Fred Swan

The T-Word

2018-03-01T18:30:00Z

Fred Swan takes on the complex topic of terroir, outlining the many factors and decisions that affect a wine's character and providing new analogies for considering terroir.(read more)

Five Myths of Winemaking

2017-06-28T14:00:00Z

Despite thousands of years of winemaking history, we’re still refining our understanding of the myriad factors leading any given wine to taste and feel as it does. Arguably, no other consumer product has such variety or involves so many minute, often inscrutable, factors. A wine’s personality is influenced by geology, microbiology, chemistry, plant and human physiology, agronomy, entomology, geography, weather, and more.

Winemakers do their best to guide wines per their intent, based on their studies, their experiences, and expert advice. Yet there are gaps in our knowledge and many areas where effect cannot be neatly and fully tied to cause. With so many complex variables, fully controlled experimentation is not possible. Because of these complexities, rule of thumb often comes into play, and simplification is a must when communicating with consumers or even sommeliers. Unfortunately, overly broad conclusions can result. This article looks at five common assumptions about viticulture and winemaking and considers their accuracy.

Myth #1: A Big Diurnal Shift Is Always Important

Diurnal shift is the variation between the highest and lowest temperatures on any given day. Wineries in warm regions with large diurnal shifts tend to emphasize that factor in their marketing, as the shift can result in fresher wines than might otherwise be expected. The frequent mentions have led many people to assume a big diurnal shift is generally important. That’s not entirely true.

Why Diurnal Shift Helps Maintain Acidity

Grape vines are active (attempting to grow and to ripen grapes) at temperatures between the low 50s and low 90s degrees Fahrenheit, though of course the exact range for any given vine varies depending on multiple factors. The primary fuel for this growth and ripening is sugar created by photosynthesis—which doesn’t occur at night as it requires sunlight.

If nighttime temperatures are warm enough for growth and ripening to continue, the vines need an alternate fuel. That fuel is malic acid. So, in general, less ripening at night means more malic acid will remain in the grapes at harvest, thus the attraction of diurnal shift.

The other benefit of cold nights in hot areas is that warming in the vineyard occurs later in the day, so vines spend less time in the heat. This can retard sugar ripeness, allowing phenolic ripeness to better keep pace.

Diurnal Shift in Moderate & Cool Climates

Big diurnal shift is, by definition, a matter of extremes. If daytime highs aren’t very high, there won’t be a big diurnal shift unless the lows are very low indeed. There’s no benefit for wine from very cold nights in cool and moderate regions, and if both day and night temperatures are moderate, malic acid consumption will be moderate as well.

In cold regions, growers are concerned with getting sufficient ripeness and harvesting before cold weather hits. Maintaining acidity is rarely an issue, and an excess of acidity isn’t uncommon. In this case, a minimal diurnal shift is best, because that means the area will warm up to suitable ripening temperature earlier in the day.

Additional Factors in Warm Regions

The rate of malic acid consumption at night depends on temperature, but that consumption is substantially reduced well above the temperature at which the vine ceases all activity. In other words, if the mercury drops to the low 60s, grapes aren’t losing too much more acid during that period than they would in the low 50s.

Since gentle ripening can take place at night in the low 60s, such temperatures can allow growers to harvest earlier than if the vines shut down completely most nights. Because malic acid consumption can be quite high during the day in warm regions, moderate nights and early harvest can mean more freshness in the wine than cold nights and a later harvest.

Other Temperature Influencers

The temperature that really matters to a grape vine for ripening, and thus malic acid use, is the temperature of the vine and berries. Air temperature affects that, but so do wind, humidity, fog, water retention in the soil, vine height, and the degree to which the topsoil absorbs heat during the day and releases it at night.

Takeaways on Diurnal Shift

A significant diurnal shift can be important to retaining freshness in warm-to-hot growing regions. It is less important, and may be counterproductive, in moderate-to-cool regions. Many other factors affect the nighttime behavior of vines, too. Don’t assume that greater diurnal shift produces a fresher—let alone better—wine. Look more carefully at the characteristics of the specific site.

Myth #2: Wild Yeast Fermentation Is Better than Inoculated

Yeast selection is a key winemaking decision. Producers who inoculate with cultured yeast have a multitude of options from which to choose. Some wineries always use “wild yeast,” but this, too, is a decision.

A range of yeasts can bring about vinous fermentation. It’s rare for a single strain, or even species, to take the process from start to finish. Often, fermentation starts with a variety of yeasts, and then the strongest takes over to finish. In other cases, the starting yeasts die, and a completely different yeast completes the fermentation.

Defining Wild Yeast

Wild yeast, also referred to as native yeast or, perhaps more correctly, ambient yeast, does not necessarily come from the vineyard. Yeast is everywhere. It occurs naturally on grape skins and is plentiful in the vineyard. There is also yeast in the air between the vineyard and winery and at the winery itself. While using ambient yeast is certainly in line with “low-intervention” winemaking, it doesn’t necessarily express the character of a vineyard.

The primary yeast associated with vinification is Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Other species occurring in vineyards and production facilities include Candida stellata, Kloeckera appiculata, Lachancea thermotolerans, Metschnikowia pulcherrima, and Zygosaccharomyces bailii, with the first two the most common. The yeasts referred to as wild are those other than Saccharomyces cerevisiae, as they are less ubiquitous and, in their variety, can create complexity and a unique personality in wine. Wild yeasts, however, are very sensitive to SO2 and rarely survive once alcohol levels above 5% are achieved. Thus, a “wild yeast fermentation” may begin with a unique mélange but will finish with ambient Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

The Challenges of Wild Yeast

Using ambient yeast doesn’t always yield satisfactory results. If there is not enough Saccharomyces cerevisiae available, the fermentation may be slow or stall entirely. That’s especially true when the juice has a very high potential alcohol. At best, this can lead to wines with residual sugar. At worst, slow or stuck fermentations can result in off-flavors and aromas and/or bacterial contamination.

There is also a risk, at least the first few times a vineyard or production facility is used, that the resident yeasts aren’t good for winemaking. If this proves to be an issue, or if pre-harvest analysis of the grapes shows contaminants or inappropriate yeast, the winemaker may neutralize everything with SO2 and then inoculate.

Pros & Cons of Cultured Yeast

Cultured yeasts reduce risk. The behaviors of available yeasts are known—relative to potential alcohol, fermentation temperature, nutrient mix, pH, speed of fermentation, sensitivity to SO2, and more. So, too, are the flavors and aromas each tends to produce. Aside from the question of expressing place, the principle concern with cultured yeast is that it can lead to wines that “all taste the same.” That’s an overstatement, but it is true that inoculated yeast fermentation can limit complexity.

