https://www.guildsomm.com/research/expert_guides/en-USTelligent Community 13https://www.guildsomm.com/research/expert_guides/w/expert-guides/2444/germanyThu, 29 Oct 2026 13:42:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:ed8f5b1c-74b0-40d0-bfce-a9cecde0b9e4Jonathan EichholzIn the public eye, the story of German wine usually begins and ends with Riesling. Contents Setting the Stage Origin of the 1971 Germany Wine Law The 1971 German Wine Law Today The VDP The Grapes of Germany Winegrowing Regions of Germany Sommeliers and wine critics, well acquainted with its charms and severity, perpetually fight its underdog status, waging a long information campaign to educate casual wine drinkers that not all German Riesling is sweet . It’s a versatile grape in terms of sugar: Riesling offers a little or a lot of sweetness—or lacks it completely. We announce its purity, its effortless expression of terroir , its usefulness as a foil for many styles of cuisine, its ability to age magnificently in the cellar. Certainly no country in the world is more tied to the fortunes of Riesling than Germany, which grows almost half of the world’s total supply. But even as the variety finally ascended to become the Germans’ most planted grape in the last days of the 20th century, the country has a richer field of varieties than the stereotype suggests—and the Germans love drinking dry wines! (From 1985 to 2015, the percentage of total German wines vinified dry shot up from 16 to 46%.) Today, a sommelier well-versed in Germany’s offerings should understand its trocken styles, its noble sweet wines, everything in between, red wines, Silvaner, Pinot Blanc, and other grape varieties coming from a diverse set of growing regions and soils, wrapped up in tradition, reclaimed by modern voices, defined in wine law but often exemplified in extralegal categories, rendered obscure by the fearsome constructs of its own language, and… Ah, well. Achtung! Setting the Stage Vitis vinifera arrived in Germany with the Romans, whose legionnaires crossed the Alps over 2,000 years ago and extended their eastern frontier to the Rhine River, far from the traditional bases of viticulture in their Mediterranean homeland. Germanic tribes adopted the culture of the vine, Charlemagne’s Franks spread viticulture east of the Rhine in the late 8th century, and monastic orders of the church acted as its custodians through the medieval period and into the modern age. Just as in Burgundy, many of Germany’s greatest vineyards were first devised and planted by monks, and the Cistercians introduced the cultivation of Riesling and Pinot Noir, Germany’s most important modern grape varieties. The vine’s strongholds in Germany shrunk considerably by the 16th and 17th centuries, whittled down by war, a suddenly cooling climate, and the social and religious upheavals of the day. Germany’s wine culture reemerged in the 18th century, controlled by clerics and princes, and Riesling shot forward as a premier variety. Vineyard ownership migrated to the private sector completely in the aftermath of the French Revolution, which inspired liquidation of church holdings in Germany by the early 1800s, and a golden era for German wine dawned. Rare, noble sweet wines arrived as a currency for the fine wine traders of London, and the great sweet wines of the Middle Rhine region fetched greater prices than the best reds of Bordeaux by the end of the century. “Hock,” already in regular English usage by the 1800s to indicate wines from the Middle Rhine, expanded to become a generic term for German wines. A classic British list of the day may have offered Claret, Port, Sherry, Hock, and eventually Moselle—by the end of the 1800s, fruity and crisp white wines from the Mosel River region evolved as a category distinct from generic Hock. But dark times were ahead. The arrival of American-born grapevine diseases and the annual struggle with a reliably cold climate spurred interest in viticultural science and the development of hardy new varieties. New research stations sprouted throughout Germany, and with them came new grape crossings—varieties obtained for reasons other than wine quality—which would multiply and spread throughout Germany by the mid-20th century. Phylloxera, present since 1872, spread in force after the First World War, clearing the way for the adoption of Müller-Thurgau and its contemporaries. The two world wars scarred and transformed the German wine landscape. In the First World War, French regions saw more actual battle than German winegrowing areas, but German workers were at the front, not