https://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/en-USTelligent Community 13https://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/166/greece-and-eastern-europeMon, 08 Jun 2026 13:31:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:be262527-6dee-4f4a-815a-8be20e64bdb7Jonathan EichholzContents Greece Hungary Bulgaria Romania Slovenia and Croatia Czech Republic and Slovakia The Russian Federation Ukraine and Georgia Greece In its infancy, wine was produced in regions where the vine grew wild. From its origins in the Near East, cultivation of the grapevine spread to the Old Kingdom of Egypt, and, around 2500 BCE, the vine was brought, via trade, to the Minoan Bronze Age civilization of Crete. Despite Crete’s latitude, the island ’ s moderate climate proved suitable for the vine, and in viticulture the Minoans surpassed all their contemporaries. (They also developed indoor plumbing—clearly a civilization ahead of the times.) The practice was passed to their successors, the Mycenaeans, to other islands in the Aegean, and to the mainland of Greece. The Greeks spread cultivation of the vine throughout much of Europe. The first vineyards in France were in Massalia, a Greek colony at modern-day Marseilles, and Southern Italy’s modern varieties Greco and Aglianico may be Greek in origin. The Greeks took viticulture northward as well, to the banks of the Danube and the coastline of the Black Sea. Ultimately, the Greeks were responsible for not only spreading the vine geographically but also democratizing the consumption of wine. In ancient Egypt, wine was regarded as the sweat of the sun god Ra; the Greeks drank wine at religious and ceremonial events, but they also drank socially. As wine consumption in Greece spread to new social classes, additional vineyards were needed. The Romans carried the Greeks’ vines even farther, but the tradition of many modern-day European wine regions extends back to ancient Greece. While preeminent in the ancient world, Greek wines languished until a late 20th-century surge in interest and quality. Greece’s vinous reputation had long been rooted in r etsina, an aromatized wine flavored with Aleppo pine resin. Wine was transported through ancient Greece in amphorae, often sealed with pine resin to prevent spoilage, and over time the resulting flavor became an acquired taste. Some believe, however, that the resin was always added specifically for its flavor, as ancient Greek wine was often mixed with a variety of substances, including honey, seawater, and herbs. Today, retsina is generally produced as a white wine, from Savatiano grapes, and flavored with the addition of pine resin, rather than stored in resin-sealed casks. Per Greek law, it cannot be labeled with a vintage. Retsina is a traditional appellation protected by the EU (as a PGI) and is rarely encountered outside Greece, though the wine continues to shape perceptions of the Greek wine industry overall. For many years, Greece was thought of as a country producing lesser quality, oxidized wines, but a new generation of winemakers is striving to redefine Greek wine. Although larger producers, such as Boutari and Tsantali, continue to dominate the Greek wine industry, it is the newer, smaller producers who are generating excitement. With over 300 indigenous varieties in the country, the future for high-quality but uniquely Greek wines is bright. Greece first implemented wine laws in 1969 and 1970, with most of the country ’ s appellations established in 1971. Refined in the 1980s and overseen by the Greek Wine Institute, these appellation laws conform to EU standards and resemble the French model. There are two levels of PDO (Protected Designation of Origin) quality wine: Controlled Appellation of Origin, or Οίνοι Ονομασίας Προελεύσεως Eλεγχόμενης (AOC/OPE), a status reserved for traditional sweet wines; and Appellation of Superior Quality, or Οίνοι Ονομασίας Προελεύσεως Ανωτέρας Ποιότητος (AOSQ/OPAP). While these two separate categories might be found on labels, they are seen as archaic as most producers prefer the EU's PDO and PGi designations. PDO Wines of Greece will appear on current and future bottles of wines featuring a designation of origin, especially those destined for export. PDO wines may carry an aging designation. Réserve indicates a minimum one year of aging for white wines, with at least six months in barrel and three months in bottle, and a minimum two years of aging for red wines, with at least one year in barrel and six months in bottle. Grande Réserve requires a minimum two-year aging period for white wines, including at least one year in barrel and six months in bottle, and a minimum four-year aging period for red wines, including at least 18 months in barrel and 18 months in bottle. Below the PDO category are PGI (Protected Geographical Indication) wines, Varietal wines, and Table wines. The Varietal category comprises table wines that carry a vintage and variety on the label, whereas ordinary Table wines cannot; neither Varietal nor Table wines may list a geographical indication. The PGI category includes the Traditional Appellations (Ονομασία κατά Παράδοση) of Retsina and Verdea (an oxidative white wine produced on the island of Zakynthos, in the Ionian Sea), and integrates the wines of Greece’s former vin de pays category, Topikos Inos (Τοπικοί Οίνοι). The PGI zones are divided into regional, district, and area levels: PGI regions are equivalent to the major regions of Greece, such as Peloponnese and Crete, whereas PGI areas are so small they may only include a single estate. PGI districts correspond to the peripheral units of Greece, a form of political state that replaced prefectures during administrative reform in 2010. Cava indicates at least one year of aging for white and rosé PGI wines, and a minimum three years of aging for reds. White and rosé Cava wines spend at least six months in oak prior to bottling, and reds rest in barrel for at least one year. Palaiomenos se vareli may be added to the label of Cava, Réserve, or Grande Réserve wines to indicate oak aging beyond the required minimums. The Greek mainland includes the regions of Macedonia, Epirus, Peloponnese, Thessalia, Thrace, and Central Greece (Sterea Ellada). The Greek islands are broadly categorized into the Aegean and Ionian Islands. Although Thrace , in northeastern Greece, cannot claim any PDO appellations, neighboring Macedonia is home to some of Greece’s best dry red wines. In Macedonia’s PDO regions of Naoussa and Amynteo, red wines are produced solely from the firmly tannic red grape Xinomavro (“acid black”). In Goumenissa PDO, lighter Xinomavro wines are produced, requiring the addition of at least 20% Negoska. Naoussa PDO, established in 1971, is one of Greece’s most successful appellations and is the home of Boutari, one of Greece’s two largest producers and a major force in the modern rejuvenation of Greek winemaking. Amynteo is Greece’s coolest region and one of the few PDOs allowing the production of rosé wines; these may range from dry to semisweet, and be still or sparkling. A fourth PDO, Slopes of Meliton (Plagies Melitona), is a single appellation for Domaine Porto Carras, a trailblazing, ambitious Greek estate. Red PDO wines from the estate are blends of Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, and the native Limnio; white PDO wines are blends of the Greek varieties Assyrtiko, Athiri, and Roditis. Evangelos Gerovassiliou, the winemaker who launched Domaine Carras to international acclaim under the guidance of Émile Peynaud, nurtured the native white Malagousia grape from the brink of extinction and now produces varietal wines of high aromatic intensity from the grape at his own domaine in the PGI district of Thessaloniki, in central Macedonia. Moschofilero in Mantinia In Thessalia , south of Macedonia, Rapsani PDO includes four villages on the lower slopes of Mount Olympus. The appellation is the southernmost outpost of the Xinomavro grape, whose tannins and acid structure are softened by the warmer climate and blending with the Krassato and Stavroto varieties. Red wines from Mavro Messenikola are produced in Messenikola PDO , whereas only white wines, blended from Roditis and Savvatiano grapes from higher-altitude vineyards, are allowed in Anchialos PDO . These wines may be dry, off-dry, or semisweet. On the Ionian coast to the west of Thessalia, the region of Epirus contains only one PDO: Zitsa . Dry, semisweet, and sparkling wines are produced from the Debina grape. Central Greece , or Sterea Ellada, is a bastion of retsina; Attiki, the region surrounding Athens, is the center of production. The low-acid Savvatiano, preferred for retsina because it retains some varietal character when resinated, is the chief grape in the region, and the second most planted variety is Roditis, the common name for a closely linked family of pink-skinned grapes. There are no PDO zones. Peloponnese , a peninsula only by virtue of the narrow Isthmus of Corinth, is directly south of Sterea Ellada. Vine cultivation is concentrated in the north, around the three PDO zones of Nemea , Mantinia , and Patras . Both dry and sweet Nemean wines are produced exclusively from Agiorgitiko (Saint George), a softly tannic, intensely fruity black grape and one of Greece’s most noble native varieties. Agiorgitiko performs differently throughout the wide range of elevations and terrains in Nemea, reflected in the appellation’s division into several recognizable subzones; the commune of Koutsi is one of the most famous. The wines of Nemea are sometimes called the blood of Hercules (or blood of the lion), a reference to the first of Hercules’s 12 legendary labors. In the other PDO zones of the Peloponnese, only white wines are allowed. Moschofilero, a red-skinned grape that is aromatically similar to Muscat, is the principal component of Mantinia PDO wines, one of Greece’s most exciting white wines. Patras is an appellation for dry to semisweet white wines produced from 100% Roditis, but there are also three dessert wine PDO zones connected to the region: Muscat of Patras , Muscat of Rio Patras , and Mavrodaphne of Patras . Muscat of Patras and Muscat of Rio Patras may be either vin doux naturel or naturally sweet in style, and are produced from Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains. Mavrodaphne (“black laurel”) of Patras is a sweet, fortified red wine produced from Mavrodaphne and Mavri Korinthiaki, a currant grape useful for enriching the sugar content of the wine. Mavrodaphne of Patras is aged for at least one year in wood prior to release, but the wine may sometimes rest in cask for a decade or more prior to bottling. Both vintage and nonvintage versions are produced. The estate of Achaia Clauss, progenitor of the style, has a Mavrodaphne solera dating to 1882. The Greeks often drink Mavrodaphne of Patras as an aperitif—a tradition developed to temper the briny, salty character of Greek first courses—and the wine is used for the communion sacrament in Greek Orthodox services. In 2010, the Greeks awarded PDO status to the wines of Monemvassia-Malvasia, a small zone on the southeastern coast of the Peloponnese. Although Monemvassia is the name of the grape used here and elsewhere in Greece, it is also the name of an old port town governed variously by the Greeks, Byzantines, Venetians, and Turks. Evidence of the brisk trade of Monemvassia’s sweet wines dates back to the 13th century. During their rule, Venetians rechristened the port and its wines Malvasia. In deference to the historic importance of the area’s malvasios oenos , the new appellation’s wines must be sweet in style. As the wines must be aged in an oxidative environment for at least two years, the first releases, produced from a minimum 51% Monemvassia, went on the market in 2012. Agiorgitiko growing in the hills of Nemea There are four wine-producing Ionian Islands off the west coast of Greece: Cephalonia, Kerkyra (Corfu), Lefkada, and Zakynthos. Cephalonia is the only Ionian island that has any PDOs. Robola of Cephalonia PDO is for dry white wines produced from Robola, a variety unrelated to the Ribolla or Rebula found in Friuli or Slovenia. PDO sweet wines are also produced on the island, from Mavrodaphne and Muscat . Zakynthos, an island of breathtaking beauty, visible from the Peloponnesian coast, is the home of Verdea traditional appellation wines. Verdea, produced from obscure and autochthonous grapes such as Skiadopoulo, Pavlos, and Avgoustiatis, may share similarities with Jura's vin jaune and sherry, but even to Greeks it is often unknown. A greater number of PDO appellations exist for the Aegean Islands , to the south and east of the mainland. Crete , the largest and southernmost Greek isle, accounts for approximately 10% of Greek wine production. Crete is home to the red wine PDO zones Archanes and Daphnes , and the PDO zones Sitia and Peza , which permit both red and white wines. In 2012, three new PDO zones debuted on the island: Candia , Malvasia Candia , and Malvasia Sitia . The Vilana grape, used for the majority of dry white Sitia wines and the entirety of Peza whites, is Crete’s most cultivated white grape. Despite Vilana's status in the PDO wines of the island, many of Crete's most talented winemakers prefer to showcase Vidiano, a white grape that retains more acidity. Liatiko, the dominant grape in the red Sitia and Daphnes PDO wines, is found only on Crete and a handful of neighboring islands. It is one of the most ancient varieties under cultivation, it ripens in mid-July, and it delivers a distinctively orange-hued wine. Mandilaria, the most common red variety throughout the Aegean, is blended with Kotsifali to produce the Archanes and red Peza wines. On Crete, however, many winemakers are more excited to blend Kotsifali with Syrah—a recipe that may successfully mirror international tastes yet sacrifices some of the character of Crete in the process. North of Crete are the Cycladic islands of Santorini and Paros. Santorini PDO is an appellation producing white wines from the Assyrtiko grape, sometimes blended with Athiri and Aidani. The vines must be trained close to the ground, in the stefani shape of baskets or wreaths, in order to protect them from the fierce Aegean winds and to collect the little moisture that becomes available as morning dew. Assyrtiko, grown in the island’s poor, volcanic soils, is one of Greece’s most compelling white grapes: the wines are distinctively mineral, powerful, and high in acidity. Paris Sigalas is a master of the variety, producing Assyrtiko in both barrel-aged and fresher versions. Also produced on the island is a sweet, dried grape wine, Vinsanto—a name likely appropriated by the Italians when Venetians ruled the island in the Middle Ages. In Paros PDO , red and white wines are produced from the Mandilaria and white Monemvassia varieties. Paros is the only Greek appellation that mandates use of a white grape (Monemvassia) in red blends. The isle of Samos, to the northeast of Paros, is home to one of the nation’s most famous wines: the famed Muscat of Samos, now a PDO, received a form of appellation protection as early as 1934, when the island’s growers were united under the Union of Vinicultural Cooperatives of Samos (EOSS). Unlike many Greek wine regions, Samos was not considered a propitious place for viticulture in the ancient world; only after constant harassment from pirates led to a near-total depopulation of the island (around 1475) did newcomers to the island begin to plant Muscat. The island rises sharply from the sea, and vineyards are planted on high altitude, terraced slopes. On Samos, Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains is known as Moscato Aspro, and is produced in vin de liqueur , vin doux naturel and naturally sweet versions. The naturally sweet version is called Samos Nectar, and is similar to vin de paille —the wine is produced from dried grapes and aged for a minimum of three years prior to release. The islands of Lemnos and Rhodes, to the north and east of the Cyclades respectively, each have two PDO appellations. Lemnos wines are white, dominated by Muscat, and may be dry or sweet. The ancient red Lemnio grape utilized in the wines of Domaine Carras originated on Lemnos, but its importance on the island has greatly diminished. Rhodes, an island much closer to southern Asia Minor than Greece itself, produces PDO red, white, and rosé varietal wines from Mandilaria and Athiri. Muscat of Rhodes PDO wines are rarely encountered. Greece today is focused on building a reputation with indigenous grapes as well as international varieties. Winemaker education is vastly improving, and phylloxera, which did not strike the Peloponnese until the 1960s and Crete until the 1970s, has enabled producers to rethink and reshape their vineyards. As the Greeks experiment and become more confident with the inherent strengths of native grapes, the quality and uniqueness of Greek wines continues to expand. (Various spellings of the regions and grapes are often encountered because of the inexact nature of translating from the Greek alphabet; there are no definitive translations.) BACK TO TOP Hungary In the northeastern corner of Hungary, at the confluence of the Tisza and Bodrog Rivers, producers in the Tokaj region (formerly Tokaj-Hegyalja, or the Tokaj “foothills”) have long been crafting some of Europe’s most exemplary and longest-lived dessert wines. Vineyards in Tokaj The region was one of the first in modern Europe to undergo a vineyard classification; in 1700, the Transylvanian Prince Rákóczy delimited 28 villages in the region, inaugurating a golden age for the wine that would last through the next two centuries. Some sources alternatively date Tokaj’s classification to 1730, with a final legal recognition in 1772—definitive evidence of the 1700 classification remains elusive. Aszú grapes are a fundamental component of the best Tokaji wines; although the term originally signified desiccated grapes, it has evolved to indicate grapes of high sugar levels afflicted with botrytis cinerea —the noble rot. Aszú appears in works published as early as 1571, and Szepsi Laczkó Máté definitively produced botrytis-affected aszú wine by the mid-17th century. Thus, the aszú wines of Tokaj predated the botrytised wines of Germany, and probably Sauternes as well. Legend attributes the mid-16th century declaration—“These wines are fit for a pope”—to either Pope Julius III or Pope Pius IV, and King Louis XIV of France praised Tokaji as (another) “wine of kings and king of wines” during his 17th century reign. Catherine the Great of Russia enjoyed Tokaji so emphatically that she left a permanent detachment of her Cossack guard in Tokaj to guard royal shipments, whereas the 19th century Queen Victoria of England received an annual birthday gift of a dozen bottles, courtesy of the Austro-Hungarian Emperor. Unfortunately, the Iron Curtain closed the door on quality for Tokaji in the 20th century, but the region rebounded quickly after the fall of communism with an immense amount of foreign interest and investors eager to see their beloved Tokaji restored to its former glory. Estates such as the Royal Tokaji Company, Vega Sicilia’s Tokaj Oremus, Disznókõ, and Királyudvar are leading the way. Tokaj is both the name of the overall region and the commune at the convergence of the two rivers; Tokaji is an adjectival form used to indicate the wine. The Tokaj region, sheltered by the Carpathian Mountains, enjoys a warm continental climate with long, humid autumns: perfect encouragement for botrytis. Soils are predominantly volcanic loess and clay, and many of the better vineyards occupy south-facing slopes. Rákóczy’s original classification, which divided the vineyards of Tokaj and its neighboring villages into 1st, 2nd, and 3rd growths, remains relevant today through the efforts of the Tokaj Renaissance, a producers’ association devoted to the protection of the concept. 74 vineyards are recognized as first growths; Szarvas and Mézes Mály, near the communes of Tokaj and Tarcal, respectively, share the superlative designation of Great First Growths. The two principal grapes of the region are Furmint and Hárslevelű; Sárgamuskotály (Muscat Blanc à Petite Grains), Zéta (Oremus), Kabar and Kövérszőlő are authorized but generally used in small quantities. Furmint is key to the production of Tokaji Aszú, as it is particularly susceptible to botrytis and high in acidity. Traditionally, the aszú grapes are handpicked individually and gathered in containers called puttony — puttonyos is an adjective rather than the plural form—which hold roughly 25 kg. As in Sauternes, yields are miniscule. A tiny fraction of syrupy, free-run juice is allowed to settle out of the aszú must—this will be vinified separately as Esszencia . The aszú is then trampled into a paste, or dough, and a number of puttony containing aszú paste is mixed with gönci barrels of must or base wine from non- aszú grapes. The number of puttony added to a gönc (a Hungarian oak cask of approximately 136 L) determines the final sweetness of the Tokaji Aszú wine, and Tokaj Aszú was labeled with 3-6 puttonyos to indicate sweetness—until major revisions eliminated these categories in time for the 2013 harvest. Modern Tokaj Aszú is simply labeled "Aszú"; it ages for just over two years prior to release (with a minimum 18 months in barrel) and must contain at least 120 g/l of residual sugar and achieve an actual alcohol content of at least 9%. Meanwhile, the sugar-rich Esszencia—the preferred Tokaji of the czars—ferments at a glacial pace, sometimes taking decades to reach 4-6% alcohol. Richer than honey, the wine retains at least 450 grams per liter of residual sugar. Esszencia, or Natúresszencia, is rarely available commercially, and it is everlasting nectar, unique in the entire world of wine. Several styles of Tokaji beyond Tokaji Aszú exist. Tokaji Szamorodni (“as it comes”) is produced from a mixture of aszú and non- aszú grapes and is often oxidative in style as it is matured in cask for a minimum of six months, sometimes under a film-forming yeast similar to flor . Szamorodni wines may be édes (sweet) or száraz (dry). Fordítás and Máslás wines are the product of refermenting wine with the pressed paste or spent lees, respectively, of Tokaji Aszú. Tokaji wines may also be produced as late harvest wines (in a wide range of styles) without the extended aging of Tokaji Aszú, or as dry varietal wines, made from non- aszú grapes. The talented Hungarian winemaker István Szepsy, a key figure in the establishment of Hugh Johnson’s Royal Tokaji Company and Királyudvar, is a founding member of the Circle of Mád, a small contingent of producers committed to elevating the stature of dry wines in the region. Tokaj, like Jerez and Champagne, has successfully faced a challenge over the provenance of its name and as of 2007 all other countries in the European Union are prohibited from using the term “Tokaj” or its derivatives (Tokay, Tocai) on labels, regardless of any actual similarity to the wine. Alsatian producers lost the right to produce Pinot Gris as Tokay d’Alsace and Italian producers rechristened Tocai Friulano as simply Friulano. While Tokaj is certainly Hungary’s most famous product of the vine, wine is produced throughout the country. In 2000, two decades after the fall of Communism, 22 total wine appellations were identified in Hungary. With the EU's recent reforms, this number of regions qualifying for PDO status has increased to 31, with 6 additional PGI areas. These are divided among three major geographical zones of production: the Northern Massif, the western region of Transdanubia, and the southern Great Plain. The Northern Massif includes Tokaj and Eger , a region famous for Egri Bikavér—the “Bull’s Blood of Eger.” Historically dominated by Kadarka—an indigenous, low-tannin, light-bodied and not particularly sanguine grape—modern Egri Bikavér is a blend of at least four varieties, incorporating Kékfrankos (Blaufränkisch), and other Hungarian and international grapes. Only Eger and Szekszárd in Transdanubia are permitted to use the term “Bikavér” on labels. (In Szekszárd, Bikavér also requires four varieties.) To the west of Eger is Mátra, Hungary’s second largest winegrowing region. Though the area is most known for white wines, red grapes like Kékfrankos and Kadarka are gaining in reputation. Further west, in Transdanubia, other regions beyond Szekszárd include Badacsony and Balatonfüred-Csopak on the shores of Lake Balaton, one of Europe’s largest lakes. Somló lies to the northwest, on the slopes of the extinct volcano. White wines dominate production in these three areas; grapes include Furmint, Juhfark, Olaszrizling (Welschriesling), and a number of international varieties. Red wines are more common in both the extreme south and north of Transdanubia. On the northern border, Sopron is contiguous with Austria’s Burgenland, and Kékfrankos is cultivated in both regions. To the east of Transdanubia, the Great Plain contains nearly half of Hungary’s acreage under vine. The region’s sandy soils provided a welcome habitat after phylloxera struck in the 19th century. Most of the wines of this region are of everyday quality and consumed locally. Kunság, Hungary’s largest region, is located in the Great Plain and produces a sizable amount of mass production white wine (and some reds) from indigenous grapes. Finally, just south along the Croatian border is Villány, Hungary’s hottest region, which produces good-quality wines from Bordeaux varieties, Kékfrankos, and Kékoportó (Blauer Portugieser). BACK TO TOP Bulgaria Bulgaria’s wine history dates back about 3,000 years. Although the Ottoman Empire impeded the industry’s growth, existing vineyards continued to be maintained from the 15 th to 19 th centuries. Wine culture resumed upon the fall of the Ottomans, and cooperatives were swiftly established. After World War II, the Soviets saw the economic potential in wine, and they took to developing land for grape production on collective, state-run farms. They formed Vinprom in 1948 to manage vineyard expansion and promotion. Vineyards were established on flatter, more fertile grounds in an effort to produce higher yields and allow for mechanized farming. By the late 1950s, Russia was importing much of Bulgaria’s wine production, and Bulgaria grew to become the fourth largest global wine exporter shortly thereafter. The 1970s ushered in more investment and outside consultation. PepsiCo, for example, was eager to reach Communist countries with its product. In Bulgaria, because of the low value of the local currency, the company was paid for its cola concentrate with Bulgarian wine. However, finding quality lacking, PepsiCo hired consultants, including Professor Maynard Amerine of UC Davis, to help improve the product. This influenced Bulgaria's growing industry and encouraged the planting of grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay. However, Gorbachev’s anti-alcohol reforms, launched in 1985, stymied the huge industry, raising and fixing grape prices so cooperatives had little choice but to turn to more profitable crops. Privatization following the collapse of the Communist regime in 1990 moved at a slow pace. Foreign investment from quality-minded wine and spirits companies was more difficult to achieve than in neighboring Hungary. France’s Belvedere Group lent the country some prestige when it stepped into Bulgaria in 2002 but sold many of its Bulgarian assets in 2009 during the global economic crisis. The dawn of the 21 st century brought positive changes to the Bulgarian wine industry, leading up to its entry into the EU in 2007. Agricultural funding became available to small wineries to establish wineries as well as improve existing vineyard and winery operations; subsidies attracted foreign interest and investment in the wine industry as well. By 2018, there were over 250 producers. Bulgarian wine law dates back to the Wine Act of 1978, with the establishment of a Controliran system outlining the best regions and styles. Rules were developed to dictate particular grapes, vineyard techniques, winemaking practices, and tastings to verify typicity and overall quality. By 2000, however, quality categories tended toward the French model and EU regulations. Finally, by 2007, Bulgaria fully adopted EU law, and the Controliran system has since become obsolete. There are two defined levels of quality for Bulgarian wine: table wine and quality wine. Within the quality category, Bulgaria has only two PGIs, the Danubian Plain and the Thracian Lowlands. Bulgaria has 52 PDOs, but as few as 5 or 6 are in use. In Bulgaria, a winery’s reputation carries more value than a PDO on the label, and thus PDOs are rarely listed. Less than 1% of the 2016 harvest was declared PDO wine, with 70% considered table wine. As a whole, Bulgaria contains five large regions of wine production: the northern Danubian Plain, the eastern Black Sea coast, the southern Thracian Plain and Sub-Balkan zone referred to as the Valley of the Roses, and the southwestern Struma River Valley. The last of these enjoys a Mediterranean climate, whereas most of Bulgaria is continental. All quality wines may be labeled “barik” if the fermentation occurred in oak casks of 500L or less in volume. The terms “Reserve” and “Special Selection” indicate that a single variety has seen one or two years, respectively, of aging before release. Red grapes account for about 60% of Bulgaria’s area under vine; Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot are responsible for over half of all reds planted. The thin-skinned Pamid, a very historic grape, accounts for 10% of all plantings and is one of the first red varieties to be harvested. It produces a fresh style suitable for youthful consumption. The native Gamza (Kadarka) and deep-colored Mavrud compose about 3% of plantings. Rubin, a crossing of Nebbiolo and Syrah, shows great potential. Native white grapes include Red Misket (Misket Cherven), an aromatic specialty of Sungurlare—and of no relation to Muscat. Red Misket, Rkatsiteli, and Dimiat are the most planted white varieties in Bulgaria. BACK TO TOP Romania Like its neighbors in Eastern Europe, Romania fell behind the Iron Curtain after World War II, and viticulture—an ancient tradition in this part of the world—changed abruptly under the Communists. The new government emphasized quantity and equality, which in winemaking terms translated to poorer quality. Vineyard acreage greatly expanded with substandard grapes and frost- and disease-resistant hybrids. Winemaking was in the hands of huge cooperatives, which by the end of the 1980s constituted over 60% of production. Since the fall of Communism in 1989, Romania has shifted to privatize its industry and refocus on quality. The lead-up to EU accession in 2007 marked a significant transition. Better plant material, optimal clones, VSP training, closer spacing, and better overall hygiene awareness in the winery vastly improved wine quality. Though quantity was prioritized under Soviet control and plantings greatly expanded during this time, vineyard area has decreased in recent years, stabilizing around 180,000 hectares in 2017. In part, this was a response to Gorbachev’s reforms, but the shift toward quality contributed as well. Five wineries are responsible for nearly 70% of production, with about 97% of growers owning less than a half hectare of land. Despite a domestic preference for white wines (about 60% of its production), Romania is increasing plantings of red grapes and turning toward more international varieties like Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Pinot Noir to satisfy export markets. As of 2017, Merlot leads red grapes in overall plantings. However, Romania still harnesses an incredible number of indigenous grapes, which can be an advantage in mature niche markets that have taken an increasing interest in experiencing native grapes throughout the world. The most cultivated grapes in the country are the indigenous white grapes Fetească Albă and Fetească Regală. Riesling Italico (Welschriesling), Chardonnay, Sauvignon, Muscat Ottonel, and Pinot Gris also enjoy significant acreage. The indigenous red grapes Fetească Neagră, Burgund Mare, and Băbească Neagră can achieve higher quality, while Rosioara (Bulgaria’s Pamid) is generally reserved for table wine production. Romanian wine law follows EU legislation and has two broad categories: Wines for Current Consumption (table wines) and Quality Wines. Table wines are subdivided into VM (table wine/Vin de Masa) and VMS (superior table wine/Vin de Masa Superior). Quality Wines are classified as either Vin cu Indicaţie Geografică (a PGI designation) or Denumire de Origine Controlată (or DOC, a PDO designation). For Vin cu Indicaţie wines, a minimum of 85% of the grapes must be produced and vinified in the area specified on the label. Romania’s 12 PGIs are responsible for about 9% of production. There are 35 DOC wines, and they may be produced from recommended and authorized Vitis vinifera varieties (excluding hybrids). DOC wines have been growing in recent years, comprising nearly 30% of overall production in 2017, and seven of the eight major wine zones contain DOCs. These wines may be further subcategorized as follows: DOC-CMD: grapes harvested at full maturity DOC-CT: late-harvested grapes DOC-CIB: botrytis-affected grapes Additional regulated quality aging terms include: Rezervă and Vin de Vinotecă. Rezervă indicates a minimum of six months in oak and six months in bottle. Vin de Vinotecă ensures a wine has been matured for at least one year in oak and four years in the bottle before release. Although Romania lies on the same latitude as France, its climate is continental and moderated by the Black Sea. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of the country, and the Danube River marks the southern border with Serbia, flowing eastward into the Black Sea. Many of Romania’s wine regions form a ring along the outer slopes of the Carpathians, including the Moldavan Hills in the east, Muntenia-Oltenia toward the south, and Banat and Crişana-Maramureş in the northwest. Dobrogea and the Danube Terraces are on the eastern Black Sea Coast; the Transylvanian Plateau, in the center of the country, contains Romania’s highest vineyards, buffered by the Carpathian peaks. A final region, Sands, is a minor area for quality wine production. In Transylvania, the Jidvei DOC nested in Târnave DOC is one of Romania’s coolest and most important wine regions, producing white wines of high acidity from several varieties, including the Fetească grapes and Traminer Rosé. The sweet white wines of Cotnari DOC in Moldavia are the country’s most famous vinous product, having once enjoyed a reputation on par with Tokaji and Constantia. Grasă de Cotnari—which possibly shares a common lineage with Furmint—is capable of reaching extreme ripeness levels and is the region’s most prominent grape. Frâncusa, Tămâioasă Românească—a grape with a unique, resiny aroma comparable to frankincense—and Fetească Albă may be blended with Grasă or vinified and bottled separately as varietal wines. Cotnari may be dry, but the sweet Grasă-based interpretations are the most complex and long-lived. The elevated (200–350 meters) south-facing slopes of the Dealu Mare DOC (meaning “big hill”) within Muntenia-Oltenia are gaining a reputation for red wines, particularly from Cabernet Sauvignon and Pinot Noir. Once known for its late-harvest Chardonnay, Murfatlar DOC in Dobrogea is developing a reputation for its soft styles of Cabernet Sauvignon and Pinot Noir. Its dry climate has also encouraged more organic farming in recent years. BACK TO TOP Slovenia and Croatia From Austro-Hungarian rule to Yugoslavian control that lasted for much of the 20 th century, Slovenia finally became independent in 1991. It was the first nation to emerge from the wreckage of Tito’s Yugoslavia and establish a successful wine industry built on well-defined and enforced quality laws. Slovenia joined the EU in 2004 and is a rapidly improving producer of wine. With nearly 30,000 registered growers and just over 21,000 hectares of vines, grapegrowing is very fragmented, though this is beginning to shift. Cooperatives are still responsible for the majority of production. Grapes are known by their Slovenian names: Refosk (Refosco), Rebula (Ribolla), Sivi Pinot (Pinot Grigio). International varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot are also common, and some indigenous varieties such as the white Pinela and Zelen (a relative of Verduzzo Gialla) persist. Overall, the focus is on white wine, at over 70% of production. In line with EU wine law, wines of quality include PDO and PGI wines. PDO wines are referred to as Zaščitena Označa Porekla (ZOP) and constitute much of Slovenia’s production. PGIs, which are not as common, are labeled here as Zaščitena Geografska Označba (ZGO). Table wine is simply namizmo vino . There are three regions in the country: Primorska (Primorje) in the west bordering Friuli in Italy, Podravje in the extreme northeast, and Posavje, at Slovenia’s southeastern border with Croatia. Primorska, the country’s best region for both red and white wine, is subdivided into four districts: Goriška Brda, Kras, Slovenska Istra, and the Vipava Valley. The proximity to Friuli is clear: Goriška Brda (Brda translates to “hills”) becomes Collio Goriziano across the Italian border, and Kras becomes Carso. Primorska (especially Slovenska Istra) has a more mild, Mediterranean-influenced climate that is similar to that of Friuli, as compared to the rest of Slovenia, which is generally continental. The vineyards and geography are blind to political division: Ales Kristancic of Movia, Slovenia’s star producer, has to cross the border to harvest nearly half of his vineyards. His contemporary and aesthetic kin, Josko Gravner, has to cross the Slovenian border to access some of his vineyards as well. Podravje is the country’s largest region, with nearly 9,000 hectares under vine. It contains two districts: Štajerska Slovenija (Styrian Slovenia) and Prekmurje, the latter comparatively much warmer and producing more generous, full-bodied styles. One of the oldest vines in the world exists in Maribor, the capital of Stajerska Slovenija, at over 400 years old. Nearly 95% of the wines here are white. Laski Rizling (Welschriesling) leads the plantings but is largely destined for bulk production. Higher-quality wine come from Diseci Traminer (Gewürztraminer), Renski Rizling (Riesling), Chardonnay, and Sauvignon Blanc. Posavje is third in production, with slightly more than half of Primorska’s total acreage under vine. Posavje borders the Croatian Inland region, which is characterized overwhelmingly by white wine production. There are three wine districts here: Bizeljsko Sremič (sought after for its sparkling wines), Bela Krajin (home to sweet Rumeni Muškat), and Doljenska (known for Cviček, a fashionable, tart blend of white and red grapes). The coast of Croatia stretches from the Italian border southward and includes four wine regions: Slavonia and the Danube, the Croatian Uplands, Istria and Kvarner, and Dalmatia. These are then subdivided further into 12 subregions. The coastal regions include Istria and Kvarner to the north, where mostly white production takes place. Here, a distinct Malvasia grape called Malvazija Istarska is grown. The southern coastal region of Dalmatia, on the other hand, is home to mostly reds. Inland, where Slavonia and the Danube are located, the climate is warmest. Graševina (Welschriesling), Croatia’s most planted grape, is widely grown here. The cool, mountainous Croatian Uplands account for a small percentage of production, with an established tradition of sweet wine production, though aromatic whites are gaining in reputation. Though white wine dominates overall, there is an increasing interest in red Bordeaux varieties and the native Crljenak Kastelanski (Zinfandel) and its offshoot Plavac Mali. Mike Grgich, legendary Napa Valley winemaker and a native Croatian, produces Plavac Mali wines at his Grgic Vina estate in the Dingac subzone of Dalmatia. His personal recollection of Croatia’s coastal vineyards was the impetus that led UC Davis’s Carole Meredith to establish the definitive correlation between Zinfandel and Crljenak. BACK TO TOP Czech Republic and Slovakia Slovakia and the Czech Republic , the two independent entities that once formed Czechoslovakia, are not major wine-producing countries, yet both are attempting to elevate quality and production. Slovakia’s wine industry has been slowly rebuilding since achieving independence from Czechoslovakia in 1993. Slovakia is divided into six main wine regions spanning its entire southern border: Malé Karpaty Hills (Small Carpathian), Južnoslovenská (Southern Slovakia), Nitrianska (Nitra wine region), Stredoslovenská (Central Slovakia), Východoslovenská (Eastern Slovakia), and Tokaj. Malé Karpaty Hills is among the most important. Toward the Czech border, more white wine production takes place with grapes like Silvaner, Veltliner, Welschriesling, and Riesling; toward Hungary, where it is warmer, red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon and Blaufränkish are successful. Tokaj is contiguous with Tokaj in Hungary, and the two regions share a common winemaking tradition. Slovak vintners may use Tokajský/-á/-é (“of Tokaj”) on the label if they abide by revised Hungarian production regulations. Slovakia’s wine law came into effect in 2009, influenced by both France and Germany. The Czech Republic has two principal regions: Moravia in the south and Bohemia in the north. Over 96% of the Republic’s land under vine is located in Moravia, where Welschriesling, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Gruner Veltliner, and Riesling shine. Moravia is just north of Austria’s Weinviertel, where Bohemia is located in the northwest, on the same latitude as the Rheingau in Germany. Geologically, the two are quite different, as granite, clay, and sand characterize much of Moravia, where limestone and basalt typify Bohemia. Many international and Germanic varieties are common in the Czech Republic, including Müller-Thurgau, Frankovka (Blaufränkisch), Svatovavnnecké (St. Laurent), Ryzlink Vlassky (Welschriesling), Chardonnay, and Cabernet Sauvignon. Quality Wines with Special Attributes (Akostné vino s Prívlastkom) resemble German Prädikatswein, with an accompanying scale of Kabinett through Trockenbeerenauslese and Eiswein. Instead of the Oechsle scale, both countries use the Czecho-Slovak Normalized Must Weight Scale (NM), which measures the natural sugar in 100 liters of grape juice, where 1 degree CNM is equivalent to 1 kilogram of sugar. After gaining its independence, and in preparation for EU accession, the Czech Republic fashioned its wine law after Germany’s, by ripeness level. In 2008, the new EU categories resulted in the terms CHZO for PGI wines and CHOP for PDO wines. As of 2018, 10 official geographical appellations (Vína Originální Certifikace, or VOC) were introduced: VOC Znojmo, VOC Mikulov, VOC Blue Mountains, VOC Blatnice, VOC Valtice, VOC Melnik, VOC Palava, VOC Slovácko, VOC Kraví Hora, and, most recently, VOC Bzenec. VOC Znojmo in Moravia was the first to receive this designation, in 2009. In order to display the VOC name on the neck of the bottle, a producer must abide by certain criteria, including hand-harvesting, minimum must weights, low maximum yields, and defined alcohol levels. As the new appellation concept evolves in the Czech Republic, it is intended to complement, rather than replace, the existing Germanic system. BACK TO TOP The Russian Federation Russian czars were famous for their conspicuous vinous consumption, with czars from Peter the Great forward sipping Tokaji Esszencia. Louis Roederer created its tête de cuvée Cristal for the exclusive enjoyment of Czar Alexander II—bottled in clear glass so as not to provoke the unpopular czar’s suspicion of foul play. The country eventually developed its own successful industry. In 1980, the former Soviet Union was the world’s fourth largest producer of wine, trailing only France, Italy, and Spain. The country’s viticulture was a model of commercial efficiency, but in the ensuing decade, production declined by over three billion liters annually, due to Gorbachev’s propagandistic anti-alcohol campaign. Today, little Russian wine is seen in the West, and the domestic market in Russia, awash in cheap imported juice, struggles to highlight quality. Only the southern portion of the country, particularly the region between the Black and Caspian Seas, is suitable for viticulture. Krasnodar, on the Black Sea Coast, is Russia’s most important region with over 50% of the federation’s vineyards. Krasnodar’s climate is one of Russia’s most moderate maritime-influenced climates, evidenced by the number of wealthy coastal resorts. Neighboring Dagestan and Stavropol, where many grapes are distilled into brandy, are notable regions, although each experiences extreme cold, requiring the vines to be buried in soil to survive the cold winter months. Rostov, Kabardino-Balkaria, and the war-torn Chechnya produce smaller amounts of wine. Over 70% of Russian grapes grown are dedicated to wine. While over 100 varieties are approved, nearly half of the plantings are Cabernet Sauvignon. Other grapes that enjoy higher percentages include those that are grown for the burgeoning sparkling wine industry, such as Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, and Riesling. The local grape Rkatsiteli enjoys some prominence as well. BACK TO TOP Ukraine and Georgia Ukraine is one of the most important wine-producing nations of the former Soviet Republic, although domestic consumption of wine pales in comparison to beer and vodka. If Crimea is considered part of Ukraine, a point disputed since its annexation by Russia in 2014, then there are four major regions of production: Crimea (Krim), Odessa, Nikolayev-Kherson, and the Transcarpathian region. Rkatsiteli continues to be a significant variety, and while Vitis vinifiera has always been preferred (with popular varieties including Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, Welschriesling, and Furmint), hybrids like Isabella are beginning to gain ground. Odessa and Crimea account for nearly 80% of the total annual wine production. Both regions produce a lot of sparkling wine—often made in the traditional method—in addition to red and white still wines. Fortified wines are produced in Crimea, and Massandra, near Yalta, is famous for its huge collection of Crimean wines produced in the style of Sherry and Madeira. The former Soviet republic of Georgia has one of the world’s oldest winemaking traditions, with archaeological evidence dating back to 6,000 BCE and wild vines ( Vitis vinifera silvestris ) common in the country. Over 500 indigenous grapes and clones exist here. There are 37 authorized varieties; of these, the indigenous red Saperavi and white Rkatsiteli are the most cultivated. Georgia is also known for its qvevri winemaking techniques, referring to the amphorae pots used for fermentation and aging wine beneath the ground. Traditionally, all components of the grape clusters (known as chacha ) go into the qvevri . The earth moderates the temperature, and the wines are left to settle and clarify naturally. Georgia has 18 recognized appellations and 10 wine regions: Kakheti, Kartli, Imereti, Racha, Lechkhumi, and Meskheti, and the Black Sea subregions of Adjara, Guria, Samegrelo, and Apkhazeti. The southeastern region of Kakheti is responsible for about 80% of Georgia’s production. South of Georgia, Armenia—where over 80% of grape production is distilled for local grape brandy—has experienced a recent revival in winemaking. Over half of its 50 wineries were registered in the past decade. Recent investment and modern winemaking technology have helped in this recovery. The climate is incredibly challenging. Nearly all vineyards require irrigation to combat the dry summers, and most have to bury vines for winter protection. There are five winegrowing regions in Armenia: Ararat Valley, Ararat Valley foothills, the Northeast zone, Vaiots Dzor, and Zangezur. Ararat Valley, including the foothills, is where nearly 80% of grapegrowing occurs. The local Areni Noir from the Vaiots Dzor region is showing great promise. To the west of Ukraine, Moldova shares a winemaking tradition with neighboring Moldavia in Romania. While Moldova is one of the smallest of the former Soviet republics, it has the greatest number of vines per capita in the world. Moldova has optimal conditions for grapegrowing. It is situated on the same latitude as Burgundy, with an overall temperate climate and rolling hills. The Black Sea offers a moderating cooling influence. There are four wine regions, three of which are PGIs: Codru (central), Ștefan Vodă (southeast), and Valul lui Trajan (southwest). Codru has a more continental climate, producing fragrant, fresh whites and restrained reds. Valul lui Trajan enjoys a Mediterranean climate and is valued for its full-bodied reds. Purcari in Ștefan Vodă is known for its ageworthy reds. Bălti, the fourth region, located in the north, produces a small percentage of grapes that are primarily meant for distillation. A wide array of varieties are planted, but only about 10% are considered local, including Fetească Albă, Fetească Regală, and Fetească Neagră. French varieties represent the most vineyard land; Aligoté, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Pinot Noir are among those found in the region. The Western Balkans are a patchwork of potential. Bosnia and Herzegovina, situated in the mountains, deliver sweet whites and table reds made from Blatina. While two businesses dominate Serbia’s wine industry, a handful of small family estates continue respected artisan production. There is a vibrant, youthful scene in Vojvodin, in northern Serbia, where producers are experimenting with aging vessels, biodynamic viticulture, and minimal intervention winemaking. The climate of the region is similar to that of Hungary. Albania holds promise for indigenous varieties in a Mediterranean climate. Structured Vranec and Kratosija (Zinfandel) can be found in Montenegro. Finally, North Macedonia is improving its winemaking and reputation throughout its three regions, of which the Vardar Valley is the most significant. Selected Resources Gilby, Caroline. Wines of Bulgaria, Romania, and Moldova . Oxford: Infinite Ideas, 2018. Johnson, Hugh, and Jancis Robinson, eds. The World Atlas of Wine. 8 th ed. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2019. Robinson, Jancis, ed. The Oxford Companion to Wine , 4 th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. BACK TO TOPPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/212/viticulture-and-vinificationTue, 26 May 2026 18:19:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:0c88ac3d-bd82-4b60-b047-8cc22c9e9953Sandra BanTable of Contents Viticulture A Year in the Vineyard Climate, Terroir, and the Grapevine Vine Training and Pruning Vine Diseases and Insect Threats Sustainable Models of Viticulture Vinification Red Wine Production White Wine Production Rosé Wine Production Oak The Future of Winemaking Viticulture Man first domesticated Vitis vinifera , the species of climbing vine responsible for fine wine production, nearly 5,000 years before the Common Era. Viticulture, the study of grape growing, slowly developed in conjunction with the cultivation of the vine, as growers over time learned from instinct and observation. The grower or viticulturist confronts decisions on vine training and pruning methods, canopy management, fertilization and irrigation, harvest dates, and disease control; and monitors the development of the vineyard in general. From Charlemagne’s directive to plant the vineyards of Corton where the snows melt first, to the widespread adoption of rootstock grafting to combat phylloxera, to the modern embrace of drip irrigation and mechanization, advances in viticulture aim to reduce the vagaries of weather and disease, and promote either the quantity or quality of wine. Rarely are these goals of quantity and quality aligned for the viticulturist. Today, viticulture is a highly evolved science, and the development of the vine (and its transformation in the winery) is highly calculated to provide a desired character of fruit. While cold science governed many of the viticultural advancements of the last century, newer movements of sustainability have sprouted in reaction, and several distinct paths of viticulture exist for conscientious growers. BACK TO TOP A Year in the Vineyard The annual life cycle of the vine begins in the spring, with budbreak. The vine, which started “weeping” or “bleeding” watery sap from pruned canes sometime in February (in the Northern Hemisphere), will finally emerge from dormancy as the average air temperature surpasses 50°F. During budbreak, which usually occurs in March or April, the first small shoots and leaves will break through buds left intact by winter pruning. At this stage, the vine is vulnerable to frost. The vine’s foliage continues to develop through the early spring, and small green clusters called embryo bunches form on the shoots by mid-April. Flowering occurs six to thirteen weeks after the initial budbreak, depending on the climate. During this period, the embryo bunches bloom into small flowers for about ten days, and the self-pollinating grapevine begins the process of fertilization, which leads to fruit set. As the vine flowers, it is extremely susceptible to the damaging effects of cold, frost, and wind. Successfully pollinated embryo bunches grow into true grape clusters during fruit set—each grape is the product of individual fertilization. Fruit set usually hovers around 30%—the remaining embryo berries “shatter,” falling from the cluster, a process also known as coulure. As the berries enlarge through July, they remain hard, high in acidity and low in sugar. Another danger that can impact yield at this time is millerandage, where some grape flowers fail to fertilize. They go on to mature at different rates; some grow ripe and large, while others stay very small and seedless. In August, however, veraison ( véraison ) begins and the grapes begin to truly ripen, as sugars are moved from the leaf system to the fruit. During veraison, the grapes soften and change color—turning from green to red-black or yellow-green—and acidity decreases. While veraison swiftly affects an individual grape, it may not evenly affect a whole bunch. Some varieties, such as Zinfandel, are characterized by extremely uneven ripening (also called asynchrony), in which veraison haphazardly affects each bunch. Cane ripening occurs in tandem with veraison, as the stems on each shoot begin to lignify, accumulating carbohydrates to sustain the plant through the winter. Once the grapes have achieved an optimal balance of sugar and acid, they are ready for harvest ( vendange ). Harvest, by either manual or mechanical means, begins as early as late August, and may last through the beginning of November. White grapes are generally harvested before red grapes, although some white grapes destined for the specialized botrytised dessert wines or icewine may hang on the vine until late November or December. New World winemakers have greatly advanced the idea of complete physiological ripeness—a concept of ripeness comprising not only must weight and pH, but also the ripening of tannin and other phenolics, the condition of the berry and its pulp, and seed lignification—which often requires longer “hang time” for the grapes on the vine. After harvest, work moves from the vineyard to the winery. The vines lose their leaves in the autumn, and enter a period of winter dormancy. Fertilization may be applied in the fall after harvest, and the vines will be pruned over the winter to prepare for next year’s growth. Note : For equivalent dates in southern hemisphere vineyards, add six months. BACK TO TOP Climate, Terroir, and the Grapevine Climate encompasses expected temperature, rainfall, sunshine, wind, and other atmospheric elements, and remains relatively stable from year to year—weather is the daily manifestation of climate, and is generally responsible for vintage variation. For temperature, the vine prefers a mean annual level between 50° and 68°F, with an ideal of 57°F. To successfully ripen, red grapes require an average summer temperature of approximately 70°F, whereas white grapes prefer an average of 66°F. This generally restricts viticulture to the temperate bands of latitude between 30° and 50° in both the northern and southern hemispheres. Certain pockets of viticulture exist, due to privileged exposures and climatic conditions, outside of these general bands of latitude, and climate change may expand the grapevine’s habitat in the coming years. One method of classifying climates solely by temperature—and therefore recommending varieties appropriate to that temperature—is the California Heat Summation Index (also known as the Winkler Index). This scale divides climates into five Regions based on the number of degree days. Degree days are calculated by multiplying the days in each month of the growing season (defined as April 1 through October 31) by the mean number of degrees over 50°F for that month. The months’ totals are then added together to arrive at the heat summation: Degree Days Region Ia 1,500-2,000° days F (850-1,111° days C) Region Ib 2,000-2,500° days F (1,111-1389° days C) Region II 2,500-3,000° days F (1,389-1,667° days C) Region III 3,000-3,500° days F (1,667-1,944° days C) Region IV 3,500-4,000° days F (1,944-2,222° days C) Region V 4,000-4,900° days F (2,222-2,700° days C) Temperature and sunshine are closely related. Sunshine, a requirement for photosynthesis—in which plants convert carbon dioxide into organic compounds, including sugars—is a necessary provider of both light and heat. The minimum amount of sunshine required to support viticulture is approximately 1,300 hours. As sunshine during the growing season increases the farther one moves away from the equator, vines in the cooler climates often enjoy more sunshine than vines in the warmer climates. Cloud cover will not greatly impact the transmission of light for the purposes of photosynthesis, but it will affect the amount of heat the sun bestows on a vine. Rainfall itself is another primary concern. The vine evolved as a drought-resistant plant, but it still requires approximately 10-30 inches of rainfall annually to produce an adequate crop, depending on the warmth of the climate. Irrigation can of course supplant actual rainfall in regions where its usage is legal. Many Mediterranean winegrowing regions receive an abundance of rain in winter and spring, and remain mostly dry through the summer—an ideal situation for the vine. If the vine receives too little rain, water stress will occur, a condition that promotes smaller berry size and yields but will lead to interrupted ripening and complete shutdown of the vine if the stress is too severe. Too much rain will not adversely affect the vine itself, but it will dilute fruit quality and create a friendly environment for fungal diseases. Wind, a final consideration of climate, is often a detriment to the vine if it blows persistently hard. At its most violent extreme, wind can undermine flowering and denude vines. In colder climates, wind chill can be especially devastating. On the other hand, wind can be a detriment to mold and mildew, and wind machines are often employed in the battle against frost to mix colder, settled air near the ground with warmer upper air. The French concept of terroir is often cited as a word with no direct English equivalent, but it has an umbrella of meaning: terroir , in a holistic sense, defines the complete system of the living vine. The concept of terroir comprises the choice of grapevine as it relates to its location, topography, soil, climate, and the hand of man upon it. Terroir is not only the soil; terroir is the entire system of factors that influence the development of the vine—factors that, depending on the style of viticulture and wine-making applied, may be magnified or subsumed in the resulting wine. Terroir begins with the vine’s macroclimate: the regional climate. Macroclimate varies in size depending on the factors affecting it: the Rheingau, on a single south-facing slope, and the Médoc, with its even landscape and constant maritime influence, are subject to single macroclimates. However, the Napa Valley may be divided into several distinct macroclimates between the different peaks and valley floor. One can draw broad assertions about a region’s suitability for viticulture from its macroclimate, but the subtler distinctions of mesoclimate—the climate of a particular vineyard—are of greater importance. At this level, the aspect (degree and direction of its slope) and shelter of a vineyard are essential to distinctions in mesoclimate. Slopes provide good drainage and may benefit from increased sunshine, but temperature falls steadily with added altitude. Mesoclimates are small: one must realistically speak of several in Corton, the largest grand cru vineyard in Burgundy, whereas La Tâche has a single mesoclimate. On an even smaller scale, microclimate refers to the climate in and around a vine canopy, the restricted space including all parts of the vine above the ground. Techniques of canopy management have been developed to adjust the microclimate of a vine, particularly in its exposure to sunshine and its eventual yield. These include winter pruning, leaf removal, shoot positioning, and the use of sophisticated trellising systems—man’s hand at work in the equation of terroir . Soil type is a major aspect of a vine’s success. In general, low-fertility soils produce better wines than rich soils, the latter being better suited for other types of agriculture. Conventional wisdom holds that the vine should always struggle to produce good fruit; that too much vigor results in commonplace wine. Well-drained, easily penetrable soils with good water-retention are desirable, as they permit the vine to dig deeply for water and minerals. The heat-retaining (and reflecting) character of a particular soil is also an important factor, especially in correlation with climate. High soil pH, common in limestone-rich soils, contributes to higher acidity (low pH) in grapes, and although such soils are typically inhospitable to most agriculture, viticulture thrives. Soil acidity (low pH) can, on the other hand, be a deterrent to viticulture. This can be countered by the application of lime. The choice of grapevine is inextricably linked to its terroir : would the terroir of Burgundy not be fundamentally altered if Pinot Noir was suddenly replaced with another grape? When a new vineyard is planted, the grower not only chooses the grape variety he or she desires, but also the specific clone or clones of that variety that best express the desired character. Clones, identical genetic reproductions of a single vine, are selected for a host of different attributes in both the field and the wine: disease resistance, hardiness, yield, aromatics, structure, and color are among the qualities to consider when selecting a clone. Once a vineyard is established, the grower may choose to propagate the vines by either clonal selection or mass selection ( selection massale ). The latter method, popular in Burgundy, enables the grower to select budwood for replanting from a number of vines throughout the vineyard, rather than single clones. In mass selection, a grower will attempt to reinforce positive traits and eliminate negative traits through appropriate selection—and while the results may be less precise than those gained through clonal selection, a broader genetic diversity is maintained. The budwood selection, or scion, is then usually grafted onto separate rootstock. Although some modern vineyards are still planted on their own rootstock, most of the world’s vines are grafted to American rootstock. Phylloxera, detailed under “Vine Diseases and Insect Threats” below, ravaged most of the world’s vineyards in the late 19th century. Salvation came in the form of lowly American grapevine species— Vitis riparia and others—that were highly resistant to the root louse. A grower may select a particular rootstock not just for its resistance to phylloxera, but also its ability to withstand other diseases and drought, its tolerance to salt and lime, and/or its effect on vine vigor. The combination of clonal and rootstock selection will have a great impact on the character and health of the vine. Once grafted and planted, the vine will not usually produce a crop of grapes suitable for harvest until its third year. In many European appellations, growers are prohibited from harvesting grapes for wine until the vine is at least three years old. By its sixth year, the grapevine is considered mature; shoot growth and the vine’s annual yield, in the absence of major stresses, stabilize. The root system will grow to maturity by the tenth year, although poorer soils will slow growth. The yield of many commercial vineyards will begin to decline after 20 years, and vineyards are often uneconomical to maintain after 50 years of age. However, exceptional old vine plantings of a century or more of age exist, producing small yields but highly concentrated fruit. Old vine plantings of Rhône varieties in Australia and Zinfandel in California are especially valued. BACK TO TOP Vine Training and Pruning Head trained spur pruned Zinfandel. The objective of vine training, which includes the processes of pruning, shaping, and trellising the vine, is to maximize the vine’s performance in local conditions and to keep its canes from touching the ground and establishing new roots. The grapevine does not have a self-supporting structure, and must often be tethered to another apparatus: a tree, stake, or a wire trellis. The type of trellis or support varies according to the manner in which the vine is trained. In addition, the principles of canopy management are voiced through the selection of a training system. Most vines can be classified as either head-trained or cordon-trained. In cordon training, the vine has at least one permanent cane that extends from the trunk, called an arm or cordon. It grows thick and gnarled over time, and fruit-bearing shoots will emerge from it each season. Head-trained vines have no permanent cordon, and the trunk ends in a knob, or head. Cordon-trained vines generally require a trellising system, whereas head-trained vines may be supported by a simple stake, or not at all. Although head-trained vines may technically be trellised (see the Guyot training system, below), head-training is commonly asserted as an alternative to trellising, synonymous with bush vines. Head-trained vines may be spur-pruned or cane-pruned, whereas cordon-trained vines are spur-pruned. If left on the vine, a green shoot (fruiting cane) will harden to become a woody cane after a season—along the cane are a number of buds, which will each produce a shoot during spring budbreak. The spur is a cane cut back to two buds. If a vine is spur-pruned, the upper cane growing from a spur will be removed during winter pruning, and the lower cane growing from the same spur will be cut back to two buds, creating a new spur. Thus, each spur will produce two fruiting canes each year, one of which will become the following year’s spur. Cordon-trained vines contain several spurs along the length of the arm. In its simplest form, cane pruning requires the grower to retain one spur and one cane. The number of buds left on the cane may range from six to over a dozen, and European appellation systems often establish a maximum number for each grape. The buds on the two-year-old cane each release shoots that will produce a season’s fruit, and the entire two-year-old main cane and its fruiting canes are removed after the growing season. In its place, one of the one-year-old canes from the spur is selected and retained to become the following season’s main cane. Although cane-pruning is usually only used on head-trained vines, some growers occasionally merge the style with cordon-training, retaining a “kicker cane” along an otherwise spur-trained cordon. VSP in New Zealand. One of the most basic systems of cane-pruning/head-training is the Guyot system, developed in the 1860 by Jules Guyot. The Guyot system requires a vertical trellis on which the canes can be suspended, and has one spur and one main two-year-old cane. The double Guyot variant supports two main canes, extending outward from the trunk on opposite sides. The simplest form of spur-pruning/head-training is the Gobelet system, an ancient technique common in the Southern Rhône and Southern Italy, wherein the vine, often unsupported, resembles a goblet, with each year’s fruiting canes extending from the spur-pruned, shortened arms atop the trunk. In Italy the Gobelet system is known as albarello ; in Spain, en vaso . Australians often refer to such vines as bush vines. One of the simplest spur-pruned/cordon-trained systems is the Cordon de Royat, the preferred training style for Pinot Noir in Champagne. The Cordon de Royat system is similar to the Guyot system, with a single spur-pruned permanent cordon extending horizontally from the trunk, rather than a two-year-old cane. The spur-pruned/cordon-trained Geneva system and a close variant, the Lyre system, are more complicated, as cordons extend outward from the trunk in a flat “U” shape, creating a divided canopy. Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP), a trellising system, may be used for either cane-pruned or spur-pruned vines. The Tendone system, known as pergola in Italy and enforcado in Portugal, is an alternative training system in which the vines are trained upward and overhead along wooden frames or trees, enabling workers to pass underneath. Tendone vines may be either spur- or cane-pruned. This list is by no means exhaustive; many other styles and combinations of training systems exist. BACK TO TOP Vine Diseases and Insect Threats Diseases that affect the vine can be broadly categorized into four main groups: fungal, viral, bacterial, and phytoplasma. Fungal diseases manifest as mildew or mold and are typically associated with warm and damp climates, attacking either the root system or the canopy of the grapevine. Fungal spores are spread by wind and rain and a disease, once entrenched in a vine, may infect an entire vineyard. Some of the most worrisome fungal diseases—including powdery and downy mildew—originated in America, arriving in Europe on cuttings in the 19th century. Fungal diseases, while problematic in the past, can be successfully controlled—if not wholly eradicated—through fungicide sprays and other applications. Bacterial diseases are less common but are difficult to control and can be extremely devastating to the health of the vine. Viral diseases, spread through grafting or transmitted by insects, are often less immediately destructive than bacterial diseases, yet there is no known cure for many common viruses affecting grapevines. Infected vines experience a shortened lifespan, reduced yields and a changed quality of fruit. Viral diseases are controlled through removal and appropriate selection for propagation. Phytoplasma diseases are caused by phytoplasmas, pathogens similar to bacteria, yet they are symptomatically similar to viral diseases and, like viruses, must be spread through an insect vector or rootstock grafting. Phytoplasma diseases, known as grapevine yellows, were first recorded in Europe in the mid-1990s, and may cause widespread difficulties in the 21st century. One of the most historically important and devastating blights on the vine is not a disease at all, but an infestation: phylloxera . The tiny Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (originally called Phylloxera vastatrix ), an aphid that feeds on the roots of vines, is native to the Eastern United States, but it quickly spread through Europe from cuttings imported to the Southern Rhône Valley in the early 1860s, and is now present in all of the world’s major winegrowing countries—with the notable exception of Chile. Phylloxera will kill vines by destroying its root system, and its arrival in Europe swelled fears of a total collapse of viticulture. Most of the world’s Vitis vinifera vines are today grafted onto native American vine rootstocks, which are naturally resistant to the phylloxera root louse. Sandier soils, such as those found in Colares in Portugal, act as a natural barrier, impeding the spread of phylloxera. Other insects—mealy bugs, nematodes, and glassy-winged sharpshooters—act as carriers, or vectors, of disease, and their appearance in the vineyard may be a harbinger of a coming infection. Fungal Diseases Powdery Mildew (Oidium): Native to North America, the Uncinula necator fungus has spread worldwide, and thrives in humid climates even without precipitation—rainfall is actually a detriment to the survival of its spores. The fungus, during its anamorph stage, is known as Oidium tuckerii . Powdery mildew affects all green parts of the plant, marking grapes, leaves, and shoots with its dusty white mildew growth. It prefers densely shaded canopies and overcast weather, and greatly inhibits bunch development and ripening. If infected prior to flowering, yields will be reduced; if infected after fruit set, berries will struggle to achieve veraison and reach full size. Fruit affected by powdery mildew is universally avoided in the winemaking process, as it creates off-flavors in the wine. Powdery mildew, first recorded in England in 1847, spread quickly throughout the Vitis vinifera vineyards of Europe but was soon controlled by applications of sulfur and other fungicides. Downy Mildew (Peronospora): Another fungal disease that emigrated to Europe on North American vine cuttings, downy mildew spread rampantly through France and the rest of Europe in the early 1880s. Plasmopara viticola , the agent of downy mildew, attacks the green portions of the vine, causing leaves to drop off the vine and limiting the vine’s ability to photosynthesize. The infection is first visible as an oil spot on vine leaves. As spores germinate a white, cottony growth develops on the underside of the leaves. The fungus survives the winter on fallen leaves in the soil, and its spores reach the vine again with the help of rain splatter in the spring. Arid regions prohibit its growth. The blue-staining Bordeaux Mixture , a spray of copper sulfate, water and lime, was developed by 1885 to prevent outbreaks of downy mildew. Eutypa Dieback: Also called dead arm, the disease is caused by the Eutypa lata fungus. Spores are carried by rain and enter the vine through pruning wounds. Common in Mediterranean climates, the disease is difficult to control as it affects a wide number of plants. Infected vines experience stunted shoot growth as the fungus releases toxins, and eventually an infected cane may die—the dead arm. This disease has a drastic effect on yield, but does not devalue the quality of the crop. In fact, Australia’s d’Arenberg ascribes a beneficial effect on quality to the dead arm, and markets its icon Shiraz under the disease’s nickname. A separate fungus, Phomopsis viticola , manifests as a similar disease. Esca (Black Measles): One of the earliest known fungal grapevine diseases, Esca thrives in warmer climates but exists worldwide, and there is no known control or cure. Unlike other fungal diseases, Esca is the result of a complex of fungi, rather than a single organism. On young vines, the disease will weaken growth, affect berry development and discolor leaves; in hot weather an affected young vine may suddenly die. In older vines, the disease affects the wood, causing the interior of the trunk and arms to soften and rot from the inside—a condition that led ancient Romans to use Esca-infected tree trunks for firewood, as its spongy interior quickly caught fire. Mature, Esca-infected vines will rarely live past 30 years of age. The disease is exacerbated by rainfall and can be spread by wind or on the pruning shears of careless vineyard workers. Black Rot: Native to North America, Black Rot spread to Europe with the importation of phylloxera-resistant rootstocks in the late 1800s. The disease is caused by the Guignardia bidwelli fungus, originating as a black spot on the vine’s shoots, leaves, and berries. Although yield reductions can be disastrous if unchecked, the disease can be controlled through fungicide sprays. Bunch Rot: Bunch rot is a grouping of similar diseases caused by a number of fungi species. In general, bunch rots reduce crop yields and may adversely affect the character of the wine, imbuing it with moldy off-flavors. One of the most common forms of bunch rot is Botrytis bunch rot. Known in its malevolent form as grey rot, the Botrytis cinerea fungus will break down the skin of berries and allow other yeasts and bacteria to rot the grapes. It spreads quickly throughout vineyards. However, if the fungus invades healthy white grapes under favorable conditions, it will instead result in the noble rot, a precondition for some of the world’s greatest sweet wines. Botrytis bunch rot requires warm weather and humidity of at least 90% to germinate. Bacterial Diseases Pierce’s Disease: Caused by the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa and most commonly transmitted by the glassy-winged sharpshooter—a leafhopping insect found near citrus orchards and oleander plants—Pierce’s Disease is a scourge, rendering vines incapable of producing chlorophyll and killing them within one to five years. The disease is common in the southern United States and Mexico but is steadily moving northward in California, with sightings of the glassy-winged sharpshooter and outbreaks of the disease provoking major alarm in both Sonoma and Napa counties. There is neither a cure nor a chemical control for the disease, and authorities in other countries are maintaining strict quarantines to prevent its incursion. Crown Gall (Black Knot): T he Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium causes the Crown Gall disease in a wide variety of plant species. When affected, a vine develops tumors (galls) on its trunk, which girdle and essentially strangle the vine, withering or killing outright the portions of the vine above. The bacteria thrive in colder climates, and systemically live inside the grapevine. During winter freezes, when the vine’s trunk may be ruptured, the bacteria invade the outer trunk, rapidly multiplying and fomenting the onset of disease. The disease is spread through the propagation of bacteria-infected budwood. Bacterial Blight: Caused by the Xanthomonas ampelina bacterium, Bacterial Blight often kills young grapevine shoots. They develop dark brown streaks in early spring, and eventually wither and die. Spread by rain and compromised pruning tools, the disease can be controlled by hot water treatments and copper sprays, such as the Bordeaux Mixture. Viral Diseases Leafroll Virus: Leafroll Virus, a condition caused by a complex of at least nine different viruses, may be responsible for as much as 60% of the world’s grape production losses. Although affected vines display radiant shades of red and gold in the autumn, such beautiful colors, combined with a characteristic downward curling of the leaves, signal the virus’s malevolent side: reduced yields and delayed ripening. Leafroll Virus, spread through propagation of infected vines or by an insect vector like the mealy bug, is currently incurable but it will not kill the vine; thus, infected vines are not always removed. Fanleaf Degeneration: Fanleaf Degeneration, a nepovirus spread by soil nematodes feeding on infected roots, severely curtails yields and affected vineyards must be removed. A complex of similar diseases, Fanleaf Degeneration deforms shoot growth, and leads to poor fruit set and shot (seedless) berries. The leaves on an infected vine are malformed, resembling fans in appearance, and may form yellow bands around the veins. The productive lifespan of the vine and its winter durability are diminished. Phytoplasma Diseases Flavescence Dorée: A form of grapevine yellows, Flavescence Dorée first appeared in Armagnac in 1949. Leafhopper insects and propagation of infected vines spread the disease, which will initially delay budbreak and slow shoot growth, eventually causing bunches to fall off the vine and berries to shrivel. The disease will discolor leaves, cause pustules and cracks to form, and may kill young vines. No cure exists, although insecticides may be used to control leafhopper insect populations and retard its spread. BACK TO TOP Sustainable Models of Viticulture The 20th century witnessed a series of great agricultural advancements—many of which grew from wartime applications—as modern chemistry paved the way for successful monoculture. The discovery of synthetic nitrogen led to the development of chemical fertilizers, a Nobel Prize-winning endeavor blemished by its subsequent use in the poison gases of World Wars I and II. Chemical disease and pest control became widespread. By the 1950s, agriculture amongst the world’s leading nations was industrialized, and farming yields climbed. Such intensive farming practices require high inputs of (fossil fuel) energy, and industrialized farms develop dependencies on chemical means of survival as the land is stripped bare. As the 21st century dawned, such chemical enhancements are being enhanced by precise genetic modification—perhaps the only possible result of a history in which mankind has continually refined the plant species of agriculture through one form of selection or another. GMOs (genetically modified organisms) have been banned in the EU since 1998, but genetically modified yeasts were first employed in North American winemaking in 2006. Viticulture—a commercial enterprise at its heart—parallels trends and advancements in the larger world of agriculture. However, a rapidly expanding generation of growers is taking the ethos of organic and sustainable viticulture to heart. The ideal of sustainable viticulture, an unregulated (and therefore abused) term, is ultimately to return the vineyard to a self-sustaining position in harmony with the larger ecosystem to which it belongs. Its many adherents interpret the idea in different ways and to different degrees. In the US, many advocates of greener agriculture have become fixated on the idea of organic farming. In order to grow grapes organically in the US or Australia, synthetic chemical treatments and certain filtration procedures are forbidden—although copper and sulfur treatments, such as Bordeaux Mixture, may still be allowed. When an American (or Australian) wine is labeled as organic, it must be produced from organically-grown grapes and contain no added sulfites—a stipulation which prevents most good bottles from qualifying, as sulfites are an important (and almost universal) preservative in wine. Instead, many bottles are labeled as “wine made from organically grown grapes,” a designation which permits the addition of sulfites. Despite the image of green, less than 3% of California’s acreage is certified organic. France only has about 9% of its vineyard area certified. In 2012, the EU elaborated upon existing laws for organic grapegrowing by laying out winemaking measures required in order to label a wine organic. This included limiting the amount of SO 2 allowed in winemaking (a maximum of 100 mg/L for reds and 150 mg/L for whites and rosé, with a 30 mg/L differential if residual sugar is greater than 2 g/L). It is important to remember, too, that many growers around the world practice organically but choose not to get certified for a multitude of reasons, not the least of which are economic as well as the fact that certification rules can be rigid in exceptionally challenging vintages. While organic viticulture is admirable, it functions legally by the elimination of negative practices, rather than implementation of positive ones. Other models of sustainability take a different approach in promoting the long-term health of the soil and the vine’s relationship to its environment. In this sense, sustainability may govern (but is not limited to) water usage, energy efficiency, pest and erosion control, the planting of cover crops, the degree of mechanization, planting decisions, and even labor practices. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is considered a sustainable approach to weed, insect, and disease problems that tolerates the targeted application of some synthetic products, but limits their use overall. Often, IPM is utilized as a vineyard transitions from conventional to organic viticulture, or it may be a part of a separate sustainability philosophy. New regional sustainability organizations include VINEA, a voluntary group of Walla Walla Valley winegrowers who promote a holistic, socially- and environmentally-responsible methodology. VINEA winegrowers may not be exclusively organic, but they do farm in accordance with the standards set forth by LIVE (Low Input Viticulture and Enology, a third-party certifying system) and the vineyards are certified as Salmon-Safe. Oregon’s producers are at the forefront of sustainable approaches, and may label their wines as Oregon Sustainable Certified Wine (OSCW) provided 97% of fruit is certified by Salmon-Safe. Another approved organization, such as LIVE or USDA Organic, must certify both the fruit and the winery. California Certified Sustainable Winegrowing (CERTIFIED SUSTAINABLE), administered by the California Sustainable Winegrowing Alliance (CSWA), provides incremental certification for wineries and vineyards based on a concept of continual improvement. While less than 3% of California’s grape acreage is certified organic, as of 2015, 25% of acreage and over 60% of the state’s case production was CERTIFIED SUSTAINABLE, Lodi Rules, Napa Green, and/or SIP. The controversial concept of biodynamic viticulture takes the concepts of organic and sustainable farming and combines them with an almost mystical sensibility. Observing the rhythms and forces of the Earth is, in the ideal of biodynamic farming, intrinsically tied to the success of any ecosystem—the farm, in concert with the cosmic periphery, becomes a whole organism, generating its own fertility as governed by the cycle of seasons and lunar activity. Truly biodynamic vineyard workers will time their various tasks by motions of celestial bodies—particularly the moon. Introduced by the Austrian Rudolf Steiner in 1924 and today personified by Nicolas Joly of the Loire, biodynamic agriculture requires the yearly application of homeopathic preparations, produced from such animal and mineral substances as dandelion flowers, stinging nettles, and “horn manure” to ritually treat and heal the soil. Biodiversity and soil rotation are emphasized. The Demeter Biodynamic Trade Association certifies biodynamic farms and vineyards internationally. Many are skeptical of the biodynamic model, and the resulting wines may be wasteful or revelatory—depending on whom one asks. BACK TO TOP Vinification The intricacies of vinification—the transformation of grape juice into wine—can vary considerably between different producers, different regions, and different styles of wine, but the principles remain the same. Vinification is dependent on sound viticulture. Ultimately, the job of the winemaker is to preserve the inherent quality of a grape as it becomes wine. However, the choices a winemaker faces in determining how a grape’s character may be best expressed—and the tools at his or her disposal—are numerous. The rather quaint notion of fermentation as a natural, unaided process—and of wine as a totally natural product—is a false premise in most cases, relieved of the burden of truth by the methods inherent to modern winemaking. Many modern enhancements of the basic principles of vinification have raised the overall quality of wine worldwide, and confer a greater control over the final product. As in the practices of viticulture, some producers choose to emphasize the natural form of wine in its levels of unpredictability; others prefer to make their wines with the assurances that result from an industrialized process. In the process of alcoholic fermentation, the metabolism of yeast cells converts sugar in grape must into ethyl alcohol (ethanol) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). Heat is generated during this process. The ratio of conversion is not perfect, and intermediate compounds must develop, bridging the transformation of sugar to alcohol. Traces of volatile compounds produced in this complex series of reactions, including acetaldehydes, ethyl acetate and fusel oils, remain in the finished wine and influence its aroma and character. While a small amount of sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) is also naturally produced as a byproduct of fermentation, SO 2 is generally added to the must or juice before fermentation to prevent oxidation and bacterial contamination, and to ensure rapid fermentation. Acetaldehyde, regarded as a sign of oxidation in finished wines, is actually the last link on the chain of intermediate compounds between sugar and alcohol, and will remain in the new wine in trace amounts. A small amount of the remaining acetaldehyde is inevitably converted to acetic acid, which in turn reacts with alcohol to produce ethyl acetate, a culprit of volatile acidity in wine. When volatile acidity is encountered as a fault, excessive acetic acid has been produced by the activity of acetobacter, the group of bacteria responsible for turning wine to vinegar in the presence of oxygen. Yeasts require nitrogen to work, and low levels of nitrogen in the must leads to the formation of hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), a highly volatile compound reminiscent of rotten eggs. Winemakers may supplement low nitrogen levels through nutrient additions, to avoid excessive sulfide production during fermentation. H 2 S levels may also be affected by elemental sulfur (S) coming in from the vineyard on the grapes if a treatment occurred close to harvest. In winemaking terms, the addition of sulfites refers to sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ); sulfides include hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), mercaptans and other foul-smelling compounds produced under reductive conditions. The size and complexity of a fermentation vessel can range from a small plastic bin to a barrique to a 2,500 hl-capacity stainless steel tank. The amount of heat generated by fermentation increases with the size of the must—without accounting for any temperature control, small vessels provoke slow, cool fermentations and large vessels lead to short, hot fermentations. Below 50°F, most yeasts will not act; above 105°F, yeasts will die. White wine fermentations usually take place on the cooler end, as fruit and freshness are preserved at lower temperatures. Red wine fermentations may reach into the 90s, although winemakers run the risk of volatalized (lost) flavor compounds and stuck fermentations as the thermometer passes 95°F. The benefit of hot fermentations for red wines is in the increased extraction of color, tannin and flavor compounds. The risk of stuck fermentation—a disastrous and sudden shutdown of yeast activity—has been greatly reduced in the age of temperature control and selected commercial yeasts. However, stuck fermentations still keep many winemakers up at night during, particularly if it has been a challenging vintage, yeast nutrition has been difficult to manage, and/or they have opted for using ambient yeasts to ferment. Large fermentation tanks with temperature control can accompany either cool or hot fermentations, without allowing the temperature to rise out of hand. Barrel fermentation , on the other hand, lacks temperature control but the relatively small size of the vessel prevents temperatures from rising too high. White grapes (such as Chardonnay) fermented in barrel will lose some of the