To capture complexity and terroir, while limiting risks of contamination, off-flavors, or unwanted residual sugar, some winemakers allow fermentation to begin with ambient yeast. Then, when alcohol levels reach a certain point or the fermentation begins to slow, the winemaker inoculates with cultured yeast. Some producers collect wild yeasts from their vineyards and have those cultured for inoculation.

Takeaways on Yeast

Wild yeasts can yield complex wines of beauty or unattractive wines with residual sugar and off-aromas. Inoculated fermentations can make magnificent wines, clean but simple wines, or wines that taste like they are from somewhere else. It doesn’t make sense to pre-judge a wine based on fermentation choices—this is just a data point. The true measure of a wine is how it smells, tastes, and feels out of the glass.

Myth #3: Malolactic Fermentation Leads to Buttery Wines

Malolactic fermentation (MLF) is a secondary fermentation that converts tart malic acid, and then citric acid, into softer, rounder lactic acid. MLF takes place, whether naturally or induced, in most red wines and in some whites.

MLF also generates diacetyl, a natural by-product of many fermentations, including those used to make sour cream, buttermilk, cultured butter, and beer. Diacetyl has a pronounced buttery aroma and flavor that it contributes to “buttery” Chardonnay—and butter itself. It’s also used by food companies to flavor margarine, microwave popcorn, and more. Diacetyl usually exists in wine even before MLF takes place, as some is created during primary fermentation. The actual amount of diacetyl in a finished wine can be anywhere from zero to seven milligrams per liter. That said, typical levels are less than two milligrams per liter for whites and three milligrams per liter for reds.

The recognition threshold for diacetyl is much lower for white wines than for reds. A mere 0.2 milligrams per liter can be noticeable in whites, while five to ten times that much is necessary in a red. (The more intensely flavored a red wine, the higher the threshold.)

Other Factors in Diacetyl Production

The specific amount of diacetyl produced during MLF depends on various factors. Environment has a significant impact. Because the malolactic bacteria that do the conversion struggle at low temperatures, MLF and diacetyl generation may be limited or completely inhibited by temperature. Another key factor is pH. Ironically, the bacteria responsible for processing malic acid have a difficult time with very low pH (high acid) environments, but thrive when pH is above 3.6. This is one reason why relatively low-acid California Chardonnay may present loads of butter, while Burgundian examples—even after full malolactic fermentation—typically don’t.

The amount of malic and citric acid available for conversion make an impact, too. Greater citric acid concentration, especially, tends to result in more diacetyl production. Different yeasts produce different amounts of diacetyl, and Lactobacillus and Pediococcus damnosus bacteria, if present, will also create diacetyl.

If oxidation occurs, diacetyl production will increase. On the other hand, factors such as sulfur dioxide, lack of nutrients, fumaric acid, and fatty acids inhibit malolactic fermentation.

Ways to Minimize Buttery Flavors

Winemakers have many tools for avoiding excessive buttery flavors when employing malolactic fermentation. Most simply, they can stop the process at any time by reducing temperature or adding SO2. MLF can also be limited (without being stopped) through cool temperature or the addition of fumaric acid. Another straightforward solution is to blend a wine that underwent MLF with one that did not.

Qualities in the initial wine matter, too. A wine that has low pH (whether due to grape variety, terroir, viticultural choices, or a combination of these) and does not contain any undesirable bacteria will not taste very buttery. The bacteria used for malolactic fermentation makes a difference as well; some lead to subtler buttery flavors.

Adding, or not adding, certain products can minimize these flavors, too. Winemakers can adjust nutrients or avoid acidulating with citric acid. After malolactic fermentation is complete, the addition of sulfur will make any buttery flavor less noticeable, as SO2 bonds with diacetyl. But the timing of sulfur additions matters—flavors will be subtler if the winemaker adds sulfur later, once the diacetyl has been entirely degraded by bacteria and yeast, which would be neutralized by an earlier addition.

Takeaways on Buttery Flavors

There are many variables that affect the amount of diacetyl and buttery flavor in wine. Today, winemakers both understand and have significant control over many of those factors. Overly buttery wine is far from a given with malolactic fermentation.

Myth #4: Whole-Cluster Wines Taste Stemmy Unless Stems Lignify

Apart from Beaujolais and a few other exceptions, whole-cluster fermentation is polarizing. There are philosophical arguments, technical arguments, and aesthetic preferences on the topic.

Some people oppose whole cluster because they believe stem-derived aromas and flavors mask, rather than reveal, terroir. Others feel prominent flavors derived from anything but grapes should be avoided. Counterarguments are that the character of stems does speak to both vintage and vineyard and that these notes add beauty and complexity to wine.

The qualitative judgements are all about those aromas and flavors. Some people enjoy them, some hate them. Some like them in moderation, or only when used with certain varieties, such as Syrah. But there are many factors that affect how stemmy and green a wine will taste. And there are some wines that exhibit aromas suggesting whole-cluster fermentation when none was used.

One frequent response to those who argue against stems is that stems that are “fully lignified” or “ripe” do not create excessively stemmy wines. Unfortunately, that too is an oversimplification.

Stems Don’t Fully Lignify

Lignification is the technical name for a stem becoming woody—brown, dry, and hard as opposed to green, sappy, and pliable. There are different parts to the stem, and they lignify at different rates. A peduncle is the stem that connects the entire bunch to the cane. Within the bunch are the rachis (the continuation of the peduncle that serves as the central stem within a bunch), lateral branches coming off the rachis within the bunch, and pedicels that connect individual grapes to the lateral branches.

Tyler Thomas, the managing director and director of winemaking for Santa Barbara’s Dierberg Vineyard and Star Lane Vineyard, has degrees in botany and plant molecular biology. He explains, “The peduncle will lignify. It usually happens pretty early in ripening. There’s a point after that when you get some lignification in the rachis, but I’ve never seen one fully brown, and your fruit is going to be very ripe if you wait for that.”

While “lignified stems” is an over-simplification, the degree to which lignification does occur can make a difference. Thomas continues, “The idea that we can’t use stems until they are fully lignified doesn’t make sense. But we may want to be below the radar on aromatics while still getting the tannins that we want.”

Many winemakers create wines that are not 100% whole cluster by blending different batches, using some made with stems and some without. A combined fermentation keeps the stems in juice much longer, and a wine made that way may be greener than one with the same proportions but made with separate fermentations.

Other Factors Matter

It’s logical that grapes with great intensity can stand up to more stem inclusion. Syrah is more powerful than Pinot Noir. Young vines are more intensely fruity but less nuanced than old vines. So, young Syrah might be harmonious with a larger proportion of stems, which will add complexity and structure without becoming overwhelming. Old-vine Pinot Noir might have the intensity to stand up to stems but, in some instances, there are so many nuances from fruit alone that stems can be a distraction.

