disease and red blotch cause serious alarm for growers. Furthermore, premiumization seems to have hit its ceiling in recent years, as the Millennial generation is not as enthused by or loyal to luxury brands. Millennials consume a range of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages and have a rising interest in lower-alcohol alternatives and more eco-friendly packaging. Finally, the power of American critics like Robert Parker has engendered its own criticism, as some charge that the modern, ultra-ripe style prevalent among many American (and global) producers has evolved to win their praise. A rising number of apps and online forums have begun to put more weight and value in consumer-based reviews. BACK TO TOP The AVA System and Labeling Requirements Prior to the creation of American Viticultural Areas (AVAs), the only legal appellations for wine in the US were politically determined: the existing boundaries of states and counties. Although states and counties remain legal appellations, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) in the late 1970s finalized a new system that would, in theory, demarcate appellations based on distinctive geographical, physical, and climatic features. The bureau approved America’s first AVA in Augusta, Missouri, in late 1980, and Napa Valley gained AVA status in 1981. Today, the Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB), a new federal bureau created by the Homeland Security Act of 2002, oversees the AVA system. In 2007, the TTB suspended the entire process of new AVA approval in the midst of a controversial new proposal to create a Calistoga AVA within Napa Valley. The proposed AVA exposed a contentious disconnect between the rights of a brand and truth in appellation labeling, as two wineries—Calistoga Cellars and Calistoga Estates—did not use enough Calistoga fruit in their wines, and stood to lose their names if the TTB approved the AVA application. In late 2009, the TTB approved the AVA without grandfathering in either winery, setting an example for future label integrity. Legally, AVAs are only an indication of geographic origin and do not require producers to adhere to any additional guidelines in the vineyard or the winery. If a label lists an AVA, a minimum 85% of grapes used to produce the wine must have originated in the stated region. If producers choose to label their wines by county, state, or country instead, the minimum is lowered to 75%. California, Washington, and Oregon are exceptions: wines labeled as California or Oregon are required to be made solely from grapes grown in the state, whereas wines labeled as Washington must contain at least 95% of grapes grown in the state. Wines labeled by single vineyard contain a minimum 95% of grapes grown in the stated vineyard. Percentage of Grapes Required for Labeling by Appellation: If labeled by country, state, or county: 75% If labeled by AVA: 85% If labeled with a single vineyard: 95% For wines labeled with an AVA, a minimum 95% must come from the stated vintage; for wines labeled with a state or county, the minimum is relaxed to 85%. Wine with a varietal designation must contain a minimum 75% of the stated variety— Vitis labrusca grapes, like Concord, are an exception, and need only comprise a minimum 51% of a varietal wine. Alcohol content must be stated on the label, within a margin of plus or minus 1.5%. As an alternative, wines in the 7 to 14% ABV range may simply be labeled as table wine or light wine . Labels must also include a government health warning and the phrase contains sulfites , provided sulfites are present in a concentration of 10 parts per million or more. All wines must declare the name and address of the bottler. In order to legally qualify for the term estate bottled , 100% of a wine must come from grapes grown on land owned or controlled by the winery. In addition, the winery and all vineyards used in the production of an estate-bottled wine must be located within the same AVA. The 394,088-acre Northern Sonoma AVA, which includes large swaths of most of the county’s northern AVAs, was proposed by Gallo of Sonoma, which may now blend across pre-existing AVA boundaries for its estate-bottled wines. BACK TO TOP California Much of California is well suited to grapegrowing, experiencing ample sunshine, mild winters, and generally low humidity, which prevents high disease pressure. The main grapegrowing regions lie in the central and coastal area of the state, as the most northerly section can get too cool and the interior too hot. The major winegrowing regions of California are divided into five large AVAs: North Coast, Central Coast, South Coast, San Francisco Bay, and the Sierra Foothills. California's AVAs; click to enlarge and zoom in (Credit: California Wine Institute) Defined loosely by geology and climate, these AVAs ultimately serve to allow smaller AVAs that are further apart to be blended and still have a qualifying AVA with a general sense of origin. Each of these includes a number of smaller AVAs—for example, Napa Valley AVA and Sonoma Valley AVA are both located within the North Coast AVA. Most of the fine wine districts are located near the coast, where fog and cool sea breezes mitigate temperatures and create a large diurnal swing from warm days to cool nights. The South Coast AVA, which covers land in the counties stretching from Los Angeles to San Diego, has made little impact in terms of fine wine production. The inland Central Valley, source of 75% of the state’s wine, is not considered an AVA. California produces a wide range of varietal wines, led by Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon. Merlot, Syrah, Zinfandel, Pinot Noir, and Sauvignon Blanc enjoy extensive plantings. French Colombard and Chenin Blanc both occupy thousands of acres, but they are mostly confined to the Central Valley, where they produce bulk wine for blends. Curious producers throughout California continue to experiment with new varieties, and one is likely to find just about anything bottled as a varietal wine in California, from the more routine Gewürztraminer, Viognier, Petit Sirah, Grenache, and Mourvèdre to the occasional Tempranillo, Vermentino, Grüner Veltliner, Valdiguié, Graciano, and Nebbiolo. Meritage , a term trademarked by the Meritage Alliance, is used by producers to indicate a premium blend in which no grape accounts for more than 90% of the wine. Meritage wines may be red or white, but must be produced from Bordeaux varieties. Zinfandel, thought to be California’s native son before Carole Meredith, an American grape geneticist, produced research definitively linking it to Croatia’s Crljenak Kastelanski, dominated the vineyards of California in the late 19th century but fell out of favor, losing ground to the classic noble varieties of Europe. Regardless of its Croatian origins, many producers champion Zinfandel as a uniquely American wine style and covet old vine plantings for their concentration and character. Some of the oldest vineyards in California are planted to the grape and were spared, ironically, by the success of White Zinfandel in the 1980s. Other grapes popular in the field blends of years past have receded in acreage, like Charbono, Carignan, and the teinturier grape Alicante Bouschet. The North Coast California’s North Coast is the epicenter of fine wine production in the US. The North Coast AVA includes the counties of Napa, Sonoma, Mendocino, Lake, Solano, and Marin. Napa County, home of Napa Valley AVA , is California’s preeminent fine wine region and the birthplace of a classic style of American Cabernet Sauvignon. Approximately 4% of California’s vineyard acreage is in Napa Valley, and it encompasses 17 sub-AVAs, named for the surrounding mountains and towns of the valley. The Napa Valley itself stretches northward from the San Pablo Bay past the principal towns of Napa and St. Helena to Calistoga, with its width narrowing—from five miles wide at the town of Napa to one at Calistoga—and temperatures warming perceptibly as one travels north. Cool ocean air funnels through the Petaluma Gap into the San Pablo Bay and upward through the valley. Carneros , the southernmost AVA within Napa, is suitable for the production of sparkling wines, whereas Calistoga , the northernmost AVA, routinely sees daytime summer temperatures above 90 degrees Fahrenheit, and producers focus on sturdier grapes like Cabernet Sauvignon and Zinfandel. Altitude also has a major effect on temperature—Napa Valley’s vineyards stretch from 0 to over 2,000 feet above sea level. The valley is formed by the Mayacamas Mountains to the west, which mark the border with Sonoma County, and the Vaca Mountains on the east. It has a remarkable diversity of volcanic, alluvial, and maritime soil types, ranging from well-drained gravel loam, to dense clays, to the thin, rocky soils of the hillside vineyards. Napa Valley AVAs (Click to enlarge and zoom in) Cabernet Sauvignon mountain fruit from Napa’s sun-drenched hillside vineyards and mountainside AVAs is prized for its density, dark fruit, and concentration, as these regions typically yield smaller berries with higher acid due to cool temperatures. Mountain appellations include Mount Veeder , Diamond Mountain District , and Spring Mountain District to the west, and Atlas Peak , Crystal Springs of Napa Valley, and Howell Mountain to the east. Howell Mountain is the wettest and coolest of the mountain appellations and the first sub-appellation wholly within Napa Valley to receive its own AVA. Its high-altitude, west-facing vineyards produce benchmark mountain wines. This is the only appellation that is elevation specific, beginning at 1,400 feet. Erosion is a serious concern for Napa’s hillside growers, as heavy winter rains can literally wash away a vineyard’s entire topsoil, leaving nothing but hard bedrock behind. Valley floor topsoil is deeper, and valley fruit tends to produce a more elegant and supple style of Cabernet, with less intensity of color. Appellations here include Yountville , Oakville , Stags Leap District , Calistoga , St. Helena , and Rutherford . Rutherford AVA, known for its “Rutherford dust,” exemplifies the valley floor style, as it is home to a unique microclimate and set of soils that result in wines with a firm tannin profile. Chardonnay from Napa Valley has historically been opulent, weighty, buttery, and oak driven, although some producers are shifting to lighter styles, sometimes foregoing malolactic or barrel fermentation altogether. Other grapes grown in the valley include Zinfandel, Merlot, Cabernet Franc, Petit Verdot, Sauvignon Blanc, Petite Sirah, Syrah, Sangiovese, and Pinot Noir. In Carneros, Pinot Noir is heavily planted for sparkling and still wine production. To the west of Napa, Sonoma County includes over 50 miles of coastline, separated by a ridge that helps protect many of its more coastal vineyards from temperatures that would render it too difficult to grow grapes. Sonoma is responsible for 6% of California wine production. While red grapes lead, Chardonnay is the most planted variety overall at over 16,000 acres. Sonoma County contains 19 AVAs: Alexander Valley , Dry Creek Valley , Rockpile , Bennett Valley , Knights Valley , Chalk Hill , Russian River Valley , Sonoma Valley , Moon Mountain District Sonoma County , Green Valley of Russian River Valley , Sonoma Mountain , Sonoma Coast , West Sonoma Coast , Northern Sonoma , Pine Mountain-Cloverdale Peak , Fort Ross-Seaview , Fountaingrove District , Petaluma Gap , and most of the Carneros AVA , which extends from Napa into the extreme south of the county. From 2011 forward, all wines produced in the county are required to state Sonoma County on the label, regardless of whether or not the label also indicates an AVA. Sonoma County AVAs (Click to enlarge and zoom in) Sonoma County AVAs cover a much larger area than the AVAs of Napa, and there is a wide variation in climate and soil throughout the county. The windy, foggy Carneros AVA is a cool area, classified as Region I on the Winkler Index, whereas the warm northern AVAs of Alexander Valley and Dry Creek Valley are considered Region III. The coolest temperatures can be found in the northern stretches of the Sonoma Coast AVA , where altitude, cold ocean air, and persistent coastal fog combine to keep temperatures down. Pinot Noir and Chardonnay thrive, along with cool-climate renditions of Rhône varieties. However, as the Sonoma Coast AVA contains nearly 500,000 acres, the more inland and southern areas within it can experience a warmer Region II climate, and even the true coastal vineyards, if above the marine fog layer, may produce bold wines of concentration and power rather than elegance and focus. In regards to defining the true coast, The West Sonoma Coast AVA was approved in 2022. This AVA hugs 141,846 acres along the coast from the southern border of Mendocino to the town of Bodega Bay. The Russian River Valley AVA , which follows the river southwest from the town of Healdsburg, is also highly regarded for Pinot Noir and Chardonnay made in fruity, forward styles, yet the appellation’s more moderate climate may ultimately prove most hospitable to Rhône grapes and Zinfandel. Fertile alluvial soils, such as Goldridge sandy loam, characterize the valley. Green Valley is not merely a subregion of Russian River Valley but also its own unique AVA, distinct for its cool temperatures, Goldridge soil, and morning fog layer. Since Green Valley is a nested AVA within Russian River Valley , producers may label their wines Green Valley or Russian River Valley ; they often choose the latter in warmer vintages. Coastal producers of note include Hirsch, Marcassin, and Peay. Dehlinger, Joseph Swan, Rochioli, and Williams-Selyem are prominent names in Russian River Valley. Kosta Browne, Freeman, and sparkling wine producer Iron Horse are all Green Valley-based estates. The northern AVAs of Alexander Valley , Dry Creek Valley , Rockpile , and Knights Valley , are located to the north and east of Healdsburg. They have warmer Region III climates— Knights Valley is the warmest AVA in the county. Bordeaux grape varieties, particularly Cabernet Sauvignon, are most prominent in the gravelly soils of Alexander Valley and Knights Valley . Alexander Valley Cabernet Sauvignon tends to show a more herbaceous character and less body than its Napa counterparts, but Knights Valley wines, such as Peter Michael’s Les Pavots, can be very similar in style. Dry Creek Valley and the small Rockpile AVA are known for ripe, powerful styles of Zinfandel, aged in either American or French oak. In the southern sector of the county, Sonoma Valley AVA , the county’s most established region, is situated between the Mayacamas and Sonoma Mountains and runs nearly parallel to Napa Valley. Zinfandel, Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, and Cabernet Sauvignon are successful in the region. Like Napa, Sonoma Valley’s temperature gets progressively warmer as one travels north, although Bennett Valley, a nested AVA in the northwestern sector of the valley, favors Merlot, as it is too cool to routinely ripen Cabernet Sauvignon. The cool, windswept hills of Carneros form the valley’s southern extremity at the San Pablo Bay. The Champagne house of Taittinger and the Cava producer Codorníu both set up American sparkling wine estates in Carneros in the 1980s, following the pioneering example of Gloria Ferrer. The Petaluma Gap AVA was designated in late 2017. Named after the wind that funnels through lower Sonoma County due to a coastal mountain opening stretching from the Pacific to Petaluma and veering south toward San Pablo Bay, the AVA is marked by its wind and fog. Cool climate Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, and Syrah are its main focus. North of Sonoma County, Mendocino’s best winegrowing regions are centered at the confluence of the Russian and Navarro Rivers in the southern portion of the county. The Mendocino AVA, which has stricter boundaries than the county appellation, lines both rivers and encompasses the AVAs of Anderson Valley, Potter Valley, Redwood Valley, McDowell Valley, Yorkville Highlands, Cole Ranch, and a portion of Mendocino Ridge. Pine Mountain-Cloverdale Peak , which extends north of the Sonoma County border into Mendocino, is not included within it. Nor are two small, secluded AVAs in the northern sector of the county, Dos Rios and Covelo. In 2014, the Mendocino AVA decreased in size—a rare move—so that its boundaries would not overlap those of a new AVA approved in the same year, Eagle Peak Mendocino County. Cole Ranch, the smallest AVA in America, has a single vineyard, Cole Ranch, and McDowell Valley is essentially a monopole AVA of McDowell Valley Vineyards. Anderson Valley offers one of California’s coolest climates, as ocean air and fog trail inland along the path of the Navarro River, framed by steep hills. As testament to the Anderson Valley’s cool, marginal climate, the Champagne house of Louis Roederer established its American operations there rather than in Carneros, where many competitors landed, and today produces one of the more elegant styles of sparkling wine in California. In addition to the classic sparkling varieties, Riesling and Gewürztraminer perform well here. The inland areas of Mendocino AVA, particularly around Ukiah, are noticeably hotter. Mendocino Ridge AVA stretches southward from the Navarro River along the coast, but the appellation is restricted to vineyards that are at least 1,200 feet above sea level. Zinfandel thrives in the sun above the fog line. To the east of Mendocino, Lake County is the smallest wine-producing county in the North Coast. High elevations and cold winters allow for successful grapegrowing despite hot summers. Lake County has nine AVAs, the most prominent of which is Clear Lake. Despite its inland location, Clear Lake helps to buffer hot temperatures. This, coupled with beneficial diurnal swings, results in grapes with higher acid retention. The Central Coast California’s Central Coast AVA spans the entirety of California’s coastline from San Francisco Bay in the north to Santa Barbara County in the south. Directly east and south of the San Francisco Bay are the AVAs of Livermore Valley, Santa Cruz Mountains, Ben Lomond Mountain, Santa Clara Valley, San Ysidro District, Contra Costa and the sprawling San Francisco Bay AVA itself. Immediately south of the city of San Francisco, the large Santa Cruz Mountains AVA provides a cool coastal climate, where high-altitude vineyards are interspersed between miles of redwood forest. Ridge’s Monte Bello Vineyard and the original Bonny Doon Estate Vineyard, an eventual victim of Pierce’s disease, are among the Santa Cruz Mountains’ most celebrated parcels. The warm inland Livermore Valley achieves success with Sauvignon Blanc; Wente is the most notable producer within the appellation. Despite the inclusion of Santa Cruz County in the Central Coast AVA, Santa Cruz Mountains AVA is excluded. South of San Francisco Bay is Monterey County, home to Carmel Valley and Salinas Valley, the “lettuce capital of the world.” In the wake of Napa’s success, Monterey AVA was extensively planted with vines. Here, a gap in the mountains that runs perpendicular to the coast (west to east) allows warm air at the southwestern end of the valley to pull in the cool ocean air downstream. Although the region, boasting one of California’s longest growing seasons, seemed promising, much of its output had ended up in bulk blends from the Central Valley. Chardonnay leads here, accounting for about 40% of plantings in Monterey AVA. Pinot Noir is highlighted in Santa Lucia Highlands AVA, home to Garys’ Vineyard, and also in Mount Harlan AVA, within San Benito County, in the Gabilan mountain range to the east, where Calera produces acclaimed wines from the grape. Chalone AVA, an appellation dominated by the producer of the same name in Monterey, lies to the south in the same range. In 2022, Gabilan Mountains AVA was established and encompasses both Mount Harlan AVA and Chalone AVA. The San Luis Obispo and Santa Barbara counties are south of Monterey. San Luis Obispo’s Paso Robles AVA is a giant appellation covering 614,000 acres (40,000 of which are planted) with wide variations in climate and soil—the principal rationale for the creation of 11 new AVAs in 2014. Broadly, the western reaches are characterized by cooler marine air funneled through the Templeton Gap and more prevalent limestone and calcareous soils. East of the Salinas River, the soil structure is sandier, and the climate in general is warmer and more arid. Zinfandel has a long history in Paso Robles, and Cabernet Sauvignon became increasingly important as the area saw an infusion of large-scale wineries in the 1980s. Rhône varieties are growing in importance. Gary Eberle planted California’s first commercial Syrah vines in Paso Robles, and the nursery at Tablas Creek, a project owned in part by Château Beaucastel, provided clonal material from the Rhône Valley to interested producers across the state. Hospices du Rhône, the world’s largest Rhône wine celebration, is held annually in the area. Other AVAs in San Luis Obispo County include York Mountain, Arroyo Grande, San Luis Obispo Coast, and Edna Valley—the last of these offering a cool coastal climate appropriate for Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. At Point Conception in Santa Barbara County , California’s coastline sharply bends, trending east-west rather than north-south. Santa Barbara’s valleys, including the Santa Maria Valley AVA and the Santa Ynez Valley AVA , trail from east to west through the San Rafael and Santa Ynez Mountains, parallel to the coastline. The AVAs of Sta. Rita Hill s, Happy Canyon of Santa Barbara , Ballard Canyon , and Los Olivos District are located within the Santa Ynez Valley . Alisos Canyon , is a standalone AVA nestled in between the Santa Ynez and Santa Maria Valleys. In early 2006, a legal dispute with the Chilean winery of the same name led Sta. Rita Hills to legally abbreviate its appellation name. Despite a lengthy history of viticulture—Santa Barbara is the site of one of California’s original missions—interest in winemaking has only taken off in the last several decades, reinvigorated by the success of Richard Sanford’s original vineyard in the Sta. Rita Hills. The giant Bien Nacido Vineyard in Santa Maria Valley AVA was planted to premium varieties, principally Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, in the mid-1970s, not long after Sanford & Benedict was established. Santa Barbara County’s Region I maritime climate and lengthy growing season—the longest in California—is lauded for cultivation of Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Merlot, and Rhône varieties. Public awareness of Santa Barbara wines, and of Pinot Noir in general, skyrocketed in the wake of Alexander Payne’s 2004 film Sideways , a paean to the region and the grape. The Central Valley and Sierra Foothills The bulk of California’s wine is produced in the state’s vast, hot Central Valley, an extensively irrigated agricultural area divided between the northern Sacramento Valley and the southern San Joaquin Valley—the latter with over 100,000 acres under vine. The Central Valley is generally divided between Region IV and Region V heat summation zones, temperatures most suitable for fortified wines, table grapes, and raisins. Gallo, the second-largest producer in the world, is headquartered in Modesto, and half of the Central Valley’s wine is produced by its facilities. As evidenced by the wines of Gallo and other Central Valley giants, including Franzia (owned by the Wine Group) and Bronco Wine Company, most Central Valley production is of bulk wine quality—low in cost and low on character of site. Thus, despite its extensive area and huge production, the Central Valley has relatively few AVAs. The largest and most important Central Valley AVA is Lodi, home to over 20% of California’s total wine grape production. Located just south of Sacramento on the eastern edge of the Sacramento River Delta, Lodi is slightly cooler than much of the Central Valley due to the influence of a gap in the coastal ranges that pulls coastal air inland from the San Francisco Bay and over the delta. This area can experience diurnal shifts as great as 45 degrees Fahrenheit, allowing for refreshing acidities and bright fruit development. Lodi is home to large, value-oriented brands such as Sutter Home and Robert Mondavi Woodbridge as well as small boutique wineries, many of them specializing in old vine Zinfandel production. Lodi includes seven AVA sub-appellations: Alta Mesa, Borden Ranch, Mokelumne River, Cosumnes River, Jahant, Sloughhouse, and Clements Hills. Other AVAs of note in the Central Valley include Dunnigan Hills, Clarksburg, Capay Valley, and Merritt Island. The Sierra Foothills AVA is located to the east of Sacramento and Lodi, on the western edge of the Sierra Nevada Mountains in the heart of California’s 19th-century gold rush territory. The fragmented region is divided into several sub-AVAs: Fair Play, El Dorado, Fiddletown, North Yuba, and California Shenandoah Valley. Temperature is dependent on altitude; the lowest and hottest vineyards are located in Shenandoah. Chewy, spicy, concentrated Zinfandel, sometimes sourced from vines dating back to before Prohibition, is the Sierra Foothills’ most acclaimed style. The University of California at Davis, located just west of Sacramento, has been a guiding light for California’s wine producers and home to one of the world’s most highly regarded institutes of viticulture and oenology. Many of America’s winemakers are graduates of its programs, and UC–Davis’s impact on winemaking and viticultural practices in the US cannot be underestimated—but not all of the influence has been positive. When phylloxera struck California in the 1980s, it attacked the now-infamous AXR-1 rootstock, a supposedly resistant rootstock supplied to the state’s growers by Davis. Officially, the institution deemed phylloxera to have mutated. Larger criticisms levied at UC–Davis by some question its role in the modernization, standardization, and manipulation of viticulture and wine. BACK TO TOP Washington Despite a relatively short history of viticulture, Washington has emerged as the nation’s second largest producer of premium wines, accounting for approximately 5% of total production. Most of the state’s wine regions, and over 99% of its vineyards, are located east of the Cascade Mountains, where the mountains’ rain shadow effect turns the land arid and necessitates irrigation. Rainfall here averages 6 to 12 inches a year. Eastern Washington experiences a true continental climate, with hot summers and cold winters: frost and winter freezes are serious concerns for growers, but ripeness is easily achieved in the state's warm growing seasons. Sunlight is an ally, too, as Washington’s vineyards receive additional summer sunshine hours in accordance with its northerly latitude. Generally, the bedrock east of the Cascades is basalt, overlaid by sediments deposited by the Missoula Floods, a catastrophic cycle of massive floods that occurred repeatedly at the end of the last ice age, some 12,000 to 18,000 years ago. Vineyards in eastern Washington are thus typically planted on sandy or silty loam soils derived from the flood-borne sediments. Despite broad similarities in climate and soil, however, eastern Washington's vineyards tend to be spread out, with great distances between large vineyard plots. Columbia Valley AVA is the largest appellation in the state, covering 11 million acres—over one-quarter of Washington’s landmass. It follows the outline of the Columbia River Basin and dips across the Oregon border. Most of Washington's other significant AVAs, including Yakima Valley , Walla Walla Valley , and Horse Heaven Hills , are nested within its borders. Washington State AVAs (Click to enlarge and zoom in) Yakima Valley was approved as Washington’s first AVA in 1983. It contains over one-third of the state’s vineyards, and it also has five nested AVAs: Snipes Mountain , Rattlesnake Hills , Red Mountain, Candy Mountain , and Goose Gap . Rattlesnake offers higher elevation vineyards ranging from 850 to over 3,000 feet and planted along ridges and terraces. Here, Merlot is the most planted variety, followed by Riesling and Cabernet Sauvignon. Unique soils and a plethora of varieties (over 30) characterize Snipes Mountain . Red Mountain , which despite its name is more a steep southwest-facing slope than an actual mountain, is desert-like in climate, receiving five inches of rainfall on average per year. Red Mountain is Washington's warmest growing region as well as its most densely planted AVA. It has developed a reputation for noteworthy, tannic Cabernet Sauvignon. Along the Oregon border southeast of Yakima Valley and Red Mountain sits Walla Walla Valley , a shared AVA between the two states, which has emerged in this century as a prestige region. Here, soils consist of basalt bedrock and thin alluvial topsoil deposited by the Missoula Floods, and loess is everywhere. Vineyards are a small but growing segment of the valley's agricultural sector: vineyard acreage expanded from 450 acres to over 1,600 in the first decade of the 21st century and is now closer to 3,000 acres. The AVA’s reputation for premium red wine is growing, too. Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Syrah are Walla Walla's most acclaimed varieties, comprising over 80% of its current plantings. Historically, white grapes, led by Chardonnay and Riesling—which has achieved more success in this state than elsewhere in the country—dominated viticulture, but by the early 2010s, red varieties had surpassed them in total acreage, with Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot the state's two most planted varieties. Merlot shows a distinctively full, sweet, and luscious character, but most producers believe that the future here is in great Cabernet Sauvignon. Other important commercial grapes include Syrah, Gewürztraminer, Sémillon, Sauvignon Blanc, and Cabernet Franc. Over 1,000 bonded wineries are currently in business in Washington. BACK TO TOP Oregon While Oregon is primarily regarded for its Willamette Valley Pinot Noir, there are a few other noteworthy wine regions. On the northern boundary with Washington, east of Portland, there are four AVAs: the shared AVAs of Columbia Gorge, Columbia Valley, and Walla Walla Valley, and The Rocks of Milton-Freewater AVA, which sits on an old riverbed within Walla Walla Valley, entirely on the Oregon side. This AVA, established in 2015, earned its name for a topsoil of basalt cobblestones that draws comparisons to the galets of Châteauneuf-du-Pape. Producers are just beginning to explore the potential here for Rhône-style wines. On the extreme eastern side of the state, a single vineyard is planted on the Oregon side of Idaho’s arid Snake River Valley AVA. Finally, Southern Oregon is steadily growing in size and stature, celebrating diversity among grapes and styles. Oregon’s Willamette Valley , which stretches 120 miles southward from Portland, between the Cascades and the Oregon Coast Range (Coastal Range), is synonymous with quality Pinot Noir production. David Lett of The Eyrie Vineyards and Charles Coury of Charles Coury Vineyards were the first to explore its potential, traveling northward from California to plant Pinot Noir in the Willamette Valley in the mid-1960s. Dick Erath, Dick Ponzi, and others followed not long after. Lett’s 1975 South Block Reserve Pinot Noir achieved outstanding results in a French competition and brought vindication to the efforts of these early trailblazers. Soon after, in 1987, the Burgundy négociant Maison Joseph Drouhin purchased a Dundee Hills property, further validating the up-and-coming region. Today, the valley’s Pinot Noir wines are a steppingstone between California and the Côte d’Or: lighter in style and earthier than the former, riper and more forward than the latter. The cool, temperate climate of the valley invites further comparisons to Burgundy, and vintages are more variable than in Sonoma or Santa Barbara. Oregon AVAs (Click to enlarge and zoom in) In the mid-2000s, efforts to understand differences from site to site in the Willamette Valley resulted in the creation of six smaller AVAs within it: Dundee Hills , Eola-Amity Hills , Ribbon Ridge , McMinnville , Yamhill-Carlton District , and Chehalem Mountains . Five new nested AVAs were created more recently, bringing the total number of sub-AVAs to eleven: the Van Duzer Corridor AVA was approved in 2019, followed by the Laurelwood District and Tualatin Hills AVAs in 2020, Lower Long Tom in 2021, and Mount Pisgah Polk County Oregon in 2022. With these new divisions, winemakers could more closely explore (and identify with) different elevations and soil structures in the valley. For instance, Jory, a well-drained soil series of volcanic origin, is common in the "red hills" of the Dundee Hills AVA , while marine sedimentary soils like Willakenzie are more prominent on the valley's westernmost slopes, such as in Ribbon Ridge . As tasters often ascribe a denser style of wine and darker fruit to Willakenzie soils and more elegance to Jory, style profiles for the AVAs themselves are beginning to emerge. Climatic influences vary from one nested AVA to the next as well. Pacific winds funneling through the Van Duzer Corridor, a gap in the Coastal Mountains that separates the valley from the ocean, directly impact McMinnville and the Eola-Amity Hills , generating more tannic styles of Pinot Noir. The Chehalem Mountains AVA , on the other hand, has a number of north-facing vineyards that are among the valley's coolest sites. In the US, it is rare to have a winegrowing area like this, where all of these subtle differences can be viewed largely through the prism of one variety—Pinot Noir. It is the only red variety of any consequence in the Willamette Valley, but there are significant plantings of white grapes, including Pinot Gris (vinified in dry and off-dry styles), Chardonnay, and Riesling. While the Willamette Valley connects Portland in the north with Eugene, the Southern Oregon AVA stretches from just south of Eugene to the California border, encompassing the AVAs of the Umpqua Valley, Elkton Oregon, Rogue Valley, Applegate Valley, and Red Hill Douglas County. A wide range of varieties is planted throughout Southern Oregon, including Pinot Noir, Syrah, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Gris, Gewürztraminer, and Chardonnay. Applegate Valley AVA is the warmest and driest growing region west of the Cascades in Oregon. Overall, Southern Oregon is still an underdeveloped wine region, lacking a nearby large market like Portland or San Francisco to drive interest and investment. Varietal wines from Oregon—excluding those produced from white and red Bordeaux varieties, major Rhône grapes, Zinfandel, Sangiovese, Tannat, and Tempranillo—must contain a minimum 90% of the stated variety rather than the standard 75%. Oregon also maintains stricter state laws for labeling by region: a wine labeled by an AVA within Oregon must contain a minimum 95% of grapes grown in the respective appellation, rather than the 85% mandated by federal law. BACK TO TOP New York New York has the nation’s third largest vineyard area and is the third largest wine-producing state by volume, but the bulk of its grapes are harvested for purposes other than wine. The state’s most planted variety, Concord, composes about 19,000 of New York’s 33,000 vine acres, and only a third of it goes toward wine production. The rest is sold to large jam and juice companies, such as Welch’s, or consumed as table grapes. What is made into wine is typically sweet and inexpensive. Two large Kosher sacramental wineries, Manischewitz and Mogen David, make their wines from New York Concord. Hybrid varieties such as Concord have dominated New York grape plantings since the industry’s modern inception in the early 19th century. Vinifera varieties struggle during New York’s punishing winters, experienced dramatically at its more interior regions. The perennial threats of spring and autumn frost cause dramatic losses for vinifera in periodic vintages, and the potential for winter freeze leads many winegrowers to bury their vineyards in the coldest months to avoid vine death. Several American grape species, such as Vitis labrusca and Vitis aestivalis , are native to the New York area and naturally adapted to the harsh winter climate. Such qualities are harnessed in the breeding of French-American hybrids, which are