initial fruit and fresh aromatics, yet gain a more cohesive expression of oak and a subtler color than those fermented in tank but aged in a new barrel. Barrel fermented wines are generally subject to the processes of lees contact and bâtonnage , or lees stirring, which add further complexity and richness. Other fermentation vessels include large wooden casks, ceramic amphorae and cement eggs—a less porous vessel than a barrel, yet still allowing some oxygen ingress. Bâtonnage. The agent of fermentation—yeast—is an important consideration for the winemaker. A wide number of cultured yeasts are available, developed in laboratories and designed to lend control over some aspect of the fermentation process or affect the character of the wine. Cultured yeasts promise reliability, and are often able to continue to work in higher levels of alcohol than ambient yeasts. Ambient yeasts—often inaccurately identified as native or wild—inhabit the winery and come to life in the presence of must, although they are by nature less predictable than cultured yeasts. Many winemakers believe ambient yeasts create a more complex wine. Some will hope for a smooth beginning to ambient yeast fermentation, but inoculate the must with cultured yeast if the progress is slow; others will inoculate with cultured yeasts and use SO 2 to eliminate any ambient yeast in the must in order to maintain total control. Depending on the type of yeast used, the wine will take as little as a week to more than a month to ferment dry. In the milder climates of the Old World, chaptalization—the addition of sugar to the must to increase the final alcohol and glycerin content of the wine—is frequently practiced. In the warmer climates of the New World, some producers respond to the problem of excessive ripening and the resulting high alcohol levels by removing alcohol from the wine through modern devices such as spinning cones. Another technique of alcohol adjustment, reverse osmosis , separates the wine into two constituent parts, permeate and retentate. The permeate, which contains water and ethanol, is then distilled to a proper level before being recombined with the retentate—the wine’s aromatic compounds—at a lower percentage of alcohol. Once banned in the EU, such processes of de-alcoholization by physical separation were legalized in 2009, provided the level of alcohol is not adjusted by more than 2%. Winemakers in warm regions may also choose to balance their wines through acidification: the addition of acid to must or to a finished wine. Tartaric acid and malic acid, the two principal acids in grape juice, may be used for acidification; tartaric acid, added prior to fermentation, is preferred. As (or after) the alcoholic fermentation occurs, the unrelated process of malolactic fermentation, also known as secondary fermentation or “malo,” may take place in the wine. In malolactic fermentation, lactic acid bacteria convert harsh malic acids into softer lactic acids and carbon dioxide. It rounds out a wine’s texture. Malolactic fermentation may be initiated by inoculation, or it may occur naturally, as lactic acid bacteria are naturally found alongside yeasts on grape skins. It may also be prevented or shortened by removing the organisms responsible. Malolactic fermentation often occurs in red wines, and most of the world’s fuller styles of white wines undergo either full or partial malo. Lighter, high-acid whites are sometimes treated to a degree of malo, although producers of certain varieties, like Riesling, scrupulously avoid it. Diacetyl, the compound responsible for buttery aromas in wine, is a byproduct of malolactic fermentation. Carbonic maceration ( macération carbonique ) is an alcoholic fermentation used for some red wines, wherein whole, uncrushed grapes in an anaerobic environment (under a protective blanket of CO 2 ) initiate an intracellular fermentation. Attempting to sustain itself, a berry will release enzymes to transform its own sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This occurs without the action of yeasts. However, such fermentations cannot produce more than a couple of degrees of alcohol, as the berry ceases activity in the presence of enough ethanol. Carbonic maceration must therefore be combined with a standard fermentation in wine production. In Beaujolais, where the process is often used for nouveau and other wines, a tank will be filled with whole berries. Berries at the bottom will be crushed under the weight of those above it and will ferment normally. The ensuing carbon dioxide will blanket the whole berries above, which will then begin to ferment by carbonic maceration. The grapes will eventually explode, or the winemaker will press the juice, and then the yeasts would begin their work. Carbonic maceration. BACK TO TOP Red Wine Production After harvest, grapes may be sorted (on a vibrating table or belt) prior to being crushed and destemmed. This initial sorting is labor-intensive and expensive, but allows the winemaker to remove MOG—material other than grapes. Crushing grapes, traditionally accomplished by foot, is usually carried out by machine—a crusher-destemmer. Alternatively, some producers may choose to use whole clusters (retaining the stems), whole berries (discarding the stems), or partially destemmed and partially crushed berries. The fermentation of whole berries—a common practice with Pinot Noir and Syrah—will encourage a level of carbonic maceration, whereas stems may be retained for spicy aromatic complexity and structure. Whole cluster fermentation requires less handling while improving the movement of juice and air through the cap. Damaged or unripe stems, however, can cause undesirable green flavors in the wine. If a winery uses whole berries—and spares no expense—the grapes may be sorted again after destemming to remove jacks (leftover pieces of grape stem) and any remaining MOG. Crushed red grapes will usually undergo a pre-fermentation maceration, which promotes the extraction of color and tannin. Traditionally, this maceration was the simple consequence of waiting for ambient yeasts to ignite fermentation, but today many inoculated musts undergo this period of aqueous extraction. Cold soak, a pre-fermentation maceration technique that relies on substantial SO 2 additions and a cold temperature, was developed in Burgundy in the 1970s and has been popularized by Pinot Noir producers worldwide. Proponents may cold soak grapes for nearly a week before fermentation. Occasionally, some juice will be run off prior to fermentation, in order for the producer to have a greater ratio of skins to juice, and therefore achieve more extraction. Punching down the cap (pigeage) of California Pinot Noir. Fermentation and maceration occur in tandem for red wines. Grape skins are always included in red wine fermentation, as the winemaker hopes to extract the phenolics contained within grape skins—tannin, color compounds (anthocyanins) and flavor compounds—with the help of heat and alcohol. The juice, in most cases, would be colorless without the skins. As red wine ferments, a cap ( chapeau ) of grape solids (pomace) develops on the surface of the must, pushed up by the action of CO 2 . Careful cap management is integral to red wine production: without intervention, the cap will dry out, solidify and prevent extraction. One traditional method of submerging and breaking up the cap is pigeage , or punching down. Pigeage may be performed manually—by workers using poles, paddles, or even their own feet—or mechanically. An alternate method of cap management is remontage , in which the fermenting wine is pumped over the top of the cap. Pumping over will agitate and aerate the wine to a greater degree. Both methods may be performed once or several times daily during fermentation. A third technique, délestage , allows the winemaker to fully drain the fermentation vessel. The wine is racked into a separate vessel while the cap drains fully, and is then pumped back over the cap in the fermentation vessel. Once fermentation has concluded, a fuller-bodied red may continue to macerate for a period of days or weeks before it is pressed off the skins. The most tannic and traditional styles of Nebbiolo-based wines in Piedmont often incur at least a month of post-fermentation maceration. After fermentation and any post-fermentation maceration, the winemaker will draw the high quality, free-run wine ( vin de goutte ) from the tank. The remaining pomace is then pressed to yield coarser, tannic press wine ( vin de presse ). A small proportion of press wine may be blended in to a top cuvée for structure, or it may be entirely reserved for lesser wines. The traditional basket press relies on vertical pressure to press the pomace, whereas the modern pneumatic bladder press exerts gentle pressure on the grapes by means of its inflation with air. The wines may be blended or kept as separate lots, and moved into the preferred aging vessel, if any. High quality red wines are generally matured in oak barrels—the size and percentage of new barrels is determined by the style of the wine. The maturation period ( élevage ) ranges from a few months to more than two years in wood for some top Bordeaux and Napa wines, and the wines racked periodically during the process. Racking, or soutirage , is the movement of wine from one vessel to another, providing aeration and clarification as the wine is removed from its lees, or sediment. Malolactic fermentation may occur quickly at the end of fermentation or slowly during maturation. SO 2 is often added during maturation, or just before bottling—an addition that is anathema to advocates of sans soufre (“without sulfur”), a newer doctrine of extreme natural winemaking. Prior to bottling, the wines will be racked a final time, and may be fined or filtered. Both processes ensure greater clarification in the finished wine, and filtration promotes stability in the bottle. Fining ( collage ) requires a fining agent to precipitate solids out of the wine: bentonite, casein, isinglass, gelatin, and egg white are commonly used. When employed in the fining process, casein (a milk protein), egg white, gelatin and isinglass (a material obtained from sturgeon bladders) may create a dilemma for vegans and vegetarians. Bentonite, a type of clay, escapes criticism from such quarters. Filtration, a more invasive and expensive process, is often accomplished through the use of pads or a membrane with microscopic openings. Many critics charge that fining and especially filtration strip the wine of character, and a growing number of winemakers are proclaiming their aversion to either method. BACK TO TOP White Wine Production Chardonnay undergoing a brief period of skin contact. White wine grapes are crushed and pressed prior to fermentation. The grapes may be crushed and destemmed, or crushed as whole bunches, as the stems provide good drainage channels for the juice during the pressing stage. White grapes may see some extended skin contact, usually measured in hours rather than days, between crushing and pressing. This maceration enables the extraction of aromatic compounds but may lead to excessive tannin and bitterness in the final wine if unchecked. White grapes are pressed in either a traditional style of vertical press or a modern pneumatic press, and—like red grapes after fermentation—first yield free-run juice, followed by pressed juice of decreasing quality. After pressing, the juice is allowed to settle ( débourbage ). This process allows the juice to be racked off suspended solids and clarified prior to fermentation. During all of these procedures, warm temperatures and oxygen are the enemy, and winemakers must keep musts cool and prevent spoilage or premature fermentation with the judicious use of SO 2 . Fermentation occurs at a cooler temperature for white wines than for reds, and there is no cap, as the grapes have already been pressed. White wines are frequently clarified after fermentation, and may undergo cold stabilization—a process that causes tartrate crystals to precipitate out of the wine at a temperature of approximately 25°F. In white wines that are not cold-stabilized, crystals may later form in the bottle. Light, aromatic white wines do not often undergo barrel maturation or malolactic fermentation, and will usually be bottled shortly after the conclusion of fermentation. White wines may be fermented to dryness, but fermentation is arrested for many aromatic white wines while some degree of residual sugar remains. In some cases, sweetness may also be added back to a wine after it ferments to dryness, in the form of sterilized fresh grape juice, known as Süssreserve in Germany. Off-dry and sweet white wines are often filtered, as the sugar content can lead to unexpected refermentation in the bottle. White wines matured in oak often undergo full or partial malolactic fermentation. The lees, or yeast sediment, build up in fermenting red wines as well as whites, but their impact is more noticeable in the development of white wines. Fermented wine, whether in tank or barrel, may be left in contact with the lees in order to encourage malolactic fermentation—lactic acid bacteria feed on the nutrients in lees—and supplement richness and body in the wines. The effects of lees contact may be punctuated by bâtonnage . White wines matured in oak, such as the classic wines of Burgundy or Graves, are typically bottled after 9 to 18 months in barrel. During the maturation period, the wines may be racked and the lees may be stirred frequently or not at all. They may be fined or filtered prior to bottling. BACK TO TOP Rosé Wine Production There are two basic methods of rosé winemaking: blending and limited skin maceration . A blended rosé is simply the product of red and white base wines blended together, a technique widely regarded as inferior. Blending is prohibited throughout the EU, but only for wines below the PGI level! While individual appellations typically preclude the use of blending in rosé winemaking, this does not rule out changes to PDO/PGI regulations in the future, and the world's most expensive rosé wine—Champagne—is almost always assembled as a blend of white and red base wines. Nonetheless, subjecting red grapes to a short period of skin contact prior to fermentation is generally upheld as the superior technique for still rosé winemaking. In this method, a winemaker may purposefully craft rosé by leaving the juice in contact with its skins for a period of several hours to several days, depending on the desired extraction of color. Conversely, he or she may "bleed" juice from a maceration, producing rosé as a byproduct of red wine fermentation. In this variant, known as the saignée ("bleeding") method, pink juice is drawn from a vessel to concentrate the remaining must for red wine production, improving its color and structure. Finally, some winemakers may choose not to crush at all, achieving the palest of hues through direct pressing of whole red grapes or clusters. From a whisper of pink to salmon to orange to cherry red, the color of rosé wines can vary greatly, depending on the technique of production and the length of maceration. BACK TO TOP Oak Oak, a watertight, lightweight, and malleable wood, became a vessel of choice for wine during the era of ancient Rome. Oak allows gentle, slow oxidation to occur, rounding out and softening the texture of wine. The smaller the oak container, the more marked this effect is. New oak also contributes flavor—in the form of lactones and phenolic aldehydes such as vanillin—and wood tannin to wine, but this effect is dulled upon repeated usage—a barrel becomes neutral, ceasing to contribute flavor and aroma by its fourth to sixth year of use. Most of the barrel’s flavor is transmitted to the wine in its first year. However, a neutral barrel can still be useful, especially if new wood flavor is not desired. The use of new barrels is not just a stylistic concern, as new oak barrels are extremely expensive. The use of oak chips, staves, and powder are cheaper alternatives, although they will not provide an oxidative effect. Micro-oxygenation ( microbullage ), an aeration technique in which small amounts of oxygen are allowed to enter a stainless steel tank during either fermentation or maturation of the wine, may be combined with oak chips to approximate the effects of a new barrel at a fraction of the cost. The flavor imparted by an oak barrel is dependent on the level of toast and the type of wood. French oak barrels, produced from Quercus robur and Quercus petraea trees, are characterized by tight wood grain developed through slow growth. Faster-growing American white oak species ( Quercus alba ) usually display wider grain. Traditionally, French oak is split rather than sawn, a technique that produces fewer staves but prevents leakage in the final barrel. American oak is less porous and can be sawn without fear of leakage, but this method releases more vanillin and lactones, resulting in the coconut character of American oak. The drying process of the green staves also varies between European and American coopers. French oak is usually air-dried, a gentle process that leaches out some of oak’s more aggressive tannins and flavors, whereas American oak is quickly kiln-dried, and lactones are concentrated. The quality (and subtlety) of American oak is improving, however, and many American coopers now use air-drying techniques. In order to make an oak barrel, heat must be applied to bend each dry wooden stave into shape. This process is divided into three stages: warming ( chauffage ), shaping ( cintrage ), and toasting ( bousinage )—the latter stage has a significant effect on the wine. A barrel is subject to light, medium, or heavy toasting, and while the level of lactones (responsible for oaky aromas) and vanillin rises with increased toasting, they will subside with heavy toasting in place of spicier, smokier aromas. Light toast promotes the most extraction of wood tannin. BACK TO TOP The Future of Winemaking Wine has been an important commodity since ancient times, and winemaking decisions cannot be totally divorced from the business of wine, except in the most privileged of cases. Economic realities inform decisions in the winery and the vineyard. Striving for sustainability is necessary, but such wines are more expensive to produce, at least in the short term. While the downside of industrial viticulture and winemaking is easy to see, the search for sustainability and low-impact techniques may promote its own dangerous sensibility of doctrine and purity. Winemakers who advocate sustainable vineyard practices must determine if vinification practices should be altered to conform to the ethos guiding management of the vineyard. What is an unnatural manipulation in the winery and what is an accepted practice, necessary to the character of a particular wine? As the public continues to demand—and deserve—a right to understand what we consume, winery decisions will be thrust ever more into the spotlight. A “natural,” hands-off approach in the winery may lead to superior wines, or it may lead to bacterial spoilage and inconsistency. A winemaker may choose from many avenues of production, and must determine his or her own balance of quality, consistency, and level of intervention. BACK TO TOPPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/209/champagne-and-sparkling-wineWed, 22 Apr 2026 18:53:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:82f197b3-eee7-42a5-8b7b-f72852f9a23dGuildSomm AdminTable of Contents From Still to Sparkling Wine in Champagne Viticulture and Climate in Champagne The Regions of Champagne The CIVC and Échelle de Crus Types of Champagne Producers The Méthode Champenoise Styles of Champagne Still wines of Champagne Other Traditional Method Sparkling Wines Other Sparkling Winemaking Methods From Still to Sparkling Wine in Champagne The techniques of sparkling winemaking did not originate with the Benedictine monk Dom Pérignon, nor was the first purposely sparkling wine produced in the region of Champagne. Regardless, through centuries of refinement Champagne has become the world’s leading sparkling wine and the vinous embodiment of luxury and celebration. The méthode Champenoise , a complicated process involving secondary fermentation in the bottle, is at the heart of Champagne’s character and has been adopted by sparkling winemakers worldwide. The term, like “Champagne” itself, is protected by the EU, and may only be applied to sparkling wines produced according to the prescribed method within the Champagne AOP. Wines made in the fashion of Champagne but produced elsewhere may be labeled as traditional method ( méthode traditionnelle ) or classic method ( méthode classique ). Some producers, particularly in the US, continue to label their sparkling wines as Champagne, but such wines are banned from the EU. Dom Pérignon’s lasting contributions to modern Champagne lie in the techniques of assemblage (blending) and viticulture, despite the persistent myth that anoints him as the inventor of sparkling winemaking. As cellar master at the Abbey of Hautvillers from 1668 until his death in 1715, Pérignon struggled with the problem of natural refermentation. The irrepressibly cold winters of the region created a danger: as the weather cooled off in the autumn and the yeasts became dormant, fermentation would sometimes prematurely stop, and the wines would be bottled with fermentable sugars still present. With the spring thaw and rising temperatures, yeasts would awaken inside the bottle, and refermentation occurred. The resulting sparkle was a fatal flaw, as the weak, wood-fired French glass of the past could not withstand the mounting gas pressure, and bottles would explode, often causing a chain reaction throughout the cellar. In the late 17th century, the English transferred Champagne from cask to stronger, coal-fired glass that could contain the pressure, and were likely the first to enjoy true sparkling Champagne—the merits of effervescence are praised in English literary works whose publication predates Pérignon’s tenure. Pérignon and his contemporaries endeavored to lessen the probability of refermentation, rather than encourage it. Throughout the 18th century most serious producers labored to make still red and white wines that could compete with the wines of Burgundy. However, in 1724 the word mousseux— implying effervescence—appeared in connotation with the wines of Champagne, although the Champenoise may have enjoyed intentionally sparkling wines as early as 1700. With the introduction of stronger glass, some vintners purposefully produced sparkling wines, but results were mixed—many bottles continued to explode, others displayed no foam whatsoever—and the fundamental logic of the process remained mysterious. Some attributed the sparkle to the phases of the moon, and this early unpredictability created a need for additional terminology— pétillant, demi-mousseux (crémant), and grand mousseux —to define the level of effervescence, which survive today in other sparkling wine appellations. Champagne made as a still wine has enjoyed a royal reputation for a long time—Louis, son of Charlemagne, was crowned at Reims in 816, establishing a precedent for future French monarchs and a reputation for the wines of the area. Vineyards date to at least the 5th century. Gosset, the oldest Champagne house still in operation today, was founded in 1584 as a still wine producer (Ruinart, established in 1729, can claim to be the oldest sparkling Champagne house). Before bubbles became common in Champagne, producers began to produce white wines from red grapes in an effort to improve quality and their competitiveness with the wines of Burgundy—an important stylistic innovation that required exacting pressing and harvest procedures to retain a purely white must. Vestiges of vin gris Champagne production would inform sparkling winemaking: a 1718 winemaking treatise highlights the division in quality between vin de cuvée and vin de taille when pressing red grapes for white wine. Nonetheless, producers strove to produce good red wines. Throughout the 18th century, the red wines of Burgundy were generally superior to the red wines of Champagne, and—in a form of paid advertisement—doctors called into question the health benefits of pale, pinkish Champagne in comparison to the more robust and vigorous red Burgundy. The Champenoise even colored their wines with elderberry, in an attempt to achieve the deeper hues of Burgundy. The sparkling wines of Champagne, however, earned praise and, in light of their capriciousness and rarity at the time, high prices. The houses of Ruinart, Taittinger, Moët et Chandon, Delamotte and Veuve Clicquot Ponsardin were founded in the 18th century, yet sparkling Champagne production would remain problematic and imprecise until the early 1800s, when several key developments in both method and science provided a great leap forward for sparkling wines. Madame Barbe-Nicole Ponsardin, the Veuve (“widow”) Clicquot, assumed control of the house that bears her name after her husband’s death shortly after the turn of the 19th century. Under her leadership, the house pioneered the process of remuage , or riddling—a procedure that allows sediment to be easily removed from a bottle during dégorgement (disgorgement). Jean-Antoine Chaptal, the French chemist and statesman for whom the process of chaptalization is named, identified the relationship between sugar and fermentation in a seminal 1801 work. A fundamental understanding of the connection between sugar and the second fermentation, coupled with the pharmacist André François’ measurement of the precise amount of sugar required to induce it without breaking the bottle, allowed Champagne houses to produce sparkling wines with greater confidence. Improvements in both cork and glass paralleled the advancing science, and Champagne quickly evolved into a huge industry; its major brands developed international reputations. Individual growers could simply not afford the expensive process of sparkling winemaking—they would sell fruit to the larger houses, which could manage the costs of both production and marketing. Champagne production jumped from 300,000 bottles in 1800 to 20 million bottles by the 1880s. Pommery put the first brut Champagne, Pommery “Nature,” on the market in 1874. Champagne counted the royal Tsars of Russia, the kings of Belgium and Greece, and most of the English aristocracy as regular customers, and a longstanding association with French royalty served to buttress the new status of sparkling wine as a luxury product worthy of conspicuous consumption. Marketing materials in the age of poster advertising were especially flamboyant for Champagne—the wines were linked to women, leisure, sport, history, and all things celebratory. Champagne and the image of Champagne were, and still are, inseparable. Despite provocative, modern advertising imagery, many in Champagne were eager to emphasize the region’s traditions and history. In 1908, the French government delimited the Champagne region, further defining the region and its means of production and viticulture in 1927—but not without controversy. Vignerons from the southern Aube region, who had long supplied Champagne houses with base white wine, protested and nearly rioted in 1911 after being excluded from the region. The Aube was reinstated as a full region of the appellation in 1927. In 1935 the Commission de Châlons, a consortium of growers and merchants, was formed to develop quality standards and regulate pricing. In 1936, Champagne was enshrined in the new Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée system. Champagne remains the only AOC/AOP that does not need to include Appellation Contrôlée (or Protégée) on the label. A century of nearly uninterrupted growth and prestige for Champagne ended as phylloxera, fraud, and war loomed. Phylloxera struck in the 1890s, leading unscrupulous producers to import other sparkling wines and pass the product off as true Champagne. The repression of fraud became a key component of the initial delimitation of the region in 1908, and a source of great friction between merchants and growers. Collusion amongst producers to drive down Champagne grape prices was common at the turn of the century, even as they sourced fruit from the Loire, the Languedoc, and other countries. The growers finally revolted in 1911, ransacking houses and rioting in the streets until the French military stepped in to secure order. Negotiations between the parties were still underway in 1914 when the German army entered Reims. War had threatened the region before—Champagne’s vineyards were devastated in the Hundred Years’ War, 16th century religious conflicts, and the Thirty Years’ War—but the bloody, nearly immovable Western Front of World War I cut right through the region. Reims suffered constant bombardment for nearly four years; the wives, children, and those too infirm or old to fight risked life and limb to haul in the harvests. Braving artillery explosions and suffering from a lack of manpower, horses and fertilizer, the Champenoise delivered one of the finest vintages of the 20th century in 1914. After the First World War ended, stocks built up as prices rose and the lucrative German, American, and Russian export markets closed in the face of depression, Prohibition, and revolution, respectively. Champagne found itself under Nazi occupation during World War II, and producers walled up millions of bottles in their cellar networks to hide them from looting soldiers and the Nazi-appointed agent Otto Klaebisch—nicknamed the “Weinführer”—who had taken up residence at the Veuve Clicquot Ponsardin estate. Despite hidden stores and sleight of hand—such as passing off inferior wines as “Reserved for the Wehrmacht,” a stunt that landed François Taittinger in jail—Klaebisch demanded huge sums of Champagne’s wines for Germany, and the Champenoise feared for their survival. From the existing but limited framework of the Commission de Châlons, Count Robert-Jean de Vogüé of Moët et Chandon in 1941 organized a new, broader consortium of growers, producers and shippers to represent the Champagne industry and protect its interests in the face of Nazi occupation. That organization, the Comité interprofessionnel du vin de Champagne (CIVC), remains a powerful force in the complex mediation between the large Champagne houses and the numerous smaller growers from whom they source grapes. Today, merchant houses own just over 10% of Champagne’s vineyards, as the Contrôle des Structures prohibits any firm from farming more than fifteen owned or rented hectares. As a collective, the approximately 20,000 growers have a very powerful voice, despite selling under a quarter of all wine produced. In the second half of the 20th century, the popularity of Champagne propelled forward. Co-operatives, the first of which were founded in Champagne before World War I, became major suppliers to the domestic market in France. The largest houses expanded in exponential fashion, through a boom in sales, incorporation, merger, and acquisition. Following the inaugural 1921 vintage of Moët et Chandon’s “Dom Pérignon," many houses released a tête de cuvée , or prestige cuvée—a premier bottling often carrying a vintage date. From the 1970s forward, Champagne’s biggest names began establishing sparkling winemaking operations in other countries, as the limits of finite production in Champagne itself could not satisfy the world’s appetite for the wines. Champagne now accounts for only one in 12 bottles of sparkling wine produced worldwide, a statistic that supports the INAO’s decision in 2009 to meet the burden of demand and broaden the appellation’s area—the first major change since 1927. The number of villages that can grow grapes for the appellation increased from 319 to 357, although the additional acreage is not forecast to have an effect on sales until at least 2021. In 2018, there were 16,000 growers and 340 houses, which shipped 362 million bottles worldwide, up 55 million from just the year before. Of these markets, the largest are the UK, USA, Germany, and Japan, which account for half of all Champagne exports. BACK TO TOP Viticulture and Climate in Champagne The region of Champagne is located between the 48th and 49th parallels. With a mean annual temperature of only 50°F, ripening is extremely variable, and quality can differ greatly from year to year, requiring the houses of Champagne to blend between vintages to achieve a consistency in their house styles. Grape acidity usually remains markedly high—an important attribute for sparkling wines. Frost, rain, fungal disease and hail are serious concerns for growers in the cold, Atlantic-influenced climate. Rain often interrupts flowering, resulting in a bouvreux , or second crop, that rarely ripens and is left on the vine. Porous, belemnite chalk subsoil is pushed to the surface on the appellation’s slopes, absorbing heat to protect the vines at night and providing excellent drainage in the wet climate. Belemnite chalk, derived from the fossilized remains of millions of extinct cephalopods, has a high limestone content, which allows vine roots to dig deeply and is linked to increased acidity. A second layer of micraster chalk, named for an extinct sea urchin, characterizes the valley vineyards. The Champagne region is renowned for its huge network of cellars carved out of the chalk and limestone subsoil, which provides a perfect natural storage environment of 53-54° F for millions of bottles. A thin layer of clay and sand covers much of the chalk in Champagne; in the Aube to the south clay is the dominant soil type. The houses of Champagne are quick to assert the importance of the region’s soil, but slower overall to embrace the tenets of modern organic and sustainable viticulture. Visitors to the region will no doubt notice shreds of blue plastic scattered throughout many of the vineyards—remnants of bags used to ship composted trash. The Champenoise have a long history of relying on recycled Parisian garbage to fertilize their vineyards. Composting is admirable, but the portion of inorganic and toxic waste grew over time, and the practice was outlawed in 1998. Les bleus de ville remain, a reminder to a new generation of growers and caretakers. The three principal grapes authorized for the production of Champagne are Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, and the black grape Meunier (formerly Pinot Meunier—“miller’s” Pinot—named for the dusty appearance of its leaves). In 2018, Pinot Noir accounted for 38% of total plantings, Chardonnay accounted for 31%, and Meunier accounted for 31%. Larger houses will often blend Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, or all three varieties, in order to create a consistent non-vintage house style. Each grape contributes a different element: Chardonnay provides elegance and longevity, Pinot Noir supports the wine’s structure, richness and body, and Meunier lends a youthful fruitiness and approachability. In select areas, Pinot Blanc Vrai (“true” Pinot Blanc, a white form of Pinot Noir), Arbane, Pinot Gris, and Petit Meslier are authorized for Champagne AOP production, but they are rare, totaling less than 0.3% of plantings. As in all French appellations, viticulture is regulated. Yields, which are often adjusted on a yearly basis, are quite high in comparison with other appellations. During the 2016 harvest, yields surpassed 100 hl/ha. Yields remain high because of the limits set to juice extraction. In 1992, the CIVC set a limit of 102 liters of must for every 160 kg of grapes, or 2,550 liters per 4,000 kg—a marc of grapes, the amount held in a traditional Coquard basket press. This restriction brings the final yield to 66 hl/ha. Only four pruning methods are permitted: Cordon de Royat, Chablis, Vallée de la Marne, and Guyot (double and simple). Average vine age hovers around twenty years, as the lowered productivity of old vines is undesirable to most houses in Champagne. BACK TO TOP The Regions of Champagne Vineyards in the village of Epernay. Many of the major commercial houses of Champagne are located in the city of Reims and the smaller towns of Épernay and Aÿ. The 357 villages authorized to grow grapes for Champagne are split between five districts: the Montagne de Reims, Vallée de la Marne, Côte des Blancs, Côte de Sézanne, and the Côte des Bar in the Aube département . Pinot Noir is the prominent grape in both Montagne de Reims and the Aube, whereas Chardonnay is dominant in the Côte de Sézanne and almost exclusively planted, as its name indicates, on the southeast- and east-facing slopes of the Côte des Blancs. Meunier is heavily cultivated in the sheltered vineyards of the frost-prone Vallée de la Marne, where its tendency to bud late and ripen early is prized by growers. The vineyards of the Montagne de Reims are, surprisingly, divided between south- and north-facing slopes. The plain beneath the northern Montagne de Reims is too cold for viticulture, but the higher slopes of the region’s plateau enjoy a pocket of warm air that allows the grapes to ripen. Cru status is awarded to entire villages in Champagne, rather than individual vineyards or properties. However, the areas authorized for cultivation within each commune are strictly defined. 17 villages have grand cru status and 42 are classified as premier cru according to their rankings in the Échelle de Crus . BACK TO TOP The CIVC and Échelle de Crus The CIVC, the regulatory body responsible for mediating relations between growers and producers, oversees the production methods and promotion of Champagne. The CIVC regulates the size of harvests, authorizes blocage and deblocage —respectively the reserve and release of wine stocks for use in future vintages—and safeguards the protected designation of Champagne. Until 1990, the CIVC set the price of grapes through the Échelle de Crus , a percentile system by which the villages, or crus, of the Champagne appellation are rated. Villages that achieved the maximum échelle (“scale”) of 100 were classified as grands crus ; villages that achieved an échelle of 90 through 99 were classified as premier cru . Mareuil-sur-Ay in the Vallée de la Marne and Tauxières in Montagne de Reims were the only premier cru villages with a 99% ranking. Villages with a rating below 90 were simply crus . Originally, the Échelle de Crus was a true percentile system; in 1985 a revision set the minimum rating of the scale at 80. Until 1990, a village’s échelle rating represented the set percentage of price that a grower could receive for fruit. Thus, growers in grand cru villages would receive the full price set by the CIVC, and other villages would receive a percentage equivalent to their échelle rating. Today, the CIVC recommends, rather than regulates pricing, and supervises the exchange between growers and Champagne houses in order to promote fairness. In the early 2000s, the CIVC abolished the system entirely, but the premier and grand cru villages retain their titles, and producers may continue to label wines from these villages as such. BACK TO TOP Types of Champagne Producers Every bottle of Champagne bears a series of digits—the matriculation number—a code assigned to each producer by the CIVC. A set of initials precedes the number, denoting the type of producer who made the wine. NM (Négociant Manipulant) : A house that purchases grapes and or base wines from growers and other smaller houses. Some NM houses own a significant portion of their own vineyards; others own none at all. Large Champagne houses with the most international presence are invariably in this category: Moët et Chandon, Louis Roederer, Veuve Clicquot Ponsardin, Billecart-Salmon, Lanson, Taittinger, Pol Roger, Perrier-Jouët, Mumm, and Laurent-Perrier. Quality varies widely, although prices are uniformly high. Many houses often fall under the same corporate parentage; for example, Moët et Chandon, Krug, Veuve Clicquot Ponsardin, and Mercier fall under the umbrella of the luxury conglomerate LVMH. RM (Récoltant Manipulant) : A grower-producer who makes Champagne from estate-grown fruit. 