Vintage and climate can make a difference, too. In warm years or regions, the ripeness of the fruit might want stems for added structure yet have enough intensity to not be dominated by those flavors. Clone, climate change, vigor, and viticultural techniques also impact intensity and phenolic ripeness, affecting the impact stems can have. Some vineyards never seem to make stemmy wines, even with substantial whole cluster. According to Thomas, the Syrah from Walker Vine Hill Vineyard in Russian River Valley is a prime example.

Takeaways on Stemmy Flavors

It is true that some wines featuring whole clusters smell and taste less stemmy than others. However, it’s not correct to say this is due to fully lignified stems, as that rarely, if ever, occurs. The degree to which stems have lignified does have an impact, but so do site, vintage, fruit character, winemaking, and viticultural techniques.

Myth #5: Punchdown Is Better than Pumpover

There are many assumptions about punchdown and pumpover that ought to be reexamined. Generally, keeping the cap (grape skins and other solids) moist and somewhat immersed in the juice during fermentation enhances extraction of color, tannins, and some flavors. There are two primary ways to achieve this in large fermentation vessels: punchdown and pumpover.

Punchdown (pigeage in French) is pushing the cap down into the liquid. This can be done manually with various types of poles and paddles, or mechanically using a motorized or hydraulic pressing system.

Instead of moving the cap, pumpover (remontage in French) moves the juice. Liquid is removed from the bottom of the tank and poured over the top of the cap, either manually or with a pump. Pumpover may or may not involve aeration. That depends on the winemaker’s choice of fermentation vessels, open versus closed top, and the specific technique employed.

The Nuances of Punchdown & Pumpover

The effect of either technique on the cap depends on the shape of the fermentation vessel, the grape variety, ripeness at harvest, stem inclusion, how long fermentation has been going on, and the specific method used.

If the fermentation tank tapers toward the top, punchdown is less violent than if the tank has straight sides. The taper yields a cap of smaller diameter than the lower portions of the tank. That means the juice is more easily displaced as the cap is submerged. Less force is necessary, and the grape solids aren’t mangled as much.

Likewise, pumpover can be gentle or violent; it’s a choice for winemakers. The juice can be delicately sprinkled on top, slowly wetting the cap. It can also be shot out at high pressure, as if from a firehose. In that case, the goal is to break up the cap and redistribute the solids within it. But gentle pumpover is also possible, using low-pressure pumps or avoiding pumps entirely.

There are also systems that employ a closed tank and thus don’t expose the juice to much, if any, oxygen. That could be appropriate for easily oxidized grapes, such as Pinot Noir. Of course, some grape varieties, like Cabernet Sauvignon, thrive on a bit of aeration. Since yeast needs oxygen, aeration can also optimize fermentation.

Early in the fermentation process, the grape solids and cap are firmer, with more structural integrity, than they are later in the process. This can increase the force needed for punchdown but might also mean the solids are less susceptible to damage from that force.

Thin-skinned grapes, such as Pinot Noir and Grenache, are more susceptible to being torn up and having their seeds exposed by either pumpover or punchdown than tough, thick-skinned grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Syrah. Ripeness is also a factor. The riper the grapes at harvest, the softer and more fragile their skins.

Stem inclusion can make grape solids less vulnerable to damage from cap submersion. On the other hand, they make both punchdown and pumpover more difficult. Early on in a fermentation, manipulating a cap with 100% whole cluster may require walking around on it to break up the berries, because the cap just won’t move. It could be two weeks before the cap can be moved.

Considering Frequency

It is worth looking at assumptions around the frequency of pumpover and punchdown as well. Conventional wisdom is that high frequency—two to three times per day—is good because it yields significantly more color and tannin. But considerable tannin extraction may not be desirable. For example, Petite Sirah is a very pigmented and tannic grape. Deep color can be achieved with less frequent cap submersion and that, in turn, can limit the quantity and harshness of the tannins.

Some winemakers believe frequent cap submersion is also important for temperature control. Fermentation generates a lot of heat. That heat rises, and the solid cap is less impacted by a tank’s cooling jacket than is the liquid. Other winemakers are less concerned about that heat, though—and again, different grapes and wine styles call for different temperatures.

Many winemakers believe higher temperatures substantially increase extraction. But studies have shown the effect of temperature on extraction is different for skins, for which extraction occurs early in fermentation, than for seeds, which give up their tannins later. Research has also indicated that must temperature is more important to extraction than cap temperature.

Similarly, the effect of frequent submersion on tannins, flavor, and color will vary depending on grape variety, ripeness, and how long fermentation has been going on. If the juice has captured most of the available extract from skins and pulp during the first part of fermentation, there will be diminishing returns for continuing frequent punchdowns or pumpovers. If tannin extraction in that final phase is mostly from seeds, then a winemaker will want to modulate that extraction depending on the style of wine and how brown and crunchy the seeds are.

Takeaways on Pumpover & Punchdown

The “correct” method depends on the goal and the specific situation. Today, winemakers often use both techniques, and each in a variety of ways and frequencies, during a single fermentation. There are times to be gentle, times to be rough, times to keep cool, and times for heat. General comments about technique and frequency don’t tell us enough to make qualitative judgements.

Final Takeaways

The seemingly infinite complexity of wine almost necessitates simplification, especially when talking to consumers. However, we need to be careful not to become dogmatic about how we speak of certain techniques and concepts. The key to understanding a wine, and enjoying it, comes from reveling in its specific details and nuances—and, of course, tasting it.

The Wines of Santa Barbara County

2017-03-01T14:00:00Z

Santa Barbara County is a wine region that established itself slowly, over time. Today, it is worthy of international attention for the great wines being produced by several generations of talented winemakers.

In 1782, Junípero Serra ordered wine grapes planted at what would become Mission Santa Barbara in 1786. More vineyards followed, peaking at about 45 plots, 260 total acres, and 17 winemakers in the late 19th century. None of that, however, survived Prohibition.

It wasn’t until 1962 that winemaking came back to the area. Pierre Lafond founded Santa Barbara Winery that year. But, because there were no grapes grown in the county, he sourced his fruit from elsewhere in California.

Two years later, Uriel Nielson and Bill DeMattei established Santa Barbara’s first modern vineyard, planting Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, and Riesling on benchland in the Tepusquet region of the Santa Maria Valley. Nielson Vineyard still exists today, with 432 acres of Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, largely replanted starting in 1991. Since 1984, it has been home to Byron Winery, now owned by Jackson Family Wines, but it also remains the source for numerous vineyard-designate wines from other producers.

Geography

Santa Barbara County is large: 3,729 square miles, roughly the combined size of Delaware and Rhode Island.