generally winter hardy, allowing for a more reliable crop than vinifera—especially before the advent of more contemporary protective viticultural practices. Dr. Konstantin Frank of Vinifera Wine Cellars was key to the development of New York’s wine industry, helping advance New York wine to meet modern palates. Beginning in the 1950s, Frank worked to understand the potential for vinifera in the Finger Lakes and champion the state’s now-signature variety, Riesling. Historically, many wine critics looked down on hybrid varieties, often referencing an unpalatable grapey or musky character, termed as foxy. Today, winegrowers and drinkers are rediscovering the potential of French-American hybrids. Many contemporary examples from grapes such as Baco Noir, Seyval Blanc, Vidal, Cayuga, and Catawba demonstrate impressive quality and personalities distinct from vinifera wines. New York AVAs; click to enlarge and zoom in (Credit: New York Wine & Grape Foundation ) Located near Rochester in central-western New York, the Finger Lakes AVA bottles 90% of the state’s wines. The region is named for the series of 11 narrow, roughly parallel lakes that define the region. These so-called fingers were cut by retreating glaciers at the end of the last Ice Age. Hugging the banks of the Finger Lakes, vineyards benefit from the lake effect, in which the water moderates temperatures, cooling the vines in the warmer months and warming them during the winter. Lake Ontario, located due north, has a similar effect on the area more broadly. The two deepest Finger Lakes, Seneca Lake and Cayuga , have their own AVAs. The Finger Lakes has been New York’s leading wine region since the mid-19th century. Finger Lakes wineries of the mid-to-late 1800s focused on white and sparkling wines from French-American hybrids. Today, Riesling is the region’s flagship grape. It is made across the sweetness spectrum and, at its best, can challenge German examples in its complexity. Chardonnay, Gewürztraminer, Pinot Noir, Cabernet Franc, and even a small amount of Merlot have also found success in the Finger Lakes. The sandy Long Island AVA stretches across the land mass of the same name, located east of New York City and separated from Connecticut by the Long Island Sound. Here, the climate is warmer than elsewhere in New York, allowing for the cultivation of Bordeaux varieties, such as Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot, as well as Chardonnay, Gewürztraminer, and Riesling. As with the Finger Lakes, the Atlantic Ocean moderates temperatures to ward off frost. It also cools the vines during the hotter summers and barricades against warm southerly currents. The top vineyards are largely concentrated on the island’s eastern half. At its end, the island splits into two narrow forks, each with its own AVA: t he North Fork of Long Island AVA and the Hamptons, Long Island AVA . The Hudson River Region AVA is similarly influenced by the Atlantic. It follows the southern course of the Hudson River, from Columbia to Westchester counties, just above New York City. The towering Hudson River Palisades channel Atlantic breezes north, resulting in a cool climate that is often inhospitable to vinifera. Accordingly, the region is largely planted to hybrids, though some quality Chardonnay and Cabernet Franc are found. Notably, the Hudson River Region houses the United States’ oldest continually operating winery, Brotherhood Winery, founded in 1839. North of Albany, the more recent Upper Hudson AVA also focuses on hybrid varieties, as does the cold and sparsely planted Champlain Valley AVA , located in the northeastern corner of the state on the shores of Lake Champlain at the Vermont border. In the far west of New York, the Niagara Escarpment AVA traces the same limestone formation that extends into Canada’s Niagara Peninsula. Moderated by Lake Ontario, the Niagara Escarpment AVA is also recognized for its Icewines, many produced from Vidal. The Lake Erie AVA , just southwest, is the land of Concord. This “grape belt” appellation, the largest vineyard area outside California, is shared with Ohio and Pennsylvania and better known for jelly and juice than for wine. BACK TO TOP Other Winemaking Areas of the US Although wine is produced in all 50 states, beyond the above major commercial areas of production, most is sold and consumed locally. Texas has eight viticultural areas, including the sprawling nine-million-acre Texas Hill Country AVA. New Jersey, Virginia , Missouri, Michigan , Florida, Kentucky, Minnesota, Arizona, New Mexico, Ohio, Illinois, North Carolina, Colorado, and Idaho all support small but substantial wine industries. Quality and variety can sometimes be surprising. There are, for example, good renditions of sparkling wine from New Mexico, Virginia Nebbiolo, Texas Tempranillo, and Michigan Riesling. The Upper Mississippi River Valley AVA, spanning nearly 30,000 square miles in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Illinois, became America’s largest demarcated appellation with its formal approval in 2009. Back to Top Canada Canada’s modern history of winemaking begins in the early 19th century, but Vitis vinifera vines were not planted on a commercial scale until the 1970s. In the 1950s and 1960s, growers began moving away from traditional North American varieties like Concord and Niagara to French hybrids. De Chaunac, a red French hybrid developed by Albert Seibel but introduced to Canada after World War II by Adhemar de Chaunac, became one of Canada’s most planted varieties by the 1970s. De Chaunac ended the reliance of his employer, Ontario’s Brights Wines, on native grapes and introduced a number of other hybrids from his native France, including Baco Noir, Rosette, and Maréchal Foch. In 1951, he oversaw the successful introduction of 10 acres of Chardonnay at Brights, predating Dr. Konstantin Frank’s achievement in New York by just a few years. Brights Wines’ experimental vineyards of vinifera vines remained a small project, as French hybrids quickly came to dominate the Canadian wine landscape. Like the US, Canada suffered through Prohibition in the early 20th century, albeit on a provincial rather than national scale. Ontario and Nova Scotia were the last winemaking provinces to repeal Prohibition, in 1927 and 1929. While the wine industry was starting to transform itself through the introduction of French hybrids in the decades after Prohibition, it was also undergoing a period of consolidation. A moratorium was placed on new winery licenses, and larger wineries like Brights swallowed up the smaller producers who struggled through Prohibition. By 1974, only six wineries remained in business in the country. However, the end of the moratorium in 1974 signaled the beginning of a new era of small premium production and vinifera wines, with the founding of Inniskillin in Niagara-on-the-Lake. In the next several decades, Inniskillin would almost singlehandedly create an international reputation for Canadian icewine. Although good icewine can be fashioned from Vidal—the only French hybrid allowed for VQA Icewine—Inniskillin produced its most noteworthy wines from European grapes like Riesling and Cabernet Franc. In 1988, Canada signed a free trade agreement with the US, which required Canadian producers to refocus on quality in order to compete in their own domestic market and, when coupled with a government-sponsored vine-pull scheme, led to an even larger share in the vineyard for vinifera grapes. In the same year, an appellation and quality control system known as the Vintners Quality Alliance (VQA) was launched in Ontario. British Columbia established its VQA standards in 1990. Ontario and British Columbia, respectively Canada’s first and second most important wine regions, are the only areas with VQA status today. VQA standards are legally enforced in Ontario but voluntary in British Columbia. Approved bottlings will always carry the stylized VQA logo. VQA wines from Ontario or British Columbia must be made from 100% of grapes grown in the respective province. If labeled with a more precise appellation, British Columbia VQA wines must contain a minimum 95% of grapes grown in the stated appellation, whereas Ontario VQA wines require 85% for appellations and regional appellations, and 100% for sub-appellations (in Niagara Peninsula). To be labeled with a single vineyard in either province, a VQA wine must solely contain grapes grown in the stated vineyard. With the exception of sparkling wines, all Ontario VQA wines must be labeled with a vintage date and contain a minimum 85% of grapes harvested in that year. For British Columbia VQA vintage-dated wines, the minimum requirement is also set at 85%. Varietal wines from both regions must contain a minimum 85% of the stated variety. Only certain varieties (including a select few French hybrids) are authorized for production. VQA standards set limits on chaptalization (it is not authorized for the production of late-harvest wines or icewine), acidification, must weights, and other technical aspects of winemaking. Back to Top Ontario Ontario , Canada’s largest producer with approximately 15,000 acres devoted to vinifera grapes, is divided into three main appellations, or VQA Designated Viticultural Areas (DVAs): the Niagara Peninsula , Lake Erie North Shore , and Prince Edward County . A fourth appellation, Pelee Island (Canada’s southernmost point and smallest viticultural area, situated several miles off the shoreline of Lake Erie), existed until 2013, when it was formally deregulated. In 2016, this area was included in the South Islands sub-appellation within the Lake Erie North Shore DVA. All of Ontario’s appellations are located between 41 and 44 degrees latitude, where the cool continental climate is mitigated by the lake effect of the Great Lakes, although the effect dissipates quickly as one travels away from the coast. The Niagara Peninsula is the largest viticultural area and is subdivided into three regional appellations: Niagara Escarpment, Niagara-on-the-Lake, and West Niagara. Each regional appellation is in turn divided into a number of smaller sub-appellations. Riesling, Chardonnay, Cabernet Franc, Merlot, Gamay, and Pinot Noir are the dominant vinifera varieties in the Niagara Peninsula. Icewine, a German style first adopted in the Niagara Peninsula by Inniskillin, remains one of the most acclaimed wines of the region. Hopeful producers declare their intent to produce icewine to the VQA in November and allow grapes to remain on the vine into the winter, finally harvesting the frozen grapes at night, when temperatures reach at least -8 degrees Celsius. The resulting wine is concentrated, intensely sweet, and rich but retains acidity for balance. While icewine currently represents about half of Ontario's exports, it accounts for less than 5% of production. The increasing quality and local interest in dry wines is likely to spur increasing exports of the region's table wines. Excellent renditions of Cabernet Franc, Gamay, Riesling and traditional method sparkling wines are starting to find their way to the export market. To the north, much of Prince Edward County is separated from the mainland by water, and the vineyards occupy a fractured landmass of well-drained soils, interspersed with inlets and coves. Pinot Noir and Chardonnay are key grapes for the region’s handful of wineries. BACK TO TOP British Columbia On Canada’s Pacific Coast, British Columbia supports nine DVAs: Fraser Valley, Gulf Islands, Kootenays, Lillooet, Okanagan Valley, Shuswap, Similkameen Valley, Thomson Valley, and Vancouver Island. The Okanagan Valley is one of the world’s most northerly wine regions, reaching northward of the 49th parallel, and the most developed region in British Columbia—the valley supplies 84% of the province’s wine. The narrow valley, located between the Cascades and the Monashee Mountains, enjoys long daylight hours and a true continental climate, despite some mitigation of extremes by the nearby Lake Okanagan. Summers are hotter than in California’s coastal regions, and winters are much colder, bringing annual fears of significant vine damage. Vineyards are almost evenly divided between white and red grapes, with Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Pinot Gris, Merlot, and Pinot Blanc enjoying significant acreage. In 1973, prior to Inniskillin’s inception, Walter Hainle produced icewine on a very small scale in Okanagan Valley, but the dessert style in general remains a minor aim for the province's producers. Only a handful of botrytis wines are made. BACK TO TOP Mexico Mexico’s winemaking history began with the arrival of the Spanish to the Americas in the 16th century. The Spanish first tried to make wine with the indigenous vines they found in New Spain (now Mexico) but quickly realized these grapes would not produce good wine. In 1521, Hernán Cortés defeated the Aztec Empire, claiming it for Spain. One of his early orders from the King of Spain was to plant 1,000 vines for each native slave in the new territory. This was when Vitis vinifera, brought over from Europe, was introduced. Although there is controversy over the precise location where vinifera was first planted—some say it was in the state of Veracruz and others believe it was in Puebla—Mexico was the first country producing wine in the Americas. Soon after the defeat of the Aztec Empire, priests began to travel north on missions, seeking to convert the native people. For sacramental use, they cultivated the Listán Prieto grape, also known as Mission—named, of course, for its association with these missions. New Spain's fledgling wine industry soon became so successful that it began exporting wine to Spain, rivaling the industry in the Old World. In the 1600s, Charles II of Spain retaliated by prohibiting winemaking in New Spain. He ordered most vines in the territory to be destroyed, with only a few surviving to produce wine for religious purposes. His law remained in effect until Mexican Independence in 1821. In 1701, Juan Ugarte became the first person to plant vines in the state of Baja California while at the mission in Loreto. Jesuit priests with Misión Santo Tomás started growing a significant number of vines in 1791. During the reform war in Mexico in the 1800s, many of these church land holdings were sold to private investors, while others were abandoned. Bodegas Santo Tomás, for example, was established in 1888 after a private investor bought the land. In 1904, during the Porfiriato (when Mexico was ruled by Porfirio Díaz), the government gave a group of Russians immigrants escaping Tsar Nicolas II 100 acres in Baja California's Guadalupe Valley. They began to grow vines for personal winemaking and encouraged others to do the same, contributing to the region’s growing reputation as an area for quality winemaking. The 1970s brought a resurgence to the industry as Mexican wines were heavily promoted in Mexico City’s restaurants and winemakers began participating in international competitions. Established Spanish wineries such as Casa Pedro Domecq and Freixenet invested in the winemaking regions of Baja California and Querétaro. Today, a total of 25,000 hectares are planted across Mexico, with 8 of its 32 states producing wine. Mexico does not have any type of government regulation for viticulture or viniculture. Producing 85% of Mexico’s wine across 3,360 planted hectares, maritime-influenced Baja California is the most important winemaking state, with a Mediterranean climate well suited to viticulture. Its Guadalupe Valley is home to over 140 wineries, including L.A. Cetto, the largest winery in Mexico. Situated 400 meters above sea level and 25 kilometers from the Pacific Ocean, the area has a strong oceanic influence. The soils on the valley floor are sandy, and the soils on the hillsides are a blend of granite and poor clay. Moving south, the Ojos Negros Valley is the highest altitude and coolest valley in the region at 800 meters above sea level. There is occasional snow here, and it can be warmer than surrounding areas in the summer. The soil is a blend of sand and clay. Further south and 45 kilometers from the city of Ensenada, the Santo Tomás Valley has clay and volcanic soils. The southernmost valley in Baja California is San Vicente, only 11 kilometers from the Pacific. The ocean and the vineyards are divided by a hillside that limits the humidity entering the valley, and the soils are deep red clay with high mineral content. Baja California's other production areas are Valle de la Grulla and Tecate. Beyond Baja California, Coahuila and Querétaro are also key wine-producing states. Coahuila, east of Baja and bordering Texas, produces wine in Arteaga, Saltillo, and Parras de la Fuente. The last of these is most important, a valley oasis in the middle of the desert at 1,500 meters above sea level. It has clay soils and a warm desert climate with cool winters and warm summers. Located here is Casa Madero, the oldest winery in the Americas, founded in 1597. Querétaro is in the very center of Mexico, between 700 and 3,300 meters above sea level. It has a semi-arid climate and chalky and sandy soils. Ezequiel Montes, San Juan del Río, and Tequisquiapan are important growing areas. The other wine-producing states, from north to south, are Sonora, Durango, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes, and Guanajuato. With the exception of Guanajuato, these states have a semi-arid climate and are dominated by sand and clay soils. Sonora is home to the regions of Bahía Kino, Caborca, and Hermosillo. Durango is divided by the Sierra Madre range, creating microclimates; its most important region is Gómez Palacio. Zacatecas grows grapes in its most southern reaches, where elevation ranges from 400 to 2,000 meters above sea level and temperatures are consistent year round. The key regions are Ojocaliente and Valle de la Macarena. Tucked alongside the southern Zacatecas border, the small state of Aguascalientes has soft sandy soil with gravel and clay. Grapes grow in Pabellón de Arteaga, El Llano, Asientos, Jesús María, and Rincón de Romos at altitudes ranging from 800 to 1,800 meters above sea level. Guanajuato was one of the first Mexican states to produce wine and is known for being the place where the Mexican revolution began. The proximity of the Sierra Madre mountains results in three distinct climates, but wine country, at 1,900 meters above sea level, is mostly continental, with volcanic and gravel soils. The important areas for winegrowing are San Miguel de Allende and Dolores Hidalgo. BACK TO TOPPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/154/loire-valleyWed, 22 Apr 2026 15:42:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:da7090f5-a4d9-45e1-87ca-70ac4792bb61GuildSomm AdminTable of Contents The Loire Valley Pays Nantais Anjou-Saumur Touraine The Central Vineyards Other Appellations of Central France The Loire Valley The Loire is France’s longest river and the last wild river in Europe. On its meandering 629-mile path from its headwaters in the Massif Central to its mouth on the Atlantic Coast, the Loire River nurtures a number of distinct wine regions that defy easy categorization. The most notable appellations exist in a nearly unbroken chain from Pays Nantais on the Atlantic Coast to the Central Vineyards of the Upper Loire, which stand at the exact geographical center of France. The Loire Valley, or Jardin de la France , is a patchwork of agriculture, history, and natural beauty. It was designated a World Heritage Site in 2000. Winemaking in the Loire dates to at least the first century CE. Viticulture in Touraine was chronicled in the sixth century, and Chenin Blanc may have appeared by 845 just south of Angers, although conclusive evidence of the grape's presence in the Loire Valley does not arrive until the 16th century. Cabernet Franc also has a long history in the region. Despite its Basque origin, Cabernet Franc's long migration to Loire vineyards was confirmed by the French writer François Rabelais in a 1534 publication, and it may have arrived in the region as early as the 11th century. Loire wines have always been an important commodity in the cafes of Paris, and they were exported via Nantes to England by the 11th century. The wines of Sancerre, Anjou, and Saint-Pourçain succeeded each other in national repute during the High and Late Middle Ages, when the Loire Valley was the focus of French society. This focus shifted with King Louis XIV’s coronation at Reims and his development of Versailles. The pastoral Loire Valley faded from view as the Industrial Age blossomed and swifter transit brought new wines to Paris. Crippled by phylloxera in the 1880s and supplanted by the wines of Bordeaux and others, the Loire Valley was almost forgotten as a viticultural region. As wine enthusiasts are gradually learning, the Loire today offers an incredible range of food-friendly wines, typically lighter in style but remarkable for their honesty and charm. The Loire Valley produces more white wine than any other French region and is second only to Champagne in sparkling wine production. Chenin Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc, and Melon de Bourgogne are the classic white varieties for Loire wines. In addition, a host of secondary white regional and international grapes can be found throughout the valley, including Chardonnay, Orbois (Arbois/Menu Pineau), Romorantin, Gros Plant (Folle Blanche), and Chasselas. While the Loire’s white wines can overshadow the reds, the valley is nonetheless an important source for lighter-bodied, high acid red wines. Cabernet Franc—known locally as Breton—is the most important variety, followed by Pinot Noir, Gamay, Cabernet Sauvignon, Malbec (Côt), Pineau d’Aunis, and Groslot (Grolleau). BACK TO TOP Pays Nantais The vineyards of the Pays Nantais sweep from the south toward the northeast of the city of Nantes near the Atlantic coast. This is Muscadet country: a cool, wet maritime region planted primarily to the Melon de Bourgogne grape. The grape arrived in the area in the 17th century as distillation fodder for the Dutch but gained prominence after a notable 1709 frost and ensuing moratorium on red grapes that transformed the Nantais into a white wine region. Today, four appellations exist for the grape: Muscadet AOP , Muscadet Coteaux de la Loire AOP , Muscadet Côtes de Grandlieu AOP , and Muscadet Sèvre-et-Maine AOP . To ensure lighter, fresher character, Muscadet wines show best at 12% ABV or below. Muscadet AOP is the basic appellation for Melon de Bourgogne, and the wines are neutral, bone dry to dry, high in acid, and designed for youthful consumption. The appellation is seldom used, as most producers qualify for one of the other three sub-appellations. Muscadet Sèvre-et-Maine wines, which account for over 80% of Muscadet production, are sourced from 23 communes near the confluence of the Sèvre and Maine Rivers. Muscadet Sèvre-et-Maine AOP offers—but does not promise—classic Melon de Bourgogne sourced from a range of complex soils including gneiss, silica, clay, and granite. Nearly half of the Sèvre-et-Maine production is bottled sur lie . In order to label Muscadet as sur lie , the wine must originate from land qualifying for one of the three sub-appellations. Sur lie wines are aged on their lees over the winter and are bottled directly off the fine lees (without filtering) between March 1 and November 30 of the year following the harvest. The process adds complexity, richness, and a slight sparkle to the finished wines. Muscadet Coteaux de la Loire AOP is further north, and the wines are correspondingly leaner. In warmer vintages, the area is an excellent source for grapes. Muscadet Côtes de Grandlieu AOP is the newest appellation, created in 1994. The wines struggle to achieve quality beyond basic Muscadet. Some producers in Muscadet Sèvre-et-Maine are striving to create a badge of quality for better wines. Guy Bossard and others adopted “Hermine d’Or,” an unofficial label term that promotes terroir and stresses ageability. A Cru Communaux designation was proposed in 2001, requiring eligible wines from specified schist soils to spend a minimum 18 months sur lie —longer than the actual sur lie term allows. In 2011, this proposal finally bore fruit with the introduction of three subzones for Muscadet Sèvre-et-Maine: Clisson, Le Pallet, and Gorges. Château Thébaud, Goulaine, Monnières-Saint-Fiacre, and Mouzillon-Tillières were added in 2019. Although the minimum length of aging for each subzone precludes the use of sur lie on the label, wines from these areas may be destined to become some of the finest expressions of the Melon grape available. With the elimination of the VDQS tier in 2011, three new regions in Pays Nantais gained AOC status: Gros Plant du Pays Nantais , Coteaux d'Ancenis , and Fiefs Vendéens . Like Muscadet, Gros Plant may be produced as a sur lie wine, but it will require some serious effort on the part of the region's producers to improve perceptions, lees aging or not. BACK TO TOP Anjou-Saumur Between the Pays Nantais and Touraine lies the Loire’s largest, most diverse, and most dynamic region, Anjou. Although Anjou and Saumur are often considered collectively, Saumur is an eastern subregion of Anjou, adjacent to Chinon in Touraine. Together, they deliver every style of wine the Loire offers. Saumur is the Loire’s center for sparkling wine production; Anjou produces both sweet and dry interpretations of Chenin Blanc, known locally as Pineau de la Loire. The highest praise is reserved for these white wines, but 45% of Anjou’s total production is devoted to rosé, a blended wine dominated by Grolleau grapes. Nearly one-third of Anjou’s plantings are Cabernet Franc, with the resulting red wines achieving a higher quality than in the past. Anjou AOP , a designation for red, white, and sparkling wines, is the umbrella appellation for the region. Many Saumur wines may be bottled as Anjou AOP, but not vice versa. Chenin Blanc is slow to ripen, and in northerly climates like Anjou, the grape will maintain its persistent, high acidity in the finished wine. Astringency from high levels of extract is also common. Whereas Anjou Blanc AOP dry wines tend toward this aggressive acidity and bitterness, the best wines of Savennières AOP develop great complexity and honeyed richness with age. Produced from 100% Chenin Blanc and generally dry, the wines of Savennières are austere and rigid in their youth. On the north bank of the Loire, Savennières enjoys a steep southern exposure and a unique soil structure composed of blue schist mixed with volcanic debris. Two sub-appellations, long regarded as unofficial grands crus of Savennières, finally received their own AOCs in 2011: Roche Aux Moines and Coulée de Serrant . The latter is a monopole of the rigidly biodynamic Nicolas Joly. South of Angers and the Loire, Chenin Blanc is harvested later in the season as producers hope for botrytis in the sweet wine districts of Coteaux du Layon AOP and Coteaux de l’Aubance AOP . Harvesting in tries (multiple passes through the vineyard) is mandatory in both appellations, resulting in either healthy grapes with pure late-harvest flavors or the selection of grapes riddled with noble rot. With a minimum residual sugar content of 34 grams per liter, neither appellation commands the richness and unctuousness of Sauternes; however, the wines gain versatility at the table. Within Coteaux du Layon, Bonnezeaux AOP and Quarts de Chaume AOP are noteworthy for the high quality of their sweet wines. These two appellations enjoy south-facing aspects in the communes of Thouarcé and Rochefort-sur-Loire, respectively, and often deliver botrytis-affected fruit. Quarts de Chaume AOP, entitled to the grand cru moniker from the 2010 harvest forward, consists of a small band of sandstone and schist hillsides on the banks of the Layon River. Protected from the prevailing winds and touched by morning mists streaming from the Layon, the small appellation is a good incubator for noble rot, and, like Sauternes, its regulations require manual harvests to be conducted in successive tries. At about 40 hectares, Quarts de Chaume's total production each year is under 10,000 cases of wine. Domaine des Baumard and Château Pierre-Bise—both highly regarded producers of Savennières—are good addresses for the sweet wines of Quarts du Chaume, and Château des Fesles is one of the most respected estates in Bonnezeaux, a larger appellation that is often actually harder to find in the marketplace. Clos de la Coulée de Serrant Additionally, seven villages are entitled to add their names to the basic Coteaux du Layon AOP: Beaulieu-sur-Layon, Rochefort-sur-Loire, Faye d’Anjou, St. Lambert du Lattay, St. Aubin de Luigné, Rablay-sur-Layon, and Chaume. Wines labeled by village must reach higher minimum must weights and are harvested at lower maximum yields. At a minimum 80 grams per liter of residual sugar, the wines of Chaume are exceptionally rich, yet vociferous complaints by the producers of Quarts du Chaume scuttled the separate, short-lived Chaume/Chaume Premier Cru appellation in 2009, sending the commune back into the fold of Coteaux du Layon AOP. In 2011, with the approval of grand cru status for Quarts du Chaume, opposition relented and the INAO again bestowed the status of premier cru on wines from the commune of Chaume. While the Cabernet Franc-based wines of Anjou AOP are good values, Anjou-Villages AOP , a red wine-only appellation, provides some of the region’s finest examples. Anjou-Villages producers typically bolster Cabernet Franc with a proportion of Cabernet Sauvignon, resulting in sturdier and fuller wines. Anjou Brissac AOP , a more recent red wine appellation, covers the same 10 communes that are authorized for Coteaux de l'Aubance. Gamay gives Anjou's lightest reds (Anjou Gamay varietal wines), but the grape may not be blended in standard Anjou rouge bottlings. Saumur AOP covers dry white, rosé, red, and sparkling wines. Prior to 2016, Saumur Blanc permitted the addition of Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay but now requires 100% Chenin Blanc. Saumur Rouge wines allow Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Pineau d’Aunis. Rosé from the region was formerly designated as Cabernet de Saumur AOP , but the appellation was incorporated into the Saumur AOP as of 2016. Over half of Saumur’s grapes are destined for Saumur AOP sparkling wines or méthode traditionnelle Crémant de Loire AOP . The latter offers the most promise, allowing blending across Touraine and Anjou-Saumur while permitting fewer restrictions on grape usage. The soft tuffeau limestone soils of Saumur resemble those of Touraine. Near the commune of Champigny—the “field of fire”—the limestone is harder, iron-rich, and inflected with shale. Eight surrounding villages may produce the red wine Saumur-Champigny , a light, bright, and elegantly floral expression of Cabernet Franc. Haut-Poitou , about 50 miles due south of Chinon and the eastern edge of Saumur, achieved AOC/AOP status in late 2011 with the dissolution of the VDQS category. Here Sauvignon (Blanc and Gris) is featured in white wines while Cabernet Franc is the majority grape in reds and rosés. BACK TO TOP Touraine While both Anjou-Villages and Saumur-Champigny can produce attractive, expressive reds, the Loire’s best and most ageworthy red wine has historically been produced in the two regions of Chinon and Bourgueil in Touraine. Chinon AOP , Bourgueil AOP , and Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil AOP set the standard for classic Loire Cabernet Franc. Brimming with raspberry and green tobacco aromatics and framed by silky tannin, the wines demonstrate remarkable terroir distinctions—especially in Chinon. Chinon soils are broadly divided into three types: tuffeau , clay, and varennes . The sandy, alluvial varennes soils are closest to the river Vienne—a Loire tributary—whereas tuffeau is more common on the slopes. The vins de tuffe originating from these limestone south-facing slopes carry the most promise for depth and ageworthiness. Like Chinon, Bourgueil soils are divided between sand and limestone, but Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil is situated almost wholly on lighter alluvial soils, with a corresponding lighter style of wine. All three appellations require a majority of Cabernet Franc in the final wine. Bourgueil and Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil offer only red and rosé wines, whereas Chinon produces a small amount of white wine from Chenin Blanc. Further upstream, the communes of Vouvray and Montlouis-sur-Loire lie on opposing banks of the Loire. Vouvray AOP is Touraine’s largest and most important white wine district. The tuffeau limestone subsoil of Vouvray provided soft material for excavation, resulting in an impressive network of cellar tunnels running underneath the eight delimited communes of Vouvray. The wines are produced from Chenin Blanc; the rustic Orbois grape is allowed but seldom encountered. Vouvray may be produced in a range of sweetness levels: sec, sec-tendre (off-dry) , demi-sec, moelleux, and liquoreux. The final decision on residual sugar is usually a response to the vagaries of each vintage, not a consistent stylistic choice. Vouvray producers may also choose to make a sparkling wine, a successful strategy in cooler years. The sparkling wines are made by méthode traditionnelle and may be either pétillant or mousseux . The wines of Montlouis-sur-Loire AOP , formerly part of Vouvray, are very similar in style and may be made across the same spectrum of styles. Orbois is not permitted in Montlouis-sur-Loire. As a whole, the Touraine AOP can produce charming—but just as often generic—wines from the local grapes. While Chenin Blanc has dominated Touraine white wines, a more recent encépagement mandates Sauvignon Blanc and a maximum 20% Sauvignon Gris, replacing the older style entirely in 2016. Red and rosé varieties include—but are not limited to—Gamay, Groslot, Pineau d’Aunis, and Cabernet Franc. The Gamay bottlings are often sold locally as primeur , in the style of Beaujolais nouveau . In recognition of their superior wines, five villages are allowed to add their name to the basic appellation: Mesland, Azay-le-Rideau, Amboise, Oisly, and Chenonceaux. Touraine pétillant and mousseux wines are made, and a separate rosé appellation exists for Touraine Noble-Joué. Created in 2001, Touraine Noble-Joué AOP recreates a historical style of vin gris , a blend of Gris Meunier (Pinot Meunier), Malvoisie (Pinot Gris), and Pinot Noir. Several outlying appellations exist in Touraine. North of the Loire Valley is the awkwardly named Loir tributary and the Coteaux du Loir AOP . The red blends and rosés are based on Pineau d’Aunis and the white wines are exclusively produced from Chenin Blanc. Chenin Blanc alone is bottled as Jasnières AOP , a sub-appellation and source of the Coteaux du Loir’s best wines. Chenin Blanc from Jasnières is similar in style to Vouvray, yet often more green and herbaceous in character. Northeast of the Coteaux du Loir is Coteaux du Vendômois AOP , a newer appellation producing wine in all three colors, but specializing in dry rosé of 100% Pineau d’Aunis. Cheverny AOP and Cour-Cheverny AOP are on the eastern edge of Touraine. Cheverny’s light reds are Pinot Noir- and Gamay-based, while the lean whites are dominated by Sauvignon Blanc. The local Romorantin grape is bottled varietally as Cour-Cheverny, made in both dry and off-dry styles. To the south is Valençay AOP , a French appellation for both wines and goat milk cheeses. Reflecting the proximity of Reuilly and Quincy to the east, Valençay's whites are predominantly composed of Sauvignon Blanc. Red and rosé wines from the appellation are based on Gamay, Pinot Noir, and Côt. BACK TO TOP The Central Vineyards The Loire’s Central Vineyards are a noncontiguous stretch of vineyards in the center of France, where the Loire curves from its northward path to bend toward the Atlantic. The climate is chiefly continental; cold winters and brisk days during harvest and budbreak bring the danger of frost, and short summers do not assure easy ripening. Nonetheless, the Loire’s best Sauvignon Blanc vineyards are found here, and Pinot Noir, while light in style, can be exceptional in warmer vintages. Sancerre AOP and Pouilly-Fumé AOP are synonymous with Sauvignon Blanc. The two appellations straddle the river and provide the classic Loire style: steely, pungently herbaceous, mineral-laden Sauvignon Blanc made for youthful drinking. Vibrant but not lean, the best examples have subtle complexity and a focused, lengthy