95% of the grapes must originate in the producer’s own vineyards. CM (Coopérative Manipulant) : A growers’ co-operative that produces the wine under a single brand. RC (Récoltant Coopérateur) : A grower whose grapes are vinified at a co-operative, but whose wines are sold under the grower's own label. SR (Société de Récoltants) : A firm, not a co-operative, set up by a union of often related growers, who share resources to make their wines and collectively market several brands. ND (Négociant Distributeur) : A middleman company that distributes Champagne it did not make. MA (Marque d’Acheteur) : A buyer’s own brand, often a large supermarket chain or restaurant, that purchases Champagne and sells it under its own label. BACK TO TOP The Méthode Champenoise Although certain standards of viticulture must be met, the méthode Champenoise truly begins in the press house. Black grapes must be pressed especially quickly after harvest, lest they color the must. As previously mentioned, extraction is limited to 102 liters from 160 kg of grapes, or 2,550 liters from 4,000 kg. The extracted juice is then divided into the vin de cuvée (the first 2,050 liters) and the vin de taille (the following 500 liters). The vin de taille is usually richer in pigment and tannin, and many producers sell off this lesser component of the must or include it in a minor proportion as a structural element in a blend. A third extraction, the rebêche , is required by law and must comprise 1-10% of the total. The rebêche is used for distillate, not Champagne. After pressing, the juice is allowed to settle ( débourbage ) at a cool temperature for eight to fifteen hours, so that remaining solids ( bourbes ) in the must can be removed by racking prior to fermentation. The must, which is often chaptalized, will then undergo primary fermentation, resulting in high-acid base wines ( vins clairs ) with an approximate alcohol content of 11%. Primary fermentation may occur in either stainless steel or oak—typically used barrels, although some producers do use a percentage of new wood. The base wines often undergo malolactic fermentation, although this is not a universal practice. After both the primary and malolactic fermentations have concluded, the base wines will generally be clarified, through fining, filtering, or centrifuge. The clarified base wines remain in either stainless steel or barrel (or, in rare cases, bottles) until late February or March of the year following the harvest. The most classic representation of Champagne is a blend, utilizing a number of grapes, growing areas, and vintages. At this stage the blender will taste the lots of base wine, and determine a house’s hallmark blend, drawing on reserve stocks from previous years to provide complexity and richness. A certain consistency in style from year to year is highly desired. For rosé wines, a small proportion of base red wine is generally added. After the assemblage and cold stabilization, the blend will be racked and bottled with the addition of liqueur de tirage , a mixture of still wine, yeasts, sugar, and fining agents that will serve to ignite the second fermentation. The second fermentation, or prise de mousse , is the heart of the méthode Champenoise . Each bottle is affixed with a crown cap (equipped with a bidule , a plastic capsule that will serve to capture the sediment during remuage ) or a cork after the liqueur de tirage is added, and yeast begins its work. The secondary fermentation lasts up to eight weeks, as the yeast slowly converts the additional sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide. The alcohol content of the wine rises approximately 1.2-1.3%, and the carbon dioxide creates a pressure inside the bottle of five to six atmospheres. During the second fermentation, the bottles are usually stored horizontally (“ sur latte” ). Autolysis, the breakdown of dead yeast cells, forms sediment, or lees, in the bottle as second fermentation occurs. The wine will be aged on the lees for an appropriate period—a minimum of 12 months is required for non-vintage wines—prior to their removal from the bottle through dégorgement. In preparation for dégorgement , the sediment must first be trapped in the neck of the bottle. Historically, producers performed an operation called pointage , in which each bottle would be briskly shaken in order to prevent the sediment from sticking to the sides of the bottle. Newer strains of yeast generally preclude the need for pointage , and most houses have abandoned the practice. Instead, producers proceed directly to remuage , or riddling, which manipulates the sediment into the neck and bidule through sharp twists and inversion of the bottle. The widow Clicquot’s breakthrough involved the development of the pupitre : two large wooden planks fastened together in an upright “A” shape, with sixty angled holes cut into each plank of wood. A remuer would fractionally turn and tilt each bottle over a period of about eight weeks, slowly inverting the bottles with the neck pointing downward. Despite the fact that a top remuer is rumored to handle upwards of 70,000 bottles a day, Champagne is an industry, and more efficient methods are required. The modern remuage operation is shortened to a week or less through the use of the gyropalette, an automated device that holds 504 bottles. The gyropalette has replaced hand-riddling at all of the major houses, although some prestige cuvée bottlings are still handled manually. Once the sediment is successfully collected in the neck of the bottle, the bottles remain in the upside-down vertical position (“ sur pointe ”) for a short period of time prior to dégorgement , although some houses will age the wine in this position for a number of years—Bollinger’s “RD” (“ Récemment Dégorgé ”) is kept sur pointe for a number of years, and only disgorged upon order. The modern method of dégorgement à la glace involves dipping the neck of the bottle in a freezing brine solution. The bottle can then be turned upright. The force of internal pressure will expel the semi-frozen sediment (and a small portion of wine) as the crown cap is removed. An older method, dégorgement à la volée, utilizes the same principle; however, without freezing the sediment excess wine is invariably lost along with it. As the wines are fully fermented to total dryness, the bottles are then topped off with dosage , or liqueur d’expédition , a liquid mixture of sugar syrup and wine. Rarely, bone-dry non-dosage styles are produced. The amount of sugar in the dosage is determined by the desired style of the wine. Brut is the most common sweetness level and the level at which most houses bottle vintage and prestige cuvées. Sweetness Levels for Champagne Designation Residual Sugar Brut Nature/Non-Dosé 0-3 grams per liter, no added dosage Extra Brut 0-6 grams per liter Brut 0-12 grams per liter Extra Dry 12-17 grams per liter Sec 17-32 grams per liter Demi-Sec 32-50 grams per liter Doux 50+ grams per liter After the addition of dosage , the bottle is secured with a cork and six half-twists of a muselet , or wire cage. The Champagne is then aged in bottle prior to release. Non-vintage styles must remain in the cellar for a total minimum of 15 months (including the period of lees aging), whereas vintage wines require 36 months in the cellar. In reality, many top vintage wines and prestige cuvées slumber in the caves of Champagne for much longer prior to appearing on the market. Some bottle aging, whether in one’s personal cellar or the cellars of a producer, is usually critical: apparent sulfur and youthful austerity can make recently bottled Champagne less rewarding. Champagne is bottled in a range of bottle sizes. The names of large bottles, from Jeroboam forward, have Biblical connotations. Bottle sizes larger than a Jeroboam and smaller than a half bottle may be filled by transversage or by the transfer method, from a tank or through the process of decanting multiple smaller bottles. Champagne Bottle Sizes Bottle Size Quarter Bottle (Piccolo) 187 ml Half Bottle (Demi) 375 ml Bottle 750 ml Magnum 1.5 L (2 bottles) Jeroboam 3 L (4 bottles) Rehoboam (discontinued in 1983) 4.5 L (6 bottles) Methuselah 6 L (8 bottles) Salmanazar 9 L (12 bottles) Balthazar 12 L (16 bottles) Nebuchadnezzar 15 L (20 bottles) Solomon 18 L (24 bottles) * Larger sizes, including the Sovereign, Primat, and Melchizedek are extraordinarily rare. Many sources cite the 18 L bottle as a Melchior, as it is called in Bordeaux. BACK TO TOP Styles of Champagne Non-Vintage (NV) : Generally brut in style, the NV cuvée represents a house’s signature style, and the blender’s job is to ensure its consistency from year to year. Non-vintage Champagne makes up at least three-quarters of the market. Vintage : 100% of the blend must come from the stated vintage, yet a maximum 80% of a year’s harvest may be sold as vintage Champagne. The better houses declare a vintage only in exceptional years. These are usually brut in style, and good examples can age for a decade or more. Blanc de Blancs : Only white grapes are permitted, but they are not always sourced from the Côte des Blancs. They may be vintage-dated or NV. The Blanc de Blancs category represents some of Champagne’s most ageworthy bottlings; while austere and often steely in youth, better examples develop an intense bouquet with maturity. Blanc de Noirs : White wine produced solely from black grapes. The wine usually displays richness, intensity, and weight, although it can lack the supreme elegance and finesse of Blanc de Blancs . Prestige Cuvée (Tête de Cuvée) : Usually the finest and most expensive bottling that a house offers, the prestige cuvée is typically (but not always) vintage-dated and aged for a number of years prior to release. Prestige Cuvées are usually only released in superior vintages, and may undergo more traditional vinification procedures, such as barrel fermentation, riddling by hand, and cork-finishing during the second fermentation. Many of the large houses produce prestige cuvées from their own vineyards—even single vineyards in exceptional cases. Prestige cuvées may be Blanc de Blancs, Blanc de Noirs or rosé in style. Not all houses produce a prestige cuvée, and some produce several. Classic examples include Moët et Chandon "Dom Pérignon," Taittinger "Comtes de Champagne," Louis Roederer "Cristal," Laurent-Perrier "Grande Siècle," Perrier-Jouët "Belle Époque" (previously bottled as "Fleur de Champagne" for the US market), Pol Roger "Cuvée Sir Winston Churchill," Ruinart "Dom Ruinart," and Veuve Clicquot-Ponsardin "La Grande Dame." For an exhaustive list, click here . Single Vineyard Champagne : Single Vineyard Champagne bottlings may be produced by a large house or a smaller grower-producer, and may or may not be advertised as a prestige cuvée. Single Vineyard wines are not required to carry a vintage date, although they invariably do, and the style represents a stark departure from the blending philosophy of the region. Philipponnat’s “Clos de Goisses,” originally released for the 1935 vintage from one of the few walled vineyards of the region, remains a benchmark bottling. Special Club Prestige Cuvée: The “Special Club” concept originated in 1971, with a dozen grower-producers. Lacking the marketing budgets of larger houses, these producers banded together to promote their prestige cuvées through identical packaging. The Club Trésors comprises 28 RM producers as members. The Special Club bottlings are estate-bottled, vintage-dated wines that represent the pinnacle of each individual grower’s style and production. Special Club bottles and labels share identical design. Current members include Marc Hébrart, Pierre Gimonnet, Paul Bara, J. Lassalle and Gaston Chiquet. For a complete membership, click here . Rosé Champagne : Vintage, NV, and prestige cuvées may also be produced in pink versions. The traditional saignée method, in which the wine gains its hue through extended skin contact, is less common than blending. Champagne is the only AOP in France that allows a rosé to be produced by blending red and white wine. A rosé prestige cuvée, a novelty in years past, is usually the most expensive and rare product a house offers. BACK TO TOP Still wines of Champagne Coteaux Champenois and Rosé de Riceys are still wine appellations within the region of Champagne. Coteaux Champenois covers still red, white, and rosé wines from the entire appellation; Rosé de Riceys is reserved for 100% Pinot Noir rosé wines produced in Les Riceys, a cru village in the Aube. BACK TO TOP Other Traditional Method Sparkling Wines While the exact aging requirements and grape varieties may change, the traditional method mirrors the méthode Champenoise and has at its heart the principle of a second fermentation in the bottle. The méthode traditionnelle has been adopted throughout France and worldwide as the most successful approach to quality, ageworthy sparkling wine production. In France, there are eight AOP regions for crémant wines produced by the traditional method: Crémant de Bordeaux , Crémant de Bourgogne , Crémant de Loire , Crémant de Limoux , Crémant de Die , Crémant du Jura , Crémant d’Alsace , and Vin de Savoie , which produces crémant under the designation Crémant de Savoie . The encépagement varies widely according to the appellation, and the limit on pressing is less strict (100 liters from 150 kg, or 2,666 liters from 4,000 kg) but otherwise the wines are produced by the method prescribed for Champagne. Other appellations in France producing traditional method sparkling wines include Vouvray , Montlouis-sur-Loire , and Saumur in the Loire; and Seyssel in Savoie. Fully sparkling wines from the aforementioned appellations will be labeled mousseux (or "crémant" in Savoie), whereas lightly sparkling wines are labeled pétillant . Blanquette de Limoux wines from the Limoux AOP in the Languedoc region are also produced by the traditional method, from a minimum 90% Mauzac that may be blended with Chardonnay and Chenin Blanc. In Italy, the best traditional method sparkling wines are produced in Lombardy, within the DOCGs of Franciacorta and Oltrepò Pavese Metodo Classico . All Spanish Cava and the highest quality German Sekt are produced by the traditional method. England is a new frontier for traditional method sparkling wines: the White Cliffs of Dover (and much of southeastern England’s subsoil) represent a natural continuation of the chalk of Champagne. Nyetimber and Ridgeview Estate, both located in Sussex, lead the way. Quality sparkling wines are made on America’s West Coast—in Carneros, Napa Valley, Anderson Valley, Willamette Valley, and Washington. Roederer established operations in Anderson Valley in Mendocino, whereas Taittinger and Moët et Chandon founded American projects in Carneros and Yountville, respectively. Traditional method sparkling wines are made in New York, Canada, and even New Mexico. Graham Beck is at the forefront of traditional method “Cap Classique” sparkling wines in South Africa. Major Champagne houses have established outposts in Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, Ukraine, and even Brazil. BACK TO TOP Other Sparkling Winemaking Methods Méthode Ancestrale : Also known as the méthode rurale, this is the oldest and most rudimentary of sparkling winemaking procedures. A single fermentation begins in tank, but the wine is transferred to bottles before the process is complete— liqueur de tirage is unnecessary. Yeasts continue to ferment the remaining sugars in the bottle, giving the wine its sparkle. The residual sweetness of the finished wines varies by appellation, but dosage is not allowed. The wine may be disgorged, filtered and rebottled in clean glass prior to sale. Bugey Cerdon , Clairette de Die Méthode Dioise Ancestrale , and Gaillac Mousseux Méthode Gaillaçoise are examples of the style. The Charmat Process/Cuve Close/Tank Method: Developed by Eugene Charmat in the early 20th century, the Tank Method is quicker, cheaper, and less labor-intensive than the traditional method. After the wine undergoes primary fermentation, liqueur de tirage is added to the wine, provoking a second fermentation, which occurs in a pressurized enamel-lined tank, or autoclave, over a matter of days. Once the appropriate pressure is reached (usually 5 atmospheres), the wine is chilled to arrest fermentation. Some appellations require the wine to remain in tank for a minimum period of time, such as one month for Asti DOCG. The wine is then filtered and bottled, usually with a dosage. The lack of extended lees contact in the tank method is not suitable for making quality wines in the style of Champagne. The bubbles, or bead, in tank method wines will be larger and coarser, and the wine will have a less uniform texture than wines made by the traditional method. However, this method is appropriate and even preferred for sparkling wines emphasizing fruit and varietal aromatics rather than the flavors derived from autolysis. Most Asti DOCG and Prosecco bottlings are produced in this method. Continuous Method/Russian Continuous Method: Developed in the USSR, this method is similar to the tank method, but the base wine is pumped through a series of interconnected (continuous) tanks while undergoing the second fermentation. Liqueur de tirage is constantly added to the wine, and lees accumulate in the first several tanks, offering a higher degree of autolyzed flavors than the standard tank method. The majority of German Sekt is produced by either the tank method or the continuous method. Carbonation: The cheapest method of sparkling winemaking involves a simple injection of carbon dioxide into still wine. The bubbles do not integrate into the texture of the wine at all, and fade quickly upon opening. This method is not used for quality wines. Alternative methods of sparkling winemaking cannot compete with the wines of Champagne in complexity, but they may be perfectly suited to less serious (and sometimes more exuberant) styles. However, traditional method sparkling wines from all over the world are approaching and in some cases surpassing basic Champagne bottlings in character and refinement. Differences between well-made traditional method wines and basic méthode Champenoise wines are sometimes very difficult to detect. However, at its top echelon of quality there is no substitute for Champagne—its finesse, longevity, and price are incomparable in the world of sparkling wine. BACK TO TOP Updated June 2024Previewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/165/spainWed, 22 Apr 2026 15:50:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:e4acdcb5-c845-4bdb-9db7-3556e58b732dGuildSomm AdminTable of Contents Spain North-Central Spain Green Spain: Galicia and Basque Country Castilla y León Catalonia (Catalunya) Southern Spain Spain The Phoenicians, one of the first great maritime trading cultures, founded the city of Gadir (modern Cádiz) on the coast of southern Spain around 1100 BCE and established the value of viticulture and wine as a commodity in Andalucía. The wine trade of the eastern Mediterranean owes a significant debt to Phoenician ships: the grapes they carried from the Middle East to North Africa, the Mediterranean islands and the Iberian peninsula represent the genetic ancestors of some of the modern varieties of Spain. However, while the Phoenicians may have introduced viticulture in Spain, evidence of primitive grape cultivation reaches thousands of years back in time, and wild grapes preceded mankind in the region. Winemaking continued under the Romans, who improved on the fragile, large amphorae in use, but it remained a secondary pursuit under the conquering Moors, whose religion forbade the consumption of alcohol. Still, grapegrowing persisted and was often used for raisins and distillation for medicines, perfumes, and other goods. Despite the indifference of the Moors—the sale of wine was illegal, but often tolerated—Spanish wine became renowned for its strength, and found its way as a blending component into wines from France and Italy. During this time, the Catholic church began to expand slowly as well and would soon come to reign in Spain. In 1492, Christopher Columbus and the Spanish explorers opened up a new world for Spanish trade. Wine benefitted greatly from these related occurrences: with the law’s renewed approval, Spanish wine went forth with Spanish ships to supply the nation’s new colonies, and the inherently heavy wines were often made in a deliberately rancio style, or they nonetheless arrived in the West Indies that way. Sherry wines, possibly the first vinous export to North America, became increasingly popular with the English market from the end of the 15th century onward, despite a deteriorating relationship between the two nations that culminated in the English defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588. The Spanish colonies presented a captive audience for Spanish wines; 17th century Spanish law barred the colonies from producing their own—a move that would impede the nascent New World wine industries and protect Spanish exports like Málaga and Sherry. However, few of Spain’s table wines were of great quality, and Spain was falling behind the rest of Europe in the development of new viticultural techniques. When oidium and phylloxera struck France in the 1850s and 1860s, an abrupt change occurred, particularly in Rioja, where a sudden influx of French winemakers and merchants sought to bridge the interruption of their own disease-ridden vineyards with Spanish wine. During this period the Bordeaux-trained Marqués de Riscal and Marqués de Murrieta returned to Rioja with grape varieties and lessons from the Médoc, including barrique aging (called barricas in Spain) and estate bottling (performed at their newly constructed bodegas ). However, a significant alteration to the Bordeaux technique of barrique aging was implemented in Rioja: the Spaniards used American oak ( Quercus alba ) rather than French—an economic decision based on Spain’s history of transatlantic colonial trade. Many of today’s great traditionalist Rioja wineries got their start in the latter half of the 19th century: López de Heredia, CVNE, La Rioja Alta, and Berceo. The second half of the 19th century also saw the birth of Spanish traditional method sparkling wine— champaña , now known as Cava—at San Sadurní d’Anoia. The ravages of phylloxera and fungal diseases did not spare Spain, and the root louse arrived in Rioja near the dawn of the 20th century. Nonetheless, Spain focused on quality, and Consejos Reguladores were established for the major regions of Rioja, Jerez, and Málaga in the 1930s. Following a bloody civil war, fascism took hold in Spain under Francisco Franco in the late 1930s, and Spain remained the only major fascist country in Western Europe after World War II—a dark period for wine that would last until the dictator’s death in 1975. The suppression of economic freedom under Franco hindered winemakers, although several advances were made. Miguel Torres brought stainless steel and temperature-controlled fermentations to Catalonia in the 1960s, and the Denominación de Origen regulations were finally approved in 1970 for Rioja. Spain responded to its new freedom after Franco with a simultaneous celebration and diversification of its unique regional cultures. Many Spanish winegrowing regions were reborn in the latter decades of the 20th century, as enthusiastic young vignerons sought to showcase their Spanish identity through modern technique, looking both forward and backward for inspiration. Today, Spain is a diverse mix of experimental, modern, and traditional winemaking techniques, and the country’s wine laws are some of the most adaptable in Europe. In Spain, Denominación de Origen (DO) and the superior Denominación de Origen Calificada (DOCa) represent the two highest tiers of quality wine, equivalent to the EU’s Protected Designation of Origin (DOP) status. The first DOs were awarded in 1932. Vinos de Calidad con Indicación Geográfica (VCIG), once considered a steppingstone to DO, is also considered DOP in the new European appellation scheme. The lowest level of quality wine, Vino de la Tierra (VdlT), falls within the EU’s Protected Geographical Indication (IGP) scheme. The DO Pago (Vinos de Pago) estates represent a theoretically superior appellation to the basic DO. An estate within an existing DO must surpass the basic DO requirements in DO Pago legislation, typically through lowered yields and other measures suggestive of quality winemaking. In order to apply for DO Pago status, an estate should show international critical praise and a decade's worth of quality production, although some young Pagos have sped through official channels with astonishing speed. Interest in Pagos is notably absent in Spain's top quality appellations, such as Rioja and Ribera del Duero, where producers have nothing to gain from distancing themselves from a well-known brand. Spanish DO wines are generally eligible for a series of aging designations, provided the below requirements are met. Despite a suggestion of quality, these terms are rapidly disappearing from labels in a new, forward-looking Spain that perceives terms like crianza and reserva as old-fashioned. With the exception of a few major regions (including Rioja and Ribera del Duero) that have adapted more stringent requirements, the following label definitions are consistent throughout Spain. Additionally, any DOP wines may use the following aging terminology: Noble: min. 18 months aging in a cask of less than 600 L or bottle Añejo: min. 24 months aging in a cask of less than 600 L or bottle Viejo: min. 36 months aging, demonstrates marked oxidative character BACK TO TOP North Central Spain North-Central Spain essentially comprises the three autonomías of Navarra, La Rioja, and Aragón. Sheltered by the Pyrenees Mountains to the northeast, which divide France and Spain, and the Cantabrian Mountains to the northwest, the region’s highlands are in a rain shadow, and summer temperatures rise further inland. The Ebro River emerges from the eastern Cantabrian Mountains, and flows on a southeasterly course toward the Mediterranean, passing through the historic Rioja DOCa , Spain’s premier red wine region. Rioja, named not after the Ebro but for the Oja, a smaller tributary, was the first region in Spain to be christened as Denominación de Origen Calificada—in 1991—and has been a viable wine-producing area for over 2000 years. Here, as in the other many of the other major winegrowing regions of Europe, Christian monks guided viticulture in the Middle Ages. The 13th century Benedictine clergyman Gonzalo de Berceo, whose name is commemorated in Berceo’s reserva and gran reserva bottlings, extolled the virtues of Rioja wine in verse. Although he penned his theological works in Latin, he preferred to write his poetry in the “vulgar vernacular” of Spanish, hoping to reach the less educated peasantry. His short verses represent the first Spanish poetry committed to paper, more than a century after the king’s legal recognition of Rioja in 1102. Further decrees protecting the wines’ regional identity were issued by the 17th century, and in the 19th century the style of Rioja wines shifted, subject to French influence. Aging in American oak barrels became a standard, and the red wines started to resemble what is now considered the classic style: soft, with muted red fruit, firm acidity and the unmistakable oak aromas coconut, vanilla and cedar. Today, however, a new spectrum of styles emerges from Rioja, as many producers are emphasizing French oak, more extraction, and riper, darker fruit. A similar dichotomy exists in the region’s white wines: some are produced in a clean, fruity, modern style, whereas others are wood-toned, oxidative and textural. Occasionally, Rioja white wines may be off-dry. Tempranillo is the main grape of red Rioja and is the most planted grape in the whole country; its traditional blending partners are Mazuelo (Carignan), Graciano, and Garnacha. Together, these four grapes (along with Maturana Tinta, authorized for Rioja in 2007) must comprise a minimum 85% of the red Rioja blend, or 95% if destemmed. “Experimental” grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon may make up the remainder. Viura—known elsewhere as Macabéo—is the dominant white grape, followed by Garnacha Blanca, Malvasía Riojano, and Maturana Blanca. Chardonnay, Tempranillo Blanco, Sauvignon Blanc, Turruntés, and Verdejo are the only other white grapes permitted in blends. Rosado wines require a minimum 25% of the four previously mentioned primary red grapes of Rioja. As in Ribera del Duero, Rioja regulations for aging red wines supersede the standard requirements. Red crianza wines require a total two years of aging prior to release, with a minimum year in oak. Red reserva wines are aged for three years, including one year in oak. Gran Reserva red wines must age for at least two years in cask and two years in bottle, with a total aging of at least 60 months. Rioja casks must be 225 liters—the size of a barrique. Rioja white wines and rosados are also eligible for these categories: crianza wines age for eighteen months, reserva wines for two years, and gran reserva wines age for four. All three categories require a minimum six months in cask. Whereas producers may age white and rosado crianza wines in a non-oxidative environment like stainless steel, reserva wines must remain in oak or bottle for the minimum period of aging. From Haro in the northwest to Alfaro in the southeast, Rioja follows the path of the Ebro through three climatically distinct subzones: Rioja Alta, Rioja Alavesa, and Rioja Oriental (formerly Rioja Baja.) Rioja Alavesa is the smallest, northernmost zone (it is located within Basque country) and Tempranillo here often produces vino joven wines for early consumption. Carbonic maceration may be employed for such wines. Rioja Alta is the southwestern zone, and with its slightly warmer climate the zone is capable of producing classic, ageworthy Tempranillo, Mazuelo and Graciano. Rioja Alta and Rioja Alavesa share a similar soil structure, with a high proportion of calcareous clay, whereas Rioja Oriental, the hottest subregion, contains more alluvial soils and ferrous clay. Garnacha performs best in Rioja Oriental's hot climate. Many producers will source blends from all three subregions to create a base style, combining the freshness of Rioja Alavesa, the extract and alcoholic warmth of Rioja Oriental, and the acidity and structure of Rioja Alta. Others, however, prefer the typicity that results from single region and single vineyard bottlings: staunch traditionalist López de Heredia produces single vineyard wines from estate vineyards such as Bosconia and Tondonia; and Ysios—a modern winery renowned for its avant-garde architectural design—produces pure Tempranillo from its estate vineyards in the Rioja Alavesa region. Architecturally, Ysios is at the forefront of a new movement in spectacular modern bodega design sweeping through Rioja. Marqués de Riscal’s estate now includes an impressive new structure designed by Frank Gehry, famed architect of the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, and even de Heredia, the oldest winery in Haro, now features a sleek new visitors’ boutique designed by Zaha Hadid. Although many producers have made single vineyard bottles for decades, there was no official single vineyard category until legislation passed in 2017. As of 2018, producers may register their Viñedos Singulares and print official single vineyard names on their labels. To be a single vineyard, the vineyard's soil must be assessed, the vines must be at least 35 years old, the estate must have proof that it has been working with the vineyard for at least 10 years, and the wine must pass a tasting panel. The grapes must also be hand-harvested at a significantly lower yield than what is typically required of regional wines. Also in 2018, the Vino Espumoso de Calidad category was added for traditional method sparkling wine. To be labeled as such, the grapes must be hand-harvested, and the entire winemaking process must take place at the same facility (that is, it cannot be moved at any stage of the process). Brut Nature, Extra Brut, and Brut styles are allowed. Vino Espumoso requires a minimum of 15 months lees aging, whereas Reserva and Gran Anãda require 24 and 36 months, respectively. Gran Anãda wines must be produced with fruit harvested during a single vintage, and this date must be stated on the label. Artadi's "El Pison" vineyard in Rioja. Navarra DO is adjacent to the northern and eastern borders of Rioja, and has long been famous for rosado bottlings. Like Rioja, Navarra wines gained prominence in the Middle Ages due to clerical support, and the rosados of the region achieved recognition by the 15th century. Today, however, red wine accounts for approximately 60% of the Navarra’s production, with rosado wines representing only 30% of the region’s output. Garnacha and Tempranillo are the major red varieties. Chardonnay plantings have spiked in the last two decades, making it Navarra's most prominent white variety, but white grapes account for only about 7% of vineyard acreage. Red grapes of French origin, including Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Pinot Noir, are on the rise. Navarra contains five subzones: the higher altitude Valdizarbe, Baja Montaña and Tierra Estella in the north, Ribera Alta in the center of the zone, and Ribera Baja in the hot southern sector. As a testament to the rising quality of Navarra’s red wines, four estates earned their own DO Pago appellations: Señorío de Arínzano and Prado Irache in Tierra Estella, Bodegas Otazu in Valdizarbe, and Bolandín in Ribera Baja. The autonomía of Aragon, to the east of Rioja and Navarra, contains four DOs: Campo de Borja , Calatayud , Cariñena , and Somontano . The hot climate of Navarra’s Ribera Baja and Rioja’s Oriental (Baja) zone extends southward into the Campo de Borja DO, where Garnacha commands around two-thirds of the vineyard acreage. Red and rosado wines are produced, principally from Garnacha and Tempranillo, and white wines are based on Viura. Garnacha also dominates the vineyards of Calatayud DO and Cariñena DO to the south. Cariñena, one of Spain’s longstanding delimited zones (dating to 1932) is the ancestral home of the Carignan/Mazuelo grape, but today the grape is a secondary player in the region’s blends. Finally, the up-and-coming Somontano DO (“beneath the mountain”) lies in the foothills of the Pyrenees near Catalonia, producing wines from local grapes such as the white Alcañón and red Parraleta, as well as a larger complement of Spanish and international varieties. The region also contains two Pagos, Ayles and Urbezo. BACK TO TOP Green Spain: Galicia and Basque Country Green Spain includes the autonomía of Galicia, which borders Portugal in the northwestern corner of the country, and the autonomías of Asturias, Cantabria, and País Vasco (Basque Country) along the northern Costa Verde , or green coast. Galicia is a verdant region of lush vegetation and dense forests, riddled with rías (estuaries) and small rivers cutting through low mountain ranges. The cooler maritime climate of the region is ideal for the production of crisp, refreshing white wines, and Galicia is emerging as one of Spain’s best areas for such wines. As the nickname “Green Spain” implies, Galicia is a world removed from the popular conception of an arid Spanish landscape. Within Galicia, there are five DOs: Rías Baixas , Ribeiro , Valdeorras , Ribeira Sacra , and Monterrei . Rías Baixas DO (the “low estuaries”) borders Portugal on the coast and contains five subzones: Val do Salnés, Ribeira do Ulla, Soutomaior, O Rosal, and Condado do Tea. The white grape Albariño comprises classic wines from the region, and a wine labeled Rías Baixas Albariño will not contain any blending grapes. If the wine is instead labeled with one of the northern subzones (Val do Salnés or Ribeira do Ulla) it must contain a minimum 70% of recommended varieties: Albariño, Loureiro, Treixadura, and Caiño Blanco. The southern subzones of O Rosal and Condado do Tea vary slightly: the wines contain a minimum 70% of Albariño combined with, respectively, either Loureira or Treixadura—the favored white grapes in Portugal’s neighboring Vinho Verde—in any combination. Regardless, many of the best producers make pure varietal Albariño, sometimes subjecting the wine to malolactic fermentation and barrica aging, which is indicated on the bottle. Whether oaked or not, classic Albariño wines tend to show stone fruit and citrus flowers, with an undercurrent of minerality. Red wines are produced from grapes such as Caiño, Espadeiro and Mencía, but nearly 96% of the vineyard acreage in Rías Baixas is devoted to Albariño. With exports to England dating to the 17th century, Ribeiro DO is one of Spain’s oldest recognized wine regions, and the wines have always been popular with Spaniards. Located along the Miño River to the east of Rías Baixas, the region produces red and white wines based on Galician varieties—Treixadura is the favored white grape, gradually replacing the neutral, heavier Palomino, and Caiño is preferred for reds. A dried grape wine, Vino Tostado, is a local specialty. The “sacred bank” of Ribeira Sacra DO, named for its large concentration of churches, is located further inland and upriver. Ribeira Sacra encompasses five subregions: Amandi, Chantada, Quiroga-Bibei, Ribeiras do Sil and Ribeiras do Miño. Steeply terraced slopes recall the better-known regions of the northern Rhône—the Romans also built these terraces, some 2000 years ago. The remote region’s better red and white wines are based on Mencía, Treixadura, and Godello. Valdeorras DO is Galicia’s easternmost zone. While some pleasant red wines are produced, the region’s best wines are clean, fruit-driven, high-acid Godello whites. Monterrei, the southernmost DO in Galicia, is a small region with only a handful of wineries. Asturias and Cantabria do not produce any DO wine, but the País Vasco contains three principal DO zones: Getariako Txakolina , Bizkaiko Txakolina , and Arabako Txakolina . Wines from all three DOs may be white, red, or rosado , but the white wines, produced from the native Ondarrabi Zuri grape, are predominant. In Getariako alone, Ondarrabi Zuri (Hondarribi Zuri) accounts for 95% of vineyard acreage, with the remaining acreage planted to Ondarrabi Beltza, the preferred local red variety. The rare rosado wines, traditionally known as Ojo de Gallo, are often blends of the two grapes. The white wines, a perfect complement to oily seafood, are low in alcohol, high in lemony acidity, and retain a light effervescence. Txakoli wines should be consumed in their youth. BACK TO TOP Castilla y León Castilla y León, or Old Castile, is Spain’s largest autonomía . “The land of castles” includes a number of such fortifications built to repel the Moors in the early Middle Ages, and the dynastic union of Castilla y León and Aragon through marriage in the 15th century led to the birth of the Kingdom of Spain. Castilian Spanish was the only official dialect in Spain for two centuries prior to the ratification of the Spanish constitution in 1978. The region is generally characterized by a continental climate, slightly moderated by its proximity to the Atlantic and Mediterranean but still subject to extreme highs and lows. The terrain of Castilla y León consists of the northern part of the Meseta Central—the arid central plateau of Spain—and the mountains that encircle it. The Duero River flows westward through the center of the region and passes the DOs of Ribera del Duero , Rueda , Toro , Tierra del Vino de Zamora , and finally Arribes on its path toward Portugal. Arlanza DO is located directly north of Ribera del Duero, with Cigales DO to the west of both appellations. León DO and Bierzo DO are located in the mountainous northwestern corner of Castilla y León; Bierzo borders Valdeorras in Galicia. The Mencía grape is at home in the valleys of the Sil River and its tributaries in the Bierzo DO; it is often the dominant grape in red wines and rosé wines, and many of the region’s newer and more serious reds are solely produced from Mencía. The young Alvaro Palacios, already a marquee name in Priorat, founded Descendientes de José Palacios with his nephew Ricardo Pérez in 1999, and achieved instant recognition for Bierzo with their biodynamic “Corullón” bottlings: extracted, old-vine Mencía-based wines sourced from mountainside schist soils. The project, along with other modern trailblazers such as Dominio de Tares and Pittacum, is commanding top dollar for its wines. Whites are also produced, and while wines made from Godello and Doña Blanca show more promise, Palomino still dominates the vineyards. The León DO, upgraded from Vino de la Tierra in 2007, produces reds, whites, and rosados . Recommended red grapes include Mencía and the local Prieto Picudo. Ribera del Duero DO, which surrounds the towns of Aranda de Duero and Peñafiel in the Duero River Valley, is considered one of Spain’s top red wine-producing regions. The region’s flagship estate has long been Vega Sicilia, founded in by Don Eloy Lecanda y Chaves, who in 1864 planted a number of Bordeaux varieties and—curiously—a little Pinot Noir alongside Tinto del País (Tempranillo) in order to make brandy. In 1929, following an ownership change and a transition to estate-bottled table wines, new winemaker Domingo Txomin achieved international acclaim at the Barcelona World’s Fair with his 1917 and 1918 vintages of Único, Vega Sicilia’s benchmark wine. Único, blended from Tinto del País, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot and aged, often for a decade or more in American and French oak barrels, has long commanded extravagantly high prices, even as a simple vino de mesa —Ribera del Duero did not achieve DO status until 1982. Despite its mammoth influence, Vega Sicilia remained the only serious producer in the region until the 1980s, when the wines of Pesquera began achieving critical acclaim. Since the mid-1980s, however, quality, investment and interest have skyrocketed in Ribera del Duero, and the region now supports a number of cult wine estates, including Dominio de Pingus and Aalto. When Ribera del Duero received DO status, there were only 9 wineries in the region; today the number of producers is nearer to 300. Ribera del Duero produces reds as well as small amounts of whites, rosados, and claretes . Whites must contain at least 75% of the early-ripening Albillo Mayor grape. Rosados and claretes are composed of a minimum of 50% authorized red grapes for the area. Tempranillo, variously known as Tinto del País and Tinto Fino, is the region’s premier grape and enjoys a near monopoly on its vineyards; a minimum of 75% is required for its reds. Small amounts of Garnacha and international varieties like Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot are also cultivated. As in Rioja, the aging requirements for these categories differ slightly from the normal DO standards. Recent labeling changes allow for not only reds but also white wines, rosados , and claretes to be labeled crianza , reserva , and gran reserva . For crianza , reds must age for two years prior to release (including one year in cask). Reds labeled reserva must age for three years prior to release (including one year in cask). Gran reserva reds must age for a minimum two years in cask for a total of five years of aging altogether. Roble may be used for wines that see a minimum of three months oak aging; joven is for wines aged less than three months. Whether joven or gran reserva , however, no rule mandates that an aging classification needs to be stated on the label. (For a full list of aging requirements, refer to the Compendium .) Rueda received its DO shortly before Ribera del Duero, in 1980. The white Verdejo grape, easily prone to oxidation, was rejuvenated by Marqués de Riscal in the 1970s as a fresh, crisp counterpart to their red Rioja. Through careful handling, controlled temperatures and an anaerobic environment, Verdejo could provide delicate, aromatic wines, rather than the oxidative, sherry-style wines of the past. White wines simply labeled as Rueda now require a minimum 50% of Verdejo or Sauvignon, often blended with Viura. They may blend with Chardonnay and Viognier as well. Red wines are dominated by Tempranillo, and rosado wines contain a minimum 50% of red grapes. Espumoso , or sparkling wines, are produced in both rosado and white styles. Brut and Brut Nature Espumoso wines require a minimum 75% Verdejo or Sauvignon Blanc. The occasional dry fortified, oxidized Dorado wine is still encountered, although these wines are a dying style in a region energized by freshness, and are not often encountered outside Spain. Rueda Dorado oxidizing in glass. To the west of Rueda, Toro DO produces red, white and rosado wines, although it is the region’s red wines that have attracted the most international interest. Red wines require either a minimum of 75% Tinta de Toro or 85% Garnacha. However, they are often produced solely from Tinta de Toro, a local strain of Tempranillo, which ripens easily in the extremely hot, dry continental summers of Toro. White wines may be made with Verdejo or Malvasia along with Albillo Real and Muscat à Petit Grains, and rosados may be blends of any of these red or white grapes. Fariña and Numanthia-Termes are among the top names in the appellation, and the launching of Vega Sicilia’s Bodegas Pintia seems to cement Toro’s newfound success. Tierra del Vino de Zamora DO lies to the west of Toro, and produces red, white, rosado, and the lighter clarete (rosé) wines from similar grapes. Reds require a minimum 75% Tempranillo. Vega Sicilia’s Ribera del Duero rival Alejándro Fernández of Pesquera staked his claim in Zamora, with the founding of the Dehesa la Granja estate. Overall, Toro and Zamora can only continue to benefit from their proximity to Ribera del Duero. The river continues its westward path, flowing through Arribes DO at the border. Here, Rufete—reflecting the region’s proximity to Portugal—and several other red grapes join Tempranillo in the appellation's vineyards; white wines are produced from Malvasia, Verdejo, and Albilla. Cigales DO is located to the north of the old capital city of Valladolid, and to the northwest of Ribera del Duero. The region produces red wines made principally from Garnacha Tinta and Tinto del País (Tempranillo), but is particularly noted for its rosado and nuevo (primeur) rosado production. Arlanza DO, to the east of Cigales and directly north of Ribera del Duero, is one of Spain’s newest DOs, dating to 2007. A small core of wineries produces reds and whites from a complement of Duero Valley and Bordeaux varieties. As of 2021, Castilla y Leon received its first DO Pago, Urueña. Then it was joined by Abadía-Retuerta and Dehesa Peñalba in 2022. BACK TO TOP Catalonia (Catalunya) The autonomía of Catalonia, or Catalunya in the Catalan language, is a stone’s throw (and a trek over the Pyrenees) from Roussillon in France, a region with which it shares a common culture and lineage. Catalonia and Roussillon split in the 17th century, when the king of Spain ceded Roussillon to France, a political division that has existed to this day. Although the two regions fly a similar flag of red and yellow stripes as a reminder of an intertwined history, a shared interest in heavier, fortified and sweet red wines has ceded ground in Catalonia. Catalan wines reflect its industry, wealth, and modernization: when traditional method sparkling winemaking came to Spain, it debuted in Catalonia; when Miguel Torres introduced stainless steel fermentation to Spain in the 1960s, he introduced it in Catalonia; when René Barbier sought to create a bold new Spanish red wine in 1979, he planted his grapes in Catalonia. The region of Catalonia exemplifies the modern face of Spanish winemaking and technological innovation; however, amidst the new is a backbone of tradition and older styles—wines produced in the same fashion for generations. Priorat DOCa (DOQ in Catalan) in the southwest of Catalonia is the site of René Barbier’s project and home to some of Spain’s richest, most concentrated red wines. The second region in Spain to be promoted to DOCa, Priorat derives its name from Priorato de Scala Dei , a Carthusian monastery (priory) founded on the site of a boy’s vision of angels ascending to heaven. The region is overwhelmingly devoted to red wine production, although some white and rosado wine is produced. Garnacha and Cariñena are the traditional varieties of Priorat, struggling to achieve even small yields in the rock-strewn schist soils of the region. Llicorella , a mix of black slate and quartzite, characterizes the best vineyards, requiring vines to dig deeply for water. In 1979 Barbier, a winemaker for Alvaro Palacios, planted a mix of local and French vines in the llicorella soils of Gratallops, and convinced Palacios and several others to join him. In 1989, they cooperatively produced a first effort—a single red wine bottled under five different labels—and turned the eyes of the wine world towards Priorat. The five original “Clos” wines of Priorat, commonly acknowledged as Barbier’s Clos Mogador, Palacios' Clos Dofi, Clos Erasmus, Clos de l’Obac, and Clos Martinet, were released as vino de mesa , yet they represented a new pinnacle of quality for the region. After the 1991 vintage, the project split and the wines moved forward in separate production. Today, Clos Mogador, Alvaro Palacios, Clos Erasmus, Costers del Siurana (whose founder Carles Pastrana produced Clos de l’Obac), and Mas Martinet continue to build on their original legacy, alongside others like Vall Llach and Scala Dei. Priorat’s best red wines are usually dominated by Garnacha or blended from Spanish and French varieties, and subject to varying shades of French barrique treatment. Managing alcohol is a key factor in a warm, Mediterranean region where grapes can ripen unchecked to a potential alcohol of 18%. In 2009, Priorat established a village category (Vino de Pueblo, or Vi de Vila in Catalan) for estate-grown wines from 12 villages, including Gratallops. Schist soil at Scala Dei in Priorat. Priorat DOQ is almost entirely surrounded by the Montsant DO , a ring-shaped region that was until 2002 a subzone of Tarragona. Like Priorat, Garnacha and Cariñena are dominant, and the region seems poised to offer a value alternative as Priorat’s prices continue to rise. Tarragona DO is much larger, encompassing a swath of the Catalan coast to the west of Penedès DO. Historically, Tarragona wines were generally fortified rancio or mistela, the Spanish version of vin de liqueur . Today, much of the vineyard area has been converted to white varieties for Cava, but these old styles are still made in small quantities. Communion wines for Christian churches now represent the most substantial market for Tarragona’s wines. The Terra Alta DO is to the southwest of Tarragona and the Conca de Barberà DO is adjacent to northern Tarragona. Costers del Segre DO spans several noncontiguous subzones between Tarragona and Somontano: Pallars Jussà, Artesa de Segre, Valls del Riucorb, Segrià, Garrigues, Urgell and Raimat. Raimat, the smallest subzone, houses an estate of the same name that was integral to the formation of the zone. With far-reaching foresight, Manuel Raventós purchased arid, infertile land in the region for his Raïmat estate in 1914; over sixty years later, after a transformation of the parched land through canal construction and agricultural restoration, his estate produced its first commercial vintage. Northeast of Tarragona, along the Catalan coast, is the Penedès DO . The land rises steadily from the coast toward the inland Meseta, and Penedès is divided between three distinct altitude zones: Baix-Penedès, Medio-Penedès, and Alt-Penedès. The Alt-Penedès, one of Europe’s highest altitude winegrowing regions, is perfectly suited to cultivation of the white Parellada grape, one of