The soils of the Santa Barbara County AVAs are primarily sedimentary, originating from the Pacific’s sea floor. There are calcareous soils—limestone and chalk and diatomaceous earth—and chert, as well as clay loams and sandy loams, some left by receding ocean and others the result of the Santa Maria and Santa Ynez Rivers. Very close to the rivers, there are also well-draining topsoils loaded with gravel or rounded river rock.

The region’s climate varies based on altitude, proximity to the ocean, and exposure to maritime breezes. But that first vineyard, Nielson, is representative of Santa Barbara’s best-known viticultural characteristics:

Very cool climate, Region I to cold Region II on the Winkler Scale, heavily influenced by the nearby Pacific Ocean.
Very low rainfall, 14 inches or less on average.
Extremely long growing season, due to minimal pressure from rain, frost, and disease.

Santa Barbara County is the southernmost county of the 250-mile-long Central Coast AVA. Its unique topography creates climatic diversity which easily justifies the presence of seven AVAs: Santa Maria Valley, Santa Ynez Valley, Sta. Rita Hills, Ballard Canyon, Los Olivos District, Happy Canyon, and Alisos Canyon (pending).

The county’s most visible, viticulturally significant topographical feature is its transverse mountain ranges. Along nearly the entirety of North America’s west coast, mountains run parallel to the coastline. Those mountains shield lands to the east from the cooling winds, fog, and marine layer of the Pacific Ocean, with the exception of small areas near wind gaps. In Santa Barbara County, however, the mountains closest to the coast run east to west, perpendicular to the shore. Their valleys act as funnels rather than shields for cold air and fog. Thus, cool climate grape-growing extends well inland. Where the hills resume a north-south orientation, near the town of Buellton, for example, there is a dramatic climatic shift.

The Pacific Ocean is unusually cold along the Santa Barbara coastline, and this cooling is made especially extreme by an invisible, geographical oddity. The coast juts westward from the county’s southeastern corner to Point Concepcion and this, combined with the rotation of the earth, forces deep, frigid currents from both the Arctic and Antarctic to the surface where they super-cool the sea breezes.

History

Wine growing did not take off rapidly after the establishment of Nielson Vineyard in 1964. The next vineyard, that of Boyd and Claire Bettencourt in the Santa Ynez Valley, wasn’t planted until 1969. And it’s been said that this vineyard was born more from a desire for a tax deduction than exuberance about the wine business.

But starting in 1971, several significant vineyards were established. That year, Richard Sanford and Michael Benedict, who were looking specifically for a great Pinot Noir and Chardonnay growing area, established their Sanford & Benedict Vineyard in the Sta. Rita Hills. Pierre Lafond added his eponymous vineyard there as well.

Over the next few years, several vineyards were established in the Santa Ynez Valley. In the Santa Maria Valley, Louis and George Lucas planted 100 acres, now part of Cambria Estate. In 1973, the Zaca Mesa Vineyard in Foxen Canyon and the Miller family’s Bien Nacido Vineyard in the Santa Maria Valley were planted. Santa Barbara County’s first estate wines, made by Santa Barbara Winery and Firestone, came with the 1975 vintage.

Still, it wasn’t until the 1980s that significant growth in viticulture really took off. During that decade, the Heat Summation Scale of Albert Winkler and Maynard Amerine (also known as the Winkler Index or the Winkler Scale) became well known. That study made the county’s potential for cool-climate Chardonnay obvious. Suddenly, there was a rush to Santa Barbara County by producers eager to slake America’s rapidly growing thirst for Chardonnay.

Twenty-some years later, a much less scholarly work, the movie Sideways, brought Santa Barbara wines and its Pinot Noir to the general public’s attention. That drove the planting and production of Pinot Noir, as well as wine tourism. However, the movie and its bacchanalian excesses are not something the region celebrates today. Santa Barbara County is a serious wine region, proud of the world-class wines it produces from many grape varieties.

Today, Santa Barbara County is at an exciting point. Recognition of its wines is reaching new heights. Many of the early vineyards still produce grapes from their original, vitis vinifera-rooted vines. Pioneering winemakers such as Richard Sanford, Ken Brown, Rick Longoria, and Fred Brander remain vital and are making excellent wine. So are winemakers who trained under them, among them Bob Lindquist, Jim Clendenen, and Adam Tolmach. And a third generation, which apprenticed with the second, is also making excellent wines and further expanding boundaries of style and climate.

There are now about 200 wineries in the county and more than 27,000 acres of vines. Wine grapes are the county’s second most valuable agricultural crop, behind strawberries. The Santa Barbara County wine industry accounts for more than 9,000 full-time jobs and an economic impact of $1.7 billion within the county.

The AVAs

Santa Maria Valley AVA

The county’s first AVA, Santa Maria Valley, was established in 1981 and expanded southward in 2011. It now includes 25 vineyards with over 7,500 acres under vine. The AVA is predominantly in Santa Barbara County, but there is a small, triangular area north of the Santa Maria River that is within San Luis Obispo County.

The Santa Maria Valley climate varies from Region I to Region II on the Winkler Scale, mostly on a west-to-east basis. Because the combination of fog, wind, marine layer, and the Pacific’s overall moderating influence prevent temperatures from getting very high during the day, diurnal shift is only moderate but grapes retain plenty of acidity. Rainfall averages 13.5 inches per year. The growing season runs about 125 days, though the exact length depends on site and variety.

This AVA’s primary grape varieties are Pinot Noir and Chardonnay with a good portion of Syrah. Other varieties of significance or special interest include Pinot Blanc, Chenin Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc, Nebbiolo, and Cabernet Franc. Among the most recognized vineyards in the AVA are Bien Nacido, Nielson, Cambria, Riverbench, Le Bon Climat (Au Bon Climat), Solomon Hills, Tinaquaic (Foxen Vineyard & Winery), and Presqu’ile.

Santa Ynez Valley AVA

Created in 1983, the Santa Ynez Valley AVA covers nearly 77,000 total acres. Since then, four AVAs have been nested within it: Sta. Rita Hills, Happy Canyon, Ballard Canyon, and Los Olivos District. With the most recent addition, Los Olivos District, and the even more recent expansion of Sta. Rita Hills, there isn’t much vineyard acreage falling only within the greater Santa Ynez Valley AVA, but what remains does include significant sites such as Zaca Mesa and Fess Parker.

Because the AVA has a large east-west span with a series of north-south hills in between, it experiences a great deal of climatic variation. The Santa Ynez Valley is Region I close to the coast, and Region III in the east. In general, it’s a bit warmer than the Santa Maria AVA at similar distances from the ocean. Average annual rainfall ranges from 10 to 17 inches.

Chardonnay is the most planted grape, but Pinot Noir is also a dominant variety. Because the climate warms significantly toward the east, Rhône and Bordeaux varieties also do very well.