in the vineyard. After the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1918 and the subsequent loss of political privilege for the German nobility, many of the old aristocratic wine estates entered a period of slow decline. Exports plummeted after the war as the French and British boycotted German products, Hock included. Meanwhile, the lucrative Russian and American markets closed due to revolution and prohibition, respectively. In the period between the wars, Germany’s wine industry turned inward. Weinpropaganda appeared in the 1920s, featuring German soldiers touting white German wines, and a 1930 wine law limited the importation of foreign wines. But all would pale to the impact of World War II. The Nazis drove out the Jews, who accounted for 60 to 70% of the wine merchant trade, and ended the wine auctions that had long been a primary sales mechanism for quality wines. The Nazis took the best (and sweetest) wines for themselves. As the tide turned against Germany, workers died and vineyards sustained bombing raids. At the end of World War II, international boycotts commenced, the country was cleaved in two, and the German vineyard had shrunk to fewer than 50,000 hectares of vines. But times change. In the 1950s, the German agricultural sector rebounded. New grape crossings appeared. New winery technologies took hold and electricity appeared in cellars. German wine became synonymous with sweet and cheap. To English-speaking countries, Liebfraumilch became the most recognizable—and reliably sweet tasting—German wine category. (The Blue Nun brand, originating with a 1921 vintage of H. Sichel Söhne Liebfraumilch, was created by a Jewish merchant family who fled the Nazis in 1938 and returned at the war’s end.) In the post-war period, the Flurbereinigung campaign geared up to consolidate parcels of land divided by successive generations of inheritance and to physically restructure vineyards. By rearranging steep and otherwise inaccessible vineyards, workers could employ machines and increase production. Flurbereinigung eliminated many of the centuries-old terraces critical to winegrowing on some of Germany’s most vertical slopes. In the Rheingau, for instance, workers leveled uneven vineyards with construction waste from the Autobahn A3, which runs through Frankfurt. But, progress. Müller-Thurgau was ascendant; the vineyard was expanding again. And new wine legislation, marking the beginning of the modern age of German viticulture, was near. BACK TO TOP Origin of the 1971 German Wine Law The struggle is real! Nothing strikes fear in the hearts of non-German-speaking sommeliers quite like the uphill climb of German wine law . It is small comfort that the 1971 Deutsches Weingesetz , Germany’s fifth and most current wine law, is perhaps reviled equally by new students who seek to understand it and the producers who have to adhere to it. Rare is the German wine critic who has not pronounced it misguided, yet the system established in 1971 still holds, albeit with plenty of modifications. However flawed it may be, its architects sought to address rampant problems in a rapidly modernizing industry that was emerging from the wreckage of war, with the past, lustrous glory days of Hock and Moselle a dimming memory. Germany’s 1971 wine law attempted to impose new standards of quality and simplify label language, yet it was also enacted in response to external pressure. Europe’s recent bloody past convinced many of the necessity of alliance and economic integration, and in 1957, the European Economic Community (EEC), the predecessor to the EU, was born. West Germany, France, and Italy were its principal founders. Their shared goal of economic integration soon extended to the agricultural sector, and by 1970, to wine. The Goldkapsule In the Mosel and Rheingau, regions famous for noble sweet wines, producers lost an informal means of classifying Spätlesen and Auslesen of extreme richness and sweetness with the passage of the 1971 wine law. The law banned the use of familiar terms like feine, feinste , and hochfeine , historically added to indicate reserve wines within a larger category, so some producers turned to a bit of code. To indicate a higher level of sweetness and distinction beyond a wine’s labeled Prädikat , vintners added a golden capsule. In some cases, an even longer golden capsule ( lange Goldkapsule ) indicates an even rarer and special selection. The capsule is also linked to the level of botrytis; for instance, a wine that reached Beerenauslese in the eyes of the law may be "declassified" to Auslese with a