the principal grapes in the Cava sparkling blend. Although Cava has its own DO, 95% of Cava is produced in the region of Penedès, and five of Cava’s authorized white grapes—Parellada, Xarel-lo, Macabéo (Macabeu), Malvasía, and Chardonnay—comprise a large majority of the Penedès vineyards. Ull de Llebre (Tempranillo) thrives in the Medio-Penedès. Sturdier Mediterranean red grapes like Garnacha (Garnatxa) and Monastrell are planted in the lower vineyards of the Baix-Penedès, producing high-alcohol red and rosado wines, which have replaced the sweet fortified reds popular in the past—and across the border in Roussillon. Although red grapes dominate in the Baix-Penedès, two producers—Vega de Ribes and the charity Hospital de Sant Joan Baptista—are perpetuating the Malvasía de Sitges variety, a historical specialty of the region nearly consigned to the dustbin of history. As a sweet fortified wine, Malvasía de Sitges recently received the coveted Slow Food “presidia” status, helping to insure its future survival as a unique product of the region. Sant Sadurní d’Anoia, the birthplace of Cava, lies in the Alt-Penedès. Here, Jose Raventós of Codorníu introduced método tradicional sparkling winemaking to Spain, in 1872. Today, Codorníu is second in size only to the competing house of Freixenet, the world’s largest producer of sparkling wines. Cava DO wines may be produced from the following grapes: Parellada, Xarel-lo, Macabeu, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Garnacha Tinta, Monastrell, Trepat, and Malvasia (Subirat). The recommended grapes Macabeu, Xarel-lo and Parellada provide the traditional blend for the wine; with new plantings and more appropriate viticultural practices they are providing better wines, deflecting past criticisms aimed at the blowsy, broad, neutral character of the wines. Cava wines require less time on the lees than Champagne at the C ava de Guarda level: nine months. For the C ava de Guarda Superior designations: eighteen months for reserva , and thirty months for gran reserva. Cava DO is the only Spanish Denominación de Origen that covers a style, rather than a region. Technically, Spain mapped and delimited the regions of Cava production in order to comply with EU regulations—the region just happened to coincide with the vineyards of many producers throughout Spain who were already making the wine. Today, the better Cava sparklers made from the traditional grapes are slightly earthy and citrus-tinged, whereas Chardonnay and Pinot Noir are better suited to lengthier lees aging and the flavors of autolysis. Bottles of Cava can always be spotted by the mark of a four-pointed star imprinted on the cork. The remaining Catalan appellations include Alella DO , to the northeast of Penedès, where Xarel-lo, known locally as Pansà Blanca, contributes to the DO’s own still dry white wines or the blends of Cava. Empordà DO is located in the northeastern corner of Spain, bordering Banyuls in Roussillon. The focus is on Cariñena rosados , although Garnacha and international varieties have also been successful. Pla de Bages —a derivative of Bacchus, the Roman god of wine—is a newer DO to the north of Penedès, with similar grapes. The Catalunya DO encompasses the entire autonomía , covering wineries not included in more specific DO zones and allowing more freedom of blending and expression from a range of sites and authorized grapes. The Balearic Islands, a chain off the coast of Catalonia, is an autonomía closely associated with Catalan culture. Two DO zones, Pla i Llevant and Binissalem Mallorca , produce wines from a range of international and indigenous grapes, including Manto Negro and Moll (Prensal Blanc). BACK TO TOP Southern Spain Wine is produced in every autonomía of Southern Spain, including Murcia and Valencia, which comprise the Levant region on the eastern coast; Castilla-La Mancha, the southern portion of the central Meseta; Madrid, the capital city; Extremadura in southwestern Spain; and Andalucía on the southern coast. Valencia , a region steeped in both Catalan and Moorish tradition, is simultaneously the name of the autonomía , its capital (and Spain’s third largest city) and a DO zone focusing on white wines produced from the local Merseguera grape and other varieties. The wines can be fairly neutral, and the region is better known for its oranges and its paella—Valencia is the birthplace of the famous Spanish rice dish. The other DO zones within the autonomía of Valencia are Alicante and Utiel-Requena . Alicante DO is known for dessert wines: a local specialty is Fondillón, a solera-style, oxidative dessert wine produced from overripe Monastrell (Mourvèdre) grapes aged for a minimum of ten years. Unlike Sherry, the famous solera wine of Andalucía, Fondillón is not fortified and it does carry the flavor of wood. Utiel-Requena DO red wines are primarily produced from the Bobal grape and doble pasta is a traditional style. Doble Pasta red wines are macerated and fermented with twice the normal amount of grape skins and pulp, resulting in a wine of intense concentration, tannin and color. Often, doble pasta wines are used to strengthen weaker blends, but this traditional role is ebbing away with the rising production of grape concentrate in Utiel-Requena. Murcia, the southern autonomía in the Levant, comprises three DO zones: Jumilla , Yecla , and Bullas . The sandy soils of Jumilla resisted phylloxera until the 1980s, nearly one hundred years after the bug entered Spain, and the resulting vineyard decimation allowed the region’s producers to refocus, pivoting away from generic bulk wine production to the cultivation of the drought-resistant, thick-skinned Monastrell. The region’s reds and rosados —white grapes perform less worthily in the desert-like climate of Jumilla—now represent some of Spain’s best values and make up over 95% of the DO’s output. Garnacha, Petit Verdot, and other grapes may be used for blending, but Monastrell alone occupies over 80% of the region’s vineyards. Monastrell vines in Jumilla. To the west of the coastal Levant appellations, La Mancha DO lies within the Castilla-La Mancha autonomía and is Europe’s largest single demarcated wine region. Windmills dot the flat plain, recalling Don Quixote, Cervantes’ delusional knight-errant, whose silhouette adorns the logo of the La Mancha DO Consejo Regulador . The principal grapes of the region are Cencibel (Tempranillo) and Airén, which thrive in La Mancha’s hot, dry environment—an inhospitable region for fungus and mold. Despite being found only in southern Spain, Airén until recently claimed more acreage than any other white grape in the world, due to vast tracts of low-density plantings in La Mancha. Today, it is the second most planted grape, after Chardonnay, and remains on the decline, with a significant amount of the vast annual harvest destined for distillation. Cencibel performs well and is highly recommended by the Consejo for replanting in La Mancha, yet some producers, as in every corner of Spain, are experimenting with international varieties. Within the Méntrida DO , the Marqués de Griñon estate planted Cabernet Sauvignon, Petit Verdot, Syrah, and Merlot and adopted the illegal practice of drip irrigation, releasing modern, concentrated wines as vino de mesa . Officials rewarded the estate’s controversial methodology and encépagement in 2003, granting Marques de Griñon an estate appellation: DO Pago Dominio de Valdepusa. The same year, the La Mancha estate of filmmaker Manuel Manzaneque received its own appellation, DO Pago Finca Élez. Other DO Pago estates followed: Guijoso in 2005, Dehesa del Carrizal in 2006, and Campo de la Guardia and Pago Florentino in 2009. Casa del Blanco and Calzadilla received DO Pago status in 2010 and 2011, respectively. Three additions were approved in 2019: DO Pagos Vallegarcía, La Jaraba, and Los Cerrillos. in 2024, Rosalejo became the newest addition to DO Pago status in the area. The Castilla-La Mancha pagos all implement an international blend, in the pursuit of wines of “expression.” Marqués de Griñon, founded in 1973, has the longest history of any of these pagos . The estate has enlisted both the Pomerol guru Michel Rolland and his mentor, Émile Peynaud, in its quest to quickly position itself at the top of Spain’s quality ladder. This approach—incorporating money and modern methodology in the quick pursuit of concentration, greatness, and expression, rather than the timeworn, terroir-driven methods of the Old World—is common among DO Pago proprietors, perhaps quixotically. Like Méntrida, Almansa DO was once administered by La Mancha's Consejo Regulador . For Almansa reds, producers rely principally on the Garnacha Tintorera grape, a teinturier characterized by red-pigmented juice. Manchuela DO is to the north of Almansa, bridging the Levant and La Mancha. As in Utiel-Requena, Bobal is the chief grape. Ribera del Júcar DO is located between Manchuela and La Mancha, and was a subzone of the latter until it received its own DO status in 2003. Valdepeñas DO —the “valley of rocks”—is surrounded by La Mancha, yet the region received formal recognition in 1932, over forty years earlier than its much larger neighbor. Here, too, Airén is the most planted grape, followed by Cencibel. Although the climate of the two regions is quite similar, the vines in Valdepeñas benefit from a higher concentration of chalk bedrock, which provides better retention of water in the arid environment. Reserva and gran reserva wines, often produced exclusively from Cencibel, can be of excellent quality—particularly those sourced from the western sector of Los Llanos and the northern sector of Las Aberturas . To the northeast of La Mancha, the newer Uclés DO is off to a promising start, focusing on the red varieties Cencibel, Garnacha, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Syrah. White wines, sparkling wines, and sweet, dulce wines are also produced. The DO requires vines bearing red grapes to be in their sixth year of age before the fruit may be harvested, and mature vines are divided into three age categories; maximum yields decrease with the vine’s age. North of La Mancha, Mondéjar DO permits wines of all three colors from Cencibel, Cabernet Sauvignon, Macabéo, and the white Malvar grape. To the west of the zone is Vinos de Madrid DO , an appellation for the wines produced in four areas—San Martín de Valdeiglesias, Navalcarnero, Arganda, and el Molar—comprising three noncontiguous zones around the capital city. Airén, Malvar, Tinto Fino, and Negra de Madrid (Garnacha) are widely planted in the appellation; most of the wines are consumed within the city itself. To the southwest of Madrid and Méntrida, in the Extremadura autonomía , is the sole DO of Ribera del Guadiana . The large DO contains six subzones: Ribera Alta de Guadiana, Ribera Baja de Guadiana, Matanegra, Cañamero, Montánchez, and the superior Tierra de Barros. Although some good value wine is produced, much of the region’s large harvest ends up in the copper stills of Jerez, and the region is overall better known for its contributions to gastronomy: jamón serrano and the prohibitively expensive jamón ibérico . Tierra de Barros, which encompasses nearly 80% of the DO, is the home of Bodegas Inviosa, a longstanding and key proponent of the region’s wines—and the only producer of Cava in southwestern Spain. Spanning Spain’s southern coastline, Andalucía includes the DO zones of Grenada , Málaga , Sierras de Málaga , Montilla-Moriles , Condado de Huelva , Jerez-Xérès-Sherry , and Manzanilla Sanlúcar de Barrameda . This is the Spain of bullfighting, of flamenco, of authentic gazpacho—the stereotypes of Andalucían culture that often serve to characterize all of Spain. The Strait of Gibraltar bridges Africa and Europe: it represents a historically important trading route and may have even been the route by which man first crossed into Europe. Before the Moorish conquest of 711, the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Visigoths, and even the Byzantines exerted control over the region, to varying degrees of success. It was the Moors, however, who transformed Andalucía, or Al-Andalus, into a hub of Mediterranean trade, learning and culture. The city of Jerez de la Frontera was known as “Sherish” in Arabic—key to a successfully prosecuted case in more recent times contesting British use of the term Sherry. The Moorish culture persisted longest here, until the fall of Granada in 1492 ended Moorish rule on the Iberian Peninsula. Eight months later, Columbus set sail from Andalucía to find his ocean route to the East Indies. This event, sparking the race for colonial power and discovery in the Americas, was to have a profound effect on the future of Spanish wine—particularly the fortified wines of Andalucía and the Canary Islands, which, along with Porto and Madeira, supplied the New World. Ferdinand Magellan, who led the first circumnavigation of the globe in 1519, spent more of his budget on sherry than weapons. The wines of Jerez, known to English-speakers as "sack," also found a market in England, France, and Flanders. A singular plunder of nearly 3000 barrels of “sherris sack” in 1587 by the English Admiral Frances Drake cinched English tastes for the wine—a preemptive strike against Cádiz and the king’s armada, which sailed unsuccessfully against England in the following year. Sherry became an incredibly popular export to Great Britain in the ensuing three centuries; Samuel Pepys, who famously extolled the virtues of “Ho-Bryan,” also visited Sanlúcar de Barrameda, and Shakespeare regularly cited the wine in his works. High demand led to increased supply, and the Jerez bodegas began to purchase wine stocks from more distant areas of Andalucía, such as Condado de Huelva and Montilla-Moriles, to fill their soleras. British firms—Osbourne, Garvey, John Harvey (now Domecq)—arrived in the 17th and 18th centuries to found bodegas. Sherry was in worldwide demand by the late 1800s, but the arrival of phylloxera in 1894, coupled with a rise in production of “Sherry” styles throughout Europe, curtailed the industry. With the establishment of a Jerez Consejo Regulador and the attainment of DO status in 1933, Sherry rebounded. By 1979, Jerez was exporting 200 million bottles a year. Unfortunately, much of the wine was cheap and of questionable quality, and Jerez suffered considerably as a result. Today, efforts to reduce vineyard acreage and increase quality overall have largely been successful, and Sherry is the product of one of the world of wine’s most laborious, artisan processes, often for a very good price. There are two DO zones today, sharing the same vineyards and Consejo Regulador : Jerez-Xérès-Sherry and Manzanilla-Sanlúcar de Barrameda. Three towns—Jerez de la Frontera, Sanlúcar de Barrameda, and El Puerto de Santa Maria—form a “golden triangle” that is the historic area of production. The three authorized grapes are, in descending order of importance, Palomino, Pedro Ximénez and Moscatel. Palomino, or Listán, produces characterless table wines but is the preferred variety for dry Sherry. It thrives in the white albariza soils of the region, which characterize the best pagos , or vineyards. The lower-lying vineyards usually contain more barros (clay), whereas coastal vineyards are characterized by sandy soils called arenas , and are principally suitable for Moscatel grapes. For more information on the production and styles of Sherry, click here . Montilla-Moriles DO, to the northeast of Jerez, lent its name to the style of Amontillado , although it is legally barred from using the term Sherry on its labels. Pedro Ximénez (PX) is the zone’s principal grape, and Jerez has received dispensation to import PX must from Montilla-Moriles to compensate for its own declining acreage of the grape. Wines in the style of Sherry—Fino, Oloroso, and Amontillado—are produced in both fortified and unfortified versions. As the PX grape ripens extremely well in Montilla-Moriles’ hot climate, the wines can naturally ferment to 15.5% alcohol—the ideal strength for flor to survive and the post-fortification strength of Fino sherry. Thus, typically only Olorosos and dessert styles are fortified. The coastal Málaga DO is directly south of Montilla-Moriles. Once a prosperous wine region, both in its own right and as a supplier to the Jerez soleras, Málaga suffers from lowered international interest in both fortified and sweet wines—the specialties of the zone. Moscatel and PX grapes are the region’s principal grapes. Classically, the grapes are dried for a period of up to 20 days on esparto grass mats (a process known as the soleo ) prior to fermentation. Today, the wines of Málaga are either naturally sweet wines—produced either from soleo or simply overripe grapes—or fortified sweet wines. The fortified wines either retain natural sweetness, or the winemaker restores it through the addition of arrope . The fortified wines undergo solera aging in American oak. Five age categories exist for Málaga: Málaga Pálido (no aging requirement), Málaga (at least six months in oak), Málaga Noble (two to three years), Málaga Añejo (three to five years), and Málaga Trasañejo (minimum five years). Table wines from the region are released under the Sierras de Málaga DO. Off the coast of Africa, the Canary Islands lie nearly 700 miles from the Iberian Peninsula. The archipelago is of volcanic origin and has a sub-tropical climate. Nonetheless, wine is produced on most of the inhabited islands, and there are ten DO zones. Five are located on the island of Tenerife; the other five each cover a whole island: La Palma, El Hierro, Gran Canaria, La Gomera and Lanzarote. Phylloxera reached the Canaries in 2025, and century-old vines are still not an uncommon sight. Red wines are usually produced from Listán Negro, Negramoll (Tinta Negra), Malvasía Rosada, and Listán Prieto (Mission), whereas whites may result from a larger combination of grapes, including Malvasía, Gual, Forastera Blanca, Moscatel, and Listán Blanco (Palomino). The fortified wines of the past have ceded ground to the fresh vino joven styles popular with the islands’ tourists. BACK TO TOPPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/206/south-americaWed, 22 Apr 2026 15:47:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:b85e65a1-7938-4b14-9f4d-e8452085a20bGuildSomm AdminTable of Contents South America Chile Argentina Other Countries of South America South America Winemaking arrived in the New World with Spanish conquistadores in the 16th century. From Mexico, where viticulture was first established in the Americas, the vine spread southward through other Spanish colonies, from Peru to Chile and Argentina by 1560. The Portuguese brought the vine to Brazil as early as 1532. Whether Spanish Catholics and missionaries hold responsibility for propagation of the vine, or colonists were simply interested in preserving a staple of their old lives, viticulture flourished in most of South America. However, despite promising early origins, South American viticulture suffered under a prohibitive 17th century Spanish law that restricted wine production (unrelated to the Church) in the New World in favor of Iberian producers. While some nascent wine-producing colonies were hindered by Spanish calls to uproot their vineyards, others, such as Chile, did their best to ignore the ban on production. The matter was settled definitively as the early 1800s brought a new era of political autonomy to former colonies, and Argentina, Chile, and Brazil (South America’s three leading wine producers) gained independence, though not without a great degree of turbulence and strife. An influx of European immigration in the 19th century, along with the development of a national rail system, resulted in a rapid expansion of viticulture in Argentina. Chile also benefited from European expertise: in 1830 the Frenchman Claudio Gay set up a Chilean repository of pre-phylloxera Vitis vinifera vines at the University of Chile’s Quinta Normal department. These vine specimens served Chile well; its geographic isolation, due to the Andes, prevented phylloxera from entering the country. Today, Chile is the only major winemaking country to remain totally phylloxera-free; in the late 1800s the country was able to capitalize on Europe’s vineyard devastation and a large domestic consumption to advance its own industry. The 20th century in South America was plagued by political and economic difficulties, and wine industries in both Chile and Argentina faced a number of challenges. The extraordinarily high domestic consumption of the early 20th century in both countries fell throughout the second half of the century; Argentineans were drinking nearly 90 liters of wine per person annually in the early 1970s, but by the late 1990s consumption dropped by over half. Throughout much of the 20th century, protective state policies prevented Chilean wine producers from participating in an international market, but foreign investment began to pour in during the 1980s, and Chile began to aggressively export its wines. Argentinean winemakers, beleaguered by economic woes, hyperinflation, and a sudden drop in domestic demand in the 1980s, looked to Chile’s recent success for inspiration, and began to focus on quality wine production meant for international markets. Chile has developed a reputation for quality varietal wines at value prices, as well as a number of super-premium red blends—often the product of joint projects between Chile’s great domestic houses and some of the more lauded names of Bordeaux and California. Argentina, meanwhile, touts its status as the world’s fifth largest wine-producing country, and owes a great deal of its successes to the appeal of the Malbec grape. One of the earliest grapes to arrive in the Americas was the black Mission grape. While it is often suggested that the Spanish planted this vine from seed, modern DNA research has revealed that Mission is identical to a grape found in the Canary Islands, Listán Prieto, and that it originated in Spain itself. Various offshoots from the grape provided early viticultural material for Central and South America, and even California. Until the 21st century, País (the Chilean synonym for the Mission grape) was the most planted grape in Chile. The grape, known as Criolla Chica in Argentina, played a similarly important role in historical viticulture, although plantings are not prevalent today. Two related grapes, the pink-skinned Cereza and Criolla Grande, while on the decline, still account for huge swaths of vineyard—Cereza was, until very recently, Argentina’s most planted grape. International varieties in both countries are rapidly increasing, led by Cabernet Sauvignon in Chile and Malbec in Argentina. Argentina successfully forged an international reputation for red varietal wines produced from Malbec, a previously overlooked Bordeaux blending variety introduced into the country in 1860. The country’s winemakers hope for similar success with Torrontés Riojano, a unique, highly aromatic crossing of Criolla Chica x Muscat of Alexandria. Two other varieties, Torrontés Mendocino and Torrontés Sanjuanino, may be labeled as "Torrontés" but they tend to produce lower quality wines. Torrontés Sanjuanino is also a Criolla Chica x Muscat of Alexandria crossing, and Torrontés Mendocino is a crossing of Muscat and an as-yet-unidentified other grape. Chile, on the other hand, has had mixed success with the development of a similarly popular and distinctive variety with which it can be readily identified. Part of the problem may stem from Chile’s own confusion over what is actually planted in the nation’s vineyards: ampelographical research determined that much of Chile’s Sauvignon Blanc was actually Sauvignon Vert, or Friulano, and a significant portion of the country’s Merlot turned out to be Carmenère, the sixth “lost” grape of Bordeaux. Many Chilean producers consider Carmenère to be the nation’s claim to a unique varietal expression, but the grape’s tendency to show pronounced green flavors has heretofore prevented it from capturing the public imagination to the same degree as Argentinean Malbec. BACK TO TOP Chile Chile stretches for nearly 3,000 miles up the west coast of South America, separated from the remainder of the continent by the Andes Mountains. Viticulture occupies around 800 of these coastal miles, with most major regions of production to the south of the capital city, Santiago. From north to south, the six regional Denominations of Origin (DOs) in Chile are Atacama, Coquimbo, Aconcagua, the Valle Central (Central Valley), Sur (the Southern Regions), and a new area at the southernmost limit of grapegrowing in the country, the Austral Region . Even with moderating maritime influence, Chile’s climate varies enormously from the northern to southern latitudes. The northernmost regions of Atacama and Coquimbo are dry and desert-like, with grapes historically destined for Pisco production or the table. The country’s most suitable vineyards for fine wine are mostly situated in the Central Valley to the south of Santiago, where the proximity of the Andes cools nighttime temperatures, and along the coast, where the cold, maritime Humboldt Current cools the vines. Although the Coastal Mountains (between the Central Valley and the Pacific) provide some shelter, the Humboldt Current forces cool sea air inland through the river valleys to affect the Central Valley vineyards during the day. While neither zone is as dry as the deserts to the north, irrigation is still essential in both the Central Valley and Aconcagua. In the country’s southernmost areas of viticulture, rainfall is higher and the overall growing season is cooler and shorter. Significant variations in altitude exist in most of Chile’s major regions, as vineyard plantings climb from the coast into the Coastal Ranges, and from the valleys into the Andean foothills. Chilean wine law, established in 1995, instituted the 75% rule: vintage, variety, and denomination of origin must, if listed on the bottle, comprise a minimum 75% of the blend. Many wineries observe an 85% minimum for all three categories, in order to comply with EU standards for export. Only permitted varieties may be used, and hybrid grapes are forbidden. Chilean law requires all wines to show a minimum alcohol content of 11.5%. Wines labeled Reserva and Reserva Especial must have a minimum 12% abv, and wines labeled Reserva Privada and Gran Reserva require a minimum 12.5% abv. In addition, Reserva Especial and Gran Reserva wines spend mandatory time in oak. Leading grape varieties in Chile after Cabernet Sauvignon include Sauvignon Blanc (and Sauvignon Vert), Merlot, Chardonnay, Carmenère, and Syrah. Muscat of Alexandria retains a large share of plantings, but the grape is used chiefly for distillation. Red grapes account for over 70% of the total acreage in Chile. In Atacama , the northernmost winegrowing region in Chile, viticulture is only possible through irrigation, and the region’s wines are generally distilled. Pisco and table grape production is also prominent in Coquimbo , but the region’s two northern valleys—Elqui and Limarí—are starting to develop a reputation for their wines, and vineyard acreage devoted to wine grapes has dramatically increased since the 1990s. Syrah is gaining attention in the Elqui’s cool, high-altitude vineyards, while the limestone soils and cooler climate of coastal Limarí are proving to be a match for Chardonnay. Coquimbo's third subregion, Choapa, is located in a narrow area to the south, where the Andes and Coastal Mountains converge. The Aconcagua DO takes its name from the Aconcagua River, rather than the nearby Argentinean peak—the highest mountain in the Americas. The sunny, dry Aconcagua Valley subregion follows the river as it flows from the Andes to the Pacific. Soils in the Aconcagua Valley are generally alluvial, and red grapes dominate the valley’s vineyards, particularly Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot. Although much of the valley is distressingly hot for grape-growing, the commune of Panquehue, home to Errázuriz, one of Chile’s most prominent estates and winemaking families, experiences a more moderate climate. Errázuriz’s “Seña,” an iconic Bordeaux-style blend and one of the premier reds of Chile, placed ahead of both Château Lafite and Château Margaux in the 2004 Berlin Tasting—a milestone for the Chilean wine industry likened to the famous 1976 Judgment of Paris. Aconcagua's other subregions—Casablanca and San Antonio—are located along the coast, and are among Chile’s coolest new winemaking zones, in stark contrast to the heat of the interior Aconcagua Valley. With a relatively short history, Casablanca has become the Aconcagua DO’s most prominent zone of production and one of Chile’s most exciting areas for fresh, crisp and fruity Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay. The emerging area of San Antonio, directly south of Casablanca, has the DO zone of Leyda Valley and five DO areas. Like Casablanca, San Antonio is predominantly a white wine region, with Pinot Noir also showing promising results. The Central Valley DO , located between the Andes and the hills and ranges along the coast, is Chile’s oldest and most established winemaking region. From north to south, the DO’s subregions are Maipo Valley, Rapel Valley, Curicó, and Maule Valley. The warm Maipo Valley is Chile’s most famous winemaking area, and the classic region in the country for Cabernet Sauvignon. Over 50% of the region’s more than 10,000 hectares are devoted to the grape, followed by Merlot, Syrah and Carmenère. Due to its proximity to Santiago, many of Chile’s established houses are based in the region, including Concha y Toro (Chile’s largest producer), Santa Rita, and Cousiño Macul. Cabernet thrives on the well-drained, low slopes of the Andes, and some of Chile’s most premium red wines issue from the subregion of Puente Alto, such as Concha y Toro’s “Don Melchor” and Errázuriz’s “Viñedo Chadwick” Cabernet Sauvignon varietal wines, and “Almaviva”, a joint project between Baron Philippe de Rothschild (Mouton-Rothschild) and Concha y Toro. The 2000 “Viñedo Chadwick” took first place in the 2004 Berlin Tasting. The Rapel Valley, divided into Cachapoal and Colchagua, is located to the south of Maipo. Although Cabernet Sauvignon’s position as the leading grape in both regions is firmly secure, Carmenère is growing in importance, and may soon eclipse Merlot as the valley’s second most cultivated grape. Colchagua is the larger, central portion of the valley, and is characterized by a warm climate and fertile soils. Although Colchagua is historically a bulk wine region, producers are finding success with premium wines sourced from higher-altitude eastern subregions with greater diurnal variation, such as San Fernando and Chimbarongo. Two areas were elevated to DO status in 2018: Los Lingues and Apalta. The latter, in eastern Colchagua, is the source of Casa Lapostolle’s “Clos Apalta” and Viña Montes “Alpha M,” two of Chile’s iconic Bordeaux-style blends. Viña Montes also produces “Purple Angel,” one of Chile’s highest-profile Carmenère varietal wines, from Colchagua fruit. Colchagua Chile. The Maule Valley and Curicó comprise the remainder of the Central Valley DO. Maule, one of Chile’s largest regions, has much more vineyard acreage than the Maipo Valley, but the quality is variable. Although Cabernet recently overtook País as the region’s most planted grape, bulk wines meant for local consumption still comprise a large share of the Maule Valley’s output. Curicó, with its two DO zones of Lontué and Teno, achieved some international recognition when Miguel Torres set up Chilean operations here in the late 1970s. Cabernet Sauvignon again dominates the vineyards, but a range of red and white grapes are represented, including Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay. Chile’s Southern Regions DO (Sur) contains three valleys: Itata, Bío Bío, and the southernmost Malleco. Cultivation is sparser in these southern valleys, and País and Muscat de Alexandria are the most planted grapes in both Itata and Bío Bío—nearly 6,000 acres of the Muscat variety in the Southern Regions, while on the decline, account for its status as Chile’s third most planted white variety, after Sauvignon (Blanc and Vert) and Chardonnay. Malleco is a tiny region, with just a few hectares of Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. In 2024, Chile continues to push the boundaries of viticulture as they approved two DOs in new portions of the country. Rapa Nui DO in the Pacific Ocean and Chiloé DO in Patagonia. All of the aforementioned DOs have a north-south orientation. In 2012, the Chilean Ministry of Agriculture amended wine law to support three new geographic terms: Costa, Entre Cordilleras, and Andes. On labels, producers may now append pre-existing DOs with one of these three new designations, which signify the proximity of a vineyard to the coast (Costa) or to the mountains (Andes). Entre Cordilleras ("between mountains") describes the valley areas between the coastal range and the Andes, a region in which over three-quarters of Chilean wine grapes are grown. In order for a wine to qualify for one of the new designations, at least 85% of the grapes must be harvested in the appropriate region. The enormous influence wielded by the sea and Chile's mountains upon viticulture is thrust into the limelight with these new geographic indications, but, as with most changes to appellation systems, early criticism of its meaningfulness to the consumer is robust. BACK TO TOP Argentina As of 2018, Argentina is the world’s fifth largest wine producer in the world and the tenth largest wine exporter. The country’s vineyards are mostly confined to the western sector of the country, in the plains and foothills near the Andes, where they experience a continental climate. In the rain shadow of the Andes, Argentina’s wine producing regions are very dry, a condition exacerbated by the Zonda, a fierce, dusty, hot afternoon wind that blows down from the mountains in the late spring and early summer, sometimes adversely affecting flowering. The general lack of humidity in most Argentinean winegrowing regions keeps vineyards free of fungal problems, and snowmelt provides plentiful water for irrigation—in those years that the Andes receive heavy winter snowfall. Unfortunately, the little moisture that does precipitate in the vineyards often comes in the form of dangerous spring and summer hail. As expected in a continental climate, summer temperatures can reach 100° F and above, although the country’s higher elevation vineyards—some of the world’s highest vines (3,000 meters above sea level) are located in Salta, at Donald Hess’ Colomé estate—serve to mitigate such extreme highs and prolong the growing season. As Argentinean vineyards are generally situated on the slopes of the Andean foothills and plains, the average national elevation for vineyards is approximately 900 meters above sea level. The lack of major nearby urban centers keeps Argentinean vineyards rather free from the effects of pollution; the Maipo, just across the mountains, is covered in Santiago’s smog by comparison. In descending order of importance, the country’s most important red grapes include the flagship Malbec, Bonarda, Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Merlot, and Tempranillo. Argentina ’ s Bonarda, the country ’ s second most planted red grape, is genetically distinct from the Northern Italian grape of the same name, but recent DNA studies have identified it as Savoie's Corbeau—a variety known as Charbono in the United States. The country’s most planted white grape is Pedro Giménez, a variety unrelated to Spain’s Pedro Ximénez, a blending grape often mainly suitable for bulk wines or grape concentrate. The distinctive, floral Torrontés is second among white grapes, followed by Chardonnay and Chenin Blanc. The Mendoza Chardonnay clone, developed at the University of California at Davis, has become popular throughout the country; despite being prone to millerandage the resulting grapes have a greater skin-to-juice ratio . Pink-skinned varieties, including Cereza, Criolla Chica, and Criolla Grande, occupy nearly 30% of the nation’s vineyard acreage. When working with premium wine grapes (such as Malbec or Gewürztraminer, but not Cereza or Criolla Chica), winemakers have the option of labeling both red and white wines as Reserva or Gran Reserva . Reserva implies a minimum 6 months of aging for white wines and one year for reds; Gran Reserva indicates at least one year for whites and two for reds. These two new designations, introduced in 2008, also limit maximum yields. The winemaking areas of Argentina are divided among the northwestern provinces, the central provinces of Cuyo, and the southern provinces of Patagonia. Approximately three-quarters of the country’s entire wine production occurs in the province of Mendoza in Cuyo, where more than 150,000 hectares are cultivated. To the north, the province of Salta, despite fewer than 3,000 total hectares under vine, is gaining a reputation for high-altitude Torrontés—a variety prone to high alcohol levels at lower, hotter elevations. Red grapes, such as Malbec and Cabernet Sauvignon, are also successful in the cooler mountain climate. Cafayate is a promising department within Salta, and is increasingly appearing on bottles of Torrontés—Susana Balbo’s “Crios” is a widely exported hallmark of the style. Etchart, the winery that first brought Michel Rolland to Argentina, and Yacochuya, Arnaldo Etchart's new project, are two prominent producers based in Cafayate. In the province of Catamarca, located directly south of Salta, Torrontés, Syrah, Malbec, and Cabernet Sauvignon lead in acreage. Cuyo comprises the wine-producing provinces of Mendoza, La Rioja, and San Juan. La Rioja is the northernmost of the three provinces; its most famous wine region is the Famatina Valley. Torrontés is again the most cultivated grape, followed by Malbec. Although production is significantly higher than in the northern provinces, La Rioja’s output is dwarfed by the massive production of Mendoza and San Juan to the south. San Juan, Argentina’s second-largest wine-producing province, has more than 45,000 hectares under vine in the Tulum, Zonda, Ullum, Jáchal, Calingasta, Pedernal and Fértil Valleys. Much of this acreage has historically been devoted to Argentina’s pink-skinned varieties, although Syrah and Bonarda—sometimes confusingly called Barbera Bonarda—are capturing critical attention. San Juan’s hot summer climate is ideal for grapes destined for brandy and vermouth production, and the region’s sherry-style wines are reasonably good in quality. Mendoza, the center of the Argentinean wine industry, is broadly divided into North, Central (Primera Zona), South, and East sectors, and the Uco Valley—a western subregion and home to the province’s highest vineyards. Soils in the region are generally comprised of loose, alluvial sand over clay, a structure that, when coupled with the gale-force Zonda wind, helps to keep phylloxera and other diseases at bay. As in Chile, almost all vines in Mendoza are planted on their own rootstock. The climate is desert-like, and irrigation is absolutely necessary, whether in the traditional form of furrow irrigation—a technique developed centuries ago by the Incas, in which the rivers' water, swelled by Andes snowmelt, is directed through the vineyards in channels—or by more modern methods of drip irrigation. Red grapes account for over half of the entire province’s acreage; Malbec, the most planted grape, covers around 35,000 hectares of vineyard. Despite being planted in Cahors, Bordeaux, and the Loire Valley, the grape achieves its most classic and identifiable varietal expression in Mendoza, offering brambly black and red mountain fruit tones, rich and robust texture, and sweet floral tones. The wines usually undergo some degree of French and/or American oak treatment, with some of the more serious examples, such as the single-vineyard Achaval Ferrer wines, spending over a year in 100% new barrels. In some applications, such as the blended Cheval des Andes, Malbec may convey a texture and style reminiscent of velvety Pomerol; other offerings are simpler, fresher, and best enjoyed in youth. The departments of Luján de Cuyo (one of Argentina’s two DOCs, authorized only for Malbec wines) and Maipú, in Central Mendoza, provide some of the best traditional sites for the grape. Highly regarded estates include Catena, Susana Balbo’s Dominio del Plata, Bressia, and Achával Ferrer. In addition to Malbec, Cabernet Sauvignon is finding complexity and popularity here at roughly 7% of the acreage. While white grapes, such as Chardonnay and Sémillon, are cultivated with success in the high elevation vineyards of Uco Valley and its Tupungato department. In Southern Mendoza's department of San Rafael DOC, Malbec is the principal grape. Southern Mendoza is also home to General Alvear, which focuses on the Criolla varieties and is not known for fine wines. Criolla Grande and Cereza still account for about 20% of the plantings in Mendoza, but they are relegated to bulk wine and grape concentrate production, and are losing acreage to a plethora of international and Italian varieties. South of Mendoza, the winemaking provinces of Patagonia are Río Negro, Neuquén, and Chubut. These are smaller regions of production, and markedly cooler than those to the north. White grapes, such as Torrontés and Sémillon, perform well in the provinces’ chalky soils and longer growing seasons, although cool-climate, elegant versions of Malbec, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Pinot Noir are promising. Bodegas Chacra, spearheaded by the family behind Tuscany’s Sassicaia, rapidly emerged as Patagonia’s most famous estate in the mid-2000s, selling super-premium Río Negro Pinot Noir. Bodega Noemía de Patagonia, another premier producer in the province, is winning acclaim for Malbec. La Pampa, an adjacent province to the north of Río Negro, is an emerging area for wine. BACK TO TOP Other Countries of South and Central America Beyond Chile and Argentina, viticulture is gaining steam in Brazil and Uruguay. Brazil’s production is predominantly red, although nearly a quarter of the country’s output is sparkling, and the country has attracted significant foreign investment, including the Champagne firm Moët et Chandon. Most of the country’s viticultural activity takes place in the southern state of Rio Grande do Sul, on the Argentinean border. Within Rio Grande do Sul, Serra Gaúcha is the country's most developed viticultural region and accounts for approximately 90% of Brazilian wine. Other southern regions include São Joaquim, Serra do Sudeste, and Campanha. São Francisco Valley is a tropical winegrowing region in the northern part of the country, where growers are able to harvest twice a year. A new system of Origin Indications in Brazil is unique among New World countries; both yields and grape varieties are restricted in the manner of European appellations. Vale dos Vinhedos , a subregion within Serra Gaúcha, received Brazil’s first Origin Indication in 2002. Bordeaux and other international grapes are planted in Brazil, alongside Iberian varieties like Aragonez and Touriga Nacional. Uruguay, South America’s fourth largest producer, exports over half of its production to Brazil. Tannat—rechristened Harriague, after Don Pascual Harriague, the Frenchman who introduced the grape to Uruguay—is the dominant red variety for quality wines. Smaller wine industries exist in Paraguay, Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador. BACK TO TOPPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/207/south-africaWed, 22 Apr 2026 15:47:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:330eacd4-e9bd-439a-85a4-92cea9a9617aGuildSomm AdminTable of Contents South Africa Coastal Region Breede River Valley Region Klein Karoo Region Olifants River Region Cape South Coast Region Toward the Future South Africa The history of the vine in South Africa can be traced to 1652, when Jan van Riebeeck of the Dutch East India Company founded Cape Town and established its first vineyard. The first wines of the colony, derided by contemporaries for their “revolting sourness,” emerged seven years later to sustain sailors bound for the East Indies on the long ocean voyage. But with the arrival of French Huguenots fleeing religious persecution in their homeland in the late 1680s and early 1690s came a new wealth of winemaking knowledge. The Huguenots settled between Paarl and Stellenbosch in a region that became known as Franschhoek (meaning “French Quarter”) and established vineyards. Around this same time, Governor Simon van der Stel’s Constantia estate eclipsed the modest winemaking tradition of his predecessors and introduced sweet Vin de Constance, then called the "governor's wine," to the world. This wine would be coveted throughout the courts of Europe and holds its prestige even now, over 300 years later. Founded near Cape Town in 1685, Constantia—now a ward of the Coastal Region—was divided into three estates upon van der Stel’s death in 1712. In 1778, Groot Constantia, one of these estates, was sold to Hendrik Cloete, who renovated the property and brought international acclaim to the wines. Bush vine Pinotage (Photo credit: Kelli White) South African wines flourished under British colonial rule, but in the latter half of the 19th century, powdery mildew and phylloxera struck. Compounding the industry’s misfortunes, the British finally abolished preferential tariffs in 1861, renewing competition with French wines. In the absence of such tariffs, Cape wines—often heavily treated with sulfur dioxide and fortified with poor brandy—simply could not compete in quality against French and German wines abroad or even at home. In addition, wines from the southernmost tip of Africa faced expensive ocean transit rather than a short hop across the English Channel, and the Cape’s export trade suffered greatly. The state purchased Groot Constantia