Sta. Rita Hills AVA

The Sta. Rita Hills AVA was created in 2001 and expanded at its eastern edge in 2016. It now contains about 36,000 total acres with more than 3,000 planted. The odd use of “Sta.” instead of “Santa” is because Chile’s Viña Santa Rita objected to the geographically legitimate spelling under trademark law.

The AVA begins about 12 miles from the Pacific, as opposed to about 10 miles in the Santa Maria AVA. For every mile moved away from the ocean, the temperature rises about one degree. But even at the eastern edge, Sta. Rita Hills AVA is still Winkler Region I.

Topographically, the AVA features three transverse sets of hills. Looking down from above, it looks a bit like a capital “E,” with the open parts pointed at the ocean. There are vineyards in both valleys formed by the hills, situated on flats and slopes alike, from 200 feet in elevation all the way to 1,700.

The percentage of vineyard allocated to Pinot Noir has increased over the years and is now about 65%. Chardonnay is the next most planted by far, at nearly 15%. Other grapes include Syrah, Grenache, Pinot Blanc, and Pinot Gris.

Happy Canyon AVA

The Happy Canyon AVA, established in 2009, totals nearly 26,000 acres, but less than 1,000 acres are planted. Happy Canyon reflects Santa Barbara County’s warm side. It is the furthest east of the growing regions and, well separated from the ocean by both distance and multiple hills, it experiences relatively little fog. Daytime temperatures can reach the mid-90s and sun is plentiful. On the other hand, high winds, high altitude, and diurnal shifts of up to 50 degrees Fahrenheit result in wines that have a cooler personality than one might expect.

Climatically, Happy Canyon is almost identical to Napa Valley’s Oak Knoll District. Their degree days (roughly 3,300), daily temperatures (high, median, and low), and even rainfall are very similar. The big differences are in altitude (Happy Canyon’s average is 700 feet higher) and wind.

As in Oak Knoll District, one of the primary varieties planted is Cabernet Sauvignon. And the personality of those wines, depending on specific site and producer preference, can be either ripe (but not jammy) or full spectrum, displaying not just the grape’s fruity notes but also its savory herb and mineral. Likewise, Sauvignon Blanc can focus on ripe tropical and stone fruits or also demonstrate tart citrus, grass, and peppers. Happy Canyon emphasizes red and white Bordeaux varieties, though Syrah is also widely planted.

Ballard Canyon AVA

To find an AVA where Syrah is the focus, we head to Ballard Canyon. Roughly midway between Sta. Rita Hills and Happy Canyon, it only accumulates 2,900 degree days. That’s nearly 100 fewer than Los Carneros. The limited heat is further moderated by strong winds, fog, and a 40-degree diurnal shift.

Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay used to be planted in quantity in Ballard Canyon. Growers eventually realized, however, that the Cabernet rarely got sufficiently ripe, and the Chardonnay was at the other extreme. Now, aside from a bit of Sangiovese and Sauvignon Blanc, the vineyards are planted almost exclusively to Rhône varieties.

The AVA, created in 2013, is small. There are 7,700 acres in total, with only 550 planted. More than 50% of plantings are Syrah, and another 30% consists of other Rhône varieties, principally Grenache. The AVA refers to itself as “Syrah territory” and wines that are 100% Syrah are eligible to use a special bottle with “Ballard Canyon” debossed across the shoulder. Syrah in Ballard Canyon shows many savory characteristics typical of that grape in the Northern Rhône, but these California wines also show riper fruit, fuller body, and tannins that are softer and more plentiful.

Los Olivos District AVA

The newest AVA in Santa Barbara County is Los Olivos District, established in January 2016. It is a 22,821-acre region, sharing its western boundary with Ballard Canyon and its eastern boundary with Happy Canyon. The towns of Los Olivos, Solvang, and Santa Ynez sit within its borders. Though its status as an AVA is new, wine grapes were first planted in this area some 20 years before Happy Canyon.

Climatically, Los Olivos District is a midpoint between its neighbors. With just over 3,000 degree days on average, it’s a cool Region III. The terrain is flatter than the two canyon AVAs, however, and the diurnal shift much lower. It gets little fog. This moderately warm climate allows a wide range of varieties to thrive.

At the time the AVA was granted, 1,121 acres of Los Olivos District were already under vine. Most of those are dedicated to Bordeaux (white and red) and red Rhône varieties. Italian and Spanish varieties are also common.

Alisos Canyon AVA

A petition to establish an Alisos Canyon AVA was submitted to the TTB in late February 2017. Alisos Canyon is a sub-area of Los Alamos Valley, which is an important wine-growing region but not an AVA. Currently, wines from Los Alamos Valley can only be identified as “California,” “Central Coast,” or “Santa Barbara County.”

Alisos Canyon is south of the Santa Maria Valley AVA, north of the Santa Rita Hills AVA, and about 20 miles east of the Pacific Ocean. Soils are predominantly variations of sandstone and shale. Most of the provisional territory is Winkler Region II, while the easternmost area is low Region III. The area is cooled by maritime winds coming through the San Antonio River Valley but is still warmer and has less fog than the AVAs to the north and south.

In the greater Los Alamos Valley, key varieties include Chardonnay, Riesling, Pinot Noir, Syrah, Rhône whites, Bordeaux reds, and some Spanish varieties.

In the past, many wanted to seek AVA status for Los Alamos Valley as a whole. However, current thinking seems to be that multiple, smaller AVAs within the valley will be more useful on wine labels in indicating wine style.

Key Grape Varieties

Chardonnay

The most planted grape in Santa Barbara County at over 7,500 acres, Chardonnay grows in every region, though acreage in Ballard Canyon and Happy Canyon is extremely low. The wines appear in a range of styles. Some producers pursue the Californian stereotype: rich, ripe, oaky, and buttery. Others use Montrachet as their model. There are producers that leverage the long growing season to make intensely fruited Chardonnay yet eschew malolactic fermentation and/or oak. Still others source from the coolest climes and pick early, yielding lean wines laced with mineral and acidity that demand cellaring.

Chardonnay does extremely well in the very cool Santa Maria Valley and Sta. Rita Hills. Some winemakers in Sta. Rita Hills even believe Chardonnay, rather than Pinot Noir, should be that region’s signature grape. In both AVAs, restrained winemaking can lead to wines that are very transparent to terroir.

Depending on location, the fruit focus of Sta. Rita Hills Chardonnay can be lemon, green apple, or yellow apple. In some vineyards, fruit takes a backseat to mineral notes. Bentrock Vineyard Chardonnay, for example, can be all about smoky flint.

In the Santa Maria Valley, there are similar variations. Chardonnay on the far west side of the AVA tends to be lean, with bright acidity and flavors of green apple and chalk. Coming from the eastern bench, Chardonnay can be full-bodied, show yellow apple with floral notes, and accept a greater percentage of new oak.