finish. In Sancerre, the vines are planted on three main soils: silex , terres blanches , and caillottes . Terres blanches is a continuation of the same Kimmeridgian clay that extends into Chablis, whereas caillottes is a stony soil, littered with fossils. Silex has a higher proportion of flint, continuing into the communes of Pouilly-Fumé across the river. The late Didier Dagueneau famously appropriated the Silex moniker for his top Pouilly-Fumé bottling. Whereas classic Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé wines are produced in stainless steel, Dagueneau and others have experimented with new oak. The resulting wines can be more akin to white Bordeaux than classic Loire Sauvignon Blanc. Whereas Pouilly-Fumé AOP wines must be white, Pinot Noir may be vinified as Sancerre Rouge or Rosé. These tend toward extreme lightness, and generally have less body and higher acid than even Côte Chalonnaise Pinot Noirs. The Pouilly-sur-Loire AOP , named after the central commune of Pouilly-Fumé, is reserved for whites produced from the Chasselas grape. Vineyards of Sancerre Other appellations of the Central Vineyards include Menetou-Salon AOP , a designation for Sauvignon Blanc and Pinot Noir. The wines are similar to those of Sancerre. Reuilly AOP , Quincy AOP , and Coteaux du Giennois AOP also produce varietal Sauvignon Blanc. Coteaux du Giennois produces reds and rosés obligatorily blended from Pinot Noir and Gamay. Reuilly’s reds are pure Pinot Noir, whereas the best rosés are the pale vin gris wines produced from Pinot Gris. Quincy, a white wine-only AOP, is notable for being the second demarcated appellation in France, following only Châteauneuf-du-Pape. Orléans AOP , promoted from VDQS in 2006, lies just east of Touraine and allows wines of all three colors, utilizing a large proportion of Pinot Meunier and Chardonnay, respectively, for its reds and whites. Orléans-Cléry AOP , a sister appellation, is reserved for red wines produced solely from Cabernet Franc. BACK TO TOP Other Appellations of Central France Several other wine regions surround the Loire closer to its source and have little in common with the other appellations. The red and rosé wines of Côtes du Forez AOP and Côte Roannaise AOP are exclusively produced from Gamay and are similar to the lighter styles of Beaujolais. The regions themselves are much closer to Lyon and Beaujolais than the Central Vineyards. In the southwestern corner of the Cher département , the Châteaumeillant AOP also produces reds and rosés, principally from Gamay. Wines of all three colors are produced as Côtes d’Auvergne AOP and Saint-Pourçain AOP . The former is the southernmost and most remote Loire region, and the latter is just to its north, in the Allier département . BACK TO TOPPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/166/greece-and-eastern-europeWed, 22 Apr 2026 15:41:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:be262527-6dee-4f4a-815a-8be20e64bdb7GuildSomm AdminContents Greece Hungary Bulgaria Romania Slovenia and Croatia Czech Republic and Slovakia The Russian Federation Former Soviet Republics Greece In its infancy, wine was produced in regions where the vine grew wild. From its origins in the Near East, cultivation of the grapevine spread to the Old Kingdom of Egypt, and, around 2500 BCE, the vine was brought, via trade, to the Minoan Bronze Age civilization of Crete. Despite Crete’s latitude, the island ’ s moderate climate proved suitable for the vine, and in viticulture the Minoans surpassed all their contemporaries. (They also developed indoor plumbing—clearly a civilization ahead of the times.) The practice was passed to their successors, the Mycenaeans, to other islands in the Aegean, and to the mainland of Greece. The Greeks spread cultivation of the vine throughout much of Europe. The first vineyards in France were in Massalia, a Greek colony at modern-day Marseilles, and Southern Italy’s modern varieties Greco and Aglianico may be Greek in origin. The Greeks took viticulture northward as well, to the banks of the Danube and the coastline of the Black Sea. Ultimately, the Greeks were responsible for not only spreading the vine geographically but also democratizing the consumption of wine. In ancient Egypt, wine was regarded as the sweat of the sun god Ra; the Greeks drank wine at religious and ceremonial events, but they also drank socially. As wine consumption in Greece spread to new social classes, additional vineyards were needed. The Romans carried the Greeks’ vines even farther, but the tradition of many modern-day European wine regions extends back to ancient Greece. While preeminent in the ancient world, Greek wines languished until a late 20th-century surge in interest and quality. Greece’s vinous reputation had long been rooted in r etsina, an aromatized wine flavored with Aleppo pine resin. Wine was transported through ancient Greece in amphorae, often sealed with pine resin to prevent spoilage, and over time the resulting flavor became an acquired taste. Some believe, however, that the resin was always added specifically for its flavor, as ancient Greek wine was often mixed with a variety of substances, including honey, seawater, and herbs. Today, retsina is generally produced as a white wine, from Savatiano grapes, and flavored with the addition of pine resin, rather than stored in resin-sealed casks. Per Greek law, it cannot be labeled with a vintage. Retsina is a traditional appellation protected by the EU (as a PGI) and is rarely encountered outside Greece, though the wine continues to shape perceptions of the Greek wine industry overall. For many years, Greece was thought of as a country producing lesser quality, oxidized wines, but a new generation of winemakers is striving to redefine Greek wine. Although larger producers, such as Boutari and Tsantali, continue to dominate the Greek wine industry, it is the newer, smaller producers who are generating excitement. With over 300 indigenous varieties in the country, the future for high-quality but uniquely Greek wines is bright. Greece first implemented wine laws in 1969 and 1970, with most of the country ’ s appellations established in 1971. Refined in the 1980s and overseen by the Greek Wine Institute, these appellation laws conform to EU standards and resemble the French model. There are two levels of PDO (Protected Designation of Origin) quality wine: Controlled Appellation of Origin, or Οίνοι Ονομασίας Προελεύσεως Eλεγχόμενης (AOC/OPE), a status reserved for traditional sweet wines; and Appellation of Superior Quality, or Οίνοι Ονομασίας Προελεύσεως Ανωτέρας Ποιότητος (AOSQ/OPAP). While these two separate categories might be found on labels, they are seen as archaic as most producers prefer the EU's PDO and PGi designations. PDO Wines of Greece will appear on current and future bottles of wines featuring a designation of origin, especially those destined for export. PDO wines may carry an aging designation. Réserve indicates a minimum one year of aging for white wines, with at least six months in barrel and three months in bottle, and a minimum two years of aging for red wines, with at least one year in barrel and six months in bottle. Grande Réserve requires a minimum two-year aging period for white wines, including at least one year in barrel and six months in bottle, and a minimum four-year aging period for red wines, including at least 18 months in barrel and 18 months in bottle. Below the PDO category are PGI (Protected Geographical Indication) wines, Varietal wines, and Table wines. The Varietal category comprises table wines that carry a vintage and variety on the label, whereas ordinary Table wines cannot; neither Varietal nor Table wines may list a geographical indication. The PGI category includes the Traditional Appellations (Ονομασία κατά Παράδοση) of Retsina and Verdea (an oxidative white wine produced on the island of Zakynthos, in the Ionian Sea), and integrates the wines of Greece’s former vin de pays category, Topikos Inos (Τοπικοί Οίνοι). The PGI zones are divided into regional, district, and area levels: PGI regions are equivalent to the major regions of Greece, such as Peloponnese and Crete, whereas PGI areas are so small they may only include a single estate. PGI districts correspond to the peripheral units of Greece, a form of political state that replaced prefectures during administrative reform in 2010. Cava indicates at least one year of aging for white and rosé PGI wines, and a minimum three years of aging for reds. White and rosé Cava wines spend at least six months in oak prior to bottling, and reds rest in barrel for at least one year. Palaiomenos se vareli may be added to the label of Cava, Réserve, or Grande Réserve wines to indicate oak aging beyond the required minimums. The Greek mainland includes the regions of Macedonia, Epirus, Peloponnese, Thessalia, Thrace, and Central Greece (Sterea Ellada). The Greek islands are broadly categorized into the Aegean and Ionian Islands. Although Thrace , in northeastern Greece, cannot claim any PDO appellations, neighboring Macedonia is home to some of Greece’s best dry red wines. In Macedonia’s PDO regions of Naoussa and Amynteo, red wines are produced solely from the firmly tannic red grape Xinomavro (“acid black”). In Goumenissa PDO, lighter Xinomavro wines are produced, requiring the addition of at least 20% Negoska. Naoussa PDO, established in 1971, is one of Greece’s most successful appellations and is the home of Boutari, one of Greece’s two largest producers and a major force in the modern rejuvenation of Greek winemaking. Amynteo is Greece’s coolest region and one of the few PDOs allowing the production of rosé wines; these may range from dry to semisweet, and be still or sparkling. A fourth PDO, Slopes of Meliton (Plagies Melitona), is a single appellation for Domaine Porto Carras, a trailblazing, ambitious Greek estate. Red PDO wines from the estate are blends of Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, and the native Limnio; white PDO wines are blends of the Greek varieties Assyrtiko, Athiri, and Roditis. Evangelos Gerovassiliou, the winemaker who launched Domaine Carras to international acclaim under the guidance of Émile Peynaud, nurtured the native white Malagousia grape from the brink of extinction and now produces varietal wines of high aromatic intensity from the grape at his own domaine in the PGI district of Thessaloniki, in central Macedonia. Moschofilero in Mantinia In Thessalia , south of Macedonia, Rapsani PDO includes four villages on the lower slopes of Mount Olympus. The appellation is the southernmost outpost of the Xinomavro grape, whose tannins and acid structure are softened by the warmer climate and blending with the Krassato and Stavroto varieties. Red wines from Mavro Messenikola are produced in Messenikola PDO , whereas only white wines, blended from Roditis and Savvatiano grapes from higher-altitude vineyards, are allowed in Anchialos PDO . These wines may be dry, off-dry, or semisweet. On the Ionian coast to the west of Thessalia, the region of Epirus contains only one PDO: Zitsa . Dry, semisweet, and sparkling wines are produced from the Debina grape. Central Greece , or Sterea Ellada, is a bastion of retsina; Attiki, the region surrounding Athens, is the center of production. The low-acid Savvatiano, preferred for retsina because it retains some varietal character when resinated, is the chief grape in the region, and the second most planted variety is Roditis, the common name for a closely linked family of pink-skinned grapes. There are no PDO zones. Peloponnese , a peninsula only by virtue of the narrow Isthmus of Corinth, is directly south of Sterea Ellada. Vine cultivation is concentrated in the north, around the three PDO zones of Nemea , Mantinia , and Patras . Both dry and sweet Nemean wines are produced exclusively from Agiorgitiko (Saint George), a softly tannic, intensely fruity black grape and one of Greece’s most noble native varieties. Agiorgitiko performs differently throughout the wide range of elevations and terrains in Nemea, reflected in the appellation’s division into several recognizable subzones; the commune of Koutsi is one of the most famous. The wines of Nemea are sometimes called the blood of Hercules (or blood of the lion), a reference to the first of Hercules’s 12 legendary labors. In the other PDO zones of the Peloponnese, only white wines are allowed. Moschofilero, a red-skinned grape that is aromatically similar to Muscat, is the principal component of Mantinia PDO wines, one of Greece’s most exciting white wines. Patras is an appellation for dry to semisweet white wines produced from 100% Roditis, but there are also three dessert wine PDO zones connected to the region: Muscat of Patras , Muscat of Rio Patras , and Mavrodaphne of Patras . Muscat of Patras and Muscat of Rio Patras may be either vin doux naturel or naturally sweet in style, and are produced from Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains. Mavrodaphne (“black laurel”) of Patras is a sweet, fortified red wine produced from Mavrodaphne and Mavri Korinthiaki, a currant grape useful for enriching the sugar content of the wine. Mavrodaphne of Patras is aged for at least one year in wood prior to release, but the wine may sometimes rest in cask for a decade or more prior to bottling. Both vintage and nonvintage versions are produced. The estate of Achaia Clauss, progenitor of the style, has a Mavrodaphne solera dating to 1882. The Greeks often drink Mavrodaphne of Patras as an aperitif—a tradition developed to temper the briny, salty character of Greek first courses—and the wine is used for the communion sacrament in Greek Orthodox services. In 2010, the Greeks awarded PDO status to the wines of Monemvassia-Malvasia, a small zone on the southeastern coast of the Peloponnese. Although Monemvassia is the name of the grape used here and elsewhere in Greece, it is also the name of an old port town governed variously by the Greeks, Byzantines, Venetians, and Turks. Evidence of the brisk trade of Monemvassia’s sweet wines dates back to the 13th century. During their rule, Venetians rechristened the port and its wines Malvasia. In deference to the historic importance of the area’s malvasios oenos , the new appellation’s wines must be sweet in style. As the wines must be aged in an oxidative environment for at least two years, the first releases, produced from a minimum 51% Monemvassia, went on the market in 2012. Agiorgitiko growing in the hills of Nemea There are four wine-producing Ionian Islands off the west coast of Greece: Cephalonia, Kerkyra (Corfu), Lefkada, and Zakynthos. Cephalonia is the only Ionian island that has any PDOs. Robola of Cephalonia PDO is for dry white wines produced from Robola, a variety unrelated to the Ribolla or Rebula found in Friuli or Slovenia. PDO sweet wines are also produced on the island, from Mavrodaphne and Muscat . Zakynthos, an island of breathtaking beauty, visible from the Peloponnesian coast, is the home of Verdea traditional appellation wines. Verdea, produced from obscure and autochthonous grapes such as Skiadopoulo, Pavlos, and Avgoustiatis, may share similarities with Jura's vin jaune and sherry, but even to Greeks it is often unknown. A greater number of PDO appellations exist for the Aegean Islands , to the south and east of the mainland. Crete , the largest and southernmost Greek isle, accounts for approximately 10% of Greek wine production. Crete is home to the red wine PDO zones Archanes and Daphnes , and the PDO zones Sitia and Peza , which permit both red and white wines. In 2012, three new PDO zones debuted on the island: Candia , Malvasia Candia , and Malvasia Sitia . The Vilana grape, used for the majority of dry white Sitia wines and the entirety of Peza whites, is Crete’s most cultivated white grape. Despite Vilana's status in the PDO wines of the island, many of Crete's most talented winemakers prefer to showcase Vidiano, a white grape that retains more acidity. Liatiko, the dominant grape in the red Sitia and Daphnes PDO wines, is found only on Crete and a handful of neighboring islands. It is one of the most ancient varieties under cultivation, it ripens in mid-July, and it delivers a distinctively orange-hued wine. Mandilaria, the most common red variety throughout the Aegean, is blended with Kotsifali to produce the Archanes and red Peza wines. On Crete, however, many winemakers are more excited to blend Kotsifali with Syrah—a recipe that may successfully mirror international tastes yet sacrifices some of the character of Crete in the process. North of Crete are the Cycladic islands of Santorini and Paros. Santorini PDO is an appellation producing white wines from the Assyrtiko grape, sometimes blended with Athiri and Aidani. The vines must be trained close to the ground, in the stefani shape of baskets or wreaths, in order to protect them from the fierce Aegean winds and to collect the little moisture that becomes available as morning dew. Assyrtiko, grown in the island’s poor, volcanic soils, is one of Greece’s most compelling white grapes: the wines are distinctively mineral, powerful, and high in acidity. Paris Sigalas is a master of the variety, producing Assyrtiko in both barrel-aged and fresher versions. Also produced on the island is a sweet, dried grape wine, Vinsanto—a name likely appropriated by the Italians when Venetians ruled the island in the Middle Ages. In Paros PDO , red and white wines are produced from the Mandilaria and white Monemvassia varieties. Paros is the only Greek appellation that mandates use of a white grape (Monemvassia) in red blends. The isle of Samos, to the northeast of Paros, is home to one of the nation’s most famous wines: the famed Muscat of Samos, now a PDO, received a form of appellation protection as early as 1934, when the island’s growers were united under the Union of Vinicultural Cooperatives of Samos (EOSS). Unlike many Greek wine regions, Samos was not considered a propitious place for viticulture in the ancient world; only after constant harassment from pirates led to a near-total depopulation of the island (around 1475) did newcomers to the island begin to plant Muscat. The island rises sharply from the sea, and vineyards are planted on high altitude, terraced slopes. On Samos, Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains is known as Moscato Aspro, and is produced in vin de liqueur , vin doux naturel and naturally sweet versions. The naturally sweet version is called Samos Nectar, and is similar to vin de paille —the wine is produced from dried grapes and aged for a minimum of three years prior to release. The islands of Lemnos and Rhodes, to the north and east of the Cyclades respectively, each have two PDO appellations. Lemnos wines are white, dominated by Muscat, and may be dry or sweet. The ancient red Lemnio grape utilized in the wines of Domaine Carras originated on Lemnos, but its importance on the island has greatly diminished. Rhodes, an island much closer to southern Asia Minor than Greece itself, produces PDO red, white, and rosé varietal wines from Mandilaria and Athiri. Muscat of Rhodes PDO wines are rarely encountered. Greece today is focused on building a reputation with indigenous grapes as well as international varieties. Winemaker education is vastly improving, and phylloxera, which did not strike the Peloponnese until the 1960s and Crete until the 1970s, has enabled producers to rethink and reshape their vineyards. As the Greeks experiment and become more confident with the inherent strengths of native grapes, the quality and uniqueness of Greek wines continues to expand. (Various spellings of the regions and grapes are often encountered because of the inexact nature of translating from the Greek alphabet; there are no definitive translations.) BACK TO TOP Hungary In the northeastern corner of Hungary, at the confluence of the Tisza and Bodrog Rivers, producers in the Tokaj region (formerly Tokaj-Hegyalja, or the Tokaj “foothills”) have long been crafting some of Europe’s most exemplary and longest-lived dessert wines. Vineyards in Tokaj The region was one of the first in modern Europe to undergo a vineyard classification; in 1700, the Transylvanian Prince Rákóczy delimited 28 villages in the region, inaugurating a golden age for the wine that would last through the next two centuries. Some sources alternatively date Tokaj’s classification to 1730, with a final legal recognition in 1772—definitive evidence of the 1700 classification remains elusive. Aszú grapes are a fundamental component of the best Tokaji wines; although the term originally signified desiccated grapes, it has evolved to indicate grapes of high sugar levels afflicted with botrytis cinerea —the noble rot. Aszú appears in works published as early as 1571, and Szepsi Laczkó Máté definitively produced botrytis-affected aszú wine by the mid-17th century. Thus, the aszú wines of Tokaj predated the botrytised wines of Germany, and probably Sauternes as well. Legend attributes the mid-16th century declaration—“These wines are fit for a pope”—to either Pope Julius III or Pope Pius IV, and King Louis XIV of France praised Tokaji as (another) “wine of kings and king of wines” during his 17th century reign. Catherine the Great of Russia enjoyed Tokaji so emphatically that she left a permanent detachment of her Cossack guard in Tokaj to guard royal shipments, whereas the 19th century Queen Victoria of England received an annual birthday gift of a dozen bottles, courtesy of the Austro-Hungarian Emperor. Unfortunately, the Iron Curtain closed the door on quality for Tokaji in the 20th century, but the region rebounded quickly after the fall of communism with an immense amount of foreign interest and investors eager to see their beloved Tokaji restored to its former glory. Estates such as the Royal Tokaji Company, Vega Sicilia’s Tokaj Oremus, Disznókõ, and Királyudvar are leading the way. Tokaj is both the name of the overall region and the commune at the convergence of the two rivers; Tokaji is an adjectival form used to indicate the wine. The Tokaj region, sheltered by the Carpathian Mountains, enjoys a warm continental climate with long, humid autumns: perfect encouragement for botrytis. Soils are predominantly volcanic loess and clay, and many of the better vineyards occupy south-facing slopes. Rákóczy’s original classification, which divided the vineyards of Tokaj and its neighboring villages into 1st, 2nd, and 3rd growths, remains relevant today through the efforts of the Tokaj Renaissance, a producers’ association devoted to the protection of the concept. 74 vineyards are recognized as first growths; Szarvas and Mézes Mály, near the communes of Tokaj and Tarcal, respectively, share the superlative designation of Great First Growths. The two principal grapes of the region are Furmint and Hárslevelű; Sárgamuskotály (Muscat Blanc à Petite Grains), Zéta (Oremus), Kabar and Kövérszőlő are authorized but generally used in small quantities. Furmint is key to the production of Tokaji Aszú, as it is particularly susceptible to botrytis and high in acidity. Traditionally, the aszú grapes are handpicked individually and gathered in containers called puttony — puttonyos is an adjective rather than the plural form—which hold roughly 25 kg. As in Sauternes, yields are miniscule. A tiny fraction of syrupy, free-run juice is allowed to settle out of the aszú must—this will be vinified separately as Esszencia . The aszú is then trampled into a paste, or dough, and a number of puttony containing aszú paste is mixed with gönci barrels of must or base wine from non- aszú grapes. The number of puttony added to a gönc (a Hungarian oak cask of approximately 136 L) determines the final sweetness of the Tokaji Aszú wine, and Tokaj Aszú was labeled with 3-6 puttonyos to indicate sweetness—until major revisions eliminated these categories in time for the 2013 harvest. Modern Tokaj Aszú is simply labeled "Aszú"; it ages for just over two years prior to release (with a minimum 18 months in barrel) and must contain at least 120 g/l of residual sugar and achieve an actual alcohol content of at least 9%. Meanwhile, the sugar-rich Esszencia—the preferred Tokaji of the czars—ferments at a glacial pace, sometimes taking decades to reach 4-6% alcohol. Richer than honey, the wine retains at least 450 grams per liter of residual sugar. Esszencia, or Natúresszencia, is rarely available commercially, and it is everlasting nectar, unique in the entire world of wine. Several styles of Tokaji beyond Tokaji Aszú exist. Tokaji Szamorodni (“as it comes”) is produced from a mixture of aszú and non- aszú grapes and is often oxidative in style as it is matured in cask for a minimum of six months, sometimes under a film-forming yeast similar to flor . Szamorodni wines may be édes (sweet) or száraz (dry). Fordítás and Máslás wines are the product of refermenting wine with the pressed paste or spent lees, respectively, of Tokaji Aszú. Tokaji wines may also be produced as late harvest wines (in a wide range of styles) without the extended aging of Tokaji Aszú, or as dry varietal wines, made from non- aszú grapes. The talented Hungarian winemaker István Szepsy, a key figure in the establishment of Hugh Johnson’s Royal Tokaji Company and Királyudvar, is a founding member of the Circle of Mád, a small contingent of producers committed to elevating the stature of dry wines in the region. Tokaj, like Jerez and Champagne, has successfully faced a challenge over the provenance of its name and as of 2007 all other countries in the European Union are prohibited from using the term “Tokaj” or its derivatives (Tokay, Tocai) on labels, regardless of any actual similarity to the wine. Alsatian producers lost the right to produce Pinot Gris as Tokay d’Alsace and Italian producers rechristened Tocai Friulano as simply Friulano. While Tokaj is certainly Hungary’s most famous product of the vine, wine is produced throughout the country. In 2000, two decades after the fall of Communism, 22 total wine appellations were identified in Hungary. With the EU's recent reforms, this number of regions qualifying for PDO status has increased to 31, with 6 additional PGI areas. These are divided among three major geographical zones of production: the Northern Massif, the western region of Transdanubia, and the southern Great Plain. The Northern Massif includes Tokaj and Eger , a region famous for Egri Bikavér—the “Bull’s Blood of Eger.” Historically dominated by Kadarka—an indigenous, low-tannin, light-bodied and not particularly sanguine grape—modern Egri Bikavér is a blend of at least four varieties, incorporating Kékfrankos (Blaufränkisch), and other Hungarian and international grapes. Only Eger and Szekszárd in Transdanubia are permitted to use the term “Bikavér” on labels. (In Szekszárd, Bikavér also requires four varieties.) To the west of Eger is Mátra, Hungary’s second largest winegrowing region. Though the area is most known for white wines, red grapes like Kékfrankos and Kadarka are gaining in reputation. Further west, in Transdanubia, other regions beyond Szekszárd include Badacsony and Balatonfüred-Csopak on the shores of Lake Balaton, one of Europe’s largest lakes. Somló lies to the northwest, on the slopes of the extinct volcano. White wines dominate production in these three areas; grapes include Furmint, Juhfark, Olaszrizling (Welschriesling), and a number of international varieties. Red wines are more common in both the extreme south and north of Transdanubia. On the northern border, Sopron is contiguous with Austria’s Burgenland, and Kékfrankos is cultivated in both regions. To the east of Transdanubia, the Great Plain contains nearly half of Hungary’s acreage under vine. The region’s sandy soils provided a welcome habitat after phylloxera struck in the 19th century. Most of the wines of this region are of everyday quality and consumed locally. Kunság, Hungary’s largest region, is located in the Great Plain and produces a sizable amount of mass production white wine (and some reds) from indigenous grapes. Finally, just south along the Croatian border is Villány, Hungary’s hottest region, which produces good-quality wines from Bordeaux varieties, Kékfrankos, and Kékoportó (Blauer Portugieser). BACK TO TOP Bulgaria Bulgaria’s wine history dates back about 3,000 years. Although the Ottoman Empire impeded the industry’s growth, existing vineyards continued to be maintained from the 15 th to 19 th centuries. Wine culture resumed upon the fall of the Ottomans, and cooperatives were swiftly established. After World War II, the Soviets saw the economic potential in wine, and they took to developing land for grape production on collective, state-run farms. They formed Vinprom in 1948 to manage vineyard expansion and promotion. Vineyards were established on flatter, more fertile grounds in an effort to produce higher yields and allow for mechanized farming. By the late 1950s, Russia was importing much of Bulgaria’s wine production, and Bulgaria grew to become the fourth largest global wine exporter shortly thereafter. The 1970s ushered in more investment and outside consultation. PepsiCo, for example, was eager to reach Communist countries with its product. In Bulgaria, because of the low value of the local currency, the company was paid for its cola concentrate with Bulgarian wine. However, finding quality lacking, PepsiCo hired consultants, including Professor Maynard Amerine of UC Davis, to help improve the product. This influenced Bulgaria's growing industry and encouraged the planting of grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay. However, Gorbachev’s anti-alcohol reforms, launched in 1985, stymied the huge industry, raising and fixing grape prices so cooperatives had little choice but to turn to more profitable crops. Privatization following the collapse of the Communist regime in 1990 moved at a slow pace. Foreign investment from quality-minded wine and spirits companies was more difficult to achieve than in neighboring Hungary. France’s Belvedere Group lent the country some prestige when it stepped into Bulgaria in 2002 but sold many of its Bulgarian assets in 2009 during the global economic crisis. The dawn of the 21 st century brought positive changes to the Bulgarian wine industry, leading up to its entry into the EU in 2007. Agricultural funding became available to small wineries to establish wineries as well as improve existing vineyard and winery operations; subsidies attracted foreign interest and investment in the wine industry as well. By 2018, there were over 250 producers. Bulgarian wine law dates back to the Wine Act of 1978, with the establishment of a Controliran system outlining the best regions and styles. Rules were developed to dictate particular grapes, vineyard techniques, winemaking practices, and tastings to verify typicity and overall quality. By 2000, however, quality categories tended toward the French model and EU regulations. Finally, by 2007, Bulgaria fully adopted EU law, and the Controliran system has since become obsolete. There are two defined levels of quality for Bulgarian wine: table wine and quality wine. Within the quality category, Bulgaria has only two PGIs, the Danubian Plain and the Thracian Lowlands. Bulgaria has 52 PDOs, but as few as 5 or 6 are in use. In Bulgaria, a winery’s reputation carries more value than a PDO on the label, and thus PDOs are rarely listed. Less than 1% of the 2016 harvest was declared PDO wine, with 70% considered table wine. As a whole, Bulgaria contains five large regions of wine production: the northern Danubian Plain, the eastern Black Sea coast, the southern Thracian Plain and Sub-Balkan zone referred to as the Valley of the Roses, and the southwestern Struma River Valley. The last of these enjoys a Mediterranean climate, whereas most of Bulgaria is continental. All quality wines may be labeled “barik” if the fermentation occurred in oak casks of 500L or less in volume. The terms “Reserve” and “Special Selection” indicate that a single variety has seen one or two years, respectively, of aging before release. Red grapes account for about 60% of Bulgaria’s area under vine; Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot are responsible for over half of all reds planted. The thin-skinned Pamid, a very historic grape, accounts for 10% of all plantings and is one of the first red varieties to be harvested. It produces a fresh style suitable for youthful consumption. The native Gamza (Kadarka) and deep-colored Mavrud compose about 3% of plantings. Rubin, a crossing of Nebbiolo and Syrah, shows great potential. Native white grapes include Red Misket (Misket Cherven), an aromatic specialty of Sungurlare—and of no relation to Muscat. Red Misket, Rkatsiteli, and Dimiat are the most planted white varieties in Bulgaria. BACK TO TOP Romania Like its neighbors in Eastern Europe, Romania fell behind the Iron Curtain after World War II, and viticulture—an ancient tradition in this part of the world—changed abruptly under the Communists. The new government emphasized quantity and equality, which in winemaking terms translated to poorer quality. Vineyard acreage greatly expanded with substandard grapes and frost- and disease-resistant hybrids. Winemaking was in the hands of huge cooperatives, which by the end of the 1980s constituted over 60% of production. Since the fall of Communism in 1989, Romania has shifted to privatize its industry and refocus on quality. The lead-up to EU accession in 2007 marked a significant transition. Better plant material, optimal clones, VSP training, closer spacing, and better overall hygiene awareness in the winery vastly improved wine quality. Though quantity was prioritized under Soviet control and plantings greatly expanded during this time, vineyard area has decreased in recent years, stabilizing around 180,000 hectares in 2017. In part, this was a response to Gorbachev’s reforms, but the shift toward quality contributed as well. Five wineries are responsible for nearly 70% of production, with about 97% of growers owning less than a half hectare of land. Despite a domestic preference for white wines (about 60% of its production), Romania is increasing plantings of red grapes and turning toward more international varieties like Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Pinot Noir to satisfy export markets. As of 2017, Merlot leads red grapes in overall plantings. However, Romania still harnesses an incredible number of indigenous grapes, which can be an advantage in mature niche markets that have taken an increasing interest in experiencing native grapes throughout the world. The most cultivated grapes in the country are the indigenous white grapes Fetească Albă and Fetească Regală. Riesling Italico (Welschriesling), Chardonnay, Sauvignon, Muscat Ottonel, and Pinot Gris also enjoy significant acreage. The indigenous red grapes Fetească Neagră, Burgund Mare, and Băbească Neagră can achieve higher quality, while Rosioara (Bulgaria’s Pamid) is generally reserved for table wine production. Romanian wine law follows EU legislation and has two broad categories: Wines for Current Consumption (table wines) and Quality Wines. Table wines are subdivided into VM (table wine/Vin de Masa) and VMS (superior table wine/Vin de Masa Superior). Quality Wines are classified as either Vin cu Indicaţie Geografică (a PGI designation) or Denumire de Origine Controlată (or DOC, a PDO designation). For Vin cu Indicaţie wines, a minimum of 85% of the grapes must be produced and vinified in the area specified on the label. Romania’s 12 PGIs are responsible for about 9% of production. There are 35 DOC wines, and they may be produced from recommended and authorized Vitis vinifera varieties (excluding hybrids). DOC wines have been growing in recent years, comprising nearly 30% of overall production in 2017, and seven of the eight major wine zones contain DOCs. These wines may be further subcategorized as follows: DOC-CMD: grapes harvested at full maturity DOC-CT: late-harvested grapes DOC-CIB: botrytis-affected grapes Additional regulated quality aging terms include: Rezervă and Vin de Vinotecă. Rezervă indicates a minimum of six months in oak and six months in bottle. Vin de Vinotecă ensures a wine has been matured for at least one year in oak and four years in the bottle before release. Although Romania lies on the same latitude as France, its climate is continental and moderated by the Black Sea. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of the country, and the Danube River marks the southern border with Serbia, flowing eastward into the Black Sea. Many of Romania’s wine regions form a ring along the outer slopes of the Carpathians, including the Moldavan Hills in the east, Muntenia-Oltenia toward the south, and Banat and Crişana-Maramureş in the northwest. Dobrogea and the Danube Terraces are on the eastern Black Sea Coast; the Transylvanian Plateau, in the center of the country, contains Romania’s highest vineyards, buffered by the Carpathian peaks. A final region, Sands, is a minor area for quality wine production. In Transylvania, the Jidvei DOC nested in Târnave DOC is one of Romania’s coolest and most important wine regions, producing white wines of high acidity from several varieties, including the Fetească grapes and Traminer Rosé. The sweet white wines of Cotnari DOC in Moldavia are the country’s most famous vinous product, having once enjoyed a reputation on par with Tokaji and Constantia. Grasă de Cotnari—which possibly shares a common lineage with Furmint—is capable of reaching extreme ripeness levels and is the region’s most prominent grape. Frâncusa, Tămâioasă Românească—a grape with a unique, resiny aroma comparable to frankincense—and Fetească Albă may be blended with Grasă or vinified and bottled separately as varietal wines. Cotnari may be dry, but the sweet Grasă-based interpretations are the most complex and long-lived. The elevated (200–350 meters) south-facing slopes of the Dealu Mare DOC (meaning “big hill”) within Muntenia-Oltenia are gaining a reputation for red wines, particularly from Cabernet Sauvignon and Pinot Noir. Once known for its late-harvest Chardonnay, Murfatlar DOC in Dobrogea is developing a reputation for its soft styles of Cabernet Sauvignon and Pinot Noir. Its dry climate has also encouraged more organic farming in recent years. BACK TO TOP Slovenia and Croatia From Austro-Hungarian rule to Yugoslavian control that lasted for much of the 20 th century, Slovenia finally became independent in 1991. It was the first nation to emerge from the wreckage of Tito’s Yugoslavia and establish a successful wine industry built on well-defined and enforced quality laws. Slovenia joined the EU in 2004 and is a rapidly improving producer of wine. With nearly 30,000 registered growers and just over 21,000 hectares of vines, grapegrowing is very fragmented, though this is beginning to shift. Cooperatives are still responsible for the majority of production. Grapes are known by their Slovenian names: Refosk (Refosco), Rebula (Ribolla), Sivi Pinot (Pinot Grigio). International varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot are also common, and some indigenous varieties such as the white Pinela and Zelen (a relative of Verduzzo Gialla) persist. Overall, the focus is on white wine, at over 70% of production. In line with EU wine law, wines of quality include PDO and PGI wines. PDO wines are referred to as Zaščitena Označa Porekla (ZOP) and constitute much of Slovenia’s production. PGIs, which are not as common, are labeled here as Zaščitena Geografska Označba (ZGO). Table wine is simply namizmo vino . There are three regions in the country: Primorska (Primorje) in the west bordering Friuli in Italy, Podravje in the extreme northeast, and Posavje, at Slovenia’s southeastern border with Croatia. Primorska, the country’s best region for both red and white wine, is subdivided into four districts: Goriška Brda, Kras, Slovenska Istra, and the Vipava Valley. The proximity to Friuli is clear: Goriška Brda (Brda translates to “hills”) becomes Collio Goriziano across the Italian border, and Kras becomes Carso. Primorska (especially Slovenska Istra) has a more mild, Mediterranean-influenced climate that is similar to that of Friuli, as compared to the rest of Slovenia, which is generally continental. The vineyards and geography are blind to political division: Ales Kristancic of Movia, Slovenia’s star producer, has to cross the border to harvest nearly half of his vineyards. His contemporary and aesthetic kin, Josko Gravner, has to cross the Slovenian border to access some of his vineyards as well. Podravje is the country’s largest region, with nearly 9,000 hectares under vine. It contains two districts: Štajerska Slovenija (Styrian Slovenia) and Prekmurje, the latter comparatively much warmer and producing more generous, full-bodied styles. One of the oldest vines in the world exists in Maribor, the capital of Stajerska Slovenija, at over 400 years old. Nearly 95% of the wines here are white. Laski Rizling (Welschriesling) leads the plantings but is largely destined for bulk production. Higher-quality wine come from Diseci Traminer (Gewürztraminer), Renski Rizling (Riesling), Chardonnay, and Sauvignon Blanc. Posavje is third in production, with slightly more than half of Primorska’s total acreage under vine. Posavje borders the Croatian Inland region, which is characterized overwhelmingly by white wine production. There are three wine districts here: Bizeljsko Sremič (sought after for its sparkling wines), Bela Krajin (home to sweet Rumeni Muškat), and Doljenska (known for Cviček, a fashionable, tart blend of white and red grapes). The coast of Croatia stretches from the Italian border southward and includes four wine regions: Slavonia and the Danube, the Croatian Uplands, Istria and Kvarner, and Dalmatia. These are then subdivided further into 12 subregions. The coastal regions include Istria and Kvarner to the north, where mostly white production takes place. Here, a distinct Malvasia grape called Malvazija Istarska is grown. The southern coastal region of Dalmatia, on the other hand, is home to mostly reds. Inland, where Slavonia and the Danube are located, the climate is warmest. Graševina (Welschriesling), Croatia’s most planted grape, is widely grown here. The cool, mountainous Croatian Uplands account for a small percentage of production, with an established tradition of sweet wine production, though aromatic whites are gaining in reputation. Though white wine dominates overall, there is an increasing interest in red Bordeaux varieties and the native Crljenak Kastelanski (Zinfandel) and its offshoot Plavac Mali. Mike Grgich, legendary Napa Valley winemaker and a native Croatian, produces Plavac Mali wines at his Grgic Vina estate in the Dingac subzone of Dalmatia. His personal recollection of Croatia’s coastal vineyards was the impetus that led UC Davis’s Carole Meredith to establish the definitive correlation between Zinfandel and Crljenak. BACK TO TOP Czech Republic and Slovakia Slovakia and the Czech Republic , the two independent entities that once formed Czechoslovakia, are not major wine-producing countries, yet both are attempting to elevate quality and production. Slovakia’s wine industry has been slowly rebuilding since achieving independence from Czechoslovakia in 1993. Slovakia is divided into six main wine regions spanning its entire southern border: Malé Karpaty Hills (Small Carpathian), Južnoslovenská (Southern Slovakia), Nitrianska (Nitra wine region), Stredoslovenská (Central Slovakia), Východoslovenská (Eastern Slovakia), and Tokaj. Malé Karpaty Hills is among the most important. Toward the Czech border, more white wine production takes place with grapes like Silvaner, Veltliner, Welschriesling, and Riesling; toward Hungary, where it is warmer, red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon and Blaufränkish are successful. Tokaj is contiguous with Tokaj in Hungary, and the two regions share a common winemaking tradition. Slovak vintners may use Tokajský/-á/-é (“of Tokaj”) on the label if they abide by revised Hungarian production regulations. Slovakia’s wine law came into effect in 2009, influenced by both France and Germany. The Czech Republic has two principal regions: Moravia in the south and Bohemia in the north. Over 96% of the Republic’s land under vine is located in Moravia, where Welschriesling, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Gruner Veltliner, and Riesling shine. Moravia is just north of Austria’s Weinviertel, where Bohemia is located in the northwest, on the same latitude as the Rheingau in Germany. Geologically, the two are quite different, as granite, clay, and sand characterize much of Moravia, where limestone and basalt typify Bohemia. Many international and Germanic varieties are common in the Czech Republic, including Müller-Thurgau, Frankovka (Blaufränkisch), Svatovavnnecké (St. Laurent), Ryzlink Vlassky (Welschriesling), Chardonnay, and Cabernet Sauvignon. Quality Wines with Special Attributes (Akostné vino s Prívlastkom) resemble German Prädikatswein, with an accompanying scale of Kabinett through Trockenbeerenauslese and Eiswein. Instead of the Oechsle scale, both countries use the Czecho-Slovak Normalized Must Weight Scale (NM), which measures the natural sugar in 100 liters of grape juice, where 1 degree CNM is equivalent to 1 kilogram of sugar. After gaining its independence, and in preparation for EU accession, the Czech Republic fashioned its wine law after Germany’s, by ripeness level. In 2008, the new EU categories resulted in the terms CHZO for PGI wines and CHOP for PDO wines. As of 2018, 10 official geographical appellations (Vína Originální Certifikace, or VOC) were introduced: VOC Znojmo, VOC Mikulov, VOC Blue Mountains, VOC Blatnice, VOC Valtice, VOC Melnik, VOC Palava, VOC Slovácko, VOC Kraví Hora, and, most recently, VOC Bzenec. VOC Znojmo in Moravia was the first to receive this designation, in 2009. In order to display the VOC name on the neck of the bottle, a producer must abide by certain criteria, including hand-harvesting, minimum must weights, low maximum yields, and defined alcohol levels. As the new appellation concept evolves in the Czech Republic, it is intended to complement, rather than replace, the existing Germanic system. BACK TO TOP The Russian Federation Russian czars were famous for their conspicuous vinous consumption, with czars from Peter the Great forward sipping Tokaji Esszencia. Louis Roederer created its tête de cuvée Cristal for the exclusive enjoyment of Czar Alexander II—bottled in clear glass so as not to provoke the unpopular czar’s suspicion of foul play. The country eventually developed its own successful industry. In 1980, the former Soviet Union was the world’s fourth largest producer of wine, trailing only France, Italy, and Spain. The country’s viticulture was a model of commercial efficiency, but in the ensuing decade, production declined by over three billion liters annually, due to Gorbachev’s propagandistic anti-alcohol campaign. Today, little Russian wine is seen in the West, and the domestic market in Russia, awash in cheap imported juice, struggles to highlight quality. Only the southern portion of the country, particularly the region between the Black and Caspian Seas, is suitable for viticulture. Krasnodar, on the Black Sea Coast, is Russia’s most important region with over 50% of the federation’s vineyards. Krasnodar’s climate is one of Russia’s most moderate maritime-influenced climates, evidenced by the number of wealthy coastal resorts. Neighboring Dagestan and Stavropol, where many grapes are distilled into brandy, are notable regions, although each experiences extreme cold, requiring the vines to be buried in soil to survive the cold winter months. Rostov, Kabardino-Balkaria, and the war-torn Chechnya produce smaller amounts of wine. Over 70% of Russian grapes grown are dedicated to wine. While over 100 varieties are approved, nearly half of the plantings are Cabernet Sauvignon. Other grapes that enjoy higher percentages include those that are grown for the burgeoning sparkling wine industry, such as Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, and Riesling. The local grape Rkatsiteli enjoys some prominence as well. BACK TO TOP Former Soviet Republics Ukraine is one of the most important wine-producing nations of the former Soviet Republic, although domestic consumption of wine pales in comparison to beer and vodka. If Crimea is considered part of Ukraine, a point disputed since its annexation by Russia in 2014, then there are four major regions of production: Crimea (Krim), Odessa, Nikolayev-Kherson, and the Transcarpathian region. Rkatsiteli continues to be a significant variety, and while Vitis vinifiera has always been preferred (with popular varieties including Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, Welschriesling, and Furmint), hybrids like Isabella are beginning to gain ground. Odessa and Crimea account for nearly 80% of the total annual wine production. Both regions produce a lot of sparkling wine—often made in the traditional method—in addition to red and white still wines. Fortified wines are produced in Crimea, and Massandra, near Yalta, is famous for its huge collection of Crimean wines produced in the style of Sherry and Madeira. The former Soviet republic of Georgia has one of the world’s oldest winemaking traditions, with archaeological evidence dating back to 6,000 BCE and wild vines ( Vitis vinifera silvestris ) common in the country. Over 500 indigenous grapes and clones exist here. There are 37 authorized varieties; of these, the indigenous red Saperavi and white Rkatsiteli are the most cultivated. Georgia is also known for its qvevri winemaking techniques, referring to the amphorae pots used for fermentation and aging wine beneath the ground. Traditionally, all components of the grape clusters (known as chacha ) go into the qvevri . The earth moderates the temperature, and the wines are left to settle and clarify naturally. Georgia has 18 recognized appellations and 10 wine regions: Kakheti, Kartli, Imereti, Racha, Lechkhumi, and Meskheti, and the Black Sea subregions of Adjara, Guria, Samegrelo, and Apkhazeti. The southeastern region of Kakheti is responsible for about 80% of Georgia’s production. South of Georgia, Armenia—where over 80% of grape production is distilled for local grape brandy—has experienced a recent revival in winemaking. Over half of its 50 wineries were registered in the past decade. Recent investment and modern winemaking technology have helped in this recovery. The climate is incredibly challenging. Nearly all vineyards require irrigation to combat the dry summers, and most have to bury vines for winter protection. There are five winegrowing regions in Armenia: Ararat Valley, Ararat Valley foothills, the Northeast zone, Vaiots Dzor, and Zangezur. Ararat Valley, including the foothills, is where nearly 80% of grapegrowing occurs. The local Areni Noir from the Vaiots Dzor region is showing great promise. To the west of Ukraine, Moldova shares a winemaking tradition with neighboring Moldavia in Romania. While Moldova is one of the smallest of the former Soviet republics, it has the greatest number of vines per capita in the world. Moldova has optimal conditions for grapegrowing. It is situated on the same latitude as Burgundy, with an overall temperate climate and rolling hills. The Black Sea offers a moderating cooling influence. There are four wine regions, three of which are PGIs: Codru (central), Ștefan Vodă (southeast), and Valul lui Trajan (southwest). Codru has a more continental climate, producing fragrant, fresh whites and restrained reds. Valul lui Trajan enjoys a Mediterranean climate and is valued for its full-bodied reds. Purcari in Ștefan Vodă is known for its ageworthy reds. Bălti, the fourth region, located in the north, produces a small percentage of grapes that are primarily meant for distillation. A wide array of varieties are planted, but only about 10% are considered local, including Fetească Albă, Fetească Regală, and Fetească Neagră. French varieties represent the most vineyard land; Aligoté, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Pinot Noir are among those found in the region. The Western Balkans are a patchwork of potential. Bosnia and Herzegovina, situated in the mountains, deliver sweet whites and table reds made from Blatina. While two businesses dominate Serbia’s wine industry, a handful of small family estates continue respected artisan production. There is a vibrant, youthful scene in Vojvodin, in northern Serbia, where producers are experimenting with aging vessels, biodynamic viticulture, and minimal intervention winemaking. The climate of the region is similar to that of Hungary. Albania holds promise for indigenous varieties in a Mediterranean climate. Structured Vranec and Kratosija (Zinfandel) can be found in Montenegro. Finally, North Macedonia is improving its winemaking and reputation throughout its three regions, of which the Vardar Valley is the most significant. Selected Resources Gilby, Caroline. Wines of Bulgaria, Romania, and Moldova . Oxford: Infinite Ideas, 2018. Johnson, Hugh, and Jancis Robinson, eds. The World Atlas of Wine. 8 th ed. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2019. Robinson, Jancis, ed. The Oxford Companion to Wine , 4 th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. BACK TO TOPPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/164/germany-austria-and-switzerlandWed, 22 Apr 2026 15:38:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:9e11ae30-3dc3-496f-ac95-958ccc7fd8fdGuildSomm AdminTable of Contents Germany The VDP & Classic/Selection Wines Mosel Rheingau Rheinhessen Pfalz Nahe Ahr Franken Mitterlrhein Hessische-Bergstrasse Baden & Württemberg Sachsen & Saale-Unstrut Austria Niederösterreich Burgenland Styria Wien (Vienna) Switzerland Germany The northerly winemaking regions of Germany straddle the 50th parallel and are amongst the world’s coolest vineyards. Nonetheless, vine cultivation dates to the ancient world—wild vines had been growing on the upper Rhine previously, but V itis vinifera arrived in Germany with the Romans. Near the end of the 3rd century, Emperor Probus overturned Domitian’s 92 CE ban on new vineyard plantings, and viticulture followed the Romans into provinces north of the Alps. By the fourth century winemaking was definitively established along the steep slopes of the Mosel River. Charlemagne, the legendary beard-stained lover of wine—whose newly minted Carolingian calendar replaced the Roman October with Windume-Manoth, “the month of the vintage”—introduced vine cultivation east of the Rhine River in the late eighth century. During the Middle Ages, the Church was instrumental in shepherding the development of vineyards, and many of Germany’s modern einzellagen (vineyards) owe their nomenclature to monastic influence. As in France, the Church essentially operated its own feudal economy: it collected a tithe, or tax, from the parishioners who worked the vineyards, and wine made a suitable substitute for cash. The Cistercians of Burgundy founded the famous Kloster Eberbach monastery in the Rheingau in 1136, where they amassed the largest vineyard holdings in Europe by the end of the Middle Ages, with over 700 acres of vines. The walled Steinberg vineyard, an ortsteil within the commune of Hattenheim, was the monks’ centerpiece and remains wholly intact today—an alleinbesitz ( monopole) of Kloster Eberbach for over eight centuries. The Church’s influence in German viticulture was finally ended by Napoleon, who established his Civil Code after defeating Germany—then known as the Holy Roman Empire—and annexing all German lands west of the Rhine for France in the late 18th century. All of the Church’s vineyard holdings were secularized in 1803; even Kloster Eberbach was dissolved as a monastery, finally ending up in the hands of the state-run Hessische Staatsweingüter after World War II. As in Burgundy, the Napoleonic Code led to fractured ownership and a gradual, significant splintering of vineyards. By the 1960s, there were over 30,000 different vineyard sites throughout West Germany—a major impetus for the vineyard reorganization and registration mandated by the German Wine Law of 1971. 30,000 einzellagen were condensed in bureaucratic fashion into 2,600 registered vineyards, each with a minimum size of five hectares. There are only a few exceptions to this mandated minimum size today, including the Doctor vineyard in Bernkastel—whose three proprietors successfully petitioned to have the expanded boundaries shrunk to three hectares in 1984—the Kirchenstück and Freundstück vineyards in Forst, and the Schloss Vollrads ortsteil vineyard in Rheingau. As the Gothic script popular on some bottles indicates, Germany’s winemaking is anchored in tradition. Many producers—Schloss Johannisberg, Reichsgraf von Kesselstatt, Reinhold Haart, Dr. Bürklin-Wolf—can trace their estates back hundreds of years. Riesling and Spätburgunder (Pinot Noir), the country’s current most planted white and red varieties, enjoy a long history in German vineyards. Records dating to 1402 establish the first documentation of rüssling vines, whereas Pinot Noir arrived in Germany by the 14th century, presumably on the backs of monks from Burgundy. The model of must weight as a precondition for quality, codified in the 1971 law, finds precedence in wine ordinances dating to the 1830s. The “discovery” of Spätlese harvesting dates to 1775, when harvesters at Schloss Johannisberg in the Rheingau found that, despite their appearance, grapes afflicted with edelfäule (noble rot) made pretty good wine. The estate followed with the introduction of the Auslese category in 1787 and the first Eiswein in 1858. The 19th century was a golden age for German vintners, as the best wines produced along the Rhine—called Hock in English markets—often sold at prices above even first growth Bordeaux. In the 1700s, an increase in demand for foodstuffs pushed grapevines from the more fertile soils up to the otherwise unworkable slopes; by the mid-19th century these poor soils were producing serious, lauded wines. Often located near rivers, such as the Mosel, Rhine, Main, Nahe, and Elbe, the south- and southwest-facing vineyards receive direct and reflected warmth of the sun and provide the soil stress that great wines require. These wines were generally made from Riesling grapes, long-lived, and arguably drier in style than most wines now graded by p rädikat level. The advances in quality in the 19th century were mirrored by a steady German interest in viticultural science. Germany’s vineyards are near the conventional northerly limit for viticulture; thus, the reliability of ripening and susceptibility to frost loomed as major concerns. A desire for improvements in yield and disease resistance also drove research. The Geisenheim Wine Institute in the Rheingau, founded in 1872, developed a number of hardier grape crossings that would ripen in greater abundance across a variety of sites. Müller-Thurgau, created at Geisenheim in 1882, displaced Silvaner in the late 1960s to become Germany’s most planted grape. (Riesling has since usurped Müller-Thurgau and is now the most planted grape.) Originally thought to be Riesling x Silvaner, more recent DNA testing has recast Müller-Thurgau as Riesling x Madeleine Royale. Ehrenfelser and Kerner can produce good wines, but most of the successful crossings, such as Bacchus and Faber, are more notable for their ability to ripen where Riesling cannot. Scheurebe, an early 20th-century crossing of Riesling and Bukettrebe, developed in the Rheinhessen, is one of the few to show real quality potential. Dornfelder, a crossing of Helfensteiner and Heroldrebe that was developed in 1956, is the most prominent German red crossing and is currently the country’s second most planted red grape. Research at Geisenheim continues, and the institute contributes enormously to the German understanding of viticulture and winemaking. However, many of the crossings developed at Geisenheim and similar institutes became chief components of the lower quality wines that characterized much of the 20th century. Beginning with the attack of phylloxera in the late 19th century, Germany’s wine industry suffered one setback after another. The root louse, mildew problems, a huge depression, and two devastating world wars conspired to shrink domestic wine production. In a reversal, replanting after World War II occurred with an eye toward mass production. The higher yield, reliable crossings developed at Geisenheim and other institutes were planted on flat vineyards suitable for mechanical harvesting, rather than on the steeper but more refined hillside plots. Liebfraumilch, a wine whose 18th century origins suggest a connection to the Liebfrauenkirche Church at Worms in Rheinhessen, became the face of German wine to the outside world—in the 1980s, over 60% of all German vinous exports had Liebfraumilch printed on the label. The sweet, cheap, characterless beverage was a resounding commercial success, but almost singlehandedly destroyed the image of German wine internationally. Although it is usually produced from Müller-Thurgau, Liebfraumilch cannot carry a grape name on the label, and it may be blended from vineyards throughout Rheinhessen, Nahe, Rheingau, and the Pfalz—not a recipe for typicity or complexity. The legacy of Liebfraumilch, combined with general public confusion over the German label and wine styles, created a serious awareness problem for German producers in the last years of the 20th century. However, quality-minded producers and the Verband Deutscher Prädikatsweingüter (VDP) are making a concerted effort to renew interest in German wines and show that Riesling, an excellent transmitter of minerality and one of the most noble white grapes, can be compelling in both sweet and dry interpretations. Riesling, planted in over 20% of the nation’s vineyards, is at the forefront of about two-dozen commercially significant varieties in Germany. White varieties occupy nearly two-thirds of the vineyard acreage. In addition to Riesling and Müller-Thurgau, the white grapes Silvaner, Grauburgunder (Pinot Gris), Weissburgunder (Pinot Blanc), Kerner and Bacchus each account for at least 2% of total plantings. Spätburgunder comprises over one-tenth of Germany’s total vineyard acreage, followed in decreasing order by the red grapes Dornfelder, Blauer Portugieser, Trollinger, and Schwarzriesling (Pinot Meunier). Plantings of nearly all crossings—Müller-Thurgau, Scheurebe, Kerner, Dornfelder, Bacchus—have been on the decline in recent decades. The red grapes are additionally used in some regions to produce Weissherbst, a saignée rosé wine made from a single variety and of at least Qualitätswein quality. In general, the higher quality German wines are varietal wines, and must contain 85% of the stated variety. Germany makes less wine than most other major wine-producing countries of Western Europe; by 2018, Germany ranked 8th worldwide in wine production, behind countries such as France, Italy, Argentina, and Australia. France has over seven times the vineyard acreage of Germany and produces more than four times as much wine. Qualitätswein (formerly Qualitätswein bestimmter Anbaugebiete) and Prädikatswein (formerly Qualitätswein mit Prädikat) represent the two tiers of German “quality” wine; however, the combined categories comprise more than 95% of each vintage, and even Liebfraumilch is considered QbA in quality. Both categories can only be produced in one of Germany’s 13 anbaugebiete . Prädikatswein is at the apex of Germany’s legal quality pyramid, and wines in this category are further labeled by the following levels ( prädikats ): Kabinett, Spätlese, Auslese, Beerenauslese, Trockenbeerenauslese and Eiswein. The prädikat level is determined by the level of sugars in the grape at harvest, measured by degrees according to the Öchsle scale. Each anbaugebiet has its own minimum requirements for each authorized grape; thus, the minimum required for each prädikat level is expressed as a range (see the table below). There is no maximum, and grapes harvested at higher must weights may be declassified to a lower prädikat —a common phenomenon in the warmer vintages of recent years, when many Riesling grapes picked at Spätlese ripeness have been released as Kabinett instead. Prädikatswein must carry a minimum alcohol level of 7% (5.5% for Beerenauslese, TBA, and Eiswein wines) and winemakers may not chaptalize at this level. Prädikatswein must also carry an Amtliche Prüfungsnummer (AP Number), a series of five sets of numbers indicating that the wine has been approved by a tasting panel. In the series, the first number refers to the region where the wine was tested, the second set of numbers refers to the commune in which the wine was bottled, the third set of numbers is the bottler's code, the fourth set of numbers is a unique code for the bottling, and the final two numbers indicate the year in which the application was filed. While Prädikatswein as a category is intended to showcase Germany’s best efforts, many of the country’s superb Grosses Gewächs dry wines are released as Qualitätswein , without mention of prädikat level. With the notable exception of Liebfraumilch, Qualitätswein and Prädikatswein are generally produced in one of Germany’s thirteen quality wine regions, or anbaugebiete , and must state the anbaugebiet on the label. Below the quality wine category are the PGI category of Landwein and wines without geographic indication, or Wein/Deutscher Wein (known as tafelwein until 2009). Neither is regularly exported. Landwein originates in one of 26 broad regions and must be trocken or halbtrocken in style. Deutscher Wein must be 100% German in origin. Wein may include grapes from other countries, and, if it does, the label must list the countries that contribute to the blend. In keeping with new EU allowances for table wines, Deutscher Wein may state the variety on the label. Most Sekt, or German sparkling wine, is made at this level of quality and is produced by the Charmat method. Sekt may labeled as Qualitätswein if it is produced from traditional grapes grown in one of the thirteen anbaugebiete of Germany. Prädikat Level Minimum Öchsle Range Kabinett 70-85° Spätlese 76-95° Auslese 83-105° Beerenauslese 110-128° Trockenbeerenauslese 150-154° Eiswein 110-128° BACK TO TOP The VDP & Classic/Selection Wines The Verband Deutscher Prädikatsweingüter, or VDP, is a national German association of producers committed to top quality. Founded in 1910 as the Verband Deutscher Naturweinversteigerer, the organization originally strove to promote unchaptalized natur wines, principally through wine auctions. When the 1971 Wine Law abolished the use of the term natur and created the category of QbA, for which chaptalization is legal, the organization rewrote its internal constitution to promote superior standards while respecting new labeling laws and changed its name to the VDP. In 1984, a separate organization called Charta was formed to advance the classic, dry style of Rheingau Riesling. Charta wines, distinguished by an icon of three Roman arches—styled from the balcony of Graue Haus, in Winkel—represented the first major attempt by producers to validate dry wines within a system that only rewards sugar. Charta did not have as significant of an effect as its founders may have wanted, and today only a handful of producers remain committed to the concept. However, the core belief in the quality and tradition of dry wines found a new sponsor, the VDP, who merged Charta’s promotion of dry Riesling with a renewed emphasis on terroir and vineyard site as a measure of quality. Today, the VDP counts nearly 200 of Germany’s finest estates as members and promotes their wines through an extralegal, tiered hierarchy and a more restrictive classification of einzellagen than the government provides, as spelled out in the 2002 VDP Accord and subsequent revisions. Prior to the 2012 vintage, Erste Lage wines represented the top tier of the VDP quality pyramid. Erste Lage translates to “first site,” and usage of the term was reserved by the VDP for Germany’s finest single vineyard sites. In early 2012, the VDP elected to create a new, four-tier system designed to better emulate the model of Burgundy. From the 2012 vintage forward, the former Erste Lage wines would henceforth be known as Grosse Lage—not to be confused with grosslagen —and the category, according to the VDP, would mirror the idea of Grand Crus in Burgundy. However, Erste Lage will continue to exist, albeit it less grandly: from 2012 onward, Erste Lage will indicate sites of premier cru rather than grand cru stature. Producers of Grosse Lage wine are held to the preexisting standards for top sites, and the wines may be dry Grosses Gewächs (sometimes stated as GG) or sweet (labeled by prädikat ). Producers of sweet wines may make a range of prädikat levels from a Grosse Lage site, but only one dry wine may be produced in each of the top vineyards. The former Erste Lage logo--a “1” followed by a cluster of grapes-- will be applied only to wines of Grosse Lage quality; An indication of either Grosse Lage or Erste Lage will appear on the capsule. The Grosses Gewächs category is reserved for Grosse Lage, so producers of Erste Lage dry wines must label their products as trocken instead. In addition, while all VDP members are committed to Grosse Lage, individual member organizations in each anbaugebiet may choose whether or not to develop an Erste Lage designation. In the Pfalz, for instance, this category will exist and some former top sites, like Paradiesgarten and Kalkofen in Deidesheim, will be recast as Premier Cru. The Rheinhessen VDP organization, on the other hand, is unlikely to adopt the Erste Lage tier. Grosse Lage wines are the product of grapes harvested by hand at a maximum yield of 50 hl/ha. If dry, the wines are denoted by the initials “GG” (Grosses Gewächs), whereas lusciously sweet wines are labeled by traditional prädikat levels. Grosses Gewächs wines are legally considered trocken and may not contain more than 9 g/l of residual sugar. In the Rheingau, Grosses Gewächs wines frequently carry the alternative label of Erstes Gewächs, a trademarked term established by Charta. While Grosses Gewächs is barred by German wine law from appearing on wine labels—hence its indication by initials—Erstes Gewächs is a legally authorized term, and it may be spelled out in full. Grape varieties approved for Erste Lage wines vary according to each anbaugebiet , but there is a clear emphasis on Riesling—55% of VDP estate vineyards are planted to the grape. Grosses Gewächs white wines may not be released before September 1 of the year following the harvest; red wines receive an additional year of aging. Erste Lage wines labeled by prädikat may be released as soon as May 1 of the year following the harvest. The einzellage must be listed on the label—in the style of the grands crus of Burgundy, the village name is dropped—and the vineyard site must be approved by the VDP. While a site may be recognized by both the German Wine Law and the VDP, the VDP’s demarcation is often much narrower, representing a return to pre-1971 vineyard boundaries. For example, the 1971 law established the area of the Saarburger Rausch vineyard in the Mosel anbaugebiet at 16 hectares, but only 8 hectares are classified as Erste Lage. Rüdesheimer Berg Roseneck in the Rheingau includes over 26 hectares according to the law, but a mere 6.9 hectares qualifies for the more severe Erste Lage designation. Below the premier and grand cru categories of Erste Lage and Grosse Lage, the VDP hierarcy includes the tiers of Ortswein and Gutswein, modeled on Burgundy’s village and regional wines, respectively. At these levels, maximum permitted yields are 75 hl/ha, and the wines show less and less site specificity. As in Burgundy, Ortswein may be produced from typical grape varieties sourced from multiple vineyard sites in a single village (e.g. Forst), whereas wines in the Gutswein category may be produced from grapes sourced from an estate’s holdings anywhere within a single anbaugebiet . VDP Classification (2012 forward) and corresponding maximum yields Grosse Lage: "Grand Cru" Wines (max. 50 hl/ha) Erste Lage: "Premier Cru" Wines (max. 60 hl/ha) Ortswein: Village Wines (max. 75 hl/ha) Gutswein: Regional Wines (max. 75 hl/ha) Many of Germany’s most prominent producers belong to the VDP: Robert Weil, Reichsgraf von Kesselstatt, Dr. Loosen, Egon Müller, Joh. Jos. Prüm, Dönnhoff, Keller, Bürklin-Wolf, Toni Jost—these are a fraction of the storied names that bring serious credibility to the organization. Estate-bottling is mandatory. Capsules on all member estates’ bottles must be emblazoned with the VDP logo, a stylized eagle clasping a cluster of grapes. While the association’s influence is clear, the VDP has not yet been technically sanctioned by German law, and its classification scheme is essentially a voluntary one for members. The system itself is even open to interpretation, and exemptions from one requirement or another may be granted to individual