in 1885, and the root louse appeared on the property, ravaging the famous vineyards. A golden era for Constantia ended, and South African vineyards, decimated by phylloxera and colonial war at the turn of the century, entered a period of decline. In the wake of phylloxera, South African producers turned to American rootstocks and high-yielding vines, but surplus soon outstripped local demand, and overproduction—a longstanding problem for the South African industry—continued. In the face of plummeting prices and oversupply, the Ko-operatieve Wijnbouwers Vereniging van Zuid-Afrika (KWV) formed in 1918 with the support of 90% of South Africa’s growers. The KWV, a cooperative of wine producers and growers, fixed minimum prices, determined areas of production, and established production limits—powers formalized in the 1924 Wine and Spirits Control Act. It pulled the industry back from the brink of disaster but favored large producers and rewarded lower quality, as it set viable prices even for distillation wine. Surpluses, essentially subsidized by the KWV, continued through the 1980s, and despite a shift in domestic drinking habits from fortified wines to table wines in the mid-20th century, South Africa’s wine industry did not encourage high quality. Apartheid, the segregationist system instituted by South Africa in the late 1940s, further hampered efforts at renewing international interest in the country's wines. However, the end of apartheid in 1994 and the transformation of the KWV into a private company in 1997 spurred a great renewal in the industry. International eco-nomic sanctions and boycotts were lifted, opening export markets, and the KWV relinquished its statutory powers and scrapped quotas as early as 1992, encouraging growers to focus on quality. In 1999, the South African Wine Industry Trust (SAWIT) was established to speed transformation of South African wine and to empower black workers in an industry that had long relied on slave- and apartheid-era labor practices. In 2002, the South African Wine and Spirit Board began to offer quality certification through SAWIS (South African Wine Industry Information and Systems) in accordance with the Wine of Origin (WO) scheme, South Africa’s appellation system. By 2005, South Africa was exporting 280 million liters annually—nearly five times the amount exported in 1994. Today, South Africa ranks seventh in volume among wine-producing countries worldwide, accounting for 3.9% of global wine production. The regions of South Africa (Courtesy of SAWIS) The Wine of Origin system, introduced in 1973, compels producers seeking certification to submit a sample of their wines for evaluation by a tasting panel, which confirms that each wine shows the correct organoleptic qualities for its cultivar (variety) and age. The wine also undergoes scientific analysis. An approved cultivar—approximately 90 are authorized, irrespective of region—must be used to attain WO status, and as of 2006, the wine must contain 85% of the stated grape. Blends may list several grapes, if vinification occurred separately and each listed grape comprises a minimum 20% of the wine. A minimum 85% of the stated vintage is also required. If an area of production appears on the label, 100% of grapes must come from the stated area. There are four types of production areas, in descending order of size: geographical unit, region, district, and ward. A single vineyard may be listed on a label if the wine is sourced solely from a vineyard that is appropriately registered and of less than six hectares. Estate wines must be produced from contiguous parcels of vineyard land and vinified and bottled on a single property. A WO seal appears on all bottles of South African wine that pass certification. While it is an entirely voluntary process, none of the above claims—vintage, variety, or area of production—may legally appear on any bottle that forgoes certification. In 1998, South Africa launched the Integrated Production of Wine Scheme (IPW), a voluntary means of certification for WO producers wishing to comply with sustainable environmental standards. The IPW sets guidelines for agricultural, manufacturing, and packaging practices, and certification falls under the jurisdiction of the SA Wine and Spirit Board. Wineries are judged on a number of points, including worker safety measures, handling of wastewater, carbon emissions, use of pesticides and other chemicals, and vineyard biodiversity. Starting with the 2010 vintage, wines that meet a minimum score in IPW evaluation (60% or better) and qualify for WO certification are marked with a joint seal, indicating a "sustainable wine of origin," rather than the basic WO seal. Today, over 95% of South African WO wines carry this seal. South Africa’s wine-producing areas are divided into seven large geographical areas based on political boundaries (GIs): Western Cape, Northern Cape, Eastern Cape, North West, Kwazulu-Natal, Limpopo, and Free State. Northern Cape consists of only six production areas: the region of Karoo-Hoogland, the Douglas, Sutherland-Karoo, and Central Orange River districts, and the independent Hartswater and Prieska wards. Eastern Cape has a single ward (St. Francis Bay) and Kwazulu-Natal contains the Central Drakensberg and Lions River districts. Limpopo and North West do not contain further delineations. The Free State holds an independent ward, Rietrivier FS. The districts of South Africa (Courtesy of SAWIS) Most South African wine production occurs in the Western Cape, a small area in the southwestern corner of the country. Most WO areas are contained within it, including the Coastal Region, Cape South Coast, Breede River Valley, Klein Karoo, and Olifants River. At a latitude of 27° to 34°, the Western Cape’s climate is essentially Mediterranean, with warm, sunny growing seasons, although the Benguela Current flows north from Antarctica to cool the coastal areas. The Cape Doctor, a notoriously strong southeasterly wind, blows across the Western Cape throughout the spring and summer, inhibiting fungal disease and moderating temperature—but also ferociously battering the vines. The Cape South Coasts’ Elgin, offers the coolest climate in the country. In contrast, the Northern Cape production areas along the Orange River experience a hot, arid climate and are generally only suitable for bulk wines. Since the early 1990s, South African producers have replanted nearly half of the nation’s vineyards with quality focused varieties. White varieties make up the majority of South Africa's vineyard landscape. Chenin Blanc, known locally as Steen, is the most planted white grape, occupying about 18.4% of the nation’s vineyards. Other important white grapes include Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Hanepoot ( Muscat of Alexandria) , Colombard, Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains, and Semillon. Red grapes have surged in acreage since the mid-1990s. Pinotage, a crossing of Cinsault and Pinot Noir developed by Professor Abraham Perold in 1924, has been referred to by some as South Africa’s signature red grape. Depending on viticulture and vinification the variety cal yield different styles of wines. Until recently, it was infamous for distinctively smoky and pungent aromas. Today, it is a variety driven by producer style with Kanonkop leading the way. Cinsault itself, one of the grapes responsible for much of the past surplus, has lost its status as South Africa’s most planted red variety to Cabernet Sauvignon (10.6% of plantings) with Syrah/Shiraz as a close second (10% of plantings). Merlot, Cinsault, and Pinot Noir are among the other important commercial red cultivars. Pontac, a teinturier grape linked to the old red wines of Constantia, enjoys a limited revival among dedicated producers. Traditional method sparkling wines known as Méthode Cap Classique (MCC) are increasingly produced from Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, and fortified styles include Cape Port and Sherry—terms that were phased out in 2012. Cape Port today is generally named according to its style: Cape Tawny, Cape Ruby, and so forth. Coastal Region South Africa’s Coastal Region is located around the original colony of Cape Town and along the western coast of the Cape. Most of the country's high-quality wine originates here. The region is subdivided into nine districts: Stellenbosch , Cape Town , Paarl , Tulbagh , Darling , Franschhoek Valley , Lutzville Valley , Wellington , and Swartland . Cape Town was introduced in 2017 and contains the wards of Constantia, Hout Bay, Durbanville, and Philadelphia. Five estates occupy the historic Constantia vineyard on the eastern, decomposed granite slopes of Constantiaberg, including the state-owned Groot Constantia, Klein Constantia, and Buitenverwachting (translating to “Beyond Expectations”). Despite the fabled glory of Vin de Constance, several of the new proprietors are focusing on international grapes and dry wines. However, Klein (meaning “little”) Constance revived the virtually extinct style with new Muscat de Frontignan plantings in the 1980s. Cool sea breezes blow northward from False Bay, and average February temperatures hover around 70 degrees Fahrenheit, promoting a lengthy growing season ideal for dessert wines and cool-climate white grapes like Sauvignon Blanc. Stellenbosch (Photo credit: Kelli White) Across False Bay from the Cape Peninsula is the Stellenbosch district, South Africa’s most prominent winemaking region. With viticultural roots dating back to the 17th century, the “Town of Oaks” has become the epicenter of viticultural and oenological research for the country, and it is a source of high-quality red wines. The valleys surrounding Stellenbosch, cradled between the Simonsberg, Stellenbosch, and Helderberg peaks, harbor just over 15% of South Africa’s vines and contain some of the world’s most ancient soils, ranging from alluvial loam over shale on the valley floors to decomposed granite and sandstone on the hillsides. Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon Blanc are the district’s two most planted varieties, followed by Merlot, Shiraz, and Chenin Blanc. With a maritime-influenced climate comparable to—but warmer than—Bordeaux, blended reds based on Cabernet Sauvignon, such as Warwick Estate’s “Trilogy” and Meerlust’s “Rubicon,” garner high praise. Kanonkop (a champion of Pinotage), Rust en Vrede, and Neil Ellis round out a sampling of highly regarded producers in the district. Wards within Stellenbosch include Devon Valley, Jonkershoek Valley, Papegaaiberg, Simonsberg-Stellenbosch, Bottelary, Banghoek, and the Polkadraai Hills. North of Stellenbosch, the warmer inland Paarl (meaning “pearl”) district is home to the KWV, a founding partner in SAWIT. With over 40 bottlings in its range, Nederburg is the district’s largest producer and the first house to produce a botrytised dessert wine in South Africa. The renowned Nederburg Wine Auction, an auction of rare Cape wines, has taken place in Paarl since 1975. In its first year, the oldest annual wine auction outside of Europe showcased Golden Liquid Nederburg Edelkeur. The district rivals Stellenbosch in production and is successful with varieties like Cabernet Sauvignon, Shiraz, Pinotage, Chenin Blanc, and Chardonnay. Until 2010, Paarl included Franschhoek Valley, the site claimed by French Huguenot settlers in the late 17th century, among its wards, but the historic valley has now achieved status as a separate district. In 2012, Wellington followed suit. Tulbagh is a smaller district located to the north of Paarl. Its higher altitude creates a significant diurnal temperature shift, and MCC production there is increasing. Breede River Valley Region The Breede River Valley comprises three districts: Robertson , Worcester , and Breedekloof . A fourth district, Swellendam, shifted to the Cape South Coast region in late 2010. Breedekloof and Worcester, the largest district in South Africa in terms of production, produce over 25% of the national volume of wine and spirits (generally brandy), and nearly 20% of the nation’s vine acreage is located in these two districts. In Worcester, there are sizable plantings of Colombard, Chenin Blanc, and Ruby Cabernet. Robertson is a higher quality area, known equally for its MCC and red wine production. Shiraz is emerging as one of the district’s finest varietal wines. Klein Karoo Region Klein Karoo is an arid inland region with two districts: Langeberg-Garcia and Calitzdorp . The region’s six wards are not contained within either district. Fortified and sweet wine production is the dominant focus. Muscat and Tinta Barroca are the most promising grapes of the region. Olifants River Region The Olifants River Region includes two districts— Citrusdal Mountain and Citrusdal Valley —and is located to the north of Swartland. Colombard and Chenin Blanc are chiefly purposed for bulk wines, and South Africa’s largest co-operative winery, Namaqua , is based here. The region is home to two of the country's most famous sites, the ward of Piekenierskloof is well known for Grenache, and the single vineyard of Skurfburg which is famous for old vine Chenin Blanc South Africa’s highest elevation vineyards are located in Cederberg, an unincorporated ward located to the east of the Olifants River Region. Cape South Coast Region Hemel-en-Aarde (Photo credit: Kelli White) Seven districts comprise the Cape South Coast Region. Four of these districts— Overberg , Elgin , Walker Bay , and Cape Agulhas —line the southwestern Atlantic Coast of South Africa. A fifth, Plettenberg Bay , lies over 250 miles to the east, along the southern coast of Africa. Swellendam , borders Overberg to the east, near the Breede River Valley, and the small Lower Duivenhoks River district lies even further east. Overberg is divided into four wards: Klein River, Theewater, Elandskloof, and Greyton. Elgin, previously a fifth ward of Overberg, received district status in early 2012. Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir, and even Riesling are showing good results in the cooler maritime climate of both districts. The Walker Bay district, a whale-watcher's delight, surrounds the coastal town of Hermanus and is showing success with Pinot Noir and Chardonnay as well as consistently high-quality examples of Pinotage. Hamilton Russell Winery, a pioneer in the district, was an early proponent of the Burgundy grapes as well as Pinotage. Walker Bay contains seven wards; its top areas of production are Bot River and Hemel-en-Aarde (or “Heaven and Earth”) Valley. The windy Cape Agulhas sits on the southernmost point of the continent, with vineyards concentrated in the single ward of Elim. This district’s cool climate is provoking excitement for the region’s Sauvignon Blanc, Semillon, and Shiraz. Toward the Future Despite the rich history of Constantia, South Africa is still in its infancy as a winemaking region. Styles and regions continue to evolve at a rapid pace as producers carve out a distinct South African identity in a global wine market. Chenin Blanc has achieved success in the country and offers a uniquely marketable varietal expression. South Africa's unique Pinotage is also showing more potential in the right hands in recent years. With proper understanding, careful viticulture, and thoughtful winemaking, this grape can offer a singular expression for the country. Indeed, South Africa is a developing frontier for wine and a country to watch over the coming decade. Updated January 2025Previewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/155/rhone-valley-and-southern-franceWed, 22 Apr 2026 15:46:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:274bcbd0-93a3-4f38-921a-2f87abc47462GuildSomm AdminTable of Contents Rhône Valley Northern Rhône Valley Southern Rhône Valley Provence and Corsica Languedoc-Roussillon Southwestern France and the Dordogne The Rhône Valley The Rhône Valley in France is overwhelmingly devoted to red wine production. While the Rhône River is dotted with vineyards from its headwaters in Switzerland to its mouth on the French Mediterranean coast, the Rhône Valley properly refers to two clusters of appellations along the banks of the river in Southern France. The Northern Rhône, or Rhône septentrionale , occupies a narrow band of vineyards hugging the river just south of Beaujolais, from Vienne to Valence. The vineyards of the Southern Rhône, or Rhône méridionale , funnel outward south of Montélimar toward Avignon, near the river’s Mediterranean basin. While these two separate stretches are often considered collectively, the Northern and Southern Rhône are climatically and viticulturally distinct. The Rhône Valley and its environs boast a long history of enological importance. The introduction of winemaking in France can be traced to the Greeks, who established vine cultivation at their Massalia settlement—modern-day Marseilles—in approximately 600 BCE. At the height of Greek trade, some 10 million liters of wine in amphorae were shipped through Massalia into the heart of Gaul via the Rhône River. The Romans continued this trend with their arrival in the Southern Rhône in 125 BCE, and viticulture spread to the Northern Rhône by the first century CE. The Northern Rhône’s picturesque, hallmark terraces were first constructed by Roman workers. Vienne evolved as an important Roman provincial capital, and the Viennese vinum picatum, or "pitched wine," was exported to Rome itself. Whether vinum picatum was simply a reference to the wine’s character resulting from its mode of transport (amphorae lined with resin) or an allusion to the tarry flavors of Syrah is unclear. Winemaking continued in the Rhône Valley after the fall of Rome, but the trade of wine declined greatly during the Dark Ages. As in Burgundy, the Catholic Church was primarily responsible for reviving the culture of the vine in the ninth century. In 1309, the Southern Rhône suddenly became the center of Christian Europe as Pope Clement V moved his court from Rome to Avignon. His successor, Pope John XXII, began construction of the now-ruined summer papal palace, Châteauneuf-du-Pape, and planted the surrounding vineyards. The Roman Catholic popes presided in Avignon until 1378, and Châteauneuf-du-Pape remained property of the papacy until 1791. However, the wine sourced from the papal vineyards— vin d’Avignon —was not bottled as Châteauneuf-du-Pape until the 19th century. In the 17th century, traders carried Rhône wines to the Loire Valley, and by the 18th, they were being exported via the Loire to England. The “manly” wines of Hermitage were among the most famous in France in the 18th and 19th centuries, and many merchants of Bordeaux blended them with their own reds to strengthen the wines. The Southern Rhône was the first quality region in France to be struck by phylloxera when it first appeared in 1863. As wine fraud took hold in France during the decades of grafting and replanting following the epidemic, the growers of Châteauneuf-du-Pape prepared and imposed a set of rules for production. These rules became the prototype for the Appellation Contrôlée system, and in 1936, Châteauneuf-du-Pape became the first AOC (now AOP) in France. In the late 20th century, these wines were often overlooked in favor of Burgundy and Bordeaux; today, however, they achieve critical acclaim and capture public interest. BACK TO TOP The Northern Rhône While the Southern Rhône’s climate is firmly Mediterranean, the Northern Rhône is more continental. Some 75 miles north of Avignon, the Northern Rhône benefits from its southerly position but experiences greater seasonal temperature shifts, more rainfall, and fewer annual hours of sunshine than the southern appellations. The cold, dry Mistral wind , a defining climatic element of the Southern Rhône and Provence, blows down from the Massif Central and affects the Northern Rhône in winter and spring. Although the wind is strong enough to strip the vines—many trees in the valley grow leaning southward, bent by the wind—it dries the vineyards, preventing mold and mildew from taking hold. Heat-retaining granitic and schistous soils define much of the north: the steeply sloped vineyards of Côte-Rôtie, Condrieu, and Hermitage are carved out of this bedrock. Fine sand and loess topsoil throughout the Northern Rhône are prone to erosion, a threat partially mitigated by terrace construction. Near the commune of Condrieu, the thin topsoil is rich with powdery, decomposed mica, known locally as arzelle . The soils become heavier with clay in the southern section of Saint-Joseph, Crozes-Hermitage, and Saint-Péray. In the Northern Rhône, the Syrah grape achieves its classic status. The wines are full-bodied, firm, and savory, and they manifest a host of signature secondary aromas including smoke, grilled meat, olive, lavender, and peppercorn. The wines are typically fermented and aged in large oak foudres, although some producers are now experimenting with new barriques. There are five appellations for Syrah: Hermitage AOP , Crozes-Hermitage AOP , Cornas AOP , Côte-Rôtie AOP , and Saint-Joseph AOP . In Cornas, Syrah is bottled as a 100% varietal wine. The other appellations allow a small percentage of white grapes to be blended (and often fermented together) with the Syrah grape. In Côte-Rôtie, up to 20% Viognier may be added. In Crozes-Hermitage and Hermitage, producers have the option of adding a combined total of 15% Marsanne and Roussanne. Saint-Joseph producers may add up to 10% Marsanne and Roussanne. Co-fermentation offers the almost counterintuitive advantage of stabilizing red wine color and moderating tannin extraction. Generally, a smaller percentage of white grapes than the allowable maximums is used, if any. Côte Rôtie vineyards Côte-Rôtie, the northernmost appellation in the Northern Rhône Valley, is home to some of France’s steepest vineyards. On parts of the slope, the gradient is a precipitous 55 degrees or more. Côte-Rôtie, the “roasted slope,” rises up a southeasterly aspect behind the riverside town of Ampuis, home to E. Guigal, the largest producer in the appellation. While Côte-Rôtie has grown to include other communes, the two slopes nearest Ampuis—the Côte Brune and Côte Blonde—are considered the heart of the appellation’s terroir. The wines derived from these two hillsides are said to mirror their namesake: Côte Blonde yields softer, alluring wines, whereas the wines of Côte Brune are stronger and more assertive. La Landonne, a cru bottled as a vineyard designate by Guigal, René Rostaing, and others, fetches prices that can equal those commanded by the first growths of Bordeaux. Rising up from the village of Tain-l’Hermitage, the south-facing hill of Hermitage produces equally compelling Syrah. Four major producers dominate the terraced hill: the singular Jean-Louis Chave and the négociants Delas, M. Chapoutier, and Jaboulet. “La Chapelle,” Jaboulet’s premier wine, is named for a small hillside chapel that stands in commemoration of Gaspard de Stérimberg, the legendary Crusader-turned-hermit who lived a life of asceticism atop the hill. The chapel is located within the climat of L’Hermite. Other important climats of Hermitage include le Méal, les Bessards, Gréffieux, Beaume, and Péléat. Behind the hill of Hermitage are the vineyards of Crozes-Hermitage. The red wines of Crozes-Hermitage are generally lighter and less ageworthy, although the better wines can approach Hermitage in quality. Hill of Hermitage In Cornas, the Syrah wines are traditionally rustic, impenetrable in their youth, and slow to develop in the bottle. The vineyards of Cornas are among the warmest in the Northern Rhône. The sun’s warmth is magnified by the naked granite soil (gore ) in the vineyards, and the appellation is shielded from the Mistral wind. There are four noteworthy lieux-dits : Les Reynards, La Côte, Les Chaillot, and Les Mazards. At just over 100 hectares of planted land, Cornas is physically the smallest red wine appellation of the Northern Rhône, although Hermitage is not far behind. Auguste Clape has long been considered the standard-bearer for the traditional wines of the appellation, eschewing destemming for whole-cluster fermentation and new oak barriques for the old demi-muids of the region. North of Cornas, Saint-Joseph produces variable wines. The appellation’s borders have been greatly enlarged from the original delimited area near the commune of Tournon-sur-Rhône, opposite the hill of Hermitage. Today, the AOP extends through Condrieu in the north to Saint-Péray in the south. Along with Crozes-Hermitage, Saint-Joseph provides a basic level of quality in the Northern Rhône. Cornas and Côte-Rôtie may produce only red wine; Saint-Joseph, Crozes-Hermitage, and Hermitage also produce small amounts of white wines, from the Marsanne and Roussanne grapes. Near Valence, the cool Saint-Péray AOP exclusively produces Marsanne and Roussanne wines, which may be made in méthode traditionelle mousseux style. Often but not always blended, the more delicate Roussanne adds acidity and waxy minerality to Marsanne’s broader, oily texture and marzipan character. In Hermitage, producers have the traditional option of drying either grape for the rare dessert wine vin de paille , a style revived by Gérard Chave in the 1970s and again by Chapoutier in 1990. Condrieu AOP is a white wine appellation just south of Côte-Rôtie for the Viognier grape. With less than 200 delimited hectares in the appellation, these wines are rare. In the 1960s, the wine approached extinction as it had fallen out of commercial favor and only a handful of hectares were still planted to Viognier. Today, it experiences a small resurgence in the hands of producers such as Georges Vernay, Yves Cuilleron, and André Perret. Viognier wines tend toward honeyed lushness, intriguing floral aromas, and rich texture; however, important stylistic decisions, such as the use of oak and the desirability of malolactic fermentation, vary widely by producer. The Viognier wines of Château Grillet AOP , a monopole within Condrieu, enjoy historical acclaim but are perhaps more notable today for their scarcity than their intrinsic value. Château Grillet is often incorrectly cited as the smallest appellation in France; this distinction belongs to La Romanée in Burgundy. Southeast of Valence, four minor appellations of the Northern Rhône lie on the Drôme River, a tributary of the Rhône. Coteaux de Die AOP and the sparkling wine appellation Crémant de Die AOP offer whites based entirely and partially, respectively, on Clairette. Clairette de Die AOP provides two styles of sparkling wines: méthode traditionnelle and méthode Dioise ancestrale. While Clairette is the sole grape in the traditional method wines, the méthode Dioise ancestrale requires its rustic sparkling wines to contain, confusingly, a minimum 75% Muscat à Petit Grains. The méthode ancestrale is an old technique of sparkling wine production in which the wine is bottled without dosage before fermentation has concluded. The wines are disgorged into pressurized tanks and rebottled without l iqueur d’expédition . A minimum 35 grams per liter residual sugar remains, implying demi-sec sweetness. Méthode traditionnelle wines are basically brut in style, with a maximum 15 grams per liter of sugar after dosage . Near Die, Châtillon-en-Diois AOP is an anomaly for Gamay-based reds and rosés and whites based on Aligoté and Chardonnay. BACK TO TOP The Southern Rhône The Southern Rhône accounts for about 95% of all wine produced in the Rhône Valley and it is overwhelmingly devoted to red wine. Unlike the Northern Rhône, wines from the southern appellations are generally blends. Grenache—a Spanish import—is the most planted red grape, offering richness of body, sweet fruit, and warmth. Mourvèdre and Syrah constitute a significant percentage of plantings, adding structure and depth of color to the blend. Cinsault provides finesse and freshness, and is often utilized for rosé wines as well. Carignan is the last major red grape of the Southern Rhône, but acreage is on the decline. The climate of the Southern Rhône is distinctly Mediterranean; the landscape shifts to become rugged garrigue scrubland. The Mistral blows fiercely across the flat southern valley. Many growers plant their vines at an angle so that the wind will blow them upright over time. Hot summers are tempered by significant diurnal swings, and mild winters follow typically heavy autumnal rains. A wealth of alluvial soils exists in the Southern Rhône, deposited over limestone subsoil in the river’s course. Sand, gravel, and clay have been left in the river’s wake, and larger stones have been dumped in the valley’s mounds by post-ice age glacial melt. In Châteauneuf-du-Pape, these deposited “pudding stones” are called galets . Made of quartzite and smoothed by the river, the galets store heat, releasing it to warm the vines at night. Châteauneuf-du-Pape AOP offers red and white wines and is the premier southern appellation. With 13 accepted varieties—or 18, depending on how one counts the grapes—Châteauneuf-du-Pape embodies the Southern Rhône’s blending philosophy. While Grenache is generally the principal variety in red wines from the appellation, Château de Beaucastel Rouge includes a significant proportion of Mourvèdre and is famously produced from a blend of every authorized variety. On the other end of the spectrum, Château Rayas often releases their Châteauneuf-du-Pape Rouge as a 100% varietal Grenache. Regardless of the individual producer’s encépagement and assemblage , the red wines generally show more ripeness, richness, and alcohol than their northern counterparts. At 12.5%, the required minimum potential alcoholic strength is the highest in France for dry AOP wines, and can result in surprisingly high-alcohol wines, reaching 15% or more in some producers' top-end cuvées. Additionally, AOP regulations mandate that producers declassify or discard at least 2% of harvested grapes ( le râpé), a process that serves as a safeguard against underripeness. Vine growing in the famed soil of Châteauneuf-du-Pape Château La Nerthe released the first estate-bottled Châteauneuf-du-Pape in 1785. Today, a papal crest embossed on the shoulder of the bottle marks many estate-bottled wines from the appellation. Knowledge of a producer’s individual style is key, as so many elements contribute to the character of the final wine. The appellation’s size is a factor: in comparison to Cornas’ 100 hectares, Châteauneuf-du-Pape has over 3,000. Thus, the soil of the appellation is vastly varied beyond the iconic galets ; distinct pockets of alluvial sediment exist for gravel, calcareous clay, and sand. Traditional producers tend to use old oak foudres for extended aging, and some may even bottle a vintage from cask as it is sold, creating great variation in individual bottlings of the same wine. Carbonic maceration, barrique aging, and new vinification techniques allow experimentation. In addition, each producer's assemblage is critical to the style. While the appellation’s regulations predate every other region in France, Châteauneuf-du-Pape is just beginning to modernize and explore its viticultural diversity. The Grapes of Châteauneuf-du-Pape Grenache (Noir/Blanc/Gris) Mourvèdre Syrah Cinsault Counoise Picpoul (Noir/Blanc/Gris) Terret Noir Bourboulenc Clairette/Clairette Rosé Roussanne Vaccarèse Picardan Muscardin While Châteauneuf-du-Pape is the most prestigious appellation, Côtes du Rhône AOP is the Southern Rhône’s largest appellation and the base designation for wines from the entire Rhône Valley. While the Northern Rhône may release its generic Syrah–based blended wines as Côtes du Rhône, the wines issue overwhelmingly from the south, where Grenache is the principal component. Over two-thirds of the Rhône Valley’s wines are released as Côtes du Rhône AOP. Most of the wine is red, although whites and rosés are allowed. Côtes du Rhône-Villages AOP is a superior designation for red, white, and rosé wine from a delimited area within the Southern Rhône. As of 2025, 21 communes may append their names to the appellation. Grenache, Mourvèdre, and Syrah are the principal red grapes for Côtes du Rhône-Villages. Several former Côtes du Rhône-Villages communes have been awarded distinct appellations. In 1971, the Gigondas AOP was created for red, rosé, and white wines sourced from the commune’s red clay alluvial soils. The red wines contain a minimum 50% Grenache, typically blended with smaller proportions of Syrah and Mourvèdre. Other Rhône grape varieties—excluding Carignan—are permitted to be present as a maximum 10% of plantings in the Gigondas vineyards. The wines are similar in style to Châteauneuf-du-Pape and can offer great value. In 1990, Vacqueyras AOP joined Gigondas as the second former Côtes du Rhône village to be promoted to full appellation status. The rustic Vacqueyras wines are usually red, although a small amount of white and rosé wine is produced. A minimum 50% Grenache is required for the red wines. Beaumes-de-Venise AOP and Vinsobres AOP joined the other appellations in 2005 and 2006, respectively, producing red wines based on a minimum 50% Grenache. Cairanne is the most recent arrival to the AOP pack; since early 2016, it merits appellation status for dry white and red wines. All five appellations share Châteauneuf-du-Pape’s 12.5% minimum potential alcohol requirement for red wines. On the western bank of the Rhône, opposite Châteauneuf-du-Pape, is Lirac AOP . Spread over four communes, the wines can be very similar to the Côtes du Rhône-Villages wines, and are made in red, white, and rosé versions. Grenache Noir and Blanc are prevalent in Lirac, although the white wines may see a significant proportion of Clairette and Bourboulenc added. Despite its sandier soils, the commune of Lirac in 1863 may have served as France’s doorway to the phylloxera incursion. Just south of Lirac, the Tavel AOP is one of the only communal appellations in France exclusively dedicated to rosé wines. Tavel has long been regarded as the premier French rosé appellation, although its reputation for ageworthiness is often exaggerated. The wines are based on Grenache and made in a dry style. Vin doux naturel , a sweet fortified wine, is found in greater quantities in Languedoc-Roussillon, but two appellations exist for the style in the Southern Rhône: Rasteau AOP and Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise AOP . The local co-operative, the Vignerons de Beaumes-de-Venise, produces 90% of the wine labeled as Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise AOP from grapes sourced throughout the communes of Beaumes-de-Venise and Aubignan. The white, red, and rosé wines retain natural grape sugar through mutage , wherein pure grape spirit is added to arrest fermentation in a proportion of 5 to 10%. Rasteau vin doux naturel wines may be white, rosé, or red, and they are based on the three colors of Grenache: Blanc, Gris, and Noir. The communes of Rasteau, Cairanne, and Sablet are eligible for the Rasteau AOP. Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise wines are typically fresher and more aromatic, whereas the Rasteau wines show more tawny flavors. In 2011, vignerons in Rasteau adopted the labeling terminology established by the producers of Rivesaltes in Roussillon: ambré and tuilé indicate, respectively, white and red VDN wines displaying a more oxidative character and subject to at least three years of aging prior to release . Fresher versions of white and red Rasteau VDN wines are now labeled blanc and grenat , whereas producers may affix the term Hors d'age to wines that have matured for at least five years prior to release. Rasteau AOP wines may also be rancio , a deliberately oxidative and maderized style in which the wine is left in open barrels, exposed to the ravages of sunlight and temperature. Since 2010, Rasteau AOP has permitted the production of dry, unfortified reds, but only from fruit grown in the commune of Rasteau itself. The Southern Rhône Valley's northernmost appellation is Grignan-les-Adhémar AOP , located directly south of Montélimar. Hoping to rebound sales and avoid an unsavory association with the troubled Tricastin nuclear plant, the producers of Côtes du Tricastin successfully rebranded their appellation as Grignan-les-Adhémar in 2010. Other appellations of the Southern Rhône include Luberon AOP , Ventoux AOP , and Côtes du Vivarais AOP . Each of these regional appellations produces red, white, and rosé wines from a large complement of Rhône varieties. To the west, Costières de Nîmes AOP adjoins the regions of the Southern Rhône Valley, Provence, and Languedoc. Formerly considered an appellation of Languedoc, INAO authorities transferred oversight of the Costières de Nîmes AOP to officials in the Rhône Valley in 2004. Wines of all three colors are made. Clairette de Bellegarde AOP , a single-commune appellation within Costières de Nîmes , produces white wines from the Clairette grape. BACK TO TOP Provence and Corsica Provence, the birthplace of French wine, lies to the east of the Rhône basin on the sun-drenched Mediterranean coast. Steeped in rich culinary tradition and flooded with tourists, the region finds a ready audience for its pale-hued, dry rosés. Côtes de Provence AOP , under which three-quarters of Provençal wine is bottled, is dedicated to rosé production. While red and white wine are made, rosé accounts for nearly 90% of the appellation’s output. The rosés must be blended from at least two varieties; they are given color through a short period of skin contact, saignage , or, in the case of the palest of wines, immediate pressing of whole grapes. Blending of white and red wines is not an approved method for still rosé production here or elsewhere in France. Cinsault, Grenache, Mourvèdre, Syrah, and the local, garrigue -scented Tibouren represent the bulk of both red and rosé blends. While many rosés may be bottled in a traditional, hourglass-shaped "skittle" bottle, this is not necessarily a mark of quality. Rosés and red wines may be bottled under one of five subzone designations: Pierrefeu, Sainte-Victoire, Fréjus, Notre-Dame des Anges, and La Londe, the last of which also permits white wines. Although Provençal rosé occupies the public imagination, the red wines of Bandol AOP are the true stars of the region. Bandol produces rosés and Clairette-based whites, but the red blends harbor the most potential. Bandol is the only appellation in France to require focus on the Mourvèdre grape: a minimum 50% is blended with Grenache, Cinsault, and—to a lesser extent—Syrah and Carignan. The resulting wines are full-bodied, plummy, dense, and often show an animal character. The wines must spend 18 months in wood prior to release and often need years in the bottle to demonstrate their full potential. Domaine Tempier, Château de Pibarnon, and Château Pradeaux are excellent sources. Vineyards in Bandol The dry, warm Mediterranean climate of Provence is aptly suited to viticulture without fear of mold or rot. Sustainable and organic methods of farming are widely employed. Vignerons in Les Baux-de-Provence AOP , a former subappellation of the larger Coteaux d’Aix-en-Provence AOP , have long pushed for a mandate for organic viticulture, but their efforts have yet to yield results. The warm hilltop appellation, protected from the Mistral wind, releases red and rosé wines, based on Grenache, Syrah, and Cinsault. A 2011 revision of the appellation's rules added white wines, based on Grenache Blanc, Clairette, Vermentino, and Roussanne. Domaine de Trévallon, one of the premier estates of southern France, is located within Les Baux-de-Provence, but the region's 1995 promotion to AOC and subsequent emphasis on Mediterranean varieties left the estate to release its Cabernet Sauvignon-based wines as IGP. The appellations of Cassis AOP , Palette AOP , and Bellet AOP produce wines of all three colors. The tiny Palette allows a dizzying variety of red and white grapes but boasts only one producer of note: Château Simone. Cassis and Bellet offer more promising whites than reds. Clairette and Marsanne account for the better Cassis wines and Rolle—Italian Vermentino—is increasingly used for the whites of Bellet. Coteaux Varois en Provence AOP was granted an appellation for red, white, and rosé wines in 1993, following its earlier promotion from IGP . Like Domaine de Trévallon, Domaine de Triennes—the most noteworthy producer in Coteaux Varois—chooses to release wines as IGP . The potential of Provence as a fine wine region is being explored: new appellations find their footing as encépagement regulations are in flux. As evidenced by the examples of serious producers resorting to the freedom of IGP , Provençal appellations will continue to adapt. A commitment to quality is in place: Côtes de Provence AOP is the only French appellation outside of Bordeaux to publish a ranking of grand cru classé estates. Originally, in 1955, 23 estates were classified. The island of Corse (Corsica) has long been a steady contributor to Europe’s surplus wine lake, although many of the island’s lowest quality vineyards have been uprooted. More productive vines, such as Carignan and Alicante Bouschet, have been torn out in favor of higher quality grapes. Nielluccio (a variant of Sangiovese), Sciaccarello, and Vermentino are indigenous to the island, demonstrating Corsica’s close connection to Italy. Nielluccio and Sciaccarello are blended with Grenache, Barbarossa, and a host of Rhône grapes for the red and rosé wines of the generic, island-wide Vin de Corse AOP . White Vin de Corse wines are blends of Vermentino and Ugni Blanc. Ajaccio AOP and Patrimonio AOP are the island’s two communal appellations. Muscat du Cap Corse AOP wines are vin doux naturel . BACK TO TOP Languedoc-Roussillon On the southern coast of France, Languedoc stretches in a crescent shape between Provence to the east and Roussillon to the south. Gaillac and the other regions of Southwestern France lie due west of Languedoc. The vine has always flourished in the Mediterranean climate of Languedoc, but wine quality has surged in the area only recently. When considered collectively, Languedoc-Roussillon is one of the largest winegrowing regions in the world by acreage, and is the only region in France to surpass Bordeaux in plantings. In 2006, when France recorded a production total of approximately 56 million hectoliters, Languedoc-Roussillon contributed 16 million hectoliters—nearly 30% of the national total. While Languedoc-Roussillon plantings—particularly those that do not qualify for anything beyond basic Vin de France—are on the decline, the region is still responsible for a large percentage of Europe’s low-end wine surplus. Many of the quality appellations are clustered within the western side of Languedoc. Fitou is one of the region’s oldest appellations, dating to 1948. The Fitou AOP is divided into two distinct, noncontiguous sectors: Fitou Maritime and Fitou Montagneux. The wines are red blends, usually dominated by Carignan. Both sectors of Fitou are embedded within the larger Corbières AOP , which produces reds, rosés, and a small amount of whites from extremely varied soils and microclimates. One subzone, Boutenac , has achieved full appellation status for Carignan-based red wines. North of Corbières is Minervois AOP , a designation for red, white and rosé wine. Like Corbières, Minervois is divided into several distinct subzones. The center of the appellation, La Livinière , received its own appellation in 1999 for red wines. In 2023, Sable de Camargue AOP was elevated from IGP status to showcase gris (rosé) wines from Grenache. Cabardès AOP and Malepère AOP produce red and rosé wines only. Cabardès wines maintain a balance between Grenache, Syrah, and the major Bordeaux red varieties. Malepère received full appellation status in 2007, and its encépagement stipulates a minimum 50% Merlot for red wines and 50% Cabernet Franc for rosé. Saint-Chinian AOP and Faugères AOP produce red, white, and rosé wines from Southern French grapes. White wines are a recent addition to the Saint-Chinian appellation, as are two subzone designations for red wines: Berlou and Roquebrun. Vineyards in Saint-Chinian appellation, Languedoc wine region South of Malepère and Cabardès is the Limoux AOP . Like Malepère, Limoux red wines are Merlot-based. Still whites are produced from Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, and Mauzac, and must be fermented in oak. The local Mauzac also makes up a minimum 90% of Blanquette de Limoux, a distinctive méthode traditionnelle wine that lays claim to being France’s oldest purposefully made sparkling wine. A sleeker, more modern style of sparkling wine is Crémant de Limoux AOP , which stipulates a maximum 20% Mauzac and Pinot Noir in favor of Chardonnay and Chenin Blanc. Tiny quantities of Limoux méthode ancestrale are made solely from Mauzac, wherein the wine’s fermentation arrests in the cold of winter, reawakening in the spring. The eastern half of Languedoc is dominated by the regional appellation Languedoc AOP . Formerly Coteaux du Languedoc AOC, this appellation encompasses nearly all of Languedoc-Roussillon, extending from the Spanish border to the city of Nîmes. Languedoc AOP covers the production of red, rosé, and white wines and encompasses 10 geographic designations. The Languedoc AOP reds generally require at least 50% combined Grenache, Syrah, Mourvèdre, and Lladoner Pelut; however, varietal makeup and percentages vary by geographic designation. There have been discussions and proposals regarding a grand cru system in Languedoc, which would likely create a hierarchy among its geographic designations and neighboring AOPs, but nothing concrete has emerged. Occasional promotions to AOP status occur, however: in 2014, Terrasses du Larzac , a former geographic designation of Languedoc AOP, received independent AOP status; La Clape followed in mid-2015. Lastly, the Languedoc contains several small fortified wine appellations, including Muscat de Mireval AOP , Muscat de Lunel AOP , Muscat de Saint-Jean-de-Minervois AOP , and Muscat de Frontignan AOP . Muscat de Frontignan wines are most common and may be either vin doux naturel or vin de liqueur . Roussillon, extending northward from the Spanish border, is singularly important for vin doux naturel production. Over 90% of France’s fortified wines are made in the region. Much of this wine is Rivesaltes AOP , a vin doux naturel appellation representing a myriad number of styles. Rivesaltes, meaning "high riverbanks" in Catalan, produces fortified ambré, grenat, tuilé, and rosé —that is, amber, red, tawny, and pink. The ambré and tuilé styles are aged in an oxidative environment until at least March 1 of the third year following the harvest. Grenat wines are aged reductively for one year, and must be bottled before June 30 of the second year. Producers will often follow these minimum guidelines with extended aging for the oxidative styles: some age the wines in glass bonbonnes under the relentless Roussillon sun; others employ a solera . Rivesaltes AOP wines aged for a minimum of 5 years may be called hors d’age ; in practice these may receive up to 20 years of aging prior to release. The fortified wines of Rivesaltes may be varietal wines or blends; the Mediterranean encépagement includes Grenache (Noir, Gris, and Blanc), Maccabéo, Tourbat, Muscat of Alexandria, and Muscat à Petits Grains. While Grenache Noir is the sole component of grenat wines, producers of tuilé styles may blend the grape with white varieties. When the wine is produced solely from the two Muscat varieties, it may be labeled Muscat de Rivesaltes AOP . The sweeter Muscat de Rivesaltes is typically released earlier and is better suited for youthful consumption, as the wine quickly loses its aromatic freshness. Rivesaltes was the birthplace of vin doux naturel —here, Arnaud de Villeneuve, a 13th-century physician, introduced the process of mutage as a means of medicinal elixir-brewing—but it is not the only modern appellation in Roussillon for the style. Maury AOP authorizes vin doux naturel in a similar range of styles, principally produced from Grenache Noir, Blanc, and Gris. In Banyuls AOP , the southernmost wine appellation in continental France, Grenache Noir accounts for at least 50% of the Traditionnel fortified reds; the Banyuls Grand Cru AOP requires at least 75%. To be labeled grand cru , Banyuls must spend a minimum 30 months in barrel. If destined to be vintage-dated, Banyuls is generally bottled within one year and labeled rimage. Banyuls is France’s richest, most full-bodied, and most consistently quality-minded VDN appellation. Vineyards of Roussillon Unfortified red, white, and rosé wines from the producers of Banyuls are released as Collioure AOP . Producers in Maury, on the other hand, have had the option of releasing dry red wines under the Maury AOP banner since 2011. Other dry wine appellations include Côtes du Roussillon AOP , a regional appellation for red, white, and a high percentage of rosé wines. Côtes du Roussillon Villages AOP is reserved for the red wines of more than 50 communes in the north of the Côtes du Roussillon. Five communes may add their names to the appellation: Latour-de-France, Caramany, Les Aspres, Lesquerde, and Tautavel. As ambitious producers discover a wealth of old vine plantings, trim yields, and rethink the worth of once-derided workhorse grapes like Carignan, Roussillon's reputation for wines beyond the traditional vins doux naturel will continue to rise. Despite so many disparate AOPs and acres under vine, the Languedoc-Roussillon region produces only 10% of France’s AOP wine. Although the European Union’s vine pull scheme has made a recent dent in the sheer amount of available wines, Languedoc-Roussillon covers a vast vineyard area, much of which has been classified as IGP. An enormous amount of IGP wines are produced, at every level of quality. Pays d’Oc IGP is the overarching classification for the entire Languedoc-Roussillon region. BACK TO TOP Southwestern France and the Dordogne The appellations of Southwest France— Sud-Ouest— draw considerable influence from Bordeaux, Spain, and Southeastern France. Southeast of Bordeaux’s Right Bank, the Dordogne River, flowing westward from its origin in the Massif Central, runs through the region of Bergerac. Bergerac AOP produces all three colors of wine from Bordeaux varieties. Sec denotes dry whites from the region. Côtes de Bergerac AOP , in the absence of actual hills, requires a higher amount of minimum alcohol. The blended reds of Pécharmant AOP are the longest-lived wines of Bergerac. Sweet wine appellations within Bergerac include Monbazillac AOP , Saussignac AOP , Rosette AOP , Haut-Montravel AOP , and Côtes de Montravel AOP . Monbazillac is the most notable, generating botrytised wines from Bordeaux varieties. Muscadelle particularly excels in the sandy soils of Monbazillac; multiple tries and a ban on mechanical harvesting are testament to the appellation’s commitment to quality. Montravel AOP wines, unlike Côtes de Montravel and Haut-Montravel, may be red or white and must be dry. South of the Bordeaux satellites of the Dordogne are numerous wine regions; the most important are Cahors AOP , Madiran AOP , Jurançon AOP , and Gaillac AOP . On the Lot River, Cahors offers robust, sometimes-rustic red wines produced from a minimum 70% Malbec, with Tannat and Merlot. The wines of Madiran in Gascony are tannic, concentrated reds—so tannic, in fact, that a Madiran winemaker, Patrick Ducournau, developed the technique of micro-oxygenation in the early 1990s to soften the blow of Tannat. Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, and the local Fer are the secondary grapes of Madiran. Producers in Madiran may produce semi-sweet and sweet white wines as Pacherenc du Vic-Bilh AOP , primarily utilizing Petit Manseng, Petit Courbu, and Arrufiac. Dry Pacherenc du Vic-Bilh is labeled sec . Jurançon produces distinctive white wines in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques département , principally from Gros and Petit Manseng. The Petit Manseng grape is better suited to sweet passerillage wines, and Gros Manseng provides the tangy dry whites of Jurançon Sec AOP. Petit Courbu, Camaralet, and Lauzet are secondary grapes for both styles. Other AOPs in the Basque-influenced Pyrénées-Atlantiques département include Irouléguy and Béarn . The vineyards of Gaillac AOP , established by the Romans of ancient Gaul in the first century CE, are among France’s oldest. The wines today may be red, white, or rosé. Duras, Fer, Syrah, and Prunelard account for the red blends, with a smaller allotment of Bordeaux red varieties now allowed. Gaillac's principal white grapes are Mauzac, Muscadelle, and Len de l’El. Len de l'El means "far from sight" in the old d'Oc language, conveying the clusters' long stalks and the distance to the "eye," or bud, from which they sprouted. The grape produces wines with a natural fleshy, soft character that complements the tarter acidity of Mauzac. A Premières Côtes appellation exists for the dry whites of 11 delimited communes. Sweet whites are labeled Gaillac Doux, whereas sparkling whites are produced as Gaillac Mousseux. These sparkling wines may be made by the traditional method or by méthode Gaillaçoise , a variant of the méthode ancestrale . Marcillac AOP is a unique appellation in France, producing varietal Fer reds—a minimum 90% is required in AOP vineyards. South of Bergerac, Buzet AOP and Côtes de Duras AOP produce Bordeaux-style wines in all three colors. Côtes de Marmandais AOP are similar in style, but allow a complement of regional grapes; the red wines in particular may show Syrah influence. Fronton AOP (formerly Côtes de Frontonnais) produces blended reds and rosés with a minimum 40% Negrette. The close of 2011 saw a number of former VDQS zones in the southwest catapulted to AOC/AOP status. BACK TO TOP Updated November 2017Previewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/210/portugalWed, 22 Apr 2026 15:45:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:3877e90a-b14d-4210-bd78-bd470ce3d33cGuildSomm AdminTable of Contents Portugal The History of Port, Madeira and Portuguese Wine Portuguese Wine Classifications and Grape Varieties Minho and Vinho Verde Transmontano Duriense: Douro and Porto Beiras Lisboa Península de Setúbal Tejo and Alentejano Algarve Açores Terras Madeirenses Portugal Portugal ranks as the world’s 10th largest producer of wine; the country is 1st in the world in per capita consumption. Although its fame in the world of wine rests squarely on the shoulders of two great fortified wines, the country is rapidly developing an arsenal of modern table wines, sourced from a diverse array of over 250 unique native varieties. Worldwide decline in the sales (and interest) of fortified wines has prompted Portuguese producers to look beyond Port and Madeira in an effort to compete, but years of geographical and—until the last decades of the 20th century—political isolation have left an inscrutable, perplexing vineyard terrain. Rather than adopt the same international varieties that characterize newer winemaking regions worldwide, Portuguese producers instead look to their own bounty of grapes and traditions. New research continues to identify the best indigenous varieties and clonal selections for quality table wines, and technological advancements in the winery allow Portugal’s table wines to overcome past criticisms of rapid oxidation and rusticity. BACK TO TOP The History of Port, Madeira, and Portuguese Wine The history of wine in Portugal closely parallels that of its Iberian neighbor Spain through the Age of Exploration. Wine in Portugal predates the Phoenicians, Greeks, Celts, and Romans, each of whom arrived in turn prior to the Common Era. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the ensuing Germanic and Moorish conquests of the region frustrated—but did not eradicate—viticulture. Portugal expelled the Moors and affirmed its national identity by 1250, over two centuries before Spain would conclude its Reconquista . In 1386, Portugal signed the Treaty of Windsor with England, establishing a diplomatic alliance that would pave the way for extensive trade between the two kingdoms. Portugal emerged from the Middle Ages with great interest in maritime trading routes and exploration, and developed the first great navy in modern Europe. At Prince Henry the Navigator’s instigation, Portuguese sailors explored the African Coast and discovered the Madeira archipelago in 1419, nearly 625 miles from the Portuguese mainland. The Portuguese colonized Madeira, the “isle of woods,” and promptly set fire to the forests to make it suitable for agriculture. Legend reports that the fires burned for seven years, consuming the entire island, although modern residents scoff at the suggestion. Madeira became an important port of call for ships heading either eastward toward India or westward toward the New World, as captains filled their ships with fresh food, sugar, and wine. In 1678, two Englishmen arrived in Lamego, a mountain town in the Douro Valley, and discovered Porto (Port), a sweet, fortified vinous concoction produced at a local monastery. The abbot of Lamego practiced mutage , arresting the fermentation of his wines with brandy while sugar was still present. The Englishmen sent the wines home to Liverpool, where the strength and richness of Port, nicknamed blackstrap, earned it wide popularity. War and trade embargoes with France at the end of the 17th century resulted in a boom for sales of Douro wines. A 1679 ban on French wines sales in England was lifted in 1685, only to be reinstated in 1688. The English replaced the total ban with heavy tariffs in 1697, and in 1703 signed the Treaty of Methuen with Portugal, establishing a long-lasting trade agreement between the two nations and preferential tariffs for Portuguese wines. The English had relied on the light reds of the Minho River Valley in northern Portugal as an alternative to claret since the early 12th century, but had always considered French wines superior. Port was, in style and strength, a wine that could rouse English tastes; the introduction of Port coincided not only with England’s difficulties with France, but also with Western Europe’s rising interest in sweetness, predicated by new trade with the West Indies. The concern over durability—a long voyage from Portugal to England created many opportunities for spoilage—led many Douro shippers to steadily adopt the practice of fortification throughout the 1700s. In 1678, the year the English discovered Port, Portuguese exports accounted for only 427 tuns (one tun equals an approximate 954 liters); in 1685 the English imported 14,000 tuns. By the mid-18th century, Portuguese wine accounted for nearly two-thirds of all imported wine in England, and Port was its most desirable product. Christiano Kopke, a German, founded the house of Kopke in 1638, four decades before the first recorded shipment of Porto to England, but the English market drove the wine’s fame and popularity. The English had established the Douro houses Warre & Co., Croft and Taylor’s by 1700, and in the decades after the Treaty of Methuen the English appetite for Douro wines grew rapaciously. The houses in Douro simply could not meet demand and many resorted to fraudulent practices to satisfy English thirsts: merchants aromatized wines, added excessive amounts of sugar and alcohol, and achieved deeper color with the addition of elderberry—a technique perhaps borrowed from the Champenoise. The English reacted with their wallets, and in the 1740s and 1750s the price of Port in England dropped precipitously. To restore English confidence and protect its own economic interests, the Portuguese government created the Companhia Geral dos Vinhos do Alto Douro, or Douro Wine Company. Charged with eliminating fraud and installing regulatory measures, the Douro Wine Company formally established the boundaries and practices of the Douro appellation in 1756. The Douro Wine Company developed a methodology for grading Port vineyards and authorized each individual farmer’s production allotment relative to the vineyard’s grade. Between 1758 and 1761, the 335 best vineyards were classified as feitoria and marked with stones, signifying fruit reserved for the English market. Lesser vineyards ( rama ) provided domestic wines. Although the reputation of the wine was saved, the British merchants—many of whom were responsible for perpetrating fraud in the first place—forfeited a measure of control over the trade. The Douro Wine Company now regulated grape prices, fixed pricing on the finished wines, managed exports and monopolized the sale of Portuguese brandy ( aguardente ) used in the fortification process. The company, whose dual role as a regulator and a shipper of wine caused stern criticism, survives as the Royal Oporto Wine Company, but its regulatory functions were lost over time. Today, the government-run Douro Port Wine Institute (IVDP) manages the appellation and its regulations. As Port became the favored Portuguese wine in England, Madeira’s British wine merchants developed a prosperous colonial trade—particularly with the English North American colonies and Brazil. By the middle of the 18th century, most Madeira wine was fortified to sustain its character over the long passage at sea, but a curious transformation occurred: as the pipes of Madeira completed their transatlantic voyage through the tropics, they were subject to wide temperature fluctuations, which heated and oxidized the contents, resulting in a distinctive character. Ship captains were even persuaded to use Madeira pipes as ballast, and Vinhos ao Roda —wines that had undergone the torna viagem (round trip) across the Atlantic, or to the East Indies and back—sold for much higher prices than Vinhos Canteiro , the wines that matured on the island. Although the estufagem process began to replace the lengthy voyage in the early 1800s, a few wines were deliberately, if impractically, matured at sea until the 1900s. Attributed by Shakespeare as the liquid in which the Duke of Clarence was sentenced to be drowned in, in 1478, fulfilling his sentence for treason against the King of England, a glass of Madeira was raised to commemorate both the signing of the Declaration of Independence and George Washington’s inauguration. The first President supposedly drank a pint of Madeira daily, and as colonial troops and Americans loyal to the crown fled the newborn country after the Revolutionary War, they took their love of the wine to England with them. Madeira, Port—which provided half of England’s wine in 1800—and the wines of Portugal in general reached their apex in the marketplace by the first decade of the 19th century. The French and Spanish invaded Portugal in 1807 to disrupt the country’s trade with England, and although vineyards themselves sustained relatively little damage, the production quality and prices were greatly affected, signaling new doubts abroad about the integrity of the wines. After Napoleon’s defeat and exile, Britain reopened trade with the European Continent and Portuguese wines steadily lost market share to French and Spanish wines, and even beer. Spanish Sherry replaced Port as England’s fortified wine of choice by the late 1800s. Portuguese producers attempted to replace losses in the waning British market with monopolistic controls over Portugal’s New World colonies, but these markets were steadily lost to independence movements. The American Civil War of 1861-1865 portended a significant decline in imports of Madeira wines—and a newly energized Russian market would provide only a temporary respite, reduced by revolution in the early 20th century. Powdery and downy mildew both struck Portugal in the 1850s, and phylloxera entered the Douro in 1867. The cumulative effect was devastative—only Colares, near Lisboa, was spared from the root louse. Portugal turned inward. Many vineyards were not replanted in the wake of phylloxera; during this time the cork industry took root in Portugal, and the country remains one of the foremost suppliers of cork closures for the wine industry. In the early 20th century, Portugal moved to protect its wine-producing regions, establishing Região Demarcada status for Madeira, Dão, Vinho Verde, and other areas by 1929. However, Portugal experienced great political upheaval throughout the early 20th century, silenced in 1932 by the inception of nearly four decades of authoritarian, right-wing rule. In 1937, the Junta Nacional do Vinhos was founded, revamping the Portuguese wine industry and consolidating small vineyards into a network of larger co-operatives. As under other European autocratic regimes, the quality of wine suffered. Alongside Port, two commercial brands of sweet, semi-sparkling rosé—Mateus and Lancers—became the face of Portuguese wine worldwide after World War II. Portugal finally began to transition to democracy with a left-leaning military coup in 1974, followed by its admission into the EU in 1986. With EU membership, Portugal’s co-operatives lost their monopolistic power, and government grants and foreign investment began to pour into the country. Many small estates ( quintas) severed their ties with co-operatives and started making their own wines. Portugal devised a new appellation system in line with EU standards, designating Regiões Demarcadas as Denominação de Origem Controlada (DOC). In late 2009, the DOCs were additionally classified as Denominação de Origem Protegida (DOP), in order to maintain EU protection. Port remains the world’s most prestigious fortified wine, yet Portugal’s producers, in the Douro and elsewhere, have a number of distinctive, native varieties to explore and refine for table wines. Like Spain, many of Portugal’s wines can compete with New World examples for ripeness and fruit, yet they maintain a unique identity. Despite the country’s rich heritage of storied fortified wines, Portugal is quickly creating a new tradition of vibrant table wines. BACK TO TOP Portuguese Wine Classifications and Grape Varieties To maintain eligibility for protection in the EU, Portugal has broadly reclassified its quality wines as either Denominação de Origem Protegida (DOP) or Indicação Geogràfica Protegida (IGP). DOP is the superior classification and it includes all Denominação de Origem Controlada (DOC) wines. There are currently 31 DOPs. If the nomenclature for a DOC was altered for the coinciding DOP in order to meet EU standards, the traditional DOC may be used within Portugal. Theoretically DOP is the equivalent of the French AOP, and may apply to wines and other foods worthy of a protected designation. Individual legislation for each DOP wine prescribes allowed styles, maximum yields, minimum alcohol content, and aging requirements, if applicable. Indicação de Proveniencia Regulamentada (IPR) has been eliminated as an official category, and former IPRs have been upgraded to DOP status. The lower, or less stringent, tier of quality wines in Portugal is the Indicação Geogràfica (IG), or wines with “geographical indication”. These wines are considered IGP for the purposes of EU protection, or Vinhos Regional (VR) if traditionally labeled within Portugal. All wines in this category must include a minimum 85% of grapes grown in the stated region. A wide range of grape varieties is permitted in each IGP, and a minimum alcohol content is stipulated. IGP or VR wines are often produced in DOP regions, but fail—or their winemakers choose not—to meet all of the DOP requirements. There are fourteen IGPs in Portugal: Minho, Transmontano, Duriense, Terras do Dão, Terras de Cister, Terras da Beira, Beira Atlântico, Tejo, Lisboa, Alentejano, Península de Setúbal, Algarve, Terras Madeirenses, and Açores. Wine produced in Portugal that does not meet any of the above criteria is considered Vinhos de Mesa, or simply Vinho—table wine. If produced as vintage-dated DOP or IGP, Portuguese table wines may be labeled as garrafeira (“private wine cellar”), indicating a minimum period of aging prior to release. Tinto (red) g arrafeira wines must age for a minimum 36 months, including at least 12 months in bottle. Branco (white) and rosado garrafeira wines must age for a minimum 12 months with at least 6 in bottle. The vintage garrafeira Port style as pioneered by Niepoort has a separate connotation: Wines that are aged in cask for at least 4 years, maximum 8 years, with an additional minimum 15 years in a glass container. Still Portuguese table wines of designated origin may also be labeled reserva , indicating an alcohol content of at least 0.5% higher than the legal minimum established by the respective DOP or IGP; however, stricter requirements in individual DOPs may supersede this standard. For traditional method sparkling wines, reserva instead indicates a minimum period of 12 months on the lees prior to dégorgement . Colheita Seleccionada indicates a minimum 1% higher alcohol content than that established by the regional appellation. All of these terms may be applied to wines produced in any of Portugal’s demarcated regions. Until recently, the most widely grown red casta (“grape variety”) in Portugal was Castelão, an adaptable variety producing typically full-bodied, tannic wines with meaty, red-fruit aromas. J.M. da Fonseca, whose sister company produced the hugely popular mid-20th-century brand Lancers, brought the Castelão grape from Tejo to Terras do Sado (now the Península de Setúbal), where they began bottling the grape under the “Periquita” brand. The brand was a great success, leading other producers to adopt the “Periquita” moniker as a synonym for the grape—a convention that J.M. da Fonseca successfully contested in court. Although its cultivation is not as widespread as Castelão, Touriga Nacional is perhaps Portugal’s finest red casta . Touriga Nacional, a variety cherished for Port blends, accounts for approximately 10% of the nation’s vineyard acreage, and yields inky, full-bodied, structured wines. Despite originating in the Dão, Touriga Nacional has been supplanted by Jaen (Mencía) in plantings in the region, and it only represents a small proportion of the Douro’s total acreage. The low-yielding vine produces extremely small berries, valued for their extraction potential and concentration in the red table blends of Dão, Douro, and Alentejo. The country’s premium red table wines often contain a percentage of Touriga Nacional, lavishly treated to new French oak in the manner of Bordeaux. Synonyms include Bical Tinto and Mortágua Preto. As of 2025, Aragonez (Tinta Roriz, known as Tempranillo in Spain) has the highest acreage under vine, followed by Touriga Franca. Castelão , Touriga Nacional, Trincadeira (Tinta Amarela), and Baga are other widely cultivated and promising red grape varieties in Portugal. Fernão Pires, known as Maria Gomes in Bairrada, is the most planted white casta in the country. The early-ripening, aromatic grape is found throughout Portugal, but it is concentrated in Bairrada and the southern plains of Tejo. It is a workhorse, producing fairly simple, honeyed wines that are often prone to oxidation and low acidity. Nobler white wines are produced from the Encruzado grape in the Dão, an elegant, balanced grape yielding floral and citrusy wines that gain complex nutty, resinous aromas with age. Oak is sometimes implemented in fermentation. Arinto, one of Portugal’s oldest indigenous varieties, produces lively, mineral-tinged whites and is grown throughout the country, although its most striking examples issue from the coastal regions, and from Bucelas in particular. The aromatic, tropical Antão Vaz is one of the most important white grapes in Alentejano, and Alvarinho (Spain’s Albariño) is highly regarded by the producers of Vinho Verde. One of Portugal's most thrilling indigenous white varieties is Sercial, a highly acidic grape prized for dry Madeira and known as Esgana Cão—the “dog strangler"—on the mainland. It is often confused with its homophone Cercial, which is used in Dão, Douro and Bairrada blends, but the two white grapes are genetically distinct. BACK TO TOP Minho and Vinho Verde Located in the northwestern corner of the country, Minho IGP and Vinho Verde DOP share exact geographical boundaries. A cool, rainy, Atlantic-influenced climate prevails, and grey rot can be problematic during the damp growing season. Traditionally, vines in the region have been trained high off the ground in a system called enforcado . Vines would grow up the trunks of trees, telephone poles, and stakes, creating an overhead canopy. The probability of fungal disease in the wet climate is thus lessened, and other crops are grown beneath the grapes in the densely farmed region, yet the method has been displaced by more modern trellising systems, and fewer than 10% of vines are today trained in this fashion. Vinho Verde—“green wine,” a reference to the wines’ youthful freshness and the verdant countryside—is the largest DOP in Portugal and represents around 15% of the nation’s total vineyard acreage, producing red, white, and rosado wines from an assortment of grapes. The region’s nearly 24,000 hectares of vineyards stretch northward from the city of Oporto to the Spanish border (the Minho River), and share lush landscape features and some grape varieties with Rías Baixas, Vinho Verde’s neighbor to the north. Gentle slopes of shallow granitic soils are predominant, although steeper, terraced vineyards are common in the mountains further inland. Loureiro is the region's most heavily planted white grape and the primary component of traditional Vinho Verde blends. Other white grapes include Trajadura (Treixadura), Avesso, Pedernã (Arinto), and the Spanish Albariño. Known as Alvarinho in Portugal, the grape is chiefly bottled as a varietal wine near the northern town of Monção, situated directly across the Minho River from Rías Baixas' Condado do Tea region. Monção e Melgaço Alvarinho remains a bright spot for quality in a region driven by high yields and mass production. Red and rosado wines, produced from grapes like Vinhão, Espadeiro, Borraçal, and Alvarelhão, represent a minority of exports. The light, floral white wines of the region are more common in both Europe and the US and are marked by lively acidity and low alcohol levels, and are slightly sparkling—a result, generally, of carbon dioxide injection prior to bottling. The red wines, also pétillant , gain their sparkle from malolactic fermentation in the bottle, a process usually avoided for white wines. The wines, whether white or red, are at their best in the year after release. BACK TO TOP Transmontano Transmontano IGP is located to the east of Minho along the Spanish border to the north of Duriense. Within the region are three non-contiguous subregions of the Trás-os-Montes DOP : Chaves, Valpaços, and Planalto Mirandés. The region is dry, hot, and mountainous, and the resulting wines are typically ripe and full-bodied, although the cooler, higher-altitude vineyards can preserve acidity. Important red grapes include Touriga Nacional, Tinta Roriz, Bastardo (Trousseau), Touriga Francesa and Trincadeira. Fernão Pires, Síria, Viosinho, Gouveio, Malvasia Fina and Rabigato are the most planted white grapes. Douro and Porto were once included in the region, prior to the creation of the Duriense IGP. BACK TO TOP Duriense: Douro and Porto The Duriense IGP is a slender region that encompasses the eastern, mountainous Douro River Valley south of Transmontano. It includes the DOPs of Douro and Porto . The Douro is Portugal’s first demarcated wine region—one of the first such appellations recognized in Europe—and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The river and its tributaries carve deep valleys through the granite Marão and Montemuro Mountains, and vineyards run from the riverside up the terraced, precipitous slopes. Schist, the preferred soil type for Port, is in abundance throughout the zone, often broken up by the actions of man. The Douro Valley experiences a continental climate of severely hot summers and cold winters, when temperatures often dip below freezing. The region’s craggy mountains act as barriers to the humid Atlantic winds, and the Douro becomes progressively drier toward the Spanish border. There are three subzones in Douro; Baixo Corgo to the west has the highest density of plantings, Cima Corgo has the highest total vineyard acreage, and Douro Superior, which stretches to the Spanish border, is the largest, most arid, and most sparsely planted region in Douro. Table wines and the occasional licoroso (fortified) Moscatel do Douro are produced as Douro DOP; fortified Port from the Douro region is released as Porto DOP. Approximately 50% of the region’s wine is released as Porto. Vineyards along the Douro River. Douro table wines may be red, white, or rosado. The list of approved grape varieties of either color is extensive, but the best red wines are usually produced from Touriga Nacional, Touriga Franca, Tinta Roriz, Tinta Cão, and Tinta Barroca. These grapes are equally suited to Port production, although clonal choices and preferred mesoclimates may differ for table wines. White varieties include Malvasia Fina, Viosinho, Rabigato, and Gouveio. Both white and red wines may be simple, fruity and fresh, or subject to new oak treatment and higher degrees of sophistication and polish in the winery. Moscatel Galego is used for fortified Moscatel wines, which may carry an age designation in the manner of tawny Port. In the Douro, reserva wines must achieve a minimum alcohol of 11.5% or 12% for white and rosado wines or red wines, respectively, instead of the standard minimum 10.5% (white/rosado) or 11% (red) for the appellation. White reserva wines must be aged for six months; red reserva wines must be aged for one year. The IVDP must certify all Douro wines; those that meet reserva criteria and score exceptionally well in blind tasting analysis may use the term grande reserva . Espumanto do Douro (sparkling wines) and Colheita Tardia (late harvest wines) may be produced as Douro DOP. Although the Minho region separates the Douro DOP from seaside Oporto (Porto), the major port houses have historically used the port city as a commercial nexus for the trade. In the past, the houses would transport Port casks in Barco Rabelo ships from Pinhão in the Cima Corgo downriver to Vila Nova de Gaia, a suburb of Oporto for maturation in their lodges. Until 1986, when membership in the EU disrupted the monopolistic demands of the Port trade, all Port wines were required by law to be aged and shipped from Vila Nova de Gaia. Removing such restrictions has enabled a new generation of small quintas to produce and ship Port and table wines from their premises in the Douro. The 1990s witnessed the birth of a number of smaller estates. Nonetheless, the larger Port houses and shippers are responsible for establishing the phenomenon of dry Douro table wines. Casa Ferreirinha , a house now under the ownership of Sogrape, launched Barca Velha in 1952, pioneering the style. The Port houses of Niepoort, Quinta do Crasto and Ramos Pinto are at the forefront of the table wine revolution. The 270-hectare Douro Superior estate Quinta do Vale Meão, formerly the primary source of fruit for Barca Velha, has established itself as one of the region’s young cult stars. (For further information on the viticulture, production process, and categories of Porto DOP wines, please refer to the Compendium .) BACK TO TOP Beiras and Terras do Dão The traditional province of Beiras lies south of Duriense and Minho, spanning the entire width of Portugal, from the fertile littoral coast to the mountainous interior. Until early 2011, a single IGP represented the entire region, but Portuguese authorities dismantled the expansive zone, dividing its territory among four new IGPs: Terras do Dão, Terras de Cister, Terras da Beira, and Beira Atlântico. Dão DOP and Lafões DOP lie within the newly unveiled Terras do Dão IGP, which borders Minho IGP to the north and claims a large swath of the central, inland territory formerly assigned to Beiras IGP. Bairrada DOP is located within Beira Atlântico, a coastal IGP with one designated subzone, Terras do Sicó. Távora-Varosa DOP , a center of sparkling wine production, is a small appellation immediately south of the Douro River and north of Terras do Dão. It is located within the Terras de Cister IGP, the "land of the Cistercians," another reminder of the medieval Church's influence in spreading the vine. Beira Interior DOP is a larger appellation near the Spanish border, within the Terras da Beira IGP. Despite its size, the region has relatively few growers, and much of the winemaking is performed by cooperatives. Beira Interior contains three subzones: Beira Castelo Rodrigo, Cova da Beira, and Pinhel. Some of Portugal’s best dry reds are produced in Dão DOP. Dão’s producers have worked to emphasize freshness and fragrance from the 1990s forward. Although it has been eclipsed in volume of acreage, Touriga Nacional is a signature component of Dão blends; the wines are typically more elegant, sharper, and more floral than their counterparts in the Douro. Sheltered by three mountain ranges, the Dão is partially protected from the harsh winds of the continental interior, yet insulated from the wet, cool maritime weather systems coming in from the coast. Ultimately, the region is hot and dry in the growing season, but receives adequate rainfall in the cold winter months. Altitude helps to preserve acidity, and the best vineyards are often located between 400 and 500 meters above sea level, where the preferred granitic soils are in abundance. The Dão is not densely planted: approximately 5% of the total region is utilized for viticulture. There are seven subregions, each with distinct mesoclimates: Serra da Estrela (named for Portugal’s highest mountain range), Alva, Besteiros, Castendo, Silgueiros, Terras de Azurara, and Terras de Senhorim. Dão wines may be red, white, rosado or espumante ; but red wines account for over three-quarters of the total output. Recommended red grapes are Touriga Nacional, Jaen, Touriga Franca, Alfrocheiro, Aragonez, Bastardo, Rufete, Trincadeira, and Tinta Cão. Recommended white grapes include (but are not limited to) Encruzado, Bical, and Cercial. A number of other grapes are additionally “authorized” but not recommended. Finally, certain experimental grapes, such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Sémillon, can be utilized but may not comprise more than 40% of a blend. Dão producers may label their wines as garrafeira according to the standard aging regimen, but the minimum abv is increased to 11.5% (from 11%). Red wines may be labeled as reserva with two years of aging, whereas whites must be aged for only six months to qualify. Both red and white Dão wines may be labeled nobre (“noble”), provided certain requirements are met. Red nobre wines must contain a minimum 15% Touriga Nacional and at most 85% of combined Jaen, Rufete, Alfrocheiro, and Aragonez. Red nobre wines must undergo a minimum three years aging prior to release and contain a minimum 13% alcohol. White nobre wines must contain a minimum 15% Encruzado and a maximum 85% of Cercial, Bical, Malvasia Fina, and Verdelho. They undergo one year of aging prior to release and must contain a minimum 12% alcohol. To the west of Dão, Bairrada DOP experiences a milder, rainier climate. Like Dão, Bairrada predominantly produces red wines, although white and rosado wines are authorized. The late-ripening, notoriously astringent Baga, the main red grape of the region, thrives in the barros (clay) soils, whereas white grapes, including Maria Gomes and Arinto, are usually planted in sandier soils. Red wines are typically blends, featuring Baga along with grapes such as the native Touriga Nacional, Camarate, Castelão, Jaen, and Alfrocheiro. While a new wave of experimentation has paved the way for the incursion of many international varieties, winemakers who remain faithful to the native grapes (and provide a minimum 12.5% abv in the case of Tinto or 12% abs for Branco, rather than the 11% required by the DOP) earn the right to label their wines as Bairrada Clássico. BACK TO TOP Lisboa The coastal Lisboa IGP runs southward from Beiras to Portugal’s capital city, where the Tagus River meets the Atlantic Ocean. Lisboa contains nine individual DOPs: Bucelas , Colares , Carcavelos , Arruda , Torres Vedras , Alenquer , Óbidos , Lourinhã , and Encostas d'Aire . Encostas d'Aire overlaps Alta Estremadura and Estremadura, subzones of the northern half of Lisboa IGP. Collectively, the region releases a larger volume of wine than any other in Portugal, but it has long carried a reputation of low quality, dominated by co-operatives and Vinhos de Mesa production. However, the southern DOP zones nearest the city of Lisboa have produced exemplary wines, and Alenquer and Encostas d'Aire in the north show promise. Lourinhã produces aguardente rather than wine. The three DOPs nearest the capital—Bucelas, Colares, and Carcavelos—are slowly disappearing due to the inexorable pressures of the expanding urban population. Bucelas produces dry white wines from a minimum 75% Arinto. Colares wines may be red or white. The sandy soils of Colares provided a bulwark against phylloxera incursion, and the vines of the region were traditionally planted in trenches to protect them from the salty marine winds. The majority of Colares' red and white wines are produced, respectively, with grapes from ungrafted Ramisco and Malvasia vines. A second, harder soil type, chao rija , is located further inland in the Colares DOP, and Castelão is more frequently planted there. Carcavelos has suffered the most at the hands of suburban sprawl—only 25 hectares of vineyard remain. Red wines are produced from a combined minimum 75% Castelão and Preto Martinho, and white wines are a blend of Arinto, Galego Dourado, and Ratinho. The wines are fermented dry, then fortified and sweetened with vinho abafado , a partially fermented must preserved with alcohol. After fortification, Carcavelos wines are aged in barrel for at least two years, followed by at least six months in bottle. BACK TO TOP Península de Setúbal The Península de Setúbal IGP, formerly Terras do Sado, includes the DOP zones of Setúbal and Palmela , located across the wide Tagus estuary from the city of Lisboa. The IGP itself encompasses the peninsula, defined by the Tagus and Sado estuaries, and a section of the Atlantic Coast. The region’s climate is Mediterranean. Palmela DOP comprises two distinct areas: low-lying, sandy plains spreading eastward from the hilltop town of the same name, and the clay-limestone lower slopes of the Arrabida Mountains. The sandy plains provide the best terroir for Castelão, the region’s premier grape and dominant component of Palmela reds—a minimum 66.7% is stipulated. White wines are typically blended with a high proportion of Fernão Pires and Arinto. Rosado, espumante and licoroso wines are also authorized. The DOP’s rather liberal encépagement includes a number of international varieties for both red and white wine production, including Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Sémillon, Syrah, Sauvignon Blanc, Merlot, and Tannat. The vinhos licoroso of Setúbal gained popularity in the heyday of Portugal’s fortified wine trade, benefiting—like Madeira—from the torna viagem maturation process. The region was one of the first in Portugal to be demarcated in the early 20th century (1907). Sweet white and red fortified wines are produced, from a minimum 67% Moscatel de Setúbal (Muscat d’Alexandria) or Moscatel Roxo, respectively. In keeping with EU regulations, the wine may be labeled by variety if either grape comprises a minimum 85% of the blend. The wines have a particularly pungent, floral fragrance, developed through a lengthy maceration on Muscat skins—for up to six months—following the fermentation and fortification. The wines develop a tawny, burnt orange color and raisin spice character while maturing in large wooden casks for up to five years prior to release. Some examples age for upwards of 20 years, unfolding mature molasses and caramel tones while darkening in color. J.M. da Fonseca is the appellation’s largest and most storied producer; in the company’s cellars are stocks of wine dating to the 19th century, some of which crossed the equator at sea. BACK TO TOP Tejo and Alentejano Both Tejo and Alentejano derive their names from the Tagus, or Tejo, River. The landlocked Tejo IGP is surrounded by Lisboa to the west, Beiras to the north, Alentejano to the east, and the Península de Setúbal to the south. The Tagus River flows through the alluvial plains of the fertile region, which, like Lisboa, is characterized by bulk production and basic quality. The IGP contains the single unrestrictive DoTejo DOP (formerly Ribatejo), in which only 1850 of the IGP’s 22,300 hectares of vineyards are included. DoTejo in turn encompasses six subregions: Coruche, Chamusca, Cartaxo, Santarém, Tomar, and Almeirim. Red, white, and rosado wines are produced from a bewildering number of native and international varieties. Castelão and Fernão Pires are the dominant red and white grapes; white wines outnumber reds. The Alentejano IGP, covering 30% of Portugal’s landmass, borders the eastern edge of both Tejo and the Península de Setúbal, extending southward to the Atlantic Coast north of Algarve. Alentejano’s hot growing season manifests in the perennial problems of low acidity and high alcohol, and irrigation is absolutely necessary in the region’s arid plains. The Alentejo DOP within Alentejano highlights eight subzones: Moura, Granja-Amareleja, Évora, Vidigueira, Reguengos, Redondo, Borba, and Portalegre—the latter, located on the cooler, granitic slopes of the São Mamede Mountains in the northernmost sector of the DOP, is the most promising area in the region. Red wine production in Alentejo exceeds that of whites, and Trincadeira is the region’s most prominent grape. Large swaths of Quercus suber —cork trees—are widespread through the region. BACK TO TOP Algarve Algarve is the southernmost IGP on the Portuguese mainland. It contains four DOP zones— Lagos , Lagoa , Portimão , and Tavira —each dominated by a co-operative. Traditional grape varieties in the region include Castelão and Tinta Negra Mole for red wines, and Arinto and Síria for white wines. Algarve’s hot seaside climate is not particularly suited for the production of fine wines, and in any event resort tourism has displaced many of the region’s vineyards. BACK TO TOP Açores The volcanic Açores (Azores) islands are located in the middle of the Atlantic, nearly 1,000 miles from the coast of Portugal. Three of the nine islands—Pico, Graciosa, and Terceira—have DOP zones, although conditions in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean are not tremendously conducive to viticulture. The fortified white wines of Pico DOP are the most highly regarded wines of the archipelago, yet they are generally consumed locally and viticulture occupies only a sliver of the island. The island’s apex is its volcano—the highest point in Portugal at 7,500 feet above sea level. The island’s vineyards, sheltered from sea winds by walls hewn from the black volcanic stone, have been designated as a World Heritage Site. Pico DOP Licoroso wines must achieve a minimum 16% abv after fortification, and are aged for a minimum two years in barrel. Verdelho, Arinto and Terrantez are authorized for production. Biscoitos DOP , on the island of Terceira, and Graciosa DOP also produce fortified white wines from the same grapes, as well as unfortified, dry white table wines and sparkling wines. BACK TO TOP Terras Madeirenses The Terras Madeirenses IGP encompasses both of the inhabited isles of the subtropical Madeira archipelago: Madeira and Porto Santo. Two DOP zones, Madeira and Madeirense , cover the fortified and unfortified wines, respectively, of both islands. Madeirense wines may be red, white, or rosé. Produced from grapes as dissimilar as Verdelho, Arnsburger (a Riesling crossing developed at Geisenheim), Cabernet Sauvignon, Tinta Negra, and Syrah, they are rarely exported. Madeira wine's regulatory body, the IVBAM, operates a cooperative winemaking facility for Madeirense DOP. For further information on the fortified wines of Madeira, click here BACK TO TOPPreviewPortugalhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/211/port-sherry-and-fortified-winesWed, 22 Apr 2026 15:45:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:b855560e-6249-4aa6-920f-23fd8c177a88GuildSomm AdminTable of Contents Fortified Wine Port Styles of Port Madeira Sherry Marsala Fortified Wine Fortified wines, like sparkling wines, are the result of a process beyond simple vinification. Fortified wines are manipulated through the addition of neutral grape spirit, in order to strengthen the base wines for the purpose of added body, warmth, durability or ageworthiness. Through centuries of effort, the world’s premier fortified wine regions have developed unique regimes of production and aging; these methodologies—or manipulations of the base material—have become inextricably linked to the terroir of the wines. Port, Madeira, and Sherry represent the three great archetypes of fortified wine, yet each is utterly distinct. Sicily’s Marsala; France’s vin doux naturel ; many of Greece’s PDO wines; Portugal’s Setúbal, Carcavelos, and Pico; Sherry’s close cousins Málaga, Montilla-Moriles, and Condado de Huelva; the many fading traditional styles of the Iberian peninsula—Tarragona Clásico, Rueda Dorado, etc.