Pinot Noir

With over 5,500 acres planted, Pinot Noir is Santa Barbara’s second most grown variety. As with Chardonnay, Pinot Noir is best from Santa Maria Valley, Los Alamos, and Sta. Rita Hills.

It is generally easy to distinguish Sta. Rita Hills from Santa Maria Valley Pinot Noir, likely due to the substantially different soils in the two regions. The signature of Sta. Rita Hills Pinot Noir is bright red cherry fruit—ripe and often with a Maraschino accent. Santa Maria Valley Pinot Noir is moodier. The cherry fruit is darker, and that fruit is often balanced with savory notes such as earthy spice and tea. That said, the grape also shows considerable vineyard-to-vineyard variety within each AVA as well.

Syrah

Santa Barbara County is a sweet spot for Syrah, which comes in behind Chardonnay and Pinot Noir for planted acreage at nearly 2,000 acres. Excellent versions are made in every single AVA in the county, and in Los Alamos Valley as well. The styles vary substantially based on region and vineyard. There are some, particularly from Sta. Rita Hills, that are lean and often feature whole-cluster spice—though never as much as in the most extreme examples from Sonoma Coast and the Santa Cruz Mountains. In the warmest zones, Santa Barbara County Syrah can be full-bodied with broad, jammy fruit.

Sauvignon Blanc

Sauvignon Blanc is another signature variety for Santa Barbara County, with 800 acres planted. Again, the wine styles can vary dramatically from one vineyard or producer to the next. In general, the main style is Bordelais. Happy Canyon Sauvignon Blanc can show a wider range of flavors, with individual wines showing ripe fruit but also a lot of pyrazines. One vineyard, Presqu’ile in Santa Maria Valley, has planted South African clones, and the resulting wines clearly show that personality.

The rest of top varieties are:

Grenache: 484 acres
Cabernet Sauvignon: 466 acres, mostly in Happy Canyon and Los Olivos District
Pinot Gris: 361 acres
Merlot: 313 acres
Viognier: 280 acres
Cabernet Franc: 205 acres
Sangiovese: 127.50 acres

Notable Trends

Riesling

Riesling was one of the main varieties planted in Santa Barbara in the 1960s and 1970s, when Americans had a taste for sweet and off-dry whites. However, it was largely grafted over as American tastes moved toward Chardonnay and other dry wines. In fact, many of the “own-rooted” Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and other vines in the region are on Riesling rootstock. But now, Santa Barbara County Riesling is making a comeback as a dry, low-alcohol wine. The grape does particularly well in Santa Maria Valley and Los Alamos. There are pockets of good Riesling in Santa Ynez Valley, too.

Pinot Blanc

Another prized, cool-climate European grape that thrives in Santa Barbara County—especially Santa Maria Valley—is Pinot Blanc. The variety, along with Pinot Gris and Syrah, was first planted in the county by Ken Brown. It has typically been made in a quaffable, consumer-friendly style. But, with tastes moving toward minerality, higher acidity, and terroir-driven wines, Pinot Blanc is being taken in that direction by several producers. Some of them are delightfully edgy.

Sparkling Wine

It’s surprising that such a cool-climate region has taken so long to move toward sparkling wines, but the delay can be attributed to the additional investment needed in equipment, storage space, and inventory. Several producers are now making bubbly from Santa Barbara County fruit, offering a range of styles from sweet and festive to serious and complex with five years on the lees.

A World-Class Region to Watch

While the Santa Barbara County wine industry only gained serious traction 40 years ago, it has established itself as a region worthy of recognition on the international stage. Due to its unique geographical features, it is among the country’s most versatile, high-quality growing regions for wine grapes.

The region’s cool-climate takes on Chardonnay and Pinot Noir are particularly important, especially given Americans’ increasing preference for fresh wines with moderate alcohol. The cool climate also results in many wines based on varieties from the Rhône, Bordeaux, and Italy with personalities reminiscent of their Old World counterparts. These are wines to seek out, from a region that will be exciting to watch as it continues to refine its identity in years to come.

What You Need to Know About Gin

2017-01-12T13:15:00Z

Juniper is the essence of gin, in both senses of the word: it is the defining feature and the primary flavoring agent. Gin has been with us for about 300 years, yet non-alcoholic beverages flavored with juniper go back thousands of years. The early use of juniper in beverages, typically in combination with other herbs, fruit, and sweeteners, had two aims. First, juniper’s strong flavor improved, or at least overshadowed, poor-tasting base liquids. Additionally, infusions were a convenient way to deliver the essential compounds of juniper, which were perceived to have medicinal benefits.

Over the centuries, juniper extract has been thought to cure headaches and toothaches, calm angry kidneys and bowels, aid the bladder, slow the growth of tumors, inhibit seizures, and soothe back pain. It has been used to both prevent and terminate pregnancy. Juniper has been employed as insect repellent and, in the Middle Ages, to ward off plague. Alas, none of these claims are supported by science. Modern research does indicate that certain species of juniper have anti-bacterial properties, but realistically, juniper’s best application is the one dearest to us: gin.

No historical timeline for the development and evolution of gin can be completely authoritative. Benedictine monks in southern Italy in the 10th century were probably the first to combine juniper and a distilled spirit. This followed pioneering work in distillation by two Arab alchemists who evangelized spirits for maximizing extraction of medically beneficial compounds from herbs and roots. One of those scholars, Jabir Ibn Hayyan, also created the first alembic still. It is widely believed that genever was created first in the area which is now Belgium, between the 13th and 15th centuries. Over time, that juniper infusion became a drink of pleasure, not just medicine.

Additional details on the history of gin will be discussed later in this article, but for a more in-depth discussion, also see Mark Ridgwell’s GuildSomm article “Gin: The Perfect Storm of Tradition and Innovation."

This article aims to give a broad overview of the spirit, covering methods of production, styles of gin, and the classic cocktails that you should know well.

A Few Words on Juniper

While there are many styles of gin production and almost countless botanicals added for balance, flavor, and complexity, juniper alone is very complex. There are at least 67 species of juniper, though only a few are food safe and suitable for gin. EU regulations sanction just two for gin production: Juniperus communis L. and Juniperus oxicedrus L. (Note that some species of juniper are very poisonous. If you make gin at home, don’t forage for your juniper unless you are with an expert!)

Juniper berries have more than 100 volatile compounds. The character of those compounds varies substantially between species, growing regions, and even fresh versus dried berries. Ripeness of the berries and the method and temperature of extraction also create substantial variation.

Principal Methods of Botanical Infusion

There are a variety of ways juniper and other botanicals are introduced to the spirit, all with pros and cons. The methods differ in efficiency of extraction and the tone of flavors they produce. Yet the final product is not significantly impacted by the method; rather, the recipe and process are most affected. Regardless of method, the EU stipulates that the dominant flavor must be derived from juniper berries.