estates. Bürklin-Wolf, for instance, labels its Grosse Lage wines as “GC”—for “Grand Cru”—rather than “GG.” Aspects of the classification also differ from one anbaugebiet to another: in the Mosel, for instance, producers may now make Grosse Lage wines at every prädikat level, but producers in Pfalz will not be able to produce Kabinett Grosse Lage. The difficulty in creating a singular classification system for an entire country is underscored—consider for a moment the different meanings of “Grand Cru” in Burgundy, Bordeaux, Alsace, and Champagne—and inconsistencies remain, but the VDP may have just developed one of Germany’s most logical approaches yet. On the other hand, the current classification system is not without objections from within the VDP ranks, so the level at which it will actually be implemented remains to be seen. Although it is the most successful, the VDP is not the only organization that has attempted to improve on the weaker aspects of the 1971 German Wine Law and its resulting effect on the image of German wine. The state-affiliated German Wine Institute at Mainz created its own simplified hierarchy for drier styles of wine, which debuted with the 2000 vintage. The terms Classic and Selection were intended to replace the more cumbersome halbtrocken and trocken , respectively. Classic wines are considered “harmoniously dry” with a maximum residual sugar content of 15 g/l, and Selection wines are “superior dry” with a maximum residual sugar content of 9 g/l (12 g/l allowed for Riesling). Wines labeled “Classic” are single varietal wines and omit any mention of a vineyard on the label. They show a superior minimum alcohol content of 12% (11.5% in the Mosel). Selection wines are single vineyard wines from a single variety. Yields are restricted to 60 hl/ha. Must weight for Selection wines must be equivalent to Auslese, and vineyards are hand-harvested. The wines may not be released prior to September 1 of the year following harvest. Unlike the VDP’s stringent hierarchy, Classic and Selection are legally recognized terms and may be used by producers in any anbaugebiet that meet the requirements. They are essentially competing systems. Despite its lack of legal backing and more difficult terminology, the VDP system is clearly superior—the better producers support VDP and its stricter guidelines, while the marketplace has not embraced the Classic/Selection wines. BACK TO TOP Mosel The Mosel , known as the Mosel-Saar-Ruwer until August 1, 2007, is highly regarded for its pure, light, low alcohol Rieslings and is well known for the precipitous slate slopes the vines inhabit. Although recent warm vintages have provided fuller, sweeter examples, Mosel Kabinett Riesling is amongst the world’s most delicate wines. Shimmering star-bright, full of green apple fruit, slate and candlewax, rarely topping off at more than 8% alcohol, and with racy, high acidity to keep the sweetness balanced: the classic Kabinett style of the Mosel cannot be imitated. The Mosel is a source of graceful, low alcohol, honeyed sweet wines at all prädikat levels, and many producers bottle small quantities of “reserve” selections with a goldkapsel —a gold-colored capsule. This generally indicates additional sweetness due to a higher must weight, and is most commonly encountered on Auslese bottlings. Even richer bottlings are marked with a Lange Goldkapsel—a longer gold capsule—and this length and color of capsule may be the only clue to a substantial difference in price and character. The Goldkapsel is a device used almost exclusively by Mosel producers, and is a means of subverting the 1971 Wine Law, which ruled that additional qualifications of the prädikat level, such as feine and hochfeine , could not be listed on the bottle. In addition to the great sweet wines of the Mosel, a number of producers are producing Grosses Gewächs and standard trocken wines. Mosel dry wines run the risk of being thin and tart in character, but the better estates can produce precise, focused, refreshing, ageworthy wines. Vintages can be extremely variable in the marginal climate; however, a nearly unbroken chain of warmer weather in the last fifteen years, coupled with clonal selections better suited to cool weather, has provided vintners with higher average must weights than in the past, leading to fruitier sweet wines and more powerful dry wines. The Mosel River emerges from the Vosges Mountains in France and flows eastward into Germany, joining with its tributaries (the Saar and Ruwer) until it merges with the Rhine at Koblenz, marking the end of the Mosel Valley and the border of the Mittelrhein anbaugebiet . The Mosel is divided into six bereiche: Bernkastel, Burg Cochem, Saar, Ruwertal, Obermosel, and Moseltor. The Bernkastel bereich is the largest, occupying a stretch of the Mosel from Trier to Zell, wherein most of the Mosel’s greatest gemeinden and einzellagen are located. Trittenheim, Piesport, Brauneberg, Bernkastel-Kues, Graach-an-der-Mosel, Wehlen, Zeltingen, Ürzig, and Erden appear, one after the other, as the river snakes northward toward Zell. This region is known as the Mittelmosel, and Riesling overwhelmingly dominates its vineyards. The soils are composed of dark blue Devonian slate, although red slate characterizes the vineyards near Erden. The absorptive blue slate retains heat and the river reflects warmth onto the vines, allowing them to ripen in a region where the annual average temperature is 49° F—8° colder than the grapevine’s ideal annual temperature. As the river follows its zigzag path, the best vineyards are exclusively found on the sheer aspects of the southward-facing slopes. These vineyards are impossible to harvest mechanically, and cable systems are often employed to enable workers to traverse the cliff-side vines. Vineyards without perfect aspects and a steep slope to maximize warmth simply cannot ripen the noble Riesling, and are usually reduced to the production of lesser grosslagen wine. Two commonly encountered grosslagen within the Bernkastel bereich are Badstube and Michelsberg. The former can be the source of decent wines sourced from the region around Bernkastel-Kues; the latter is a commercially made, rather unfortunate smear on the integrity of Piesport. Goldtröpfchen Vineyard on the hillside facing the flatland of Piesport. Piesport’s greatest vineyard is Goldtröpfchen—“droplets of gold”—and wines bearing the title Piesporter Goldtröpfchen are a world apart from those labeled Piesporter Michelsberg. Immortalized in the wines of producers such as Reinhold Haart and Reichsgraf von Kesselstatt, the Goldtröpfchen vineyard, a natural amphitheatre, provides excellent terroir for Riesling and is one of the Mosel’s most pedigreed sites. Brauneberg’s Juffer-Sonnenuhr vineyard is one of the Mosel’s “sundial” vineyards. Along with Wehlener Sonnenuhr and Zeltinger Sonnenuhr, Brauneberger Juffer-Sonnenuhr features a sundial in the cliff face, allowing vineyard workers to know the time. Bernkastel-Kues is the site of the famous Doctor vineyard, reputedly the source of a miraculously curative wine in the 14th century and an exception to the 1971 German Wine Law. Those growers to the east of the vineyard whose vines were excluded from Doctor in 1984 may label their wines as Alte Badstube am Doktorberg. The wines of Bernkasteler Lay are of high quality; Dr. Loosen provides some of the more compelling examples. In Graach, Reichsgraf von Kesselstatt owns the great alleinbesitz Josephshöfer; good wines are also produced from the neighboring Domprobst. After the Sonnenuhr vineyards of Wehlen and Zeltingen, exemplified again the famous Joh. Jos. Prüm estate and Dr. Loosen, is Ürziger Würzgarten, the “spice garden” of Ürzig. The Mönchhof estate and its subsidiary Joh. Jos. Christoffel Erben are based in Ürzig, and are prominent producers of Würzgarten wines. Finally, red slate emerges near Erden, characterizing the great vineyards of Prälat and Treppchen. Prälat is one of the Mosel’s warmest sites, and again Dr. Loosen is a premier producer of its wines. Ürziger Würzgarten Vineyard. The Saar bereich covers vineyards surrounding a portion of the Saar River, a tributary of the Mosel south of Trier. Despite its more southerly location, the Saar Valley is cooler than the Mittelmosel, due to its higher altitude. The river is smaller than the Mosel, and the Saar’s slate soils are less uniform, creating less warming effect. Thus, the marginal climate here provides even higher acidity in the wines, but in hotter years, such as 2003 or 2005, Saar wines can be exceptional. Scharzhofberger, an ortsteil within the gemeinde of Wiltingen, is highly regarded as one of the Mosel’s finest sites; Egon Müller is its greatest grower. The Ruwertal bereich is located northeast of the Saar Valley, stretching from Waldrach to the village of Ruwer, where the Ruwer tributary—a stream, really—joins the Mosel. The temperatures are again cooler than the Mittelmosel, and make ripening difficult. Without a powerful force of water to carve its way through the region, the vineyards here have gentler slopes than those found along the Mosel River. However, there are two exemplary vineyards along the Ruwer, and both are monopoles: Maximin Grünhäuser Abtsberg (part of a trio of monopoles owned by the von Schubert-Grünhaus estate) and Eitelsbacher Karthäuserhofberg, owned by Karthäuserhof. Formerly the Zell bereich, Burg Cochem includes the lower Mosel Valley, from the village of Zell north to Koblenz. This area is often referred to as the Terrassenmosel, as the narrowing river and intensely steep slopes make terraced vineyards necessary. Some of Europe’s steepest vineyards are here, reaching gradients of 65%. The vineyard of Uhlen in Winningen is responsible for some of the bereich’s best wines. The Obermosel and Moseltor bereiche are south of the Saar, along the Luxembourg border. Elbling, rather than Riesling, is the dominant grape in these southernmost bereiche. Mosel: Important Gemeinden and Einzellagen Saar Wiltingen: Scharzhofberger Saarburg: Rausch Ruwer Eitelsbach: Karthäuserhofberg Mertesdorf: Abtsberg, Herrenberg, Bruderberg Mosel Trittenheim: Apotheke Piesport: Goldtröpfchen, Domherr Brauneberg: Juffer, Juffer Sonnenuhr Bernkastel-Kues: Doctor, Lay Graach an der Mosel: Domprobst, Josephshöfer (monopole of Reichsgraf von Kesselstatt) Wehlen: Sonnenuhr Zeltingen: Sonnenuhr Ürzig: Würzgarten Erden: Prälat, Treppchen BACK TO TOP Rheingau If the Mosel is Germany’s oldest winemaking region, modern viticulture first appeared in the Rheingau . Home to the storied estates of Kloster Eberbach and Schloss Johannisberg, the Rheingau was the earliest beneficiary of the Church’s influence, and its vineyards were the first to be demarcated. The height of German wine fame in the 19th century rested on the shoulders of Rheingau Riesling, and the more recent drive to produce noble dry Riesling got its start in the Erstes Gewächs wines of Charta, spearheaded by the Bernhard Breuer (of the Georg Breuer estate) in Rüdesheim. Geisenheim, the center of German viticultural research, is located here, yet the Rheingau is less affected by the mid-20th century surge in crossings plantings than the neighboring Rheinhessen. The Rheingau is simply too well suited to Riesling; the region has a higher proportion of the grape (nearly 80% of vineyard acreage) than any other anbaugebiet . The Rhine River and Johannisberg, the famous wine village and the Rheingau’s sole bereich, have even lent their names to the grape: Johannisberg Riesling and Rhine Riesling have long been used as synonyms for true Riesling worldwide. The heart of the Rheingau is essentially one long southeast-facing slope. Before resuming its northward path toward Koblenz, the Rhine River flows westward for a short time from the city of Wiesbaden to Rüdesheim, and most of the Rheingau’s vineyards are found here, on the northern bank of the river. At Rüdesheim, the vineyards tilt downward, but the Rheingau's inclines are much less dramatic than those found in the Mosel. Like the Mosel, however, the Rhine provides warmth to the slope; thus the Rheingau is actually warmer than much of the Rheinhessen to the south. Soil in the upper slope vineyards is dominated by slate, whereas the lower vineyards closer to the water contain a mixture of clay, loess, alluvial sand and red slate. The varied soils of the Rheingau and the favorable mesoclimate combine to produce a more powerful style of Riesling than the Mosel. The wines are typically fuller in body and more concentrated, yet acidity can be bracing. Dry wines account for over half of the Rheingau Riesling production. A traditional flute-shaped brown bottle, the Rheingauer Flöte, is sometimes used to bottle Riesling in the Rheingau, whereas the Mosel uses green glass. Traditional Rheingau Stück Barrels. On the western end of the Rheingau, to the northwest of Rüdesheim, lies the village of Assmannshausen. Long the Rheingau’s center for red wine production, Assmannshausen maintains a majority of the region’s Spätburgunder, the most planted red grape in the anbaugebiet . The commune’s best Pinot Noir materializes from the Höllenberg vineyard; August Kesseler is amongst its finest growers. Riesling takes center stage in the remainder of the Rheingau, beginning with the Rhine’s curve at Rüdesheim, where the vineyards of Berg Rottland, Berg Schlossberg, and Berg Roseneck produce good wine. The landscape between Geisenheim and Johannisberg to the east is dominated by Schloss Johannisberg, where successful harnessing of botrytis in the late 18th century led to the development of Spätlese and Auslese. East of Johannisberg is Winkel, home to the historic ortsteil Schloss Vollrads and the lauded Jesuitengarten and Hasensprung vineyards. Continuing upriver, past Oestrich, are the riverside villages of Hattenheim and Erbach. Schloss Schönborn, whose holdings include the monopole Pfaffenberg vineyard, is one of the principal growers based in Hattenheim. The low-lying Erbacher Marcobrunn is contiguous to the eastern edge of Mannberg, and is renowned for its quality in warm vintages. At a higher elevation up the slope from Hattenheim is the commune of Hallgarten, with its premier vineyards Jungfer and Schönhell, and the monastery Kloster Eberbach, whose secular evolution saw the cloister buildings used as a Prussian insane asylum and a women’s prison before being rededicated as a functional winery and museum. Due north of Erbach is Kiedrich, a hill village singularly famous for the wines of Robert Weil, whose holdings in the Gräfenberg vineyard are the source of outstanding sweet wines, especially at Auslese level and above. Finally, decent if not generally superlative wines characterize the riverside village of Eltville; the Sonnenberg vineyard provides some of its best. To the east of Eltville, the Rhine is joined by the smaller Main River, which feeds into the Rhine from the east. An eastern segment of the Rheingau is located here, at the village of Hochheim, separated from Eltville and the rest of the Rheingau by the suburbs of Wiesbaden. The vineyards of Hochheim—notably the origin of the nickname Hock—are distinguished by a gentler slope than those elsewhere in the Rheingau, yet the area is uncharacteristically warm. Kirchenstück is the village’s finest vineyard, and Franz Künstler is a domaine to watch. With a history dating back to only 1956, the Künstler estate is just an infant by Rheingau standards, yet it produces some of Hochheim’s finest wines. Rheingau: Important Gemeinden and Einzellagen Assmannshausen: Höllenberg Rüdesheim: Berg Roseneck, Berg Rottland, Berg Schlossberg Geisenheim: Schloss Johannisberg Johannisberg: Hölle Winkel: Schloss Vollrads, Jesuitengarten, Hasensprung Hattenheim: Pfaffenberg (monopole of Schloss Schonborn), Mannberg, Steinberg Hallgarten: Schönhell, Jungfer Erbach: Marcobrunn Kiedrich: Gräfenberg Eltville: Sonnenberg Hochheim am Main: Hölle, Kirchenstück BACK TO TOP Rheinhessen The Rheinhessen is directly south of the Rheingau, and it is bordered by the Rhine River to the north and east, the Nahe to the west, and the Pfalz to the south. The historically important city of Worms marks the southern edge of the Rheinhessen, and Mainz—home of the German Wine Institute—is the Rheinhessen’s northern outpost, situated across the Rhine from Wiesbaden. In between is a huge swath of vineyards; with 26,500 cultivated hectares, the Rheinhessen has more land under vine than any other anbaugebiet . Historically, a large proportion of the wine produced has been of poorer quality, and as of 2012 Müller-Thurgau still ranked ahead of Riesling as the region’s most planted variety. (In 2013, Riesling finally surpassed it.) High-yielding, dependable crossings in general are embraced throughout the region that gave the world Liebfraumilch, as Riesling has traditionally had more difficulty ripening on cooler, frost-prone sites away from the moderating influence of the Rhine River. Consequently, quality wines in the Rheinhessen have classically been produced in the Rheinterrasse, along the western banks of the Rhine. The Rheinterrasse, a region larger than the entire Rheingau, is an extended reach of eastern exposures protected from frost and the winds that sweep through much of the rolling, unwooded expanse of the Rheinhessen. The Rheinterrasse stretches from Bodenheim southward through the winemaking towns of Nierstein and Oppenheim, terminating near Mettenheim. Its most prestigious sector is a slope of red clay and slate spanning 180 ha between Nierstein and Nackenheim, the Roter Hang. In the past, wines from the Roter Hang fetched high prices, and the Titanic's wine list reportedly featured a Niersteiner Pettenthal Riesling as its most expensive offering, eclipsing First Growth Bordeaux. Gunderloch is a marquee producer within the Roter Hang; the estate owns over three-quarters of Rothenberg, one of the Rheinhessen's premier sites. As Müller-Thurgau's influence wanes, Riesling is resurgent in the Rheinhessen, and Silvaner is considered a regional specialty—the Rheinhessen has a more acreage devoted to Silvaner than any other winegrowing region in the world, including Franken. Riesling is often produced in halbtrocken or sweeter styles, whereas Silvaner is usually produced as a dry wine. Unfortunately, a deluge of blended bulk wines and lower quality, semisweet QbA wines are still dumped on the marketplace every year, and the Rheinhessen has a long way to go to bridge the quality divide between its finer demarcated sites and the bottom end. Spearheading the charge are producers in areas of the Rheinhessen considered less fit for quality wine production in the cooler years of decades past. Weingut Keller in Flörsheim-Dalsheim and Wittmann in neighboring Westhofen are making some of Germany's best dry Riesling. In fact, Germany's most elusive and expensive dry bottling of Riesling, the micro-production "G-Max," arrives from an undisclosed vineyard site in Keller's portfolio. Both Keller and Wittmann belong to "Message in a Bottle," an association of over two dozen young and dynamic winemakers in Rheinhessen committed to raising quality throughout the region. Blue Nun and Liebfraumilch cast a long shadow over the Rheinhessen, but today one is just as likely to find quality wines, from Germany's most diverse selection of varieties, here as anywhere else in the country. Rheinhessen: Important Gemeinden and Einzellage Nackenheim: Rothenberg Nierstein: Hipping, Pettenthal Oppenheim: Schützenhütte, Sackträger Westhofen: Morstein, Kirchspiel Dalsheim: Hubacker BACK TO TOP Pfalz The Pfalz , known to English-speakers as the Palatinate and officially named the Rheinpfalz until 1992, is one of the warmest winegrowing regions in Germany. The climate is sunny and dry, and the region has an extremely complex soil makeup, with layers of red sandstone, calcium-based limestone, loess, red slate, basalt, igneous granite and alluvial gravel. The Pfalz is a natural continuation of France’s Alsace, which borders it to the south. In the Pfalz, the Vosges Mountains are rechristened as the Haardt hills, rarely rising to heights of more than 500 or 600 meters on this side of the border. In fact, Schweigen’s Friedrich Becker, one of Germany’s most esteemed producers of Spätburgunder, has to cross the border into sovereign France to work his holdings in the Kammerberg Grosse Lage vineyard. In recent years, winemakers like Becker and Hansjörg Rebholz, a premier producer of dry Riesling and Weissburgunder, have propelled the southern Pfalz (Südliche Weinstrasse) into the spotlight; historically, however, the most important vineyards of the region lay further north, on the east-facing slopes of the Haardt hills in the Mittelhaardt-Deutsche Weinstrasse. From north to south, the premier wine villages of the Mittelhaardt-Deutsche Weinstrasse include Kallstadt, Ungstein, Bad Dürkheim, Wachenheim, Forst, Deidesheim, and Ruppertsberg. Forst is home to the Pfalz’s warmest and most exceptional vineyard site, the Grosse Lage Kirchenstück, and highly regarded neighboring sites like Jesuitengarten, Pechstein, and Ungeheuer. The Pfalz’s widely varied soil types generate dramatically different styles of Riesling, even from vineyards in such close proximity. In general, however, Pfalz Riesling is among Germany’s most full-bodied, and the wines are almost invariably dry. In the Mittelhaardt, the "3 Bs" (Bassermann-Jordan, von Buhl, Bürklin-Wolf) and Müller-Catoir are among the most recognizable estates. In the Pfalz, the story does not begin and end with Riesling. Pinot varieties are making big strides in the region, and Scheurebe has a reputation for sweet wines in the Pfalz dating back to the 1940s. When dry, Scheurebe may resemble pyrazine-laden Sauvignon Blanc in the glass, but as a late harvest wine its character develops into something more akin to cassis, and the wines can be opulent and memorable. Sauvignon Blanc itself is making an appearance in the region and in many major producers' portfolios, due to a domestic interest in the grape. There is even a little Sangiovese in the region; alongside some almond and lemon trees, the presence of a central Italian red variety is a reminder that the Pfalz's climate really is a little warmer! Pfalz: Important Gemeinden and Einzellagen Mittelhaardt-Deutsche Weinstrasse Kallstadt: Saumagen Ungstein Bad Dürkheim Wachenheim Forst: Kirchenstück, Freundstück, Pechstein, Ungeheuer, Jesuitengarten Deidesheim: Langenmorgen, Hohenmorgen, Kieselberg Ruppertsberg: Reiterpfad, Gaisböhl (Bürklin-Wolf monopole) Königsbach: Idig Südliche-Weinstrasse: Siebeldingen: Im Sonnenschein Birkweiler: Kastanienbusch Schweigen: Kammerberg BACK TO TOP Nahe To the west of the Rheinhessen, the Nahe ’s best vineyards are situated along the Nahe River, a tributary of the Rhine. Riesling is the premier grape; Nahe Rieslings are generally sweet and can be difficult to pin down, falling between the Mosel and the Rheingau in style. The villages of Schlossböckelheim, Oberhausen, Niederhausen, Norheim, Bad Münster, and Bad Kreuznach line the banks of the Nahe as it flows northward in the center of the region, and the region’s best wines can usually be found in this small stretch. The rich, sweet prädikat wines of Dönnhoff are the most well-known, expensive wines of the Nahe—especially those sourced from his monopole vineyard Oberhauser Brücke and Hermannshöhle in Niederhausen, the Nahe’s finest site. Nahe: Important Gemeinden and Einzellagen Bad Kreuznach Bad Münster Norheim Niederhausen: Hermannshöhle, Hermannsberg Oberhausen: Brücke Schlossböckelheim: Kupfergrube, Felsenberg BACK TO TOP Ahr Pinot Noir on the steep slopes of the Ahr. The Ahr is one of Germany’s smaller anbaugebiete —it ranks 10th overall in size—and is the world’s most northerly wine region dedicated to red wine production. Despite its location north of the 50th parallel, just over 80% of the Ahr’s wine is red, with Spätburgunder as the region’s dominant grape. The winegrowing area surrounds the Ahr River, a tributary of the Rhine, and its terraced vineyards are sheltered from cold winds by the Eifel Mountains. Steep slopes of rocky, volcanic slate offer warmth, and the region is actually warmer than the Mosel (The VDP describes its climate as “Mediterranean”). The region has only one bereich, Walporzheim-Ahrtal, and one grosslage, Klosterberg. Ahr Spätburgunder is generally light in color, showing bright acidity, red-fruit and a leaner structure, but top producers like Meyer-Näkel and Kreuzberg utilize barrique in their high-end cuvees to create richer styles. BACK TO TOP Franken Franken is centered along the Main River as it flows westward from Bamberg toward Frankfurt, to the east of Hochheim. The region produces a lot of beer—Franken and Bavaria overlap—but some quality wines are made, and the Silvaner grape thrives here, fashioning smoky, full, mineral-tinged dry white wines. The grape succeeds in Franken’s cool climate, where Riesling has difficulty ripening, yet was surpassed by Müller-Thurgau in plantings in the mid-20th century. Hans Wirsching and Horst Sauer produce excellent examples from the villages of Iphofen and Escherndorf, respectively. Würzburg is Franken’s wine center; the vineyard Stein within Würzburg lends its name to “Steinwein”, an old nickname for Frankish wine in general. Almost all Franken wine is dry, and some excellent Grosses Gewächs Rieslings are now appearing, along with a few notable bottlings of Spätburgunder and Frühburgunder, an early-ripening strain of Pinot Noir. Traditionally, the wines of Franken are bottled in the squat, flask-shaped bocksbeutel . Franken: Important Gemeinden and Einzellagen Würzburg: Stein, Leiste Escherndorf: Lump Iphofen: Julius Echter Berg Bürgstadt: Centgrafenberg BACK TO TOP Mittelrhein The Mittelrhein is a narrow anbaugebiet following the Rhine River northward past Assmannshausen and Lorch in the Rheingau. Cultivation is similar to the Mosel: steep, slate riverside slopes planted predominantly to Riesling. However, nearly 80% of the wine is either trocken or halbtrocken . The Hahn Grosse Lage vineyard, a monopole of Toni Jost in Bacharach, is one of the region's finest sites. The village of Spay, near Koblenz, is also the source of some good wines, especially from the estate of Matthias Müller. BACK TO TOP Hessische-Bergstrasse With just over 400 ha in the entire anbaugebiet , Hessische-Bergstrasse is one of Germany's smallest. It was for some time the only region in the country without a VDP top site, but with the move to Grosse Lage in the 2012 vintage that is no longer the case. BACK TO TOP Baden & Württemberg Baden and Württemberg are larger regions in southern Germany. Baden covers a large area along the French border and Württemberg is to the east, south of Franken. Both have separate zones along the Swiss border to the south, on the shores of Lake Boden (Bodensee). Germany's warmest winegrowing region, Kaiserstuhl, is located in Baden. Spätburgunder and other red grapes are preferred, as the entire area is too hot for quality Riesling. Württemberg contains most of Germany's Schwarzriesling, and Lemberger (Blaufränkisch) is a common variety, but few of the wines leave the area. Both regions are dominated by mass production and co-operatives. The rosé Weissherbst is locally popular in Baden; schillerwein , a style of rosé produced by fermenting red and white grapes together, is more common in Württemberg. BACK TO TOP Sachsen & Saale-Unstrut The anbaugebiete of Sachsen (Saxony) and Saale-Unstrut are located in former East Germany, and were added when the country was reunified in 1990. Sachsen is located in the Elbe River Valley, and is one of Germany’s smallest winegrowing regions. Although Müller-Thurgau is the most widely planted grape, Goldriesling, an aromatic crossing developed in Alsace, is a local specialty. Saale-Unstrut lies at the confluence of the Saale and Unstrut rivers, and is Germany's northernmost winegrowing region. Müller-Thurgau and Weißburgunder are common varieties in its cold climate. BACK TO TOP Austria Although archeological evidence dates grape growing in Austria (Österreich) back thousands of years, Austrian winemaking, like that of Germany, began to flourish in the Roman era after Probus’s repeal of the ban on provincial viticulture. Charlemagne and the Cistercian monks influenced the development of the vine in Austria as well, and by the 13th century the city of Vienna had become a major center for wine trade along the Danube River. Austrian wines were produced and exported in huge quantities throughout the Renaissance, although the wines never quite achieved the fame of the illustrious Tokaji of neighboring Hungary or the later Rieslings of the Rheingau. The first record of Trockenbeerenauslese in Austria dates to 1526, predating Spätlese in Germany by over 200 years, but by the 17th century war and taxes conspired to shrink production, and Austria would never again enjoy the breadth of vineyard acreage it amassed in the 1700s. Austrian vines, along with the rest of Europe’s vineyards, were challenged by the arrival of American fungal diseases (oidium, peronospora) and the root louse, yet the country rebounded to become the world’s third largest producer after World War II. Austria’s commercial successes in the 20th century resulted from innovations and developments similar to those being pursued in Germany. A viticultural research institute at Klosterneuburg, built in 1860, focused attention on grape crossings and higher yields. Dr. Lenz Moser developed the Hochkultur system in the 1920s, which gained popularity in the 1950s, the adaptation of this system opened the door to the mechanization of vineyards – a viticultural breakthrough with worldwide ramifications. The shift to high-volume winemaking took its toll on quality and the body of the wines, and dozens of culpable winemakers decided to artificially bolster their wines, leading to a scandal that would decimate the country’s wine industry in 1985, yet ultimately lead Austria to new heights of quality. Diethylene glycol—a colorless, odorless, poisonous chemical—gave a light wine some added texture. The “antifreeze” scandal of 1985 surfaced when one of the guilty parties tried to claim the chemical as a legitimate winery expense on his tax return. Customers cancelled orders worldwide. Bottles tested positive for the chemical in nearly every export market, and the press decried the matter, asserting that Austrians had diluted their wines with antifreeze. The association stuck and damaged the image of Austrian wines for years. Austria responded by drafting some of the strictest wine laws in Europe and quickly refocusing on quality. In a very short time, Austria has earned a renewed reputation as one of the classic winemaking nations of the world. Austria’s vineyard area is mostly confined to the eastern portions of the country. From north to south, the four major winemaking regions, or Weinbaugebiete, are Niederösterreich (Lower Austria), Wien (Vienna), Burgenland, and Steiermark (Styria) . Niederösterreich and Burgenland contain about 90% of the country’s vineyards. With 31% of the total vineyard acreage, the indigenous Grüner Veltliner is the most cultivated white variety, followed by Welschriesling, Müller Thurgau, Weißburgunder, Riesling, and Chardonnay, whose Austrian synonyms include Morillon and Feinburgunder. Zweigelt, a Blaufränkisch x St. Laurent crossing developed in Austria in 1922, leads red grapes in plantings, followed by Blaufränkisch itself, Blauer Portugieser, and Blauburger (Blauer Portugieser x Blaufränkisch). As of 2015, white varieties occupied 67% of Austria’s total vineyard acreage. Austrian wine law defines three levels of quality: Wein, Landwein, and Qualitätswein . Qualitätswein, the highest caliber of quality and regional specificity in Austria, is sourced from a single Weinbaugebiet or one of the 17 smaller wine regions and may be produced from one or more of 40 permitted grapes. Qualitätswein, which accounts for about 80% of Austria's total production, must pass a tasting panel and chemical analysis, indicated by a State Control Number (Prüfnummer) and the inclusion of the red and white banderole on the bottle's capsule. Wein—a generic category that replaced Tafelwein in time for the 2009 vintage—may carry a vintage date and a variety on the label, but may not exhibit a more exclusive statement of origin than Österreich. Landwein production is restricted to the same 40 varieties permitted for Qualitätswein, but the wines are labeled with one of three broad geographic areas (Weinbauregionen): Weinland, Steirerland, or Bergland. Weinland covers the areas defined as Niederösterreich, Wien and Burgenland, Steirerland corresponds to Steiermark, and Bergland includes just under 250 ha of vineyard land scattered throughout the remainder of Austria's mountainous countryside. All three levels of quality share a maximum yield of 9,000 kg/ha (75 hl/ha) but minimum must weights increase with each level of quality. Qualitätswein may be further subdivided into the categories of Prädikatswein and Districtus Austriae Controllatus (DAC). Austrian Prädikatswein shares many characteristics of its German counterparts, with a similar progression of late harvest designations and a typically sweeter profile. A minimum alcohol content of 5% is required for wines labeled by prädikat . In Austria, Kabinett wines are considered a subset of Qualitätswein rather than a beginning rung on the ladder of Prädikatswein; however, even at the Kabinett level winemakers are prohibited from practicing both chaptalization and the addition of Süssreserve. Austria’s Prädikatswein hierarchy includes the additional categories of strohwein, a dried grape wine of at least Beerenauslese ripeness, and Ausbruch, a sweet specialty of Rust, a free city on the western shore of Neusiedlersee. Most of Austria’s lusciously sweet wines are produced around the lake of Neusiedlersee in Burgenland, but the vast majority of the country’s white wines are fermented dry. Dry wines are the focus of the DAC system, a newer indication of origin for Qualitätswein designed to align Austrian regions with wine profiles in the mind of the consumer, in the tradition of the French and Italian systems. As of 2023, there are 18 DACs: Weinviertel (2002), Mittelburgenland (2005), Traisental (2006), Kremstal (2007), Kamptal (2008), Leithaberg (2009), Eisenberg (2010), Neusiedlersee (2012), Wiener Gemischter Satz (2013), Rosalia (2018), Vulkanland Steiermark (2018), Südsteiermark (2018), Weststeiermark (2018), Carnuntum (2019), Wachau (2020), Ruster Ausbruch (2020), Wagram (2022), and Thermenregion DAC (2023). Each DAC prescribes limited grape varieties, minimum alcohol content, and stylistic choices for the producer. In 2013, the Austrian Sekt Committee formed to bring international attention to high-quality Sekt. Austrian Sekt with Protected Designation of Origin became a legal category (distinct from “normal” Austrian Sekt) in 2016. In 2022, three distinct Sekt Austria PDOs were recognized: Sekt Austria, Sekt Austria Reserve, and Sekt Austria Grosse Reserve. The first requires that the grapes come from one of Austria’s federal states and the wine spends at least nine months on the lees, in the case of traditional method wines, and six months for those produced using tank method. Tank, transfer, and traditional methods are all allowed, and all dosage levels/styles and colors may be produced. Starting at the Reserve level, traditional method, hand-harvesting, and whole-cluster pressing are mandated. Grapes must be grown and vinified in one of Austria’s federal states, and 18 months on the lees is required at minimum. The finished product may only be Brut, Extra Brut, or Brut Nature, and an indication of the village in which the wine was produced may appear on the label. At the top of the tier is Grosse Reserve. Here the rules become more stringent: grapes must come from a single wine village, such as Langenlois, and this must be stated on the label. Vineyard names may also appear on the label. The wine must sit on the lees for a minimum of 36 months. Like Reserve, Grosse Reserve may not hold more than 12 grams per liter of residual sugar, meaning the wines must be Brut, Extra Brut, or Brut Nature. To differentiate Sekt Austria with Protected Designation of Origin from general Austrian Sekt, bottles must carry the official red and white seal on the capsule with the words Geschützter Ursprung, geprüfte Qualität, meaning “protected designation of origin and certified quality”, along with an indication of the quality level. BACK TO TOP Niederösterreich Niederösterreich, or Lower Austria, is the largest winegrowing region