—and a myriad number of New World adaptations constitute the remaining stratum of fortified wine styles. Vermouth and quinquinas, fortified wines flavored by maceration with additional herbs and spices (cinchona bark is essential to the flavor of quinquinas) are properly considered aromatized wines. There are three general methods of fortification. A wine’s fermentation may be arrested through the addition of spirit while sugars remain (as in the case of Port) or the wine may be fortified after the fermentation has concluded (as in the case of Sherry). The latter method produces a dry fortified wine, although the winemaker may restore sweetness by the addition of sweetened wine or grape syrup. The third method, in which grape must is fortified prior to fermentation, produces a mistelle rather than a fortified wine. This category was once exclusively known as vins de liqueur (liqueur wines), but the EU has extended its definition to include all fortified wines. The popular connotation reigns in France, where many grape-growing regions are associated with a style of vin de liqueur : in Champagne, there is Ratafia; in Cognac, Pineau des Charentes; in Armagnac, Floc de Gascogne; in the Jura, Macvin du Jura. BACK TO TOP Port Port , the famous fortified wine of Portugal’s Douro Valley, enjoys the protection of one of the world’s oldest appellations—the Douro was first demarcated in 1756—yet has become one of the world’s most co-opted wine styles. Fraud and the appropriation of unique regional identities has been an endemic and ongoing struggle for many of the world’s most process-driven wines, particularly Champagne, Sherry, and Port. “Port” is now a protected term in the EU; the production of Port is overseen and enforced by the Douro Port Wine Institute, or Instituto dos Vinhos do Douro e Porto (IVDP) a regulatory body that absorbed the powers of the Commissão Interprofissional da Região Demarcada do Douro in 2003, which in turn replaced the Casa do Douro in 1995. The Casa do Douro, a syndicate of growers’ guilds established in 1932 that assumed control over the regulation of viticulture, lost many of its regulatory functions after it bought controlling shares in Royal Oporto, a port shipper and the surviving remnant of the Companhia Geral dos Vinhos do Alto Douro, the original oversight “company” established in the Douro in 1756. Today, the government-run IVDP supervises the promotion, production, and trade of all Porto and Douro DOP wines. Both growers and shippers must submit to its authority. The IVDP requires Port houses to maintain compliance with the lei do terço (“law of the third”), a decree restricting sales of Port to one-third of a house’s total inventory annually. In addition, the IVDP guarantees label integrity and age designations, and samples all appellation wines for authenticity. Terraces at Quinta do Noval. The IVDP grants each grower’s beneficio authorization—the maximum amount of wine that may be fortified in a given year—based on a matrix of twelve factors. Each factor has a minimum and maximum point score associated with it, and there are a total of 2,361 points available. Vineyards that score over 1,200 are awarded an “A” grade, “B” vineyards score between 1,001 and 1,200 points, and so on through “I”—the lowest grade. A-level sites are licensed to vinify the greatest percentage of Port, whereas vineyards classified G or lower cannot even produce Port. Points are given based on 12 criteria, also known as the Moreira da Fonseca method. Seven soil and climate factors are scored: location, altitude, exposure, bedrock, rough matter, slope and shelter. The next five factors relate to the vine itself: type of vine, planting density, yield, training system, and vine age. Maximum yields in the Douro for red grapes are set at 55 hl/ha; for white grapes the maximum yield is 65 hl/ha. For Porto, the preferred red grapes are Touriga Nacional, Touriga Francesa, Tinta Roriz, Tinta Cão, Tinta Barroca, Tinta Amarela, Tinta Francisca, Bastardo and Mourisco Tinto. They must constitute a minimum 60% of a vineyard's plantings. Preferred white Port grapes include Gouveio, Malvasia Fina, Viosinho, Rabigato, Esgana Cão, and Folgasão. Many of the Douro’s vineyards are planted on steep, terraced slopes—although one new planting system abandons traditional terraces in favor of planting vines in vertical rows leading directly up the slopes ( Vinhos ao Alta) . Patamares —wider terraces that can be navigated by tractor—are more common. Grapes are harvested by hand. After the harvested fruit arrives at the winery, the grapes are destemmed (fully or partially) and crushed. Traditionally, grapes were foot-crushed and fermented in low, open granite troughs called lagares . Smaller quintas may continue this practice, sometimes set to music for the benefit of both worker and tourist, but most large Port houses have switched to more modern means. Autovinifiers, an Algerian vinification technology in which the fermenting wine would be pumped over the cap by virtue of its own buildup of gas, became more and more common during labor shortages in the 1960s and 1970s. Powered only by their own internal pressure, the original autovinification tanks were a useful tool in the remote Douro Valley, although temperature control and other improvements are now widely incorporated. Automated treading machines, designed in the 1990s, and open-top fermenters with pump-over systems are newer alternatives for the region. Ultimately, the goal of the short, two-to-three day Port fermentation is to maximize extraction of color and flavor in the limited available time. Once the winemaker has reached the desired amount of residual sugar, the fermenting wine is pressed off the solids and prepared for fortification. Beneficio —the fortification of wine with spirit—occurs when approximately one-third of the sugar content has been converted to alcohol. The wine is fortified to 19-22% abv by the addition of aguardente— “burning water”—a 77% abv neutral grape spirit. The spirit is raw and uncomplicated; it is a young, fiery alcohol that contributes nothing to the character of the wine, rather it imparts the robustness necessary for the new Port to reach a proper maturity. The process of beneficio (known to the French as mutage ) halts fermentation, killing the yeasts and preserving sweetness in the Port. The winemaker relies on a complex series of calculations to determine the amount of aguardente to add to the base wine. For most Port, aguardente will be added to the fermenting wine in a 1:4 ratio, although lower alcohol (and drier) styles of white Port are produced. White and rosé Ports—the latter a category pioneered in the late 2000s by Croft—are made with lesser degrees of maceration, but otherwise all Port wines essentially follow this guideline of production. The choices following fortification, namely the length of aging and the type of vessel, determine the final style of the wine. A pipe , the traditional barrel used for both aging and shipping Port wine, varies in size: pipes used in the Douro Valley usually hold 550 liters, whereas pipes in Vila Nova de Gaia may often contain 620 liters. The size of a pipe used for shipping Port is set at 534.24 liters, although pipes used for shipping Madeira or Marsala are smaller. BACK TO TOP Styles of Port There are two broad, fundamental styles of Port: Ruby and Tawny. Ruby Ports, which include Vintage Ports, are bottle-aged. With the exception of well-aged, venerable Vintage Ports, Ruby Port wines will display darker color, more youthful fruit and spice tones, and a more aggressive, fiery character. Tawny ports are cask-aged, and develop more complex, mature tones of toffee, dried fruits, and toasted nuts with time. Tawny Port, naturally, develops lighter, amber tones of color as it ages in wood. Aging has historically occurred in the Port lodges of Vila Nova de Gaia, a suburb of Oporto, although this ceased to be mandatory in 1986. While the cooler air of coastal Oporto is preferable to the warmer Douro DOP for long-term maturation, modern climate control makes this a moot point. Today, many smaller quintas choose to age their Port wines at their facilities in the Douro Valley. Ruby Ruby Port: Ruby Port is often aged in bulk (in wood, cement, or stainless steel) for two to three years prior to bottling. The wine is uncomplicated, deeply colored, and inexpensive. Ruby Port does not carry a vintage date. Ruby Reserve Port: Ruby Reserve, or Premium Ruby, replaced the term “Vintage Character” and offers more complexity and character than a basic Ruby Port. Vintage Port: Vintage Port is the most expensive style of Port to purchase and constitutes approximately 1-3% of production. A Port house will usually declare a vintage year only in exceptional harvests—often a given house will, on average, declare a vintage three years out of every decade. Vintage Port must be authorized by the IVDP, and is aged in cask before being bottled by July 30 of the third year after harvest. Vintage Port will continue to develop in the bottle for decades, shedding brash fruit in favor of more complex attributes, although many bottles are consumed in their youth—particularly in the US. Mature Vintage Port requires decanting, as it will develop a significant deposit in the bottle. Quality is a chief factor in determining a vintage year, and a house will utilize the best vineyards available to it when creating a vintage blend, yet market concerns also play a role. Back-to-back, or “split” vintages are rare, as few shippers want to flood the market lest prices plunge. Single Quinta Vintage Port: A single quinta Vintage Port is the product of one estate’s harvest. Often, if a Port house cannot confidently declare a vintage, it may nonetheless showcase the fruit of one of its better estates as a vintage wine. In a vintage year, such an esteemed estate would usually provide the backbone of a shipper’s Vintage Port. Examples include Warre’s Quinta da Cavadinha, Taylor’s Quinta de Vargellas, and Dow’s Quinta do Bomfim. Many smaller quintas release their own vintage wines as well. Single quinta wines are made in the same fashion as other Vintage Ports, and will improve with additional bottle age. Late-Bottled Vintage Port: Late-Bottled Vintage Port (LBV) spends between four and six years in cask prior to bottling. Thus, the wines obtain some of the mellowed tones of a Tawny Port, while retaining the youthful fruit and directness of a Ruby Port. LBV Port is always the product of a single vintage, but quality may vary greatly. The majority of LBV wines are filtered prior to bottling; they will not require decanting and do not usually improve with additional bottle age. However, superior styles may achieve quality nearer that of a true Vintage Port and improve with bottle age, although they will always reach full maturity sooner than a Vintage Port. Such styles are often unfiltered, and may be labeled as Envelhecido em Garrafa , indicating an additional minimum three years of bottle aging. Tawny Tawny Port: Many wines labeled as Tawny Port do not undergo the extensive cask aging that is critical to the style, but are simply paler wines—due to the provenance of grapes, a less-thorough extraction, or the addition of white Port to the blend. Lesser vineyards and vintages constitute these wines, which are a popular aperitif in France. Reserve Tawny: Reserve Tawny Port ages for at least seven years prior to bottling. Reserve Tawny wines are blended from several vintages, and retain some youthful freshness while gaining a hint of the creamy, delicate nature of a true old Tawny. Tawny Port will not improve with additional bottle age. Tawny with Indication of Age: Tawny Port may be labeled as 10, 20, 30, 40, or 50 Years Old. These wines show a progressively more concentrated and developed character, reaching a pronounced oxidative, rancio state by forty years of age. Tawny Ports that display an age indication result from high-quality fruit, and are matured in seasoned wood. Typically, such Ports are racked once annually, often freshened with additional spirit or wine as evaporation takes its natural course, and are finally blended together prior to bottling. The age indication is not an average age of the blended wines in the bottle, but rather an approximation: for example, the IVDP deems a Port labeled “10 Year Old Tawny” to taste like a 10 Year Old Tawny, regardless of the wine’s actual age. Many Port connoisseurs prefer Tawny Port at 20 years of age, when the balance of fruit and mature characteristics is even, the spirit is finely integrated and the wine is not overtly oxidized. Colheita Tawny: Colheita Tawny Port is a vintage-dated Port that spends a minimum of seven years in cask—many stay in cask for decades. Some producers, such as Calem, a Port house that specializes in the Tawny style, will not bottle Colheita Tawny Ports until an order is received. Thus, Colheita Tawny Port from a particular vintage may vary in character from bottle to bottle. For a more complete history of Port and an overview of the Douro Valley, click here . BACK TO TOP Madeira The fortified wines of Madeira , a subtropical island rising sharply from the Atlantic nearly 625 miles off the coast of Portugal, are among the longest-lived wines in the world. The wines of Madeira originally developed their distinctive character on lengthy ocean voyages through the tropics, where the wines would be subjected to repeated heating and cooling. The torna viagem (“round trip”) is approximated today by heating the wine during the production process. When coupled with lengthy cask aging, the resulting wine is nearly indestructible—the ravages of heat and air are embraced, as they impart Madeira’s distinctive character! Madeira DOP wines may be produced on Madeira itself, or on the neighboring Porto Santo, the only other inhabited isle in the Madeira archipelago. On Madeira itself, walls of basalt stone sustain terraces known as poios ; they ring the island’s perimeter like steps on the nearly vertical mountainside, and support viticulture on the vertiginous incline. Grapevines, bananas, sugarcane, and even passion fruit vines grow in close proximity in the island's fertile volcanic soils. Most of the vineyards are trained in a pergola system, with vines suspended on low trellises known as latadas , in order to combat the dangers of fungal disease in the damp subtropical environment. Madeira rises to a high altitude, and the perpetual cloud cover over its mountainous interior results in abundant rainfall on the higher peaks, which feeds a system of levadas , or canals, and makes agriculture possible. Mechanization is essentially impossible in Madeira’s vineyards: the obstacle of terraces and the small size of vineyard holdings render mechanical harvesting unworkable. The average grower’s estate is 0.3 hectares, often separated among several plots; thus, production is concentrated in the hands of several large companies. As the IVDP oversees and regulates production of Port in the Douro Valley, the Wine, Embroidery and Handicraft Institute of Madeira (IVBAM) regulates harvesting and production methods of Madeira wines. There are three types of companies involved in the Madeira wine trade. The production companies make the wine, and most are based in Funchal, Madeira’s capital. There are currently eight production companies registered with the IVBAM, but only six actively export wine. Vinhos Justino Henriques is the largest company today in Madeira, and is responsible for half of the island's exports. The Madeira Wine Company, which was formed as an association of exporters and producers in 1913, commands the second largest market share and produces recognizable brands such as Blandy’s and Cossart Gordon. Henriques & Henriques is the largest independent producer, as well as the only company that owns a significant amount of vineyards. Shipping companies trade wine, rather than make it, and are usually based in London. A shipper will select wines from a producer, who will then bottle the wine under the shipper’s brand. Broadbent Selections, a company founded by Bartholomew Broadbent (son of Michael) that selects wines produced by Justino's, is an example of a Madeira trader. Partidistas , who store wine and sell it at maturity to other traders for a profit, make up the third category. Partidistas are similar to the almacenistas of the Sherry trade. Madeira Production Companies H.M. Borges (founded 1877) Henriques & Henriques (founded 1850) Madeira Wine Company (originally formed in 1913 as the Madeira Wine Association, the MWC formally changed its title in 1981) Pereira D'Oliveira (founded 1850 as a partidista) Vinhos Barbeito (founded 1946) Vinhos Justino Henriques (founded 1870) Faria & Filhos (founded 1949) Madeira Vintners (Cooperativa Agrícola do Funchal) (founded 2013) The principal noble white grapes of Madeira today are Sercial (Esgana Cão), Verdelho, Boal (Bual, Malvasia Fina), and Malmsey (originally Malvasia Candida, now more commonly Malvasia Branca de São Jorge). However, these four grapes account for only a small minority of the total production on the island. Tinta Negra (formerly called Tinta Negra Mole) is the island's workhorse, accounting for nearly 85% of its total production. The grape has been vilified in the wine press time and again, but it is capable of producing good quality wines across a wide range of sweetness levels. In support of its potential, Tinta Negra was upgraded to a recommended grape in 2015 and may now appear on labels. If a variety is included on the label, the wine must contain a minimum 85% of the stated grape if the wine is a multi-vintage blend, or 100% of the stated variety if a vintage is indicated. The incursion of phylloxera in 1872 served as a precursor to many significant and long-lasting changes to the Madeiran viticultural landscape. Tinta Negra displaced Verdelho as the island's most planted grape in the decades after its arrival. In the 19th century, Verdelho held a similarly mundane reputation, yet critics now accord it noble status; many hope that Tinta Negra will likewise evolve in stature. American hybrid grapes (Cunningham, Jacquet, Isabella, and others) were introduced to the island during the crisis, and two great noble varieties of the 19th century, the red Bastardo and the white Terrantez, were not replanted. Terrantez, which delivers a miniscule yield and is difficult to graft, is prized today but commercially insignificant. Bastardo is virtually extinct on the island: in 2017, 314 liters were produced. When combined with the coming economic difficulties of the 20th century, phylloxera's most disastrous effect on winegrowing in Madeira was one of scale: prior to the 1870s, as many as 3,000 hectares of vines existed on the island; today there are just under 500. Bananas fetch growers a higher wage. The varietal wines, in order from sweetest to driest, are as follows: Malvasia, Boal, Verdelho, and Sercial—the latter a piercingly acidic dry wine that can often require decades to soften. The rare Terrantez, unrelated to Argentina’s Torrontés, also produces compelling Madeira wines at a level of sweetness comparable to Verdelho. Sercial and Verdelho are actually harvested last, and are separated from their skins prior to fermentation, whereas Boal and Malmsey are picked first, and may undergo a shorter fermentation on the skins. For fine wines fortification with 96% abv grape spirit, imported from France, will occur during fermentation if a sweeter style is desired. Malvasia may only ferment for a few hours prior to fortification, so that most of the sugar remains. If a medium dry or dry wine is the goal, a winemaker will allow fermentation to continue for a longer period of time, but even the "dry" wines of the island contain significant amounts of residual sugar. After fortification, the young wine is then subjected to either the Estufagem or Canteiro process, the two modern heating methods that lend Madeira its distinctive character. Most wines are transferred to the estufa , a stainless steel vat that warms the wine by circulating hot water through serpentine coils inside the tank. In this method, the wine is heated to a temperature of 45-50° C (113-122°F) and held there for at least three months; during this period sugars in the wine will slowly caramelize and give the estufa wine its distinctive character. Once the Estufagem process is completed, the wine enters a period of rest ( estágio ) for a minimum 90 days before being transferred to cask for aging. Estufagem wines may not be released until two years after the harvest. A more delicate variation on the Estufagem process involves placing the wine in armazens de calor , rooms warmed by nearby tanks or steam pipes rather than the direct heat of the estufa . This variant technique, chiefly utilized by the Madeira Wine Company, utilizes lower temperatures over a longer period of time—sometimes up to one year. Finally, producers use the Canteiro method for their best wines. In this process, the wines are cask-aged for a period of at least two years in lodge attics. In this manner, the wine is exposed to the gentler, natural warmth of the sun as it undergoes a much slower process of maturation, preventing the burnt caramelization of sugars and resulting bitter flavors associated with rapid heating. Although Canteiro wines may be bottled at a minimum three years of age, the best Vinhos de Canteiro will remain in cask for 20 years or more, developing into the rarest and most treasured wines of the island: Frasqueiras . Main Varietal Styles of Madeira Sercial: The driest varietal Madeira, Sercial displays searing acidity and, over time, its youthful citrus notes evolve into a more complex almond bouquet. Sercial is a suitable aperitif, and often a good accompaniment to light soups and consommés. While considered dry these wines may still contain around 18 to 65 grams per liter of residual sugar. Verdelho: Verdelho produces a medium dry wine of high acid, with a smoky, honeyed character. The wines are slightly fuller in body than Sercial. Considered medium dry, these wines may still contain around 49 to 78 grams per liter of residual sugar. Boal: Boal produces a medium sweet, rich style of wine, in which the acidity is still powerful enough to dominate the finish. Highly aromatic, the wines tend to display classic chocolate, roasted nut, and coffee notes. With age, Boal tends to be the darkest Madeira wine in color. These wines, considered medium sweet, may contain around 78 to 96 grams per liter of residual sugar. Malvasia (Malmsey): The Malvasia wines represent the sweetest and softest style of Madeira. On the nose, Malmsey evokes toffee, vanilla, and marmalade aromas. The wine can frame a cheese course or dessert flavors of nut, caramel, and dried fruits equally well. Malmsey is considered sweet and may contain around 96 to 135 grams per liter of residual sugar. Madeira Multi-Vintage Blends Rainwater: A popular style in the US, Rainwater Madeira is usually 100% Tinta Negra. The wine is medium dry, and light in style. Seleccionado: Such bottles are often labeled “Finest,” “Choice,” or “Select,” and include a blended wine that is at least 3 years old (but below five years of age). These wines are dominated by the Tinta Negra grape, heated in Estufagem and aged in tank rather than cask. Reserve (Reserva): Madeira that is 5 years of age or older (but below 10 years of age) may use this designation. Special Reserve (Reserva Especial): Madeira that is 10 years of age or older (but below 15 years of age) may use this designation. Wines of this category (and all older designations) are often made of a single noble variety, heated by the Canteiro method. Extra Reserve: Madeira that is 15 years of age or older (but below 20 years of age) may use this designation. 5 Years Old, 10 Years Old, 15 Years Old, 20 Years Old, 30 Years Old, 40 Years Old, Over 50 Years Old Solera: Madeira wines produced by fractional blending and the Canteiro method. A maximum 10% of a solera's stock may be drawn off each year, and only 10 total additions may be made to each solera. Solera wines will be bottled with the starting date of the solera, but wines added to the solera may actually be older than the original wine—a solera on Madeira often served to extend the lifespan of a particular vintage, when there was little or no wine to sell in the following year. To accomplish this, producers refreshed soleras with stocks of older, rather than younger, wines. Madeira with a Vintage Date Colheita (Harvest): Colheita Madeira is produced from a single vintage (85% minimum required) and is aged for a minimum 5 years prior to bottling. It may be a blend or a single varietal wine. Colheita offers the consumer a “vintage” Madeira without the extended cask aging, complexity, or cost of a true Vintage Madeira, or Frasqueira. The word "harvest" is sometimes used in place of Colheita but producers are not allowed to use the word "vintage" on labels. Frasqueira: Vintage Madeira aged for a minimum 20 years in cask. Frasqueira must be produced from a single "noble" variety. Since only a minimum 85% of the vintage is required, these wines are topped up with younger wines throughout the aging process. Vintage wines are produced by the Canteiro method and may be aged for additional time—sometimes decades—in glass demijohns after the period of cask aging. Frasqueira is the epitome of Madeira, and one of the world’s legendary and long-lived wines. Vinho da Roda/Vinho da Torno/Vinho da Volta: An exceptional rarity, wines so labeled underwent an ocean journey across the equator. Shortridge Lawton, now a brand of the Madeira Wine Company, produced wines in this traditional style as late as the early 1900s. For more on the history of the Madeira trade, click here . BACK TO TOP Sherry Sherry is a fortified wine from Andalucía on the southern coast of Spain. It reached its apex as a British favorite by the 1870s, and it became one of the first protected Spanish appellations in 1933 with the establishment of a Consejo Regulador . Jerez, the hottest wine region in Spain and the home of Sherry production, is located within the coastal province of Cádiz, flanked by the Guadalquivir River to the northwest. The town of Chiclana de la Frontera marks the southeastern border of the roughly triangular region. The three towns of Jerez de la Frontera, El Puerto de Santa María, and Sanlúcar de Barrameda are at the center of Sherry production. Sherry is the product of two DO zones: Jerez-Xérès-Sherry and Manzanilla-Sanlúcar de Barrameda. The two DOs share an identical production zone and similar production guidelines, but the latter must be aged in the seaside town of Sanlúcar de Barrameda. On the coast, the cool Atlantic breezes alleviate the heat of the region, but the effect quickly dissipates as one moves inland: summer average temperatures may be nearly 20° F higher in Jerez de la Frontera than in Sanlúcar de Barrameda. The hot, dry levante wind intensifies the region’s heat, blowing from the east and essentially cooking the grapes on the vine during ripening. The humid Atlantic poniente wind alternates with the levante , and promotes the growth of flor , a film-forming yeast necessary in the maturation of Sherry. Three principal soil types characterize the Jerez region: albariza , barros , and arenas . Albariza , a chalky, porous, limestone-rich soil of brilliant white color, produces the best Sherry. The moisture-retentive albariza retains water from autumn and winter rains, while the friable soil structure allows vine roots to penetrate deeply in a search for water trapped beneath its baked, impermeable surface during the arid growing season. The snow-white albariza soils are concentrated on the gentle slopes of Jerez Superior, a sub-region between Sanlúcar de Barrameda and the Guadalete River, which flows into the Bay of Cádiz just to the south of Jerez de la Frontera. 80% of the appellation’s vines are located in Jerez Superior, and most pagos (vineyards) are located within the area of Jerez de la Frontera, including Macharnudo, Añina, and Carrascal. Macharnudo, at over 2000 acres, is the largest pago in Jerez. The more fertile—but more difficult to work— barros soils have a higher proportion of clay and are prominent in low-lying valleys. The sandy arenas soils are most common in coastal areas. Albariza Soil. Three white grapes are authorized for the production of Sherry: Palomino (Listán), Pedro Ximénez (PX) and Moscatel (Muscat of Alexandria). For Manzanilla, only Palomino is allowed. Palomino, a neutral grape that usually yields lackluster, low-acid table wines, is overwhelmingly preferred for Sherry and constitutes approximately 95% of the vineyard acreage in Jerez. Two sub-varieties, Palomino Fino and Palomino de Jerez, are encountered in the region, but the former is more prevalent, prized for its higher yields and disease resistance. Moscatel and Pedro Ximénez are predominantly used for sweetening Sherry; varietal bottlings of either grape are extremely rare in Jerez. Moscatel is mainly cultivated in the arenas soils near Chipiona. Plantings of Pedro Ximénez in Jerez have diminished so greatly that the Consejo Regulador has granted special dispensation allowing producers to import Pedro Ximénez must from the nearby Montilla-Moriles DO. Generally, growers submit both varieties to the soleo process for a period of one to three weeks, in which grape bunches are dried in the sun on esparto grass mats prior to pressing. Palomino may also be sunned, but rarely for longer than 24 hours and often not at all. In Jerez, each vine is commonly trained in the traditional manner of vara y pulgar , in which growers prune alternate spurs each year: one year’s vara (stick) will be pruned back after harvest to become the following year’s pulgar (thumb). Today, the harvest typically occurs in late August, and many of the region's vineyards are harvested by machine. Maximum yields are set at 11,428 kg of grapes per hectare and a press yield of 70 liters of juice per 100 kg of grapes . Although modern mechanical methods now reign, grapes were traditionally crushed and pressed under the feet of pisadores (laborers) wearing zapatos de pisar— cowhide boots with angled nails on the soles. Palomino Fino, the grape used for the majority of Sherry wines, must be pressed quickly after picking as it is prone to rapid oxidation. A maximum 70 liters of juice may be pressed from 100 kg of grapes; any additional amount is relegated to the production of non-classified wines or distillate. The must ( mosto de yema ) is divided into three stages of quality: the primera yema (free-run juice, accounting for 60-70% of the total mosto de yema ), segunda yema (press wine), and mosto prensa (poorer quality press wine for distillation). The free-run primera yema and pressed segunda yema are fermented separately. Before fermentation commences, the must is acidified—Palomino provides a notoriously low-acid must—and sulfured, then allowed to settle. Traditionally, producers adhered yeso (plaster) to the grapes prior to pressing, which aided clarification and—when combined with cream of tartar—produced tartaric acid. Today, most producers add tartaric acid directly and use a system of racking ( desfangado ) to clarify the must before fermentation begins. Classically, Sherry base wines underwent alcoholic fermentation in new American oak butts of 600 liters, a seasoning technique that would both impart tannin to the wine and leech oak flavor, neutralizing the wood before it was employed in the aging processes. Today, however, most Sherry is fermented in temperature-controlled stainless steel tanks of 50,000 liter capacity. In either case, the fermentation is divided into two stages: the tumultuous fermentation, a hot and vigorous initial phase lasting up to a week, and the lenta , or slow fermentation, in which high temperatures subside and any remaining sugar in the wine is converted to alcohol over a period of weeks. For producers deciding to undergo fortification, the delicate base wine of 11-12.5% ABV is then separated from its lees, and the process of transformation begins. Two divergent paths of biological and oxidative aging divide Sherry wines. Traditionally, Sherry was a fortified wine; today, producers have the opportunity to forgo fortification and vinify to the required minimum alcohol levels. At the conclusion of fermentation, the wine is classified: each tank is either classified as palo and marked with a vertical slash, or as gordura , marked with a circle. Wines marked as palo must reach 15-15.5% ABV and are destined to become the more delicate Fino or Manzanilla styles. Wines marked as gordura must reach 17-18% ABV—a high level of alcohol that will not permit the growth of flor —and will become Oloroso Sherries. When producers fortify, they do not directly add spirit but instead use a gentler mixture of grape spirit and mature Sherry, mitad y mitad , to avoid shocking the young wine. Both sets of wines are transferred to old Sherry butts of American oak. Fino and Manzanilla styles undergo biological aging, whereas Oloroso Sherry undergoes oxidative aging. At the heart of the biological aging process in Sherry is the film-forming yeast known as the flor del vino —the “flower.” While the normal yeasts responsible for alcoholic fermentation die as the wine’s sugar is wholly consumed, a specialized set of yeast species (of the genus Saccharomyces ) arrives to metabolize glycerin, alcohol, and volatile acids in the wine. Humid air carried on the poniente wind, a moderate temperature between 60°-70° F, an absence of fermentable sugars, and a particular level of alcoholic strength (15-15.5% ABV) are prerequisites for the development of flor . As flor requires contact with oxygen, it forms a film on the surface of the wine that will protect the liquid from oxidation. The flor grows vigorously in the spring and autumn months, forming a frothy white veil over the wine’s surface; in the heat and cold of the summer and winter it thins and turns gray. In the past, the growth of flor determined a particular wine’s future; it was a mysterious gift. Today, producers are much more aware of the process, and plan each wine’s future accordingly. Wines destined to undergo biological aging are sourced from grapes grown in the finer albariza soils, and are produced from the primera yema , whereas those destined for the oxidative aging path of the Oloroso are produced from the pressed segunda yema must. Once a wine has been marked to become Oloroso , its future is certain. Wines that develop under flor will enter an intermediary stage, the Sobretablas , for a period of six months to a year, during which the course of the wines’ evolution may be redirected. The wines, now kept in used 600-liter American oak butts, will be monitored and classified for a second time. The classifications are as follows: Palma : Fine, delicate Sherry in which the flor has flourished, protecting the wine from oxidation. Such wines will generally develop as Fino styles. Palma Cortada : A more robust Fino, which may eventually emerge as Amontillado . Palo Cortado : A rarity. Although flor is still present, the wine’s richness leads the cellar master to redirect the wine toward an oxidative aging path. The wine can be fortified after Sobretablas to at least 17% ABV, destroying the veil of flor that protects it from oxygen. Raya : Despite its initial promise, flor growth is anemic, or the protective yeast has died completely. The wine’s robust character is reinforced by further fortification to 17-18% ABV, and the wine emerges from Sobretablas as an Oloroso . Dos Rayas : The wine’s flor has disappeared, but its character is rough and coarse. Characterized by high levels of volatile acidity, these wines are either blended and sweetened for lower-quality Sherry or removed from the Sherry-making process, often finding new life as Sherry vinegar. After the second classification, the Sherry wines are ready to begin the long aging process. In 2010, authorities decreased the minimum solera aging required before bottling from three years to two. Rarely are Sherry wines marketed as vintage wines; most enter a system of fractional blending known as the solera , wherein new añada (vintage) wines enter an upper scale, or tier, of butts known as a criadera . Several descending criadera scales separate the young wines from the solera —the tier of butts from which wine is drawn and bottled. There may be as few as 3 to 4 criaderas , or as many as 14. For every liter of wine drawn from the solera , two (formerly three) must remain; thus the solera butts are only partially emptied, and refreshed with wines from the first criadera in movements of wine known as trasiegos . The first criadera is then refreshed with wines from the second criadera , and so forth. In this manner a solera —derived from the Latin solum , or “floor”—will theoretically continue some small portion of its original wine, regardless of its age. S olera wines are often marked with the year the solera was started. The solera system is integral to biological aging, as flor requires certain nutrients and oxygen to survive. The movement of wine from one butt to another provides oxygen; the addition of añada wines provides a constant influx of nutrients for the flor to prosper. While not necessary for oxidative aging, many Oloroso wines are nonetheless aged in their own solera systems. Amontillado Solera. Fino Sherry is a light, delicate, almond-toned style characterized by a high concentration of acetaldehydes, a salty tang, and a final alcohol content of 15-17%. As Fino matures, the flor may finally disappear. In this case, the Fino begins to age oxidatively, taking on a more robust, hazelnut character and slowly increasing in alcohol. If the loss of its protective veil is not ruinous and the wine is of good quality, it has the capacity to evolve into a Fino-Amontillado , finally becoming an Amontillado as its flavor, strength and color deepen. The final alcohol content of Amontillado must be between 16% and 22%. The production of true Amontillado is a laborious process, and soleras devoted to the wine are expensive to maintain. The darker Oloroso, meaning “fragrant,” demonstrates spicy, walnut tones and a smooth mouthfeel. Oloroso must range from 17% to 22% ABV. The rare Palo Cortado combines the rich body and color of an Oloroso with the penetrating yet delicate bouquet of an Amontillado , and is greatly prized by Sherry aficionados. These styles— Fino, Amontillado, Oloroso, and Palo Cortado —are generoso wines, totally dry in character. Sanlúcar de Barrameda has its own classifications for wines: Manzanilla Fina , Manzanilla Pasada, and Manzanilla Añada . Manzanilla Fina is similar in style to Fino , although the harvest occurs about a week earlier, and the resulting wines are lower in alcohol and historically fortified to a lower degree. In addition, Manzanilla wines are entered into—and moved through—the solera more quickly than a standard Fino . Manzanilla Pasada , like Fino-Amontillado wines, lose the protection of flor and begin to show some oxidative characteristics. Generoso Sherry Styles Fino Amontillado Oloroso Palo Cortado Manzanilla Fina Manzanilla Pasada Manzanilla Añada Although Sherry may be bottled as a dry generoso wine directly from the solera , it is more likely to be sweetened and blended before sale. The final blend is assembled on a small scale—often in a glass or test tube—and then applied proportionally to the wine at large. This process is known as the cabeceo . Base wines entered into the cabeceo must have a minimum ABV of 17.5%. Several sweetening agents are available to the Sherry producer: dulce pasa, dulce de almíbar, and mistela produced from the must of sunned Moscatel or Pedro Ximénez grapes. Pedro Ximénez is preferred, but expensive. Dulce pasa—mistela produced from sunned Palomino—is the most common sweetening agent in modern Jerez. Dulce de almíbar , a blend of invert sugar and Fino , is rare. A Sherry house may also adjust the color of the final wine with vino de color , a non-alcoholic concoction produced by a combination of boiled, reduced syrup and fresh must. If reduced to one-third of its original volume, the syrup is called sancocho; if reduced to one-fifth, the syrup is called arrope . Vino de color , naturally, also adds a level of sweetness to the wines. Generoso Liqueur wines produced by this blending process include Pale Cream, a lighter, fresher style blended from Fino wines; Cream, a darker, denser product of blended Oloroso ; Dry, a paler style that actually contains a fair amount of sweetness; and Medium, a rich amber Sherry that may include Amontillado in the blend. Producers may legally label Medium Sherries with additional traditional terms, such as “Golden,” “Milk,” or “Brown.” Such terminology reinforces the longstanding importance of the British market—and the historic British control of the shipping houses and bodegas of Jerez. In the past, shippers relied heavily on almacenistas when configuring their blends. Like the partidistas of Madeira, almacenistas would purchase young wines, age them, and sell the wines to shippers at proper maturity. The role of almacenistas today is minor, and the term itself has been trademarked by Lustau. Although the role of Moscatel and Pedro Ximénez in Sherry production is often supporting, wines produced solely from sunned grapes are occasionally sold as Vino Dulce Natural , or “naturally sweet wine.” The moniker is misleading, as the wines are fortified after a partial fermentation. Sugar content for both wines ranges from 180 to 500 grams per liter. In 2000, the Consejo Regulador for Jerez created two new categories for Sherry Wines of Certified Age: VOS and VORS. VOS— Vinum Optimum Signatum , or “Very Old Sherry”—may be applied to solera wines with an average age of over 20 years. For every liter of VOS Sherry drawn from the solera, at least 20 liters must remain. VORS— Vinum Optimum Rare Signatum , or “Very Old Rare Sherry”—may be applied to solera wines with an average age of over 30 years. 30 liters must remain in the solera for every liter withdrawn. A tasting panel certifies all VOS and VORS wines, and only Amontillado, Oloroso, Palo Cortado , and Pedro Ximénez wines are authorized for consideration. Approval to use either label only applies to an individual lot of drawn wine, not the entire solera . The Consejo Regulador may certify an indication of age of either 12 or 15 years for use on a label; in such cases the certification applies to the entire solera , not just a particular lot of wine. For information on the other fortified wines of Spain, click here BACK TO TOP Marsala Marsala is a fortified wine from the island point of Sicily, first manufactured in 1773 by the English Port and Sherry merchant, John Woodhouse. Marsala wines are fortified with grape spirit either during or after fermentation, depending on the desired level of sweetness. The addition of either mosto cotto (cooked must) or sifone , a mistelle produced by fortifying the unfermented must of overripe grapes, are used to adjust both color and sweetness. Marsala DOC wines are available in three colors: ambra, oro (golden), and rubino . The ambra and oro styles are produced from the white grapes Grillo, Catarratto, Inzolia (Ansonica), and Damaschino. Grillo and the more delicate Inzolia are preferred; Catarratto and Damaschino are high-yielding grapes of less interest. The ambra style is of lower quality and is the only style that permits the practice of concia: the addition of mosto cotto . Rubino wines are produced from Perricone, Calabrese (Nero d’Avola), and Nerello Mascalese. White grapes may comprise a maximum 30% of the rubino production. The three colors of Marsala will also have their sugar content defined on the label: secco indicates a maximum 40 grams per liter of residual sugar, semisecco indicates 40 to 100 g/l of residual sugar, and dolce indicates a minimum 100 g/l of residual sugar. Marsala is further classified by the time it spends in cask: one year for Fine, two years for Superiore, four years for Superiore Riserva, five years for Vergine, and a minimum ten years for Vergine Stravecchio. Vergine Marsala is fortified after fermentation and the style does not permit the addition of either mosto cotto or sifone ; thus, it must be secco in style. Solera versions also exist, and must spend at least five years in the solera prior to bottling. Marco de Bartoli, one of the most revered producers of Marsala, releases his Vergine-quality “Vecchio Samperi” as Vino (without GI) due to its lack of fortification. Vintage Marsala does exist and the vintage refers to the year of fortification. BACK TO TOPPreview