Relatively few gin producers create their own neutral spirit. That type of distilling requires considerable space, equipment, additional steps, and disciplines. And, since the spirit is supposed to be neutral anyway, most producers are happy to purchase it from a reputable supplier.

Infusion

Botanicals can simply steep in the spirit, before or after a final distillation. This, however, does not produce gin as defined by the EU regulations, but rather a “juniper-flavored spirit beverage.”

Co-Distillation

Botanicals are added to the neutral spirit before distillation. Sipsmith prides itself on using only a single co-distillation for each batch. St. George Spirits uses this method as well as the carter-head still, described below.

Distilling/Blending a Concentrate

Extremely intense botanical spirits are created by introducing the botanicals, together or separately, to a small amount of neutral alcohol. This product is then blended with a much larger amount of spirit to create the final product. The concentrate can be made using any of the other methods listed here. This method increases the capacity and scheduling flexibility of a distiller. Used by craft distillers and large producers alike, it is by far the most common method because it is efficient and less prone to variation.

Vacuum Distillation

Alcohol boils at a lower temperature under vacuum. The character of volatile compounds in many botanicals is different at lower temperatures, so this method gives the distiller different notes with which to work. Though they do not use it for production, Dunnet Bay employs a small vacuum distiller for research and development.

Carter-Head Still

Botanicals are held in a large perforated basket or pot. Spirit vapors exiting at the top of the main still pass through the basket prior to condensing. St. George Spirits uses the carter-head still in addition to co-distillation, as mentioned above. They determine which of these methods to use based on the character of the specific botanical being infused, considering flavor, how its essence will be best extracted, and how sensitive it is to heat.

Copper Berry Chamber

Scotland’s Caorunn has the only working Copper Berry Chamber in the gin business. This chamber was created for the perfume industry. It’s similar to a Carter-head but, instead of all the botanicals being placed in a single pot, they are placed in thin layers on multiple, perforated trays within a large chamber. The ensures more even and thorough extraction.

Styles of Gin

Genever

Technically, genever isn’t gin. Also known as jenever, genièvre, Hollands, and Dutch Gin, genever translates to “juniper” and is the spirit which begat gin. Unlike gin, the base of which is a neutral spirit made from anything, a significant part of genever’s base spirit must be from malted grain.

The exact year of genever’s creation is not known. It evolved from brandy and unadulterated grain spirits sometime in 13th-to-16th-century Belgium, in part because of juniper’s supposed medicinal value. Demand increased dramatically during the plague years, as juniper was thought to ward off that disease. At some point during that period, people began drinking genever for pleasure as well.

The age of exploration drove the next phase of genever’s expansion. In hope of preventing scurvy and other diseases, the Dutch East India Company, a global enterprise with a massive fleet, took genever wherever it went. Even after the collapse of the Dutch East India Company in 1799, genever continued to grow in popularity. It had become a spirit of choice in England and the United States. Production didn’t peak until late in the 19th century.

There are three main styles of genever: oude (“old”), jonge (“young”), and korenwijn (“corn wine”). The lightest is jonge genever, a “younger” style developed in the early 1900s. It must contain less than 15% malted spirits and less than 10 grams per liter of sugar. This contrasts with oude genever, which must have more than 15% malted spirits and less than 20 grams per liter of sugar. Korenwijn raises the bar even further. It must be 51% to 70% malted spirit, with less than 20 grams per liter of sugar.

While there are genever-style products made in several countries, the term is geographically protected. Only spirits made in Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, and France (or portions thereof) can be labeled with the term. There are 11 genever-certified regions.

Traditional producers still popular today are Bols and De Kuyper, both in Holland. Perhaps the most classic genever cocktail is the John Collins. Genever can also be substituted for gin, or even whisky, in many recipes from the Negroni to the Old Fashioned. In the Netherlands, it is often served straight, either freezing cold in a shot glass or at room temperature with a beer chaser.

Old Tom

The etymology of “Old Tom” is a matter of debate but, regardless of origin, the name was synonymous with gin, especially in Britain, for nearly a century starting in the mid-18th century. Both drier and lighter than genever, Old Tom was sweetened at the distillery to hide off-flavors resulting from the relatively primitive distilling techniques of the day.

Initially, the base spirit was heavy with malt character and quite sweet. The invention of the Coffey still around 1830 allowed production of more refined base spirits with cleaner, more neutral aromas and flavors. Added sugar was no longer a necessity. This gave rise to drier Old Tom that highlighted botanicals more clearly.

As the 19th century progressed, consumer taste moved increasingly to dry gin. Eventually, London Dry almost entirely displaced Old Tom in the glasses of gin drinkers. But because Old Tom was called for by name in such cocktail classics as the Martinez and Tom Collins, a couple of producers remained, albeit with a minimal share of the overall market.

In the past decade, interest in cocktail history has spawned a small Old Tom revival. However, lack of definitive recipes and Old Tom’s evolution means there’s no consensus on historical authenticity. Some contemporary products, like Hayman’s and Hernö, differ from “regular” gin solely in their distinctly elevated sweetness. Others, such as Ransom and Greenhook Ginsmiths, are heavier, pot-distilled spirits, colored to both eye and nose by barrel aging. All modern Old Toms use a much cleaner spirit than would have been available for the original product.

London (Dry) Gin

Despite its name and otherwise strict legal requirements, London Gin has no geographical restrictions. The word “dry” is optional but has import when used, distinguishing the gin from sweeter styles. By regulation, sugar content in London Dry Gin must be below 0.1 grams per liter.

London Gin cannot include coloring or artificial flavors. Neither can any flavors be added after the distillation process. Minimum allowable alcohol is 37.5% (40% in the US).

Production methods are more flexible. Various types of stills can be employed. Botanical character can come through co-distillation, alcohol steam infusion, or blending with separately distilled botanical concentrate. That said, juniper flavoring must be achieved through distillation, not maceration.

The aim for most London Dry Gins is balance and the ability to work in most any classic gin drink. While London Dry Gin is much drier than genever or Old Tom, it is also more botanical. Good examples are produced on both the industrial and craft levels.

Plymouth Gin

Plymouth Gin used to be a protected geographical indication (PGI). Historically, distillers had to be based in Plymouth, England, to use the name. However, there’s only one distillery left in Plymouth: Black Friars, which makes the Plymouth brand. Its owner, Pernod Ricard, recently allowed the PGI to lapse, believing they would benefit from growth of the “Plymouth” category more than from continued exclusivity.