in the county and contains more than twice the planted vineyard area of the next leading Weinbaugebiet, Burgenland. In southern Niederösterreich, the alpine terrain that characterizes western and central Austria yields to the Pannonian Plain, a former seabed of loess soils stretching from eastern Austria through Hungary and many countries of the former eastern bloc. The resulting continental climate ushers in hot, dry summers and severe winters; the seasonal divide is much more pronounced than in many of the milder winegrowing climates of Western Europe. Most of Niederösterreich’s subzones are located along the path of the Danube River (and its tributaries) as it cuts through the region; Weinviertel and Thermenregion provide the exceptions. There are a total of eight subzones: Weinviertel, Carnuntum, Traisental, Wagram, Kremstal, Kamptal, Wachau, and Thermenregion. As of 2023, all of the subzones have earned DAC status. Weinviertel , Niederösterreich’s largest subzone and Austria’s first DAC, is located in the hills north of the Danube and the Pannonian Plain and provides a fresher, lighter wine in this cooler climate. DAC wines must be produced from Grüner Veltliner, with a minimum alcohol of 12%. They are approved by a tasting panel, which must determine that the wines show a distinct peppery note, and no obvious wood or botrytis tones. A Reserve category for Weinviertel debuted with the 2009 vintage; these fuller-bodied wines show a minimum alcohol of 13% and may reveal hints of both botrytis and wood, supported by the richer character of the wine. Traisental and Kremstal DACs have very similar regulations. The wines may be produced from either Grüner Veltliner or Riesling, and may be labeled either Classic (Klassik) or Reserve with a corresponding minimum alcohol content of either 12% or 13%. Again, there can be no obvious notes of either botrytis or wood in the Classic examples. Kamptal allows for Grüner Veltliner, Rielsing, Chardonnay, Weissburgunder, and Pinot Gris within the DAC quality pyramid and for Reserve. Grüner varietal wines from these three DACs show a more delicate spice, rather than the pungent white pepper of Weinviertel. The neighboring districts of Kremstal and Kamptal are located in western Niederösterreich, along the Krems and Kamp Rivers, tributaries of the Danube. Langenlois, one of Austria’s most important wine towns, is located in the Kamptal; the nearby Heiligenstein, Lamm, and Dechant vineyards are highly regarded. While Austrian single vineyard wines are labeled in the German fashion, with the village and vineyard name, many producers observe the old custom of replacing the village with the word Ried , indicating a top site. In 2010, 53 top sites throughout Kremstal, Kamptal, Wagram and Traisental were elevated to the status of Erste Lage by the Österreichische Traditionsweingüter, an association of producers founded in 1992. As of 2019, there are 81 vineyard sites that can use this designation on the bottle label. Although the classification does not yet have legal status, the organization is closely aligning itself with the DAC concept and featuring each region's allowable grape varieties. Many of the best vineyards in Austria are found in the Wachau , Niederösterreich’s westernmost subregion. The Wachau is a narrow band of steep slopes between Melk and Krems along the banks of the Danube, which moderates the otherwise severe continental climate. The river and cool northern winds chill the summer nights significantly, enabling the wines to retain high natural acidity. Much of the Wachau’s best vineyard land encompasses terraced slopes on the north bank of the river, in the style of the Mosel. The soil structure is a combination of loess and Gföhl, or gneiss, with a proportion of alluvial sand in the lower vineyard sites near the river’s edge. The unique climate, soil, and aspect of the Wachau yield Austria’s most extracted, ageworthy white wines; Grüner Veltliner and Riesling both excel in the region. The vineyard of Achleiten, in the village of Weissenkirchen, is home to some of the most pedigreed vines, and the trio of FX Pichler, Prager, and Emmerich Knoll are amongst the Wachau’s finest estates. While Pichler departed in 2020, historically, all three were members of Vinea Wachau, an organization of estates sworn to uphold the tenets of natural winemaking as spelled out in the Codex Wachau: no additives (including chaptalization), no aromatization (including the use of new barrique), and no “fractionation” (techniques such as de-alcoholization). All wines released by members must be bottled in the region and vinified from grapes grown in the Wachau. Founded in 1983, the Vinea Wachau members control more than 85% of the region’s vineyard acreage. Wachau is a relatively recent addition to Austria’s DAC system and has introduced a few unique rules. Wines are categorized in a three-tier hierarchal system, in which regional wines (Gebietsweine) can have up to 17 varieties (including a Gemischter Satz blend), village wines (Ortsweine) are permitted 9 varieties, and single-vineyard wines (Riedenweine) must be from Riesling or Grüner Veltliner. Consistent with Vinea Wachau rules, no chaptalization or oak character is allowed in Reidenweine, and all grapes—regardless of the tier—must be hand-harvested. Wachau producers may choose to continue following the rules and philosophies set by the Vinea Wachau, applying stylistic categories created in the late 1980s on their labels: Steinfeder, Federspiel, and Smaragd. Steinfeder (named for a local grass found in the vineyards) is the lightest style, with a minimum must weight of 15° KMW and a maximum alcohol of 11.5%. Federspiel (referencing a medieval falconer's lure) has a minimum must weight of 17° KMW and a final alcohol range of 11.5 to 12.5%. Finally, Smaragd (taking its name from the emerald lizard who basks on terraces) has a minimum alcohol of 12.5% and a minimum must weight of 18.2° KMW—the approximate equivalent of 90° Öchsle, or Spätlese ripeness. As these wines must be dry, Smaragd wines can reach high alcohol levels, show a high degree of extract, and display notes of botrytis. Vineyards along the Danube in the Wachau. To the east of Wachau, Kremstal, and Kamptal is the region of Wagram , which was awarded DAC status in 2022. Known as Donauland prior to 2007, Wagram lies just upstream from Vienna along the Danube. Grüner Veltliner is the main grape in the region, but Roter Veltliner, an unrelated red grape produced as a white wine, is a specialty of Wagram. The institute at Klosterneuburg lies within eastern Wagram. Carnuntum and Thermenregion are both located south of Vienna. Far from the Danube, Thermenregion experiences the full force of the hot Pannonian summers. The rare white grapes Rotgipfler and Zierfandler are cultivated here, produced varietally or as the blended Spätrot-Rotgipfler. Carnuntum’s climate is similar to that of sunny, neighboring Burgenland, and production is oriented toward red wines, particularly Zweigelt. Gemischter Satz—traditional field blends—are still popular in Carnuntum. BACK TO TOP Burgenland Burgenland, the other half of Weinland Österreich, produces Austria’s best red and sweet white wines. Burgenland borders Hungary, and shares many viticultural and climactic traits with regions just across the border, such as Sopron. The hot continental, Pannonian climate in Burgenland is tempered by the cooling influence of the Neusiedlersee, a large, shallow lake which, formerly, divided the subzones of Neusiedlersee and Neusiedlersee-Hügelland to the west. (As of 2016 Neusiedlersee-Hügelland is no longer recognized as a wine-growing region.) Mittelburgenland , and the former Südburgenland, are located to the south. As of 2020, Burgenland claims six DAC zones: Mittelburgenland, Leithaberg , Eisenberg , Neusiedlersee , Rosalia , and Rust . Mittelburgenland DAC produces red wines from Blaufränkisch, which may be sold from August 1 in the year following the harvest. Reserve wines undergo an additional year of aging and have a higher minimum alcohol content—13% as opposed to 12.5%. Although many producers in the region are experimenting with barriques, the DAC regulations stipulate large casks or used wood in the event of barrique-aging. The capital of Burgenland, Eisenstadt, is located within Leithaberg, the first DAC to allow both red and white wines. White wines may be blends or single varietal, produced from Grüner Veltliner, Chardonnay, Neuburger, or Weissburgunder. The red wines are comprised of a minimum 85% Blaufränkisch, with stipulations similar to those of Mittelburgenland on new wood. Like Mittelburgenland, Eisenberg DAC also produces red wines from Blaufränkisch. Known in Germany as Lemberger and Hungary as Kékfrankos, Blaufränkisch typically generates wines of medium weight, with supple texture, deep color and spicy red and black fruit flavors. Although Blaufränkisch is Burgenland’s most exciting and most planted red grape, Zweigelt has significant acreage, and its parent, the thin-skinned, low-tannin St. Laurent, is being cultivated with increasing frequency. in 2012 the Neusiedlersee DAC was created, producing red wines based on the fruity and spicy Zweigelt. The wines may be Classic or Reserve bottlings, with the Reserve wines matured for an extra year before release. In Rosalia DAC, monovarietal wines from either Blaufrankisch or Zweigelt may be produced, as long as the wines have a minimum alcohol content of 12% abv and a maximum of 4 g/l residual sugar. At the reserve level single vineyards (rieds) may be indicated on the label; reserve wines must have a minimum alcohol content of 13% abv. Rosalia DAC also permits dry rosé wines, made from one or several red Qualitätswein grapes. Varietal labelling is not allowed, though single vineyard labels are permitted. The Rosalia DAC became official in 2018, but wines may be released with the Rosalia DAC retroactively, with the 2017 vintage. White grapes are almost all on the decline in the Burgenland region. However, some exemplary sweet wines are made in both of the northern subregions. The village of Illmitz in Neusiedlersee is home to the Alois Kracher estate, whose eiswein, BA and TBA bottlings are legendary. The late Alois Kracher’s TBA Scheurebe is among the grape’s finest expressions to date. On the western shore of Neusiedlersee is the free city of Rust, famous for the production of Ausbruch, a traditional sweet wine dating to the 17th century. Grapes destined for Ausbruch are harvested at a minimum 30° KMW (approximately 156°Öchsle). Production for Ausbruch bears similarities to the process of Tokaji: richly concentrated botrytis-affected must is added to less concentrated must—from fruit harvested in the same vineyard—and the two are fermented together, then aged in barrel before release. Furmint grapes were traditionally used, but modern Ruster Ausbruch is more often produced from Chardonnay, Muskateller, Pinot Blanc, Neuburger, Welschriesling, Traminer and Pinot Gris. Despite the presence of many of Austria's greatest sweet white wines, DAC status for these wines was only granted in 2020. Ruster Ausbruch DAC was formed for sweet white wines produced with grapes grown within the city of Rust, while Neusiedlersee DAC was expanded to include sweet whites in addition to Classic and Reserve red wines based on Zweigelt. BACK TO TOP Styria Styria, or Steiermark, is a mountainous region to the south of Burgenland. There are three subregions: Südsteiermark , Weststeiermark , and Vulkanland Steiermark. The region contains approximately 9% of the nation’s vineyards. Sauvignon Blanc, is the region’s most cultivated variety, and, along with, Welschriesling, Weissburgunder and Traminer, performs well in the volcanic slopes of Vulkanland Steiermark. Sauvignon Blanc shines in the Südsteiermark; Manfred Tement is a leading light in the appellation, excelling with both unoaked and barrique-aged versions. In 2017 Styria held one DAC zone, Schilcherland DAC. The Schilcherland DAC promoted the racy rosé produced from the ancient grape, Blauer Wildbacher. Those wines could be listed as "Klassic" or "Ried", if a single vineyard was listed. The Schilcherland DAC only existed in the 2017 vintage; in 2018 Styria earned three DACs corresponding to its wine regions: Vulkanland Steiermark DAC, Südsteiermark DAC, and Weststeiermark DAC, the latter of which reabsorbed the schilcher wine style. In addition to the new Styrian DACs, the 2018 vintage is the first to promote the three-tiered "System of Origin Steiermark." The pyramid was set up to promote wines of the region and also set quality standards. At the base of the pyramid is Regional Wine; above that is Ortswein, which corresponds to village wines; the top of the pyramid holds Reidenwein, or single vineyard wines. Both Ortswein and Reidenwein require longer aging and a focus on the best grape varieties of the region. BACK TO TOP Wien (Vienna) Wien lies on the Danube River and is surrounded on three sides by the Niederösterreich subzones of Thermenregion, Carnuntum, Weinviertel, and Wagram. With nearly 600 ha of vines, it is the only capital city in Europe to have its own wine appellation within city limits. Gemischter Satz is commonly produced by Viennese winemakers, as is heuriger , a nouveau wine consumed in its infancy in taverns of the same name. Wiener (Viennese) Gemischter Satz received its own DAC in 2013. Gemischter Satz DAC wines are white and produced from a blend of at least 3 varieties. The even-fresher Sturm—a half-fermented, sparkling grape juice—usually accompanies harvest-time meals. BACK TO TOP Switzerland Cradled between France, Germany, and Austria, the mountainous nation of Switzerland is a loose confederation of states, or cantons, divided by language and custom and held together by shared values and political ethic rather than a common culture. Four national languages—French, German, Italian, and Romansch—illustrate the small alpine country’s broad diversity, and the 26 nearly autonomous cantons of Switzerland each have their own official language (or languages). In western Switzerland, the four French-speaking cantons Valais, Vaud, Geneva, and Neuchâtel produce wine, and seventeen German-speaking cantons practice viticulture in eastern Switzerland. The Italian-speaking canton of Ticino in the south borders Italy’s Lombardy region, and focuses almost exclusively on the Merlot grape. The most cultivated white grape variety in Switzerland is Chasselas. An unexciting variety elsewhere, Chasselas can produce refined, mineral-driven wines in the moderate climate of Switzerland’s valleys. Müller-Thurgau, Chardonnay, and Sylvaner, known locally as Johannisberg, are also widespread. Among the red varieties, Pinot Noir, Gamay, and Merlot are commonly encountered. Although less frequently planted in the vineyard, there is also an array of interesting indigenous grapes, including the white Amigne of Vétroz and Petite Arvine—the latter more often encountered in Italy’s Valle d’Aosta. Switzerland has traditionally exported very little wine, with over 90% of Swiss wine consumed within the country. Valais is the most important canton in Switzerland for wine production and is responsible for a third of the country’s annual production. The canton’s vineyard area is clustered along the banks of the Rhône River, establishing Valais as the river’s northernmost appellation. Protected by the Alps, Valais is the driest winegrowing region in Switzerland. This, in addition to soil diversity, ample sun exposure, and the foehn, a warm, dry wind, provides hospitable conditions for grapegrowing. Fendant (Chasselas) and Dôle, a blend of Pinot Noir and Gamay at a minimum of 51%, are the canton’s most widely produced wines. Rèze, one of Switzerland’s oldest indigenous grapes, produces the rare Valais specialty vin des glaciers , a maderized wine stored in high-altitude soleras. Only a few parcels remain planted today. Vaud , on the north shores of Lake Geneva, borders France’s Jura region and is also dominated by the cultivation of Chasselas, locally known as Dorin. In 2010, the Vaud appellation system was simplified, bracketing the former 26 village AOCs into six regional AOCs: Chablais, La Côte, Lavaux, Vully, Bonvillars, and Côtes de l'Orbe. Approved villages may be mentioned on the bottle. Two grands crus , Dézaley and Calamin, retain their individual status, and there is now a premier cru designation in Vaud. Traditional AOCs remain in place for Dorin and Salvagnin, a blend of Gamay, Pinot Noir, and the crossings Gamaret and Garanoir. Geneva, a small canton on the southwestern shore of Lake Geneva, contains the country’s densest plantings. Here, Chasselas and Gamay dominate, though Chardonnay and Pinot Noir are gaining attention. BACK TO TOPPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/1046/coffeeWed, 22 Apr 2026 15:36:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:8e479ed8-c00a-4e7e-9ce9-14f9a458a77eGuildSomm AdminTable of Contents A Sommelier's Introduction to Coffee The Wine of Araby Growing, Harvesting, and Processing of the Coffee Bean The Roasting Process Grinding and Brewing Coffee Espresso: "Spur of the Moment" The Taste of Coffee and Countries of Origin A Sommelier's Introduction to Coffee Why should the Sommelier study coffee? Many restaurant guests will select some form of coffee as their last beverage before exiting the establishment, and an expertly brewed cup can seal a positive experience. Nonetheless, even at the highest level many restaurants continue to operate sub-par coffee programs, and many sommeliers, despite meticulous attention to detail in other areas of the beverage program, allow poor coffee preparation and service to persist. Coffee is a second-class citizen in many beverage programs: its costs and oversight are often relegated to kitchens, and the machinery of coffee production is geared too often toward ease and quantity rather than the simple preparation of a good cup of coffee. Specialized barista personnel in restaurants may be poorly trained if present at all, beans may be out of date, and coffees may be brewed too infrequently, in excessively large batches. Of course, the presence of caffeine, the world’s most widely consumed psychoactive drug, leads a majority of coffee-drinkers to consider coffee as a form of fuel, presumably ingested when one is tired, drunk, or otherwise in need of quick energy. Yet to suggest that coffee is only a vehicle for caffeine is like stating that wine is just a mechanism for the delivery of alcohol. The coffee bean, like the grape, experiences a complex series of processes from farm to cup, and falls within a spectrum of quality levels, developing distinctive characteristics in different growing regions throughout the world. Contrast the state of coffee in many of America’s restaurants with the revival of good specialty coffee shops and artisan roasters. Educated restaurant guests are no longer satisfied by the thin and dilute or bitter and burnt coffees of the past—their expectations have been raised. Today’s sommelier owes his guests and his establishment a working knowledge of the world of coffee, and a good restaurant must consider quality first in the development of a coffee program. "The Wine of Araby" From humble origins on the mountainsides of Ethiopia, coffee rapidly diffused throughout the world in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. From the port of Mocha in modern-day Yemen—the world’s first hub for the coffee trade—the “Wine of Araby” spread east and west through the commercial channels of the Ottoman Empire, soon arriving in Europe, India, and Indonesia. Coffee trees traveled abroad with European colonists, establishing a foothold in the New World by the early 18th century. By the end of the 19th century Brazil emerged as the world’s largest producer of coffee, a non-native plant, and the United States led the world in coffee consumption. While coffee fueled productivity in industrialized Western societies, the coffeehouse became an incubator of discourse and dissent. The coffeehouse, not the tavern, served as backdrop to the Age of Reason, yet its production process throughout history demonstrates remarkable inhumanity, relying on cruelty, slavery, indentured labor and spectacularly low pay to mitigate costs. The plantation economic model, wherein a cash crop could be grown cheaply and exported for handsome profit, predicated coffee’s success in countries of production. Those who toiled in coffee fields could not often afford to drink the beverage, and the great improvements in roasting and brewing coffee throughout history occurred in consuming countries, not producing countries. This divide between the coffee producer and the coffee consumer remains intact today. Coffee is second only to crude oil as the most traded commodity in the world. The largest importers of coffee are the United States, Germany, France, and Italy; however, Finland and Norway lead the world in per capita consumption. As of 2020, worldwide coffee production hovered around 167 million bags of coffee (one bag equals approximately 132 lbs). Brazil remains the world’s largest producer of coffee, but Vietnam surpassed Colombia to become the second largest producer in the 1990s. Coffee is a big business. In the US alone consumers spent over $74 billion on coffee in 2015. Like other agricultural commodities, coffee is impacted by global warming and shifting weather patterns, creating a boom and bust cycle, with bust years lasting much longer than the boom periods. BACK TO TOP Growing, Harvesting, and Processing of the Coffee Bean While there are nearly 100 distinct species in the Coffea genus, only two of these species are of primary importance to the student of coffee: C. arabica and C. canephora . Coffea arabica produces the highest quality cup and today constitutes 75-80% of the world’s coffee harvest. Coffea canephora , the species of Robusta, constitutes about 20% of worldwide production. Virtually all quality specialty coffee is Arabica, whereas Robusta constitutes a significant proportion of the lower-grade commodity coffees. Robusta, a higher-yielding tree that produces coarse coffees of higher caffeine content, is indigenous to Uganda. Coffee farmers in India and Indonesia hailed the lowly plant as a savior in the early 20th century, when their Arabica trees lay decimated by a virulent, fungal leaf disease. A third species, Coffea liberica , was once heralded as a replacement for afflicted Arabica plants, but today the species produces a miniscule amount of commercial coffee. The shape, height, leaves, and seeds of different coffee trees vary greatly. The presence of caffeine, a natural insecticide, is not even a shared trait for all Coffea species: in 2007, scientists discovered Coffea charrieriana in Cameroon, a totally caffeine-free coffee plant. Common to all Coffea trees is a general preference for latitudes between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, although predilections for altitude and other climatic factors vary. All members of the Coffea genus are flowering plants that bear fruit. The fruit, of course, contains the seed, or coffee bean. Most coffee cherries have two seeds; however, some varieties only contain one: a peaberry. Some suggest that peaberry coffee has a more concentrated flavor; whether or not this is the case, peaberries do tend to roast more evenly, as the single bean has a more rounded shape. Coffee growers face many of the same challenges as vineyard managers; temperature, exposure, and elevation are equally important on the coffee farm as in the vineyard. Arabica, the most important coffee species in terms of quantity and quality, prefers an average annual temperature of 59-75° F (15-24° C) and grows best at altitudes of 3000 to 6000 ft. above sea level. The coffee tree cannot endure frost or freezing temperatures, and it requires plentiful rainfall—60 inches annually, at the minimum. Although coffee grows in tropical areas, intense heat does have a deleterious effect on the beans: it shortens the maturation period of fruit on the tree, and erodes complexity and acidity in the cup. Thus, high altitudes assume greater importance closer to the equator, as elevation can mitigate negative effects from both heat and humidity. In subtropical areas, on the other hand, Arabica can grow successfully at altitudes as low as 1800 ft. In addition to mountainside cultivation, coffee farmers may employ shade trees like banana palms to limit heat. Shade-grown coffee, which supporters claim is a return to tradition, is not only environmentally friendly—the taller trees preserve habitat for migratory birds and ease the drawbacks of monoculture—but it also may be of superior quality, as the fruit is protected from scorching. Heat and humidity are also harbingers of insects and disease, to which the C. arabica plant is extremely susceptible. As such, it is the subject of many plant-breeding experiments, but the various Arabica-Robusta hybrids cultivated for hardiness are usually about as interesting in the cup as European-American grape hybrids are in the wine glass. In the Northern Hemisphere, peak harvest times usually fall between December and March, whereas Southern Hemisphere peak harvests occur between May and September. The Arabica tree will not produce a viable crop of cherries until its fourth or fifth year; in contrast, the more vigorous Robusta can provide a commercial crop as early as its second year. Yields for the various species and varieties of commercial coffee plants range between three and twelve tons per hectare, with the better quality Arabica beans falling at the lower end of the spectrum. One hundred Arabica trees may only produce one bag (132 lbs.) of green coffee beans, a low yield further exacerbated by the roasting process, which subtracts additional weight from the bean. The growing season for Arabica, and for coffee in general, is much longer than that of the vine. Only fully ripe, red coffee cherries will yield fully developed beans, and up to 9 months may elapse between flowering and harvest for Arabica coffee trees. Some coffee-growing countries, such as Colombia or Kenya, experience two harvests per year: a main crop and a smaller secondary “fly-crop.” In coffee’s preferred climates, rain is essential from flowering through the growing season, although a short dry spell ideally coincides with the harvest. The frequent heavy rains create uneven flowering and maturation periods. The uneven maturation of the coffee cherries extends the harvest over several months, as workers must selectively pick only the ripe red cherries, leaving the yellow and green berries to hang longer on the tree. Selective picking may be accomplished by means of a comb—with which workers “rake” the trees, shaking loose only the ripe cherries—by mechanical harvesting, or by hand. The best estates selectively pick by hand, and may make three or more passes through the farm. Estates that grow commodity, Robusta, or other low-quality coffees generally “strip pick” the entire crop at once, either by hand or by machine. The latter method is likely to produce unripe and off-flavors in the cup. World Coffee Harvests by Month After the harvest, the beans must be separated from the pulp of the oval-shaped fruit and dried prior to shipping. The twin seeds of the coffee bean are covered in a gossamer seed coat (the silverskin) and separated from the pulp by a parchment-like layer (the endocarp, or pergamino). A gummy substance, mucilage, covers the endocarp. The mucilage and the endocarp must be removed prior to export. There are three principal methods of processing beans, and each method impacts the bean’s final flavor profile. Dry Method: The dry method is the oldest and most traditional method of processing coffee beans, but many critics believe it produces lower quality coffee. In the dry or "natural" method, whole coffee cherries are spread across a surface, such as concrete patios or raised mesh nets, to dry in the sun. Up to four weeks may elapse before the cherry reaches the requisite maximum 12.5% moisture content, and the bean is removed. Workers then clean the dried beans, removing any residual mucilage or parchment. Traditionally, the entire drying process occurs in the sun, although large modern plantations may also employ mechanical drying means. Dry processing may lead to uneven drying, with fungal problems and unwanted fermentations occurring, but in the right conditions it can produce coffees of rich sweetness, full body, viscosity, and earth tones. It is the method of choice in areas of water shortages. Brazil and Ethiopia are major exporters of dry-processed coffee. Wet Method: Washed (wet method) coffees are often the cleanest, brightest and most uniform in taste. In the method, the pulp is removed from the beans immediately after harvest, and the beans are “fermented” to eliminate the remaining mucilage. Workers load the beans into large tanks of water, where they reside for a period of one or two days. While submerged, natural yeasts ferment sugars in the mucilage, loosening the bean. If the beans are allowed to ferment for too long, the resulting coffees will show acetic notes, so workers must monitor the process carefully. Once the remaining layers of mucilage dislodge, the beans are washed in fresh water and dried by either sunlight or mechanical means. Prior to export, the coffee is cleaned and cured to remove the parchment layer. In humid climates, where dry processing may be uneven, coffee farms often opt for the wet method, but it is drastically more expensive and it produces significant wastewater. Semi-Washed Method: Also known as pulped natural, this method combines aspects of both the wet and dry processing techniques, and eliminates some of the gratuitous water waste inherent in the wet method. Semi-washed coffee beans are separated from the cherry immediately, but workers then dry the beans for a short period of time, rather than allowing them to ferment in water. The semi-dried beans are generally washed to remove the mucilage, and then dried again to remove the parchment layer. The technique is popular in Indonesia and it is gaining ground in Brazil. For high quality coffee production, workers sort the processed, dried beans to remove defective specimens—one defective bean can taint an entire pot of coffee—and they may polish the beans to remove any remaining silverskin. Finally, green coffee is subject to a period of storage prior to export. Some regions, such as Java, continue to store beans for a year or more before shipping, but many experts now argue that this does not improve the quality of the bean. Coffee-producing countries often store and ship beans in bags of jute or burlap; during storage and transit handlers must exercise care, as temperature, humidity, and other nearby aromas can affect the beans. Coffee beans, like a sponge, can easily pick up other aromas or off-flavors, and humidity may lead the beans to ferment. Historically, Indian coffees actually gained flavor in transit: shipped alongside Indian spices, the beans absorbed some of these perfumed tones and displayed them in the cup. A Note on Decaffeination: After processing and before export, beans may be decaffeinated. The Swiss Water Method is the currently preferred means of decaffeination as the process relies only on hot water, charcoal filters and steam to remove 99.9% of the bean’s caffeine. Other modern processes utilize carbon dioxide, ethyl acetate, and methylene chloride as solvents. The original, discontinued means of decaffeinating coffee, patented in Germany in 1906, utilized the toxic petrochemical benzene. Unfortunately, any means of filtering coffee to remove caffeine also extracts some of the essential oils, and thus a component of the bean’s character is sacrificed. However, the current technologies for decaffeination are a great improvement over the old chemical processes, and drinkers of decaf coffee today can savor a pretty good cup of joe. BACK TO TOP The Roasting Process In the past, coffee roasting took place in the home, over the stove—a finicky, often imperfect process that is regaining popularity among coffee aficionados who want to supervise the entire process. Most, however, now rely on a professional roaster to unlock the aromatic potential of the bean through heat. Roasting coffee softens the bean and gives it flavor through the work of Maillard reactions, the caramelization of sugars, the oxidation of oils within the bean, and volatilization of aromas. Typically, coffee beans roast inside a drum roaster, an old technology that rotates the beans while heating them to achieve an even roast. Drum roaster models may be small enough to fit on a countertop, or large enough to satisfy the needs of a commodity coffee producer. Most micro-roasting machines used by modern specialty coffee roasters, such as the vintage German Probat models favored by Blue Bottle in San Francisco, Stumptown in Portland and Intelligentsia in Chicago, are drum style roasters. A roaster will heat green coffee beans to a final temperature between 380°-480° F, depending on the desired darkness of the roast. The initial temperature of the drum roaster is not usually set higher than 425° F, as higher temperatures would scorch the beans and result in uneven roasting, and the level of heat quickly drops when the raw beans enter the drum. For the first six or seven minutes, the beans absorb heat and shrivel as they lose all remaining moisture. Color changes from a green-grey to a light yellow-brown as the beans reach 220° F. At 350° to 370° F, the beans begin to give off heat, swell in size, and turn pale brown in color. The browning results from caramelization of sugars and the beginning of Maillard reactions, which create hundreds of new aromatic compounds in the bean. Approximately ten minutes into the roast, pyrolysis, or “First Crack,” occurs. At this point, the temperature of the bean is between 400° and 420° F. Prior to First Crack, the evaporating moisture inside the bean cannot escape, and pressure builds. At First Crack, heralded by an audible pop, the bean ruptures and steam rushes out. From this point forward, oil begins to move toward the surface of the bean: the longer the beans roast, the glossier they will appear, as droplets of oil emerge and begin to coat each bean’s exterior. Carbon dioxide gas forms within the bean, and builds up after the First Crack just as steam pressure did beforehand. If the beans continue to roast, they will undergo a “Second Crack,” as the gas finally escapes with audible warning. Second Crack begins to occur at approximately 450° F, but some roasters choose not to allow beans to reach this stage, as the roast flavor at Second Crack may begin to dominate the inherent flavor of the bean. The character of coffee is thus derived from both the origin of the bean and the degree of roast. If the roast is too dark, the flavors of toast, smoke, and char will often outweigh the more subtle flavors conveyed by the bean’s origin. On the other hand, if the roast is too light the coffee will show overly green and vegetal characteristics, unripe acidity, and watery body. Darker roasts produce coffees of lower acidity, fuller body, and more pronounced sweetness. They may also show unappealing bitterness. Many modern artisan roasters choose lighter roast treatments for their beans in an effort to preserve brightness and inherent character, but many American coffee drinkers still prefer the full-bodied, darker roasts popularized by Starbucks. Some roasters may subject all beans, regardless of origin, to the same roast profile, whereas others try to match roast profiles to each bean. The purpose of the bean may influence the roast as well: beans intended to produce espresso rather than drip coffee benefit from a darker roast, as a good espresso needs rich body and sweetness. In both Europe and America, baristas have developed names for different levels of roast; however, these roast profiles are subjective. French Roast, for instance, may indicate a lighter roast in Europe than it does in America. Some consider Italian Roasts to be darker than French Roasts; others presume just the opposite. The following list represents the major profiles and reflects common usage in America. Roast names are listed from lightest to darkest. Light Roasts Common Aromas of Light Roasts: flowers, citrus fruits, passion fruit, grass, hay Cinnamon Roast: Named for the color of the bean, which resembles cinnamon bark, this is the lightest roast available. Commodity coffees are often subject to cinnamon roast, as the beans lose less weight in the roasting process and the process