Goldkapsule because it showed more pure varietal character than the higher Prädikat would typically demonstrate. Apart from the color of the capsule, the only means to discern that such a wine is a separate (and more expensive) bottling is to note its unique A.P. number. In the Mosel, producers developed a second code to distinguish among different tiers of wine within a Prädikat and from the same vineyard: the star system. To indicate reserve bottlings, producers may apply one to three stars (*, **, ***), sometimes in conjunction with a Goldkapsule . After World War II, rapidly compounding sets of style qualifiers, vineyard names, and village names began appearing on even the most ordinary wines, creating confusion. Where only the most famous vineyard sites once merited a mention on the label, now any piece of land, no matter how average, made an appearance. Style qualifiers, from Cabinet to hochfeine Auslese to Natur to Nikolauswein and so on, further muddied understanding because they did not have clearly regulated meanings but just conventional applications. At the dawn of the 20th century, most German wines were likely dry in style, and only a very few merited designations implying sweetness, like Spätlese or Auslese . By the 1950s, however, new technologies such as sterile filtration allowed the production of sweet wines with ease, and terms formerly reserved for specialized wines became commonplace. If sweetness was suddenly easy to achieve, the German answer in 1971 was to modify the requirements for Spätlese and its brethren, shifting the obligation from sugar remaining to sugar occurring naturally in the grape. Before the law was put into place, other terms in regular usage, such as Natur , could imply one thing—the wine should be completely natural, i.e., free of all additives, including Süssreserve and sulfur—but mean another: in this case, that the wine did not undergo chaptalization. The law’s authors wanted to restore simplicity and precision to German labels that had become full of cumbersome terminology that seemed, increasingly, to lack clear meaning. They redefined some classic label terms and eliminated others. In effect, anything not expressly authorized by the law was prohibited. In retrospect, the most damaging aspect of the 1971 wine law was to annihilate or aggregate many of the country’s Einzellagen (individual vineyard sites). The law compacted the number of recognized single vineyards from 30,000 to around 2,700. As a reaction to the seemingly limitless procession of vineyards appearing on even ordinary wine labels by the 1960s, Germany desired simplification. The law set a minimum five-hectare size for single vineyards, enlarging some sites to include lesser surrounding plots while eliminating others. Additionally, the law created a new category, Grosslagen , to identify “collective” vineyard sites. As a catch-all category, the Grosslagen subsumed many preexisting, lesser sites, but the law provided no clarity for the consumer in labeling. Piesporter Goldtröpfchen (an acclaimed Einzellage in the village of Piesport) and Piesporter Michelsberg (a Grosslage site covering a huge band of vineyards around the town) appear to provide a choice between apples and apples to a consumer without intimate knowledge of the region. Instead of simplifying the label, the creation of Grosslagen and the aggregation of Einzellagen added confusion and eroded the distinctiveness of Germany’s grandest vineyards. As (West) Germany strove to improve truth in labeling and clarity of labels, the country concurrently needed to integrate its own traditions and laws with the EEC’s Common Market Organization for Wine, which was finalized in 1970. The EEC policy, modeled on the similar systems of France and Italy (its two largest wine-producing countries), created two tiers of wines: Quality Wines Produced in a Specific Region (QWPSR) and Table Wines, prohibiting any mention of place. In Germany, there was a long history of the celebration of certain sites, but no legal mandate for appellations. That changed in 1971, with the formal delimitation of 11 Anbaugebiete , Germany’s winegrowing regions. Legally, the Anbaugebiete were equivalent to French AOCs or Italian DOCs, and wines labeled with an Anbaugebiet— meaning they were produced from grapes grown in a single winegrowing region—could comply with the new European standards for QWPSR. So with the 1971 wine law, Germany adopted the EEC model, creating the two categories of Qualitätswein bestimmter Anbaugebiet (literally, “quality wine from a growing region”) and Tafelwein (“table