The success and eventual fame of Plymouth Gin arose in the 19th century from local distilleries’ contracts with the British navy, for whom the city was a major port. It was in Plymouth that “Navy Gin” was born. As the PGI was applicable to any gin produced in Plymouth, historically, there wasn't a style associated with it per se. That said, since it was the navy contract that really put Plymouth on the map, the Plymouth Navy Strength Gin is probably the most iconic example. It comes in at 57% alcohol, compared to 41% for the Plymouth Original Gin. Both are made with the same seven botanicals, though the ratios may differ.

Navy Gin

Navy Strength Gin has a higher ABV than standard gin, with a minimum of 50% as opposed to 37%. In the 18th century, law required that the British navy have gin on every ship due to its believed health benefits and its usefulness in delivering other medicinal substances, such as quinine, and purifying drinking water.

But there was a problem. Unscrupulous producers would sell the Navy watered-down gin and, since the spirit was white (clear), this was hard to detect. As the story goes, the Navy realized that if gin with alcohol of 57% or higher spilled onto gunpowder, which was typically stored near the gin, the gunpowder would ignite. At lower alcohol percentages, gin acted like water and the gunpowder would fizzle. So, the gunpowder test became proof of alcohol content and spawned a term of measurement. Spirits at 57% were dubbed 100 degrees proof.

Barrel-Aged Gin

Gin aged in barrels has existed for centuries, but using barrels with the intention of affecting a gin’s character is, with very few exceptions, a 21st-century phenomenon. In the old days, barrels were simply the best way to store and transport gin. In fact, until the British 1861 Single Bottle Act, it wasn’t even legal for British resellers to sell wine or spirits by the bottle for takeaway.

Today, producers are aging gin for varying amounts of time in new barrels, old barrels, or barrels previously used for whisky or wine. Citadelle Réserve Gin uses a solera system!

US law prohibits use of the term “aged gin” on gin bottles as well as listing the duration of aging. Some gin producers get around this by referring to their gin as “yellow.” But beware: not all yellow gin is barrel aged—it may be colored through additives. As for aging length, some distillers borrow terms like añejo.

Aging and barrel influence can have a dramatic effect on gin, meaning that aged gins may not substitute well in cocktails. Given how many different aging options there are, trial and error—or producer recommendations—are necessary. Alternately, use the aged gin in place of a whisky.

Sloe Gin

Sloe gin is very different from other gins. It’s a sweetened fruit liqueur made by macerating sloe berries, or blackthorn, in a gin base. The fruit is small and, if frozen then thawed, tastes of damson plum.

Sloe gin used to be a homemade concoction. Later, high-volume, low-price producers sold unappealing versions that used neutral spirits and different fruit or artificial flavors. Fortunately, there are now artisanal producers making very good sloe gin. They are fine enough to sip on their own or diluted with soda on ice.

Sloe gin is typically much lower in alcohol than standard gin and carries at least 2.5% sugar. There are specific cocktails designed for sloe gin, but it can also be substituted for other fruit liqueurs, such as maraschino or Chambord, or slipped in as an added ingredient. Sipsmith recommends theirs in a Negroni with equal parts gin, Campari, sweet vermouth, and sloe gin.

Creative Variants

Gin’s simple definition allows tremendous latitude for creativity. The craft distilling movement and new technologies for micro-distillation have further unleashed innovation. Most new expressions fall into one or more basic categories.

Base Spirits with Character

Traditional gin is made with a neutral spirit. Using a base with more character makes a big difference.

St. George Spirits’ Dry Rye Gin has an unbaked rye whisky as the base. Gin Manhattans!
Strathleven Gilt uses quintuple-distilled Scotch whisky. It has a soft, warm character with cocoa notes and minimal juniper. Try it neat or with tonic.
Gin de Mahon, a PGI, is made on the island of Menorca, Spain, with a grape-based spirit.

Specific Regional Expressions

With its focus on botanicals rather than spirit or wood, gin is a tabula rasa for local flavors.

Dunnet Bay Distillers grows or forages almost all its botanicals in Caithness, Scotland.
St. George Spirits’ Terroir Gin tries to recreate the aromas of Mount Tamalpais in California’s Marin County.

Specific Botanical Focus

Gin must be flavored with juniper, but juniper does not have to be the dominant flavor. Some gins pick one other flavoring agent and play it up.

Audemus Spirits’ Pink Pepper Gin is, of course, all about pink peppercorns.
Gordon’s Elderflower Gin amps up that popular flavor on the nose and finish.

Tasting Gin

Gin is an extremely versatile spirit. The range of styles, botanical accents, alcohol levels, and, usually, lack of barrel aging, let it lead or complement in a mixed drink. When evaluating character and fitness for cocktails, it’s best to sample the gin neat at room temperature, then again with a dash of water or an ice cube.

After that, there are three essential cocktails. Each has many variants, substituting one ingredient or another, changing garnishes, or making them “dry” by increasing the proportion of gin.

Essential Cocktails

Gin & Tonic

The Gin and Tonic dates to Britain’s colonial days in India. In 1870, tonic became a delivery medium for quinine, which helps prevent malaria, one of the leading killers in India at the time.

Today, inclusion of quinine in tonic is token. Tonic water simply dilutes and adds touches of sweetness, bitterness, and flavor. Mixologists add garnishes that highlight or complement the botanical accents of the gin. Lemon or lime are classic, but other fruits, juniper berries, flowers, and herbs are regularly used.

Caorunn, a lovely and balanced craft gin from the Speyside region of Scotland, includes a local apple, Coul Blush, among their botanicals. At the distillery, their Gin and Tonic features a slice of Coul Blush. It’s hard to find elsewhere, so try Gala apples instead for a very refreshing drink.

Martini

Martinis originated in the late 19th century. Though the origin is murky, many believe it started out with relatively sweet gin, Old Tom, and a large quantity of vermouth. Over the years, the gin became drier and the amount of vermouth decreased.

During Prohibition, with plentiful but poor quality gin, the ratio was 2:1. Now 6:1 is the standard, and some people prefer 10:1. That said, the craft movement is improving vermouth, making it more welcome in martinis.

Regardless of the exact ratio, gin is relatively undiluted, the feature attraction in martinis. Gin choice is crucial and based on the drinker’s preference in botanicals and balance.

Negroni

The third star among gin-based cocktails today is the Negroni. Created in 1919, it has gained significant traction in recent years. It is a bold, bitter cocktail that teams gin with Campari and sweet vermouth. A classic Negroni is an equal parts cocktail, but many drinkers prefer a 2:1:1 ratio, with gin the larger portion.

How well a particular gin works will depend on ratios, which sweet vermouth is used, and the drinker’s preference. Are they ordering a Negroni because they like gin, or because they want it hidden?

An Essential Spirit

Gin is a key aspect of any cocktail program. An understanding of production, styles, and basic history is crucial for any beverage professional. Both the lore of gin and the liquid itself are lively and memorable, offering plenty of opportunities to delight guests with varied selection, inspired cocktails, and amusing anecdotes.