itself consumes less fuel. Professionals may roast beans to this level when sampling, as the lighter aromas of the roast make defects in the beans much more apparent. Cinnamon Roasts do not reach First Crack, and the beans do not display any caramel tones. Sharp acidity and light body are hallmarks of the roast. New England Roast: Slightly darker than a Cinnamon Roast, the New England Roast does not reach First Crack. City Roast: The City Roast is heated to the conclusion of First Crack, yet roast character still does not interfere with varietal character. The beans are medium brown in color. Modern specialty roasters that emphasize coffees of single origin often prefer this level of roast. Medium Roasts Common Aromas of Medium Roasts: red and black fruits, chocolate, caramel Full City Roast: Coffee is heated to approximately 435°-445° F for the Full City Roast. A slight sheen of oil may appear on the surface of the beans, and the color is a medium dark brown. Full City coffee complements varietal character with the first bittersweet tones of the roast. Full City beans make good, if slightly acidic espresso. Vienna/Continental Roast: The Second Crack is well underway for beans roasted to this level. The color is a dark brown, with noticeable droplets of oil across the surface of the bean. Bittersweet and caramel notes are obvious. Some coffees perform well at this level of roast, but the hallmarks of origin are muted. Specialty coffee roasters may take beans intended for espresso to this point, but no further. Dark Roasts Common Aromas of Dark Roasts: smoke, walnut, ash, spice, grilled bread Italian and French Roasts: Beans heated to approximately 465°-475° F result in these two dark roasts. Roasters desiring a Vienna Roast must be watchful, as the beans can raise another ten degrees in temperature, blacken and become glossy with oil—the full French Roast—after about thirty seconds. This style of dark roast totally eclipses any remaining varietal character, and is best suited for coffee drinks that will be diluted with milk, as the intensity of the roast results in coffees that seem robust and fully flavored. The added sugar that often accompanies the drive-thru latte balances the incredible bitterness of the roast. Amusingly, Americans coined “French Roast” to convey sophistication, but the French just burned their beans to mask cheap Robusta. Spanish Roast: Lifeless, bitter coffees result from beans roasted to 480° F and beyond. Once the beans reach the preferred level of roast, it is essential that the roaster cool them quickly, lest they continue to cook. While water sprays may be used to quickly “quench” the coffee, smaller specialty roasters tend to use cool air instead, as water will seep into the beans and dilute their flavor. At this stage, the lifespan of the coffee has been reduced considerably: if the coffee is quenched by air rather than water, its shelf life will hover around three to four weeks. The shelf life for water-quenched coffees is half that of air-quenched beans. In addition to its already short shelf life, coffee is not at its best immediately after it exits the roaster, either. De-gassing, a process that allows a release of carbon dioxide remaining in the bean, is essential to the articulation of the bean’s true aromas. Lightly roasted coffee should de-gas for at least a day, whereas darker roasts may require a week or more. One-way valve packages, which allow carbon dioxide to escape the container without the ingress of air, are the best means of preserving coffee prior to brewing. Even when packaged in a one-way valve bag and flushed with nitrogen to remove air, the character of a good bean will degrade after three months at most—supermarket “use by” dates are often far more optimistic. Once the package is opened, roasted beans show their best over a period of days rather than weeks. Scott Rao, author of The Professional Barista’s Handbook , suggests that beans can retain freshness over long periods of time through freezing; other coffee experts argue that freezing creates off-flavors, or that it should only be used as a last resort. BACK TO TOP Grinding and Brewing Coffee Grinding coffee allows a greater surface area of the bean (coffee solids) to come into contact with the extracting liquid (water). One can achieve a high level of extraction by keeping the water in lengthy contact with the coffee solids, or by finely grinding the solids to increase the surface area in contact with the liquid. If brewed for too long, however, too many coffee solids will result in a bitter extraction. Thus, different types of brewing equipment require different levels of grind: brewing devices with shorter extraction times, such as an espresso machine, require a finer grind than those with longer extraction times, such as a French Press. The coffee grind must be both fresh and uniform; coffee cannot keep in ground form without rapidly losing freshness, and uneven particles will simultaneously promote over- and under-extraction, leading to both excessive bitterness and weak flavors in the cup. Good burr mill grinders are excellent for grinding coffee, as the adjustable metal burrs can produce an even grind across a range of granularity, from pulverized to course. The grinder is often the most overlooked piece of equipment for new coffee enthusiasts, and a poor grind can spell disaster for even the best beans, brewed in the most spectacular machine. When preparing to brew, the quality of water—the vehicle for the taste, aroma, and texture of coffee—should not be overlooked. Unfiltered water straight from the tap can contribute off-flavors to coffee, and distilled water is not a good option either, as the water lacks any interesting mineral component. It should be neither too hard nor too soft, and neutral in pH. Ultimately, if the water does not taste good enough to drink, then it will diminish the quality of coffee. The ratio of water to coffee must be precise, as too much water and too little coffee results in over-extraction, and too little water and too much coffee results in under-extraction. Finally, the temperature of water is critical: hot water makes a better solvent of coffee solids. Brewing should commence when the water is between 195° and 204° F, depending on the method. Coffee is usually around 180° F when it reaches the guest, but it will show best when it cools to approximately 140° F. During the brewing process, the grounds are exposed to hot water in order to produce a beverage that is approximately 1%-2% soluble and insoluble materials extracted from the grind, and 98%-99% water. Soluble materials include coffee solids and gases dissolved in the liquid, whereas insoluble materials encompass coffee solids and oils that are held in suspension or in an emulsion—too large to dissolve, yet small enough to pass through a metal filter. These insoluble solids and oils, known as brew colloids, give brewed coffee its mouthfeel and texture. The soluble solids and gases, on the other hand, affect taste and volatize as fragrant aromas. When brewing coffee, one must consider the type of filter and the attributes desired in the cup: paper filters trap insoluble coffee oils, lessening texture while clarifying and polishing the brew, while metal filters and French presses retain both oils and sediment. All drip coffee machines require a filter, as does the Aeropress, a fantastic device for making single cups of full-bodied and evenly extracted coffees. French Presses (plunger pots), old-fashioned percolator pots, Neapolitan Flip/Drip machines, Moka Pots, and vacuum brewers do not use filters. In restaurants, drip or French Press devices are generally preferred for coffee service. One may produce drip coffees manually with low-tech devices like the Hario V60 filtercone or the Chemex pot. The filtercone, a conical funnel-like device that allows a barista to brew a single cup, is one of the best methods for brewing coffee with a paper filter, as it ensures freshness, gives the barista complete control over the extraction, and showcases the lighter roasts favored by many of today’s specialty coffee roasters. To produce a single cup with a filtercone, the barista first boils an appropriate amount of water, and places a conical paper filter in the filtercone. The filter must be rinsed in order to remove any paper fibers and off-tastes. The barista places a pre-heated mug under the filtercone, and precisely measures the amount of grind to place in the filter. Once the water has boiled and cooled slightly, a small amount of water is added to the filter to “bloom” the coffee. Wetting the grounds, or “blooming”, allows a final de-gassing—the coffee’s freshness is indicated by the formation of a few gas bubbles in the grounds. The remainder of the water may be added in two large pours, or in one long, slow pour. Opinions differ as to whether or not to agitate the grind by stirring during the extraction process. If the process is managed with precision and care, the result is an evenly extracted and clearly aromatic cup. Automatic drip machines, in comparison, offer less control over the brewing process. Variations in water temperature and speed of drip can create extraction problems, especially in lower-end machines. Burner plates, thankfully, are becoming a thing of the past for automatic drip machines as manufacturers move to thermal carafes to insulate temperature, but freshness is still a concern. Even if an insulated carafe can retain heat for a period of hours, coffee loses much of its aromatic interest and develops sourness 30 minutes to one hour after brewing. Good automatic drip machines with thermal carafes may suffice for high-volume restaurants, but coffee-loving guests of serious fine dining restaurants may expect either individually prepared manual drip coffees or a French Press. The French Press is a simple device that produces stunningly rich coffees while offering restaurants a stylish final step of service. For French Press coffees, coarsely ground beans and a small amount of hot water are added to an individual, pre-heated plunger pot to bloom the coffee. The barista then fills the pot, and stirs the grind and water together to maintain an even extraction. After a pre-determined time—usually about four minutes—the barista again stirs the grounds and water to break up the crust, and then presses down the plunger, which pushes most of the coarse grind to the bottom of the pot. The barista may now pour the coffee. This produces one of the most full-bodied and complete coffees, but the texture may be overly oily and viscous for some guests. There will inevitably be some sediment at the bottom of the cup. BACK TO TOP Espresso: "Spur of the Moment" In 1884, a man from Turin named Angelo Moriondo invented a steam-operated pressure brewer that forced hot water through grounds in order to quickly produce coffee. However, history often credits the Milanese Luigi Bezzera with the invention of the espresso machine—his “Tipo Gigante,” in 1901. In 1905, La Pavoni, a legendary maker of Italian espresso machines, purchased Bezzera’s patent, and by the 1930s cafés throughout Europe could produce 1000 cups of espresso an hour from beautiful, ornate machines that resembled works of art as much as workhorses of coffee. In 1933, Francesco Illy founded “illycaffè” in Trieste, now a household name in espresso throughout Europe. In the late 1940s, Antonio Gaggia revolutionized the making of espresso with his piston-driven “Classica,” a new machine that operated by water pressure rather than steam pressure. Regulated by spring-loaded lever, the water flow on these new machines exerted more pressure than steam—eight to ten bars of pressure rather than three—and did not scald the coffee as the earlier steam-driven models did. With higher pressure, these new models created fuller-bodied, richly textured espresso in less time, and produced the first true crema —a hazel-colored mousse that covered the surface of the espresso. The only remaining purpose for steam on Gaggia’s machine was to froth milk. With the 1961 release of Faema’s E-61 machine, semi-automatic motor-driven pump machines began to replace the manual lever-operated models in commercial settings. The semi-automatic machine is still common today, as they allow the user to start and stop the water flow with the push of a button. Fully automatic machines followed, allowing the user to produce shots of espresso through pre-set brew cycles. Such models sacrifice precision for ease. Today, many of the best baristas are returning to manual piston machines, and embracing the high level of skill and experience required for successful operation. Semi-automatic machines may be the best choice for restaurants, as baristas in restaurants often have less training and more distractions. Good espresso, unlike good drip coffee, is expensive to produce, and most coffeehouses and restaurants produce lousy espresso. Even in Italy, the birthplace of the style, one is more likely to get bad espresso than good. A well-made shot of espresso is concentrated, rich with silky texture, naturally sweet with a hint of bitterness, tangy but not unbalanced by acidity. Baristas favor medium to dark roasts for espresso as they emphasize sweetness and restrain acidity—the latter can seem shocking in such a concentrated dose. Despite the boldness of the liquid, a single shot of espresso contains only about one-third the caffeine of a typical cup of coffee. The grind for espresso must be fine and uniform, but not totally pulverized. To begin, a barista fills the portafilter—the handled device through which the espresso will pour—with a precisely measured amount of grind. This is called dosing. The barista must be careful to evenly distribute the grind in the portafilter: if the grinder’s dispenser is operated by lever, this is best accomplished by short pulls to release small amounts of grind, rather than by dumping all of the grounds in at once. Once the portafilter contains the correct amount of grind for the shot, the barista should “groom” the dose by hand, ensuring an even distribution of grounds across the surface. Uneven grind creates channels for the water, and results in inconsistent flow rates, over-extraction of some grounds and under-extraction of others. After grooming, the shot is tamped to compress the dose and keep the distribution even. Next, the barista locks the portafilter into the espresso machine’s group head, and produces the shot manually—if a lever machine is used—or automatically with the press of a button. Water pushes through the dose at 185°-204° F, depending on the machine, and flows slowly but steadily out of the bottom of the portafilter and into the cup. The espresso should flow in a manner similar to melted chocolate. If it flows too fast and looks watery, the grinder should be adjusted to a finer setting; if it drips rather than oozes from the portafilter, then the grind should be coarser. The entire brewing process should last between 20 and 35 seconds, depending on the size and brewing ratio of espresso desired. In Italy, a normale is a standard espresso shot of approximately 30 ml, produced with a dose of 7 grams. A ristretto is a smaller shot produced with a higher ratio of grounds to water, and a lungo is a larger shot produced with a lower ratio of grounds to water. All three styles may be produced as single, double, or triple shot drinks. Today, the normale is not the norm: good coffee shops in America routinely produce a standard 30 ml espresso shot with as many as 18 grams of grind. A thick, vibrant crema should completely cover a good shot. Good crema is neither too burnt nor too light in color—signs of over- and under-extraction, respectively—nor does it dissipate too quickly, a sign of weak espresso. If crema does not appear at all, the beans are probably not fresh. With a well-made shot of espresso, one can sip or gulp it down immediately, add a touch of grappa to make a caffè correcto , or use it as the building block for a variety of drinks made with steamed milk. One can make a cappuccino, a latte, a macchiato, and many other drinks by adding steamed milk or foam to the espresso shot. Flavored renditions abound. Espresso machines include a steam wand for steaming milk. The process that can be difficult at first, but it is really a matter of precision and technique rather than intuition or art. One should start with a clean steam wand, cold milk, and a pitcher not too much larger than the amount of milk to be frothed. The barista sets the tip of the wand just beneath the surface of the cold milk, and slowly turns the wand’s valve to the desired pressure—smaller amounts of milk require lower pressure; larger amounts of milk require higher pressure. Always keep a thermometer in the milk to monitor the temperature. Froth the milk while keeping the wand off-center at a slight angle, just below the surface of the liquid. Rotate the milk in a circular motion throughout the process. The aeration of the milk should produce a consistent sound as foam separates from the liquid below. Microfoam—a smooth froth without visible bubbles—is ideal for coffee drinks. By 100° F, it is difficult to produce additional foam, so the barista should fully submerge the wand into the milk at this point. The desired temperature of steamed milk is 125°-150° F, at which point the wand should be turned off, removed from the liquid, cleaned and purged by carefully spraying steam into a damp rag. Baristas may not unanimously agree on a final temperature for frothed milk, but the better specialty coffee shops set a maximum somewhere under 140° to retain the milk’s natural sweetness and flavor. A barista should immediately add frothed milk to a fresh espresso shot to create the desired style of drink, perhaps pouring it with a bit of skill and flair to create latte art. Baristas use fully aerated milk for cappuccinos, and moderately aerated milk for lattes. The best cappuccinos and lattes have a luxurious and uniform mouthfeel; they should be served and consumed quickly, before the texture separates. Both drinks traditionally include five to seven ounces of milk in addition to the espresso. A macchiato, in comparison, is an espresso “stained” by foamed milk: the added milk should, at most, be equal to the amount of espresso in the cup. BACK TO TOP The Taste of Coffee and Countries of Origin When evaluating coffee, one should judge body, aroma, flavor, and taste. Just as in wine, acidity is a key ingredient in coffee: low acid levels tend to make coffee taste flat and uninteresting. In fact, the coffee trade imitates many of the wine trade’s more successful conventions; coffee enthusiasts now speak about terroir, the origin of beans, varieties of coffee, and the impact that all of the above have on the cup. Coffee professionals engage in “cupping,” in which the aroma, taste and flavor profiles of many different coffees are evaluated at once—like wine professionals, the great coffee tasters swirl, sniff, slurp, and, yes, even spit the coffee as they progress. Old-fashioned coffee men may even wield a sterling silver spoon (silver absorbs heat) as a cupping instrument—a tool not dissimilar from the old sommelier’s tastevin . Tasters often cup coffees blind, and the widespread use of blind tasting as a means of objective criticism by coffee professionals stands in stark contrast to the arguments of certain wine professionals, who believe that the technique robs wines of context. In fact, it assures it, as the coffee industry is well aware. Following is a brief profile of each of the major countries of origin one might encounter in a specialty coffee shop. For information on characteristics of various coffee sub-varieties, click here. Brazil: Brazil has been the world’s largest producer of coffee beans since the late 19th century. Fazendas (coffee plantations) cover approximately 10,000 sq. miles, and are grouped primarily in the states of Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, São Paulo and Paraná. Whereas São Paulo and Paraná led production in the past, Minas Gerais now accounts for nearly 50% of the country’s production, and is exclusively dedicated to Arabica. North of Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo is the second largest producing state, but coffee farmers in the region typically grow Robusta for domestic consumption. Brazil wields enormous influence in the global trade of coffee, and the ebb and flow of its annual production has a great impact on the boom and bust cycle endemic to the coffee trade. Brazil is one of the few coffee producing countries that encounters frosts, which are deadly for the coffee tree. The 1975 Black Frost entirely wiped out Paraná’s coffee farms, triggering spikes in worldwide coffee prices that lasted for nearly two years. Traditionally, plantation workers in Brazil—first slaves, then poor European immigrants known as colonos —farm coffee without the benefit of shade trees. Dry processing is commonplace, although estates in Paraná today enjoy success with pulped natural processing. Despite the preponderance of Arabica, much of the coffee produced in Brazil is low-grade, grown at low altitudes, and characterized by low acidity. However, the natural sweetness and nuttiness of Brazilian coffee makes it a suitable candidate for espresso, and its body and richness complement the higher acidities of Central American coffees in a blend. The regions to watch for good Brazilian coffee are Sul de Minas, Cerrado de Minas, and Matas de Minas in the state of Minas Gerais; and Mogiana in the state of São Paulo. Colombia: Colombia is the world’s third largest coffee-producing country, and the nation has been synonymous with quality coffee in America since the debut of the famous Juan Valdez advertisements in 1960. Due to its equatorial location, Colombia experiences two harvests each year. Colombian coffee enjoys PDO status within EU member states. Unlike Brazil, smaller mountainside fincas produce the bulk of Colombian coffee, and the coffees are typically washed, rather than dry processed. Colombian coffees have a reputation for mildness, balance, and clean flavors; however, they can be neutral, overly uniform, and unexciting. All Colombian coffee is Arabica. Colombian coffee beans are often graded and labeled by size; thus, Excelso and Supremo indicate smaller and larger beans, respectively, and do not necessarily indicate a level of quality. High-altitude coffees grown in the southern regions of Nariño and Huila can be of exemplary quality. Costa Rica: Costa Rica, for many tasters, embodies the notion of balance. The coffees are sweet, fruity, and bright without being too acidic; and the country’s coffee generally retains even flavors as it cools. Some criticize Costa Rica’s balance as a lack of articulation, suggesting that its mildness may be uninteresting. Most growers plant Caturra, a cultivar developed from Bourbon cuttings in Brazil, and subject their beans to wet processing. Historically, Costa Rican coffee farms have been small and family-owned; however, many growers could not afford the machinery to process their own beans in such small-scale operations. Instead, they sent their beans to large beneficios , or coffee processors, who washed and dried the beans, shipping them under the umbrella of large brands. Today, the best sources for quality coffee are micro-mills: small farms that grow, process, and sell their own coffees. Tarrazu is Costa Rica’s most famous growing region. Guatemala: Coffee gradually replaced cochineal dye as Guatemala’s chief export in the latter 19th century. Just as farmers relegated the vine to the riverside slopes in Germany, so did the coffee tree migrate to Guatemala’s steeper mountainsides, areas locals considered worthless for other types of agriculture. The story of Guatemala is one of violent politics, and both coffee farmer and plantation owner have been swept up in the bloodshed of years past. Large fincas produce the majority of Guatemalan coffee, but the Guatemalan government does impose a minimum wage for coffee pickers, who are notoriously underpaid worldwide. At their best, Guatemalan coffees represent some of the most celebrated and complex single origin coffees available to US consumers. Smoky, creamy, chocolaty notes and bright acidity characterize the Guatemalan product. Bourbon is the standard variety, and beans are usually washed. Volcanic soils and hillside terraces are prevalent in Antigua and Cobán, Guatemala’s best regions for coffee. Workers must harvest the crop by hand. Other Countries of Central America: Honduran coffees are a relatively recent entry into the specialty coffee world, offering tropical, fruity flavors. El Salvador produces robust and full-bodied coffees, and Nicaraguan coffees can be extraordinarily versatile. It is difficult to generalize about Central American coffees as each country, as well as each individual growing region, offers a range of styles. One exceptional producer is Hacienda La Esmeralda in Panama. The farm produces Gesha, a variety of Arabica, and sells the beans for nearly $40/pound at auction. Tim Wendelboe, 2004 World Barista Champion and 2005 World Cup Tasting Champion, is a frequent purchaser at auction, describing the coffee as “one of the best I have ever tasted (with)…structured and elegant acidity, aromas of jasmine, bergamot, and citrus, and sweetness reminiscent of acacia honey.” In form, his description recalls Vouvray. Mexico: Mexico has recently emerged as a seller of specialty coffees, yet the country as a whole still struggles to produce a great crop. Good Mexican coffees are nutty and light-bodied. The states of Oaxaca and Chiapas, near the Guatemalan border, contain traditional coffee growing areas. In Mexico, Altura indicates mountain-grown coffees and suggests—but does not promise—superior quality. Caribbean: One can broadly characterize Caribbean coffees as soft, sweet, light and mild. One of the most famous coffees of the Caribbean is the rare and expensive Jamaican Blue Mountain, which can be stellar but is more frequently disappointing. Caribbean coffees are usually washed and grown at low altitudes. Hawaiian coffee is similar in style to Caribbean coffee. Kenya: Kenya is an outstanding source for washed Arabica, grown at elevations in excess of 4000 ft. near Mt. Kenya. The Kenyan coffee industry is thoroughly modern, and it enjoys substantial support for the Kenyan government. Kenyan coffee beans receive a grade according to size: from largest to smallest, they are lettered E, AA, AB, PB, C, E, TT, and T. PB indicates peaberries, and MB and ML indicate unwashed, low quality Mbuni coffees. Kenyan AA usually fetches the highest prices, and tasters complement the resulting coffees for their electric acidity, fruit and floral character. Ethiopia: As the birthplace of coffee, Ethiopia offers a wide variety of high quality Arabica coffees. From full-bodied, spicy and vinous dry-processed coffees to elegant, clean and citrusy washed examples, Ethiopian Arabica varies greatly from one farm to the next, and it can frustrate consumers with its inconsistency. Expertise is essential in selecting Ethiopian coffees. The major states of production are Sidamo and Harar. Roasters pay a premium for good washed coffees from the highlands of Yirga Cheffe, a subregion within Sidamo; and for the gamy, blueberry-toned, dry-processed Harar Mocha, a prized variety of Arabica. Indonesia: Indonesia includes the coffee producing islands of Java, Sumatra, Sulawesi (Celebes), Bali, and Timor, as well as the neighboring Papua New Guinea. Production is split between Robusta and Arabica. Coffees from the Indonesian islands are typically robust, full-bodied, earthy, and spicy; but they often lack acidity. Sumatra has eclipsed Java as the current source of Indonesia’s best coffees, but Sulawesi coffees may be more consistent. Indonesian coffees are usually semi-washed, and roasters have a tendency to veer toward the darker end of the spectrum with beans from the islands. One Indonesian coffee that should probably undergo a good amount of washing is the famed and incredibly expensive kopi luwak , a bean that is roasted for coffee only after it emerges from the other end of a civet cat’s digestive tract. India: Indian coffee is broadly similar to Indonesian coffees, displaying full body, lower acidity and spiced, rustic aromas; like Indonesia, there is a large amount of Robusta on India’s coffee farms. Traditional coffee growing areas include the state of Karnataka, formerly called Mysore. A Brief Word on Fair Trade In 1860, a Dutch author published Max Havelaar , a fierce literary critique leveled at widespread, unjust labor practices and government corruption in the Dutch-controlled island of Java. The mistreatment of the indigenous population and the production of coffee occurred in tandem. In 1988, a development agency in the Netherlands teamed with a group of coffee roasters to appropriate the name of the novel’s protagonist for the “Max Havelaar Quality Mark”—the world’s first Fair Trade Certification Mark. Today, Fair Trade certification appears on products in over fifty countries. In 2002, Fairtrade International debuted the current Certification Mark, bringing various international Fair Trade groups under a single global standard and image. The Fair Trade concept attempts to ensure coffee farmers a better wage and insulate them from coffee’s boom and bust cycle by establishing a stable, minimum price. Co-operatives produce Fair Trade coffee, and may democratically choose to improve education, healthcare, and other necessities of life with their profits. Fair Trade certification attempts to address the inequalities of life and wage for farmers, but it does not promise sustainability or imply organic farming. Many larger companies now feature Fair Trade coffees, including Starbucks. Today, this company is one of the world’s largest purchasers of Fair Trade-certified beans, yet the beans make up only a small percentage of the company’s overall roast. Note: Although GuildSomm believes that the modern sommelier should be acquainted with both coffee and tea, many examining bodies do not currently require knowledge of either subject for any level of examination. BACK TO TOPPreviewteacoffeehttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/163/central-and-southern-italyWed, 22 Apr 2026 15:29:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:cb883bf8-7135-4bdc-afb9-5271b7c39e3eGuildSomm AdminTable of Contents Tuscany (Toscana) Umbria Marches (Marche) Abruzzo Latium (Lazio) Molise Campania Apulia (Puglia) Basilicata Calabria Siciliy (Sicilia) Sardinia (Sardegna) BACK TO TOP Tuscany (Toscana) On the Tyrrhenian Coast of Italy, the region of Tuscany has become a byword for Italian culture. A famous artistic legacy and rich history match the natural beauty of the Tuscan countryside, unfolding in waves of golden and green hills that ebb and flow between the Apennine Mountains and the sea. Wine is deeply embedded in Tuscany’s cultural heritage—the famous medieval Florentine poet Dante Alighieri praised the Vernaccia of San Gimignano, and legislation delimiting the Chianti zone dates to 1716. The first DOC and DOCG zones to be authorized in Italy were Tuscan. Wine and commercial agriculture are big business in Tuscany, and the hills are a patchwork of olive tree groves, vineyards, and wheat fields—a natural evolution of the “promiscuous” agriculture that ancient Romans practiced, wherein these three staple crops of Tuscany were planted side by side in the same fields. In the past, Chianti was synonymous with Italian wine—and a reminder, not unfairly, of its troubled quality. Historically bottled in a fiasco due to the inferior quality of Italian glass, the squat, straw-covered Chianti bottles came to epitomize the rustic, cheap nature of Italian wine in the late 1960s, ‘70s, and ‘80s. Tuscany’s winemakers have responded with a surge in quality over the last quarter century, slashing vineyard yields and building on the successes of the “Super-Tuscan” trailblazers Marquis Mario Rocchetta, who released the first commercial vintage of Sassicaia in 1968, and his nephew Piero Antinori, whose Tignanello bottling soon followed. While the benchmark for quality has been raised significantly, it may be at the expense of typicity—the Bordeaux grapes and model of winemaking extend great influence over the modern Tuscan estate. Nonetheless, today Tuscany stands at the forefront of both quality and large-scale commercial winemaking in Italy, producing around 2.7 million hectoliters of wine annually, about 60% of which is at the DOC/DOCG level. With 11 DOCGs Tuscany trails only Piedmont and Veneto in the number of its DOCG zones. Although Tuscany as a whole enjoys a dry, Mediterranean climate, winters can be harsh and summers can be long and hot. A wide variation in mesoclimates is present throughout the region: Montalcino in the southern province of Siena is typically more arid while Montepulciano, further inland, displays a more seasonal, continental climate. The soil structure of the region is similarly diverse, respective to the width of the region and the changing altitudes of Tuscany’s sloped vineyards. The thin-skinned Sangiovese is the main red grape of Tuscany and is, alongside Nebbiolo and Aglianico, one of the great indigenous red grapes of Italy. Typically, Sangiovese wines are light in color, naturally high in acidity, firmly tannic, and medium- to full-bodied. Sour cherry notes and herbal undertones are common. When aged, Sangiovese traditionally spends time in large European—often Slavonian—casks, but modern wines are just as likely to be aged in new barriques, which infuse both flavor and texture into the wines. In appellations where blending is allowed, grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon or the local Colorino are sometimes used to add color and power to Sangiovese, whereas the Canaiolo grape historically softened Sangiovese’s hard attack. Sangiovese, Italy’s most planted red variety, is highly subject to permutation in the vineyard, and significant energy has been devoted to clonal research, such as the Consorzio Vino Chianti Classico’s “Chianti Classico 2000 Project,” which started in 1987. Disease-resistant clones have been developed through such studies, but clones are often selected for additional properties, like the development of thicker skins with a higher proportion of anthocyanins . Even previously isolated clones such as the Brunello clone of Montalcino or the Prugnolo Gentile clone of Montepulciano have given way to a number of derivatives as research continues to refine understanding of this variable grape. Sangiovese is the principal red grape in the following DOCGs: Chianti, Chianti Classico, Carmignano, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano, Morellino di Scansano, and Montecucco Sangiovese. It is the sole red grape allowed for Brunello di Montalcino DOCG. In addition to the native Colorino and Canaiolo Nero, the international grapes Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot wield influence in Tuscan wine production. While these two Bordeaux grapes can be added in minor proportions to the Chianti formula, they are of far more vital importance to DOC and IGT “Super-Tuscan” blends, ripening easily in the Tuscan climate and providing lushness and flesh to the skeleton of Sangiovese. Syrah is gaining momentum in Tuscany, but the white international grapes Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc capture less interest than their red counterparts. The neutral Trebbiano Toscano, Italy’s most planted white grape, is regularly encountered in the region alongside its common blending partner Malvasia, whereas the local white Vernaccia grape is more or less limited to the environs of San Gimignano. In the coastal vineyards of Maremma, the Mediterranean Vermentino shows great promise, and some producers are investing heavily in plantings of the grape. Overall, however, the majority of Tuscan vineyards are devoted to the production of red wines, and more than 85% of the wine made in Tuscany is red. The large Chianti DOCG is Tuscany’s most famous wine region and one of the first delimited zones in Europe. Although Chianti was not elevated to DOCG until 1984, the limits of the modern Chianti zone were established in 1932, and seven subzones were created for the region: Classico, Rùfina, Colli Fiorentini, Colli Senesi, Colline Pisane, Colli Aretini, and Montalbano. Another subzone, Montespertoli, was added in a 1997 decree. With the exception of Classico, Rùfina—dominated by the Frescobaldi firm—is usually regarded as the most consistent in quality. Frescobaldi and the highly regarded Fattoria Selvapiana are the only producers in the tiny Pomino DOC within Rùfina, an appellation for red and white wines that permits a higher percentage of international grapes than Chianti DOCG, as well as a range of varietal bottlings. Baron Bettino Ricasoli is credited with defining the classic blend of Chianti, developed after years of experimentation and outlined in an 1872 letter to Professor Cesare Studiati at the University of Pisa. Today, the general recipe for Chianti DOCG, updated in 1996, calls for 70 to 100% Sangiovese, although wines from the Colli Senesi subzone must contain a minimum 75% of the grape. The addition of the white grapes Trebbiano Toscano and Malvasia, a practice dating to the 1870s, is now optional rather than mandatory. Other red grapes of the region comprise the remainder of the blend, although the Cabernet grapes may not exceed a maximum of 15%. (Cabernet is restricted to 10% in the subzone Colli Senesi.) The traditional practice of governo —refermentation with the juice of dried grapes, to strengthen the wine and initiate malolactic fermentation—is legally permitted. This process must be indicated on labels as Governo all’uso Toscano , although most quality-minded producers avoid it. Chianti normale may be released on March 1 of the year following the harvest; however, the Florentine subzones of Rùfina, Montespertoli, and Colli Fiorentini require additional aging. With two years of aging, Chianti may be labeled riserva . Chianti superiore wines require an additional half-degree of alcohol and lowered vineyard yields. Chianti Classico , upgraded to DOCG alongside Chianti in 1984, is the heartland of the Chianti zone and consistently provides the best examples of wine in the region. The Classico area contains the original Chianti zone delimited by Grand Duke Cosimo III de’ Medici in 1716, including the four original villages of Radda, Gaiole, Castellina, and Greve—each of which later appended “in Chianti” to their names. Although the extremely varied nature of Tuscan soils is evident within Chianti Classico, Sandstone and Marl dominate the region. Macingo and Piestraforte are the major sandstone-driven soils while Albarese is the top Marl soil. Sangiovese comprises a minimum 80% of the Chianti Classico blend. Like Chianti DOCG, Chianti Classico DOCG wines may be pure varietal Sangiovese, or they may be blended with other red grapes of the region. As of the 2006 vintage, white grapes are no longer permitted in the wine. The minimum alcohol level for Chianti Classico is 12%—compared to 11.5% for Chianti DOCG—and the wines may not be released until October 1st of the year following harvest. Riserva wines must be aged for a minimum 24 months, with at least 3 months in bottle and a minimum alcohol level of 12.5%; Gran Selezione wines—a new category approved in 2014—must come from estate grown grapes and are required to be aged for at least 30 months prior to release, also with 3 months in bottle, and an even higher minimum alcohol level: 13%. As of 2021, Gran Selezione must contain at least 90% Sangiovese. While 2010 was technically the first vintage for Gran Selezione, consideration is given to wines from earlier vintages so long as they can provide documentation proving all requirements have been met. Barrique is often the wood vessel of choice for aging riserva Chianti Classico. Whereas Chianti enjoys a legacy dating back centuries, Brunello di Montalcino DOCG —the most powerful expression of Sangiovese in Tuscany—has only recently achieved its status as one of Italy’s most profound wines. History credits Clemente Santi of Tenuta Greppo’s Biondi-Santi with the invention of the Brunello style, as the producer was the first to isolate the Brunello clone and bottle it alone in 1865. Biondi-Santi’s reputation and the style were immortalized shortly thereafter, with the release of the Brunello Riserva 1888. However, production remained minute even through the 1970s, and only recently has Brunello truly captured the public imagination. The nearly square hill of Montalcino, which overlaps Chianti Senesi in the province of Siena, is in the southern reaches of Tuscany, and encompasses 24,000 hectares—although only around 5,000 acres are authorized and planted for Brunello. Brunello di Montalcino is produced from 100% Sangiovese Grosso (Brunello), and aged in cask for a minimum two years and bottle for an additional four months—six months for riserva . The wine may not be released until January 1st of the fifth year following harvest, or until the sixth year for riserva bottlings. Soil is varied in Montalcino, with galestro characterizing the higher-altitude vineyards. Clay is predominant in the warmer southern reaches of the zone, and fossilized marine deposits are scattered throughout Montalcino. Montalcino’s frazioni (suburbs, or sub-communes) of Sant Angelo in Colle, Castelnuovo Abate and Torrenieri provide distinctions in the corresponding wines, but the individual winemaking techniques of each producer are of greater importance for the determination of the final style. Brunello is stronger, with more alcohol, extract and tannin, than Chianti. It can be so hard and unforgiving as to be nearly unapproachable upon release, leading some producers—Casanova di Neri, Mastrojanni—toward small barrels and shorter macerations, in the hope of rounding and fleshing out the wine. Others, such as Biondi-Santi, Talenti, and Soldera, remain more traditional in their approach. A “junior” version of Brunello, Rosso di Montalcino DOC , is produced in the same delimited region from 100% Sangiovese. The wines must be aged for one year prior to release, although cask aging is not required. The Sant’Antimo DOC , created in 1996, provides Montalcino producers an outlet for “Super-Tuscan” wines. Any grape authorized in Tuscany may be utilized for Sant’Antimo DOC, and the wines may be either red or white. Finally, Moscadello di Montalcino DOC exists for white wines from the region, produced from the Moscadello (Moscato Bianco) grape. Moscadello wines are often sweet, and may be still or sparkling. To the east of Montalcino, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano DOCG is produced in Montepulciano and several surrounding communes. The zone shares with Brunello di Montalcino the distinction of being one of the first DOCGs in Italy, awarded in 1980. The wines include a minimum 70% Sangiovese (Prugnolo Gentile clone) and, as of 2010, a maximum 30% other varieties of Tuscany, including no more than 5% of white varieties. Vino Nobile di Montepulciano is aged for a minimum of two years, with at least one year in wood. Riserva wines are aged for at least three years. The wines tend to be less firm than Chianti and less aggressively tannic than Brunello, striking a softer balance. The coastal Morellino di Scansano DOCG , in the southern Maremma, achieved DOCG status in 2006 for red wines based on a minimum 85% Sangiovese. Riserva wines are aged for a minimum of two years. As a newer appellation—and a newer winegrowing region in general, as much of the southern Maremma was an inhospitable swamp until Mussolini drained it in the 1930s—the territory of Scansano benefits from the reputation of nearby Bolgheri in the northern Maremma and a corresponding increase in investment and interest throughout the region. The DOCG wines are, at the time of writing, still searching for their unique voice amid the myriad Sangiovese reds of Tuscany. The red wines of Carmignano , a low-altitude territory which overlaps Chianti Montalbano, are a minimum 50% Sangiovese. Historically, winemakers in the region have added Cabernet grapes to the native grape, and 10% to 20% of Cabernet Sauvignon and/or Cabernet Franc is required in the blend. Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot may be added to Sangiovese in higher proportions in the new DOCG Rosso della Val di Cornia . A former subzone, Suvereto , was elevated to DOCG status alongside the red wines of Val di Cornia in 2011. While the Sangiovese DOCG wines of Tuscany represent the region’s greatest homegrown noble wines, the explosion of the “ Super Tuscan” style in the last 40 years is responsible for invigorating international interest. Constrained by the DOCG regulations of the time, Marquis Mario Rocchetta’s Tenuta San Guido released the 1968 Sassicaia, a barrique-aged Cabernet blend from Bolgheri in the Northern Maremma, as vino da tavola . Antinori followed with the vino da tavola Tignanello 1971, a barrique-aged red whose proportion of Sangiovese was set with the 1982 vintage at 85%. These two wines signaled an upheaval in the region’s wines—the influence of Bordeaux loomed as Tuscany’s winemakers sought to add flesh and roundness to Sangiovese, or supplant the native Sangiovese with French grapes. More “Super-Tuscan” Bordeaux-style wines followed: Antinori’s Cabernet-based Solaia, the Bordeaux blend Ornellaia and the Merlot-based Masseto, and the 100% Cabernet Franc Paleo Rosso from Le Macchiole. In contrast to those focusing on International grape varieties, some Chianti-based producers also felt stymied by the Chianti DOCG’s mandated blend, and they embraced the vino da tavola revolution precisely to emphasize Sangiovese. San Felice's Vigorello, Montevertine’s Le Pergole Torte and Isole e Olena’s Cepparello were three of the first 100% Sangiovese “Super-Tuscan” wines, released as vino da tavola before Chianti regulations permitted pure varietal bottlings. Thus, a peculiar phenomenon was occurring in Tuscany by the mid-eighties—some of the region’s most prized bottles were simple vino da tavola . This dissatisfaction with the regimented DOC laws soon spread to other regions in Italy, and was a primary motivator for the creation of the IGT category in 1992. Many great “Super-Tuscan” wines are today released as IGT, under a nome di fantasia , or fantasy name. Others carry the appellation of Bolgheri, a region in the northern Maremma that received DOC status in 1994 for red wines (white and rosato wines had been authorized as early as 1983). Following recent adjustments to the DOC disciplinare , Bolgheri may produce pure varietal examples of Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Cabernet Franc. Red wines may also be Bordeaux-style blends, and even include Syrah and Sangiovese. Bolgheri Superiore wines are aged for a minimum two years (one year in oak barrels) and show a minimum alcohol of 12.5%. Vermentino is the leading grape for white Bolgheri wines, although varietal Sauvignon Blanc is also produced in the appellation. The Bolgheri DOC surrounds Sassicaia, which earned recognition as a legal subzone (Bolgheri Sassicaia) in 1983. In 2013, the Bolgheri Sassicaia DOC officially gained separate status as an appellation—a tribute to the producer's renown and the only true monopole DOC in all of Italy. And if the march toward DOCG continues despite recent EU reforms, Bolgheri Sassicaia DOC may just be a steppingstone. About 12 miles off the coast of Maremma is the isle of Elba, notably the site of the French Emperor Napoleon’s exile in 1814. In 2011, the Elba Aleatico Passito DOCG was finalized for sweet red passito wines made from the Aleatico grape on the island. Aleatico has been genetically linked to the Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains grape; possibly it is a red-skinned mutation. The only white wine in Tuscany to enjoy DOCG status is Vernaccia di San Gimignano : a crisp, pink grapefruit-tinged white wine produced on sandy, rock-strewn soils around the hilltop town of San Gimignano in the Siena province. While Elba Aleatico Passito is the only dessert wine to reach DOCG status, vin santo is a traditional dessert bottling in Tuscany, although the difficulty and time required in its production make it increasingly rare. Vin santo , or “holy wine,” is a high alcohol, almond- and honey-toned dried grape wine produced from Trebbiano and Malvasia grapes. Grechetto is sometimes authorized, and rosé versions called “Occhio di Pernice” are produced with a minimum of 50% Sangiovese added to the white grapes. The grapes are hung from rafters to dry for a specified time set by each DOC—the grapes are usually raisinated until December 1, at least. A period of slow fermentation and aging in caratelli barrels follows, for a period of between three and eight years, depending on the style. Chestnut wood is traditionally used, allowing rapid oxidation, although many modern producers have switched to oak. The barrels are never topped—alcohol is concentrated through evaporation and the wine gains its characteristic amber hue. The final style of vin santo may be dry or sweet, depending on the length of the appassimento process. Vin santo may be fortified, and labeled liquoroso . While many Tuscan DOCs allow the production of vin santo , the majority of exported wine is Vin Santo del Chianti DOC . A less sweet dessert, such as biscotti, is usually served with the wine at a Tuscan table. BACK TO TOP Umbria Umbria, one of Italy’s few landlocked regions, has a much less illustrious reputation for wine than Tuscany, its neighbor to the west. The small region lies in the shadow of the Apennines, its climate moderated by maritime winds funneling from the Tyrrhenian Sea. The region—slow to develop and rustic in comparison to its neighbors—ironically provided the noted physicist Enrico Fermi with a wine to toast the first successful nuclear reaction of the Manhattan Project: Orvieto. Orvieto DOC , a clean, light white wine produced from at least 60% Grechetto and Trebbiano Toscano (Procanico), is responsible for a majority of the region’s production. The wine suffers from overproduction and overexpansion of the DOC zone, although wines from the classico zone surrounding the medieval city of Orvieto itself can show mineral intensity and depth. Orvieto DOC wines are generally dry, although they may be sweet, and even botrytised. Within the territory of Orvieto, solid red wines are produced on the tuffeau soils of Lago di Corbara DOC . The most celebrated red wines of Umbria are the ageworthy Sagrantino di Montefalco DOCG and Torgiano Rosso Riserva DOCG . Sagrantino di Montefalco is produced from 100% Sagrantino; the resulting wines are naturally high in alcohol and tannin, and are aged for a minimum 37 months, including 12 months in wood for the dry wines. The secco style of Sagrantino di Montefalco is a recent development; historically the wines were produced as passito . The DOCG allows both styles. Marco Caprai and Paolo Bea demonstrate the high quality of the wine, in respectively modern and traditional fashion. Torgiano Rosso Riserva DOCG is produced from 70-100% Sangiovese, with a minimum three years of aging prior to release—including six months in bottle. Standard Torgiano bottlings—varietal wines, Rosso, Bianco, spumante —are simply DOC. The Lungarotti family, Torgiano’s largest producer, was instrumental in the elevation of Torgiano Rosso Riserva to DOCG in 1990. BACK TO TOP Marche The Marches, a region to the east of Umbria on the Adriatic Coast, doubled its number of DOCG wines in 2009 with the addition of Verdicchio di Matelica Riserva DOCG and Castelli di Jesi Verdicchio Riserva DOCG . Verdicchio, the most important grape of the Marches, has the capacity to produce ageworthy, focused, green-tinged white wines with a distinctive lemony, stony character and a bitter almond tang. The late-ripening Verdicchio grape is naturally high in acidity, making it suitable for spumante production—and the occasional late harvest wine—at the DOC level. The coastal Castelli di Jesi and the more inland and higher-altitude Matelica are the best zones for the wines, with normale versions released as DOC and the riserva versions, aged for a minimum of eighteen months, released as DOCG. The Matelica wines are often sharper, whereas Castelli di Jesi provides wines of a fuller, rounder character. Red wines are produced as Conero Rosso Riserva DOCG and Vernaccia di Serrapetrona DOCG . Conero Rosso Riserva is produced just south of the regional capital Ancona, and the wines are comprised of a minimum 85% Montepulciano and a maximum 15% Sangiovese. It is matured for two years prior to release, and many producers rely on a percentage of new barriques for aging rather than the traditional old botti. Surrounding the coastal Conero zone is the larger Rosso Piceno DOC, which typically offers lighter Sangiovese and Montepulciano blends. The Vernaccia grape in Marches is actually a red grape—“Vernaccia” probably derives from the Latin vernaculus (“indigenous”) and is used for a number of distinct varieties in Italy. Vernaccia di Serrapetrona DOCG wines are sparkling reds, either dry or sweet, made from a percentage of passito grapes (40%). Italian officials approved the Offida DOCG in 2011, which covers red wines produced from Montepulciano and white varietal wines produced from Pecorino and Passerina. While not at DOCG level, aromatically complex wines are being fashioned from the obscure Lacrima grape as Lacrima di Morro d’Alba DOC , and may excite interest with their heady, floral, Pinot Noir-like character in the future. BACK TO TOP Abruzzo Top Vintages from Abruzzo's benchmark producer, Emidio Pepe. Immediately south of the Marches on the Adriatic Coast, Abruzzo is a huge contributor to Italy’s lower quality wine lake. The Montepulciano grape is the region’s most cultivated variety and the second most planted red grape in Italy. It easily produces ripe, tannic and full-bodied wines of deep color. Rosato versions of the wine are called Cerasuolo in reference to the cherry red hue of the rosés. Much of the wine is forgettable, although Montepulciano d’Abruzzo DOC can be a source of good value, as prices reflect the surplus of wine and the lack of demand. While efforts to raise the region’s prestige culminated in the 2003 evolution of Colline Teramane Montepulciano d’Abruzzo DOCG —essentially the classico zone of Montepulciano d’Abruzzo—the region’s two premier producers, Edoardo Valentini and the naturalistic Emidio Pepe, release their reds simply as Montepulciano d’Abruzzo DOC. While Montepulciano d’Abruzzo requires 85% Montepulciano, the DOCG raises the minimum to 90%, and stipulates one year of aging, including two months in bottle. Riserva wines are aged for a minimum three years. Trebbiano d’Abruzzo DOC wines account for most of the region’s white wines, and may be produced from either Trebbiano Toscano or the distinct Trebbiano Abruzzese, which is also known, perhaps mistakenly, as Bombino. BACK TO TOP Latium (Lazio) Lazio, south of Tuscany and Umbria on the Tyrrhenian Coast, is, with its capital at Rome, the political center of Italy and the third most populous Italian region. Much of the region’s overwhelmingly white wine is consumed locally, in the cafes and trattorias of the capital city. Trebbiano Toscano and Malvasia are the principal grapes of the region, and are produced in mass quantities as Castelli Romani DOC , a broad zone that encompasses several smaller appellations. Among the subzones of the Castelli Romani is the Frascati DOC , a commune near Rome whose white still and sparkling wines are principally composed of Malvasia. In 2011 Italian authorities awarded Frascati Superiore and Cannellino di Frascati , a late harvest style, the increasingly dubious honor of DOCG status. The Trebbiano-based white wines of Est! Est!! Est!!! di Montefiascone DOC are routinely cited for their “creative” back-story, which is retold ad nauseam elsewhere, rather than their inherent quality. Red wines make up only 15% of the region’s typical production. The indigenous Cesanese grape takes center stage in the rosso wines of Cesanese del Piglio , the first zone in Lazio to achieve DOCG status. The variety produces spicy, peppery wines with elevated acidity and moderate to high alcohol levels. Some of Lazio's best known red wines on the international stage emerge from the Falesco estate in Montefiascone near the Umbrian border, but Falesco's successes string from polished and plush examples of Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon, not Cesanese. BACK TO TOP Molise The small, mountainous region of Molise to the south of Abruzzo produces an equally small amount of wine. Most winemaking is handled by co-operatives, and less than 5% of the region’s production is at the DOC level. Only four DOCs exist in Molise: Biferno , Molise , Tintilia del Molise and Pentro di Isernia . Biferno DOC is the most prominent, producing reds and rosatos from a blend of Montepulciano and Aglianico, and white wines based on Trebbiano. BACK TO TOP Campania At the height of the Roman Empire in the first century CE, Falernian, a Campanian wine sourced from the slopes of Monte Massico, was among the most prominent wines of the ancient world—a position it would maintain well into the fourth century. Varo in 37 BCE praised the wine’s ageworthiness in a manual on farming, the author Petronius mentioned the wine in his first century work Satyricon , and the wine sold for four times the price of ordinary wine in Pompeii. The Falernian vintage of 121 BCE remained legendary for several hundred years. The wine at the time was sweet or dry, strong enough to be flammable, and probably produced from the Aminean grape, likely a Greek import known today as Greco. The coastal Massico region in northern Campania today builds on its ancient heritage with the steadily improving wines of the Falerno del Massico DOC . On the volcanic tuff soils of the lower mountain slopes, red wines are produced from Aglianico and Primitivo, and white varietal wines are produced from the fragrant Falanghina grape. Naples, the capital of Campania, is a World Heritage Site and the largest and most important city in Southern Italy; but the region itself, like much of the southern peninsula, reflects a growing disparity of immense poverty and natural beauty. The top tier of wines in Campania has taken a huge leap forward in the last two decades; however, less than 10% of the region’s wines are at DOC level. The ancient red varieties Aglianico and Piedirosso (“red feet”) and the white Falanghina, Greco, and Fiano comprise a majority of the Campanian DOC wines. The tannic, high-acid Aglianico shares a structural similarity with Sangiovese and Nebbiolo—although it displays a darker fruit profile—and has the capacity to produce the longest-lived and noblest red wines of Southern Italy. While tempered with the lighter Piedirosso in the velvety blends of Falerno del Massico DOC, Aglianico shines as a varietal wine in Taurasi DOCG and Aglianico del Taburno DOCG , a zone promoted to DOCG in 2011. Taurasi wines are produced in the inland area of Irpinia, in the province of Avellino—a region only a scant 40 miles from the center of the Aglianico del Vulture zone in Basilicata, the grape’s other famous expression. Taurasi wines must be aged a minimum of three years prior to release, with one year in wood. The aging requirement increases to four years—and eighteen months in wood—for riserva wines. Mastroberardino, Terredora and Feudi di San Gregorio exemplify the quality of wines in the region. The white DOCG wines of Campania are Greco di Tufo and Fiano di Avellino . The Fiano di Avellino DOCG wines are produced in a number of communes adjacent to the west of the Taurasi zone, from a minimum 85% of the full-bodied, assertive, resiny Fiano grape. Greco, a lighter but more intensely aromatic grape, is grown at higher altitudes to the immediate north of Fiano di Avellino, and comprises a minimum 85% of the Greco di Tufo DOCG wine. The acidic Coda di Volpe comprises the remainder. While not at DOCG level, Falanghina produces dry and sweet passito whites in the inland Falanghina del Sannio DOC . These Falanghina-based wines were formerly labeled under Sannio DOC , until it became its own DOC in 2011. Falanghina also excels in the panoramic coastal DOCs of Campi Flegrei and Costa d'Amalfi , where it is blended with the rare white Biancolella grape to produce a mellower and lusher style of wine. As a minor component, Falanghina provides an aromatic lift to the white wines of Vesuvio DOC , produced on the slopes of Mount Vesuvius just south of Campi Flegrei and Naples, but the Coda di Volpe and Verdeca grapes constitute the majority of the blend. Vesuvio, which may be white, rosato, red, sparkling, or fortified in style, may be labeled as Lacryma Christi del Vesuvio if it achieves a minimum 12% alcohol. Alongside Forastera, the Biancolella white grape produces more delicate varietal whites in the offshore Ischia DOC , in the Bay of Naples. More prevalent on the island are the reds based on Piedirosso and Guarnaccia, a thick-skinned indigenous variety also known as Tintore di Tramonti. BACK TO TOP Apulia (Puglia) Apulia, the heel of the boot of Italy, covers a lengthy expanse of coastland on the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. Apulia is the least mountainous region in Italy—characterized by broad plains and low hills, the coastal region’s terrain stands in sharp contrast to that of its rugged neighbors Basilicata and Molise. Apulia’s flat, fertile plains provide an easy outlet for high-yielding viticulture, and much of the region’s mass production was historically devoted to base wines destined for vermouth, bulk blending material, or distillate. The EU’s vine pull scheme has made an impact on Apulia, and the region’s production is considerably down from its peak in the 1980s. At the beginning of the 21st century, Apulia struggled to release more than 2% of its wines at the DOC level. However, quality production is on the rise, and Apulia now has over two dozen DOCs and four DOCGs (all awarded in 2011) devoted to quality production, though they still only comprise about 7% of total production. In northern Apulia, Castel del Monte is home to three DOCG zones. Castel del Monte Rosso Riserva DOCG requires a minimum of 65% of the aromatic and tannic red grape Nero (Uva) di Troia, while Castel del Monte Nero di Troia Riserva DOCG requires at least 90% of the grape. Castel del Monte Bombino Nero DOCG is dedicated exclusively to rosé wine. Castel del Monte DOC can be made from a range of grapes—both varietal and blended—and includes dry whites and sparkling wines from Bombino Bianco. Negroamaro, the most cultivated red grape in the region, is prized for its powerful structure and full body, and it is encountered as the major component of nearly every rosso and rosato DOC on the Salento peninsula. Salice Salentino DOC and Brindisi DOC are two of the more prominent appellations, and top quality Negroamaro may be blended with small amounts of Malvasia Nera or other red grapes, primarily to help stabilize color. The third major red grape of Apulia is Primitivo, which is genetically identical to Zinfandel and shares a softly tannic, syrupy character with its American twin. Varietal wines are produced in Primitivo di Manduria DOC , which sits to the west of Salice Salentino DOC on the Ionian Coast. With the advent of Primitivo di Manduria Dolce Naturale DOCG , DOC wines may no longer be fully sweet, but past styles ranged from secco to dolce . The DOCG wines have a minimum 50 grams per liter of residual sugar, and may be subject to the appassimento process. Of the lesser-known red grapes, Susumaniello can be excellent, with an elegant structure and medium body. White wines are produced to a lesser extent in Apulia. Verdeca is the standout white wine and is grown primarily in the Valle d'Itria in the center of the region. Wines labeled Fiano are often Fiano Minutolo, not related to the Campanian grape of the same name. In the far northeast, small areas of limestone soil and coastal influence can produce traditional method sparkling wines of surprising quality based on Bombino Bianco and Pinot Noir. BACK TO TOP Basilicata Basilicata, Italy’s third least populous region—only Molise and the Valle d’Aosta have a smaller population—is a mountainous, poor region producing little wine. Basilicata was long characterized by a sole DOC— Aglianico del Vulture —although the number of DOCs in the region has in recent years climbed to four. Aglianico del Vulture remains the region’s only real wine of note, and arguably one of the finest expressions of the thick-skinned Aglianico grape. In 2010, Aglianico del Vulture Superiore was upgraded to DOCG. As a DOCG wine, Aglianico must show a minimum alcohol content of 13.5% and undergo three years of aging, including one in wood. If aged for a minimum five years, including two in wood, the wine may be labeled riserva . Grown on the volcanic soils of the slopes of Mount Vulture, Aglianico can develop great complexity as it slowly ripens, with harvest occurring in late October or early November. DOC wines may be released in September during the year following harvest. The wines may be dry ( asciutto ) or off-dry ( abboccato ) and still or spumante , although dry, still interpretations represent the DOC’s most serious wines. BACK TO TOP Calabria Gaglioppo growing in Cirò. Calabria is the toe of the Italian boot; like its neighbors it is covered in mountains, dividing the region climatically between the hot Mediterranean coast and the more continental, higher-altitude interior. Famous throughout antiquity and the Middle Ages, most Calabrian wine today exists at the same high alcohol but low quality level that characterizes much southern Italian wine, although a few conscientious growers are increasingly bucking the trend of indifferent wine. Calabria's production is nearly double that of neighboring Basilicata. The chief red grape of Calabria is Gaglioppo, a thick-skinned grape encountered in the reds and rosatos of Cirò DOC , on the Ionian Coast. The Gaglioppo variety was long thought to be of Greek origin, and local legend ascribes the wines of Cirò as the beverage of ancient Olympians; however, it has more recently been genetically linked to Sangiovese. White plantings are dominated by Greco, but white grapes account for less than 10% of Calabrian wine—the best examples may be found in the DOC of Melissa . Greco di Bianco DOC principally produces sweet wines from the Greco grape, which is often partially dried prior to fermentation. Calabria contains the DOCG of Cirò Classico , which was established in 2025. This appellation highlights the high-quality Gaglioppo with a 90% minimum requirement for the variety . BACK TO TOP Sicily (Sicilia) Separated from Calabria by the narrow Strait of Messina, Sicily is one of Italy’s largest producers of wine, usually surpassed in volume only by Veneto. The island has a rich culinary history; however, the table wines of Sicily have long been nondescript. Marsala is the island’s most famous vinous product—a wine from the eponymous seaport on Sicily’s western edge, famously commercialized by the Englishman John Woodhouse in 1773, who first fortified the wine to ensure safe shipment to his home country. Marsala, which fed the British thirst for fortified wine (alongside Port, Sherry, and Madeira) in an era when taxes on the beloved claret of Bordeaux were raised to a trade-stifling level, suffered in the 20th century as a result of being essentially rebranded as a cooking wine. Marsala DOC , created in 1969, struggles to find a place in a crowded marketplace shifting away from fortified wines. Sicily, like the other regions of Southern Italy, produces very little wine at the DOC level. Viticulture on the island focused on productivity in the latter half of the 20th century, creating a glut of low quality bulk wines and grape concentrate to be shipped as a blending ingredients throughout Italy and France. However, a resurgent emphasis on lower yields and quality began to take shape in the last years of the century, championed by producers like Marco de Bartoli in Marsala, the larger-sized but quality oriented Planeta, and an increasing number of small producers. Sicily is well-suited to quality winemaking: arid Mediterranean heat is countered by altitude in the better vineyards, allowing large diurnal swings to even the ripening process, and beneficial hillside exposures are common on the mountainous island. While some of Sicily’s modern success can be attributed to IGT Terre Siciliane wines produced from international varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon or Syrah, the island has a wealth of indigenous grapes uniquely suited to its warm, dry climate. White grapes include the native Catarratto, Inzolia, Grecanico, Carricante, and Grillo. Zibibbo (Muscat of Alexandria) and the ubiquitous Malvasia are also commonly encountered in Sicily. Native red grapes include Nero d’Avola (Calabrese), Frappato, Perricone, Nerello Mascalese and Nerello Cappuccio. Vines on the slopes of Mount Etna. Catarratto is the island’s most heavily planted grape and the seventh most cultivated grape in Italy, despite being found only in the vineyards of western Sicily. The grape, utilized in Marsala blends and the Alcamo Bianco DOC table wines, churns out millions of hectoliters of juice destined for grape concentrate or distillation. Inzolia and Grillo are better alternatives for Marsala and table wines. Nerello Mascalese and Carricante are the dominant varieties of the Etna DOC rosso and bianco wines, respectively. The Etna DOC is in eastern Sicily, and the vines on the Mount Etna’s slopes benefit from well-drained volcanic soils—but viticulture in the shadow of an active volcano is a risky proposition. Nerello Mascalese also dominates the blends of Faro DOC on Sicily’s extreme northeastern coast, exemplified by the wines of Palari. Nero d’Avola, crowned with the recent DOCG Cerasuolo di Vittoria , is the island’s most planted red grape. Often likened in flavor to Syrah, Nero d’Avola is blended in Cerasuolo di Vittoria DOCG wines with the lighter, grapey Frappato in a ratio of 70-50% to 30-50%, resulting in vibrant, cherry-red (Cerasuolo) colored wines. Dessert styles have always been prominent in Sicily. Beyond the sweeter versions of Marsala, the island offers several notable dessert wines produced from the Zibibbo, Moscato Bianco, and Malvasia grapes. The exceedingly rare Moscato di Noto and Moscato di Siracusa DOCs, . with 88 hectares and 37 hectares respectively, are located to the east of Vittoria in southeastern Sicily and are based on Moscato Bianco, Off the northern coast of Sicily, the Malvasia delle Lipari DOC wines are produced in purely sweet, passito , and fortified styles, although production on the island is increasingly dominated by dry wines and released as Salina IGT. Zibibbo is fashioned into sweet Moscato di Pantelleria DOC and the superior Passito di Pantelleria on the volcanic island of Pantelleria, near the African Coast. In legend, the wine possessed such character as to dupe the Greek god Apollo into assuming that he was drinking ambrosia—a beverage, reserved for gods, that confers immortality upon the imbiber. BACK TO TOP Sardinia (Sardegna) South of Corsica, the island of Sardinia owes a great debt to Spanish grape varieties. Cannonau (Garnacha, or Grenache) and Carignano (Cariñena, or Carignan) are the dominant red varieties, and the island’s dominant white grape, Vermentino, is likely of Spanish origin. These grapes were likely introduced to the island during a period of general cultural assimilation, as the Spanish Kingdom of Aragon ruled Sardinia until the early 1700s, for a period of nearly 400 years. The island’s wines easily reach high alcohol levels in the dry, hot Mediterranean climate; some historic styles, such as the rare Malvasia di Bosa DOC and Vernaccia di Oristano DOC , may even be produced in an oxidative style reminiscent of Spanish sherries. Vermentino di Gallura is the island’s sole DOCG zone. At the extreme north end of Sardinia, Gallura is a hot, high-elevation zone with poor, rocky, granitic soils—a paramount requirement for keeping the Vermentino grape’s vigorous ambitions at bay. Here, Vermentino produces aromatic and rich wines and may see oak influence, although fresher styles are more common. To be labeled superiore , the wines must show a minimum 13% alcohol instead of the base 12% required for the DOCG. While Vermentino dominates white grape plantings in the northern reaches of Sardinia, Nuragus is more common in the south. The grape tends to produce tart, appley wines; the best versions are Nuragus di Cagliari DOC . Cannonau, the island’s premier red grape, is often rustic and spicy, with a fuller body than its color would indicate—premature oxidation is especially virulent in Sardinia’s Grenache. Cannonau di Sardegna DOC covers the entire island, and is divided into three subzones: Oliena, Jerzu, and Capo Ferrato. BACK TO TOP Updated June 2024Preview