wine”). However, given Germany’s special circumstances, the 1971 law added a third tier, Qualitätswein mit Prädikat (QmP), as a subset within Qualitätswein bestimmter Anbaugebiet (QbA) . This category, indicating quality wines with a special attribute, allowed Germany to retain some of its traditional terms— Spätlese, Auslese, and so on—within the framework of the new European system. The special attributes, as defined in the 1971 law, were minimum levels of must weight. As ripeness at harvest became the apparent mark of quality for these categories of wine, chaptalization was banned for Qualitätswein mit Prädikat , but the law continued to permit its use in the broader category of Qualitätswein bestimmter Anbaugebiet. Unfortunately, the widespread adoption of early ripening grape crossings like Müller-Thurgau in the 1950s and 1960s allowed producers to reach Prädikat levels of ripeness with newfound ease; the law intended to protect terms like Kabinett by attaching a definition of minimum ripeness but instead stripped them of any rarity or reserve. And, as sweetness no longer mattered in the eyes of the law, the 1971 law permitted the addition of Süssreserve (“sweet reserve,” or sterilized fresh grape must) for wines of any category, at up to 15% of the total volume of the wine. While a small adjustment with Süssreserve after fermentation can allow a producer to fine-tune final sugar levels, this adjustment further purged the Prädikate of the original meaning—residual sugar. Regulation of producers to ensure compliance has remained the same since the passage of the 1971 law. To qualify as Qualitätswein or Prädikatswein , wines must pass a chemical and sensory analysis. Upon successful result, the wine is awarded a unique Amtliche Prüfungsnummer (the “official exam number,” or A.P. number), a new certification that debuted with the 1971 wine law. Each A.P. number consists of five sets of digits. The digits, in order, indicate the following: (1) the location of the examination board, (2) the village in which the wine was produced, (3) the producer, (4) the unique number of the bottling, and (5) the year in which the wine was tested, typically one calendar year after the vintage. All Qualitätswein and Prädikatswein must carry an A.P. number, theoretically ensuring that quality remains strict. However, in the modern German wine industry, nearly 98% of the entire volume of production falls into these categories—so does an A.P. number really ensure quality wine? BACK TO TOP The 1971 German Wine Law Today Classic and Selection: By the Numbers Classic wines are considered “harmoniously dry,” with a maximum residual sugar content of 15 g/l, and Selection wines are “superior dry” with a maximum residual sugar content of 9 g/l (12 g/l allowed for Riesling). Wines labeled “Classic” are single varietal wines and omit any mention of a vineyard on the label. They show a superior minimum alcohol content of 12% (11.5% in the Mosel). Selection wines are single vineyard wines from a single variety. Yields are restricted to 60 hl/ha. Must weight for Selection wines must be equivalent to Auslese, and vineyards are hand-harvested. The wines may not be released prior to September 1 of the year following harvest. The 1971 wine law is still on the books, with several modifications. A 1982 update introduced the category of Landwein and designated Eiswein as an independent Prädikat level. Some famous vineyards, such as Forster Kirchenstück in the Pfalz, Bernkasteler Doctor in the Middle Mosel, and Kiedricher Turmberg in the Rheingau, escaped the minimum five-hectare mandate for single vineyards. Minimum Öchsle levels for Prädikat categories have been raised over time. New legally sanctioned terms debuted in 2000, including “Classic” and “Selection,” which were intended to replace halbtrocken and trocken , respectively. (Neither really caught on.) Erstes Gewächs got formal approval for use on the labels of dry wines from specific sites in the Rheingau. And while the law technically prohibits any label language not expressly defined, at least one informal term— feinherb , indicating a slightly off-dry style—persisted and replaced halbtrocken on most labels. Under the EU-wide CMO reforms on wine passed in the late 2000s, Germany’s 13 Anbaugebiete (after the country's reunification, 2 were added to the original 11) formally became PDOs. In German, a protected designation of origin is known, cumbersomely, as a geschützte Ursprungsbezeichnung (gU). QbA and QmP became traditional terms under the eyes of the law, and Germany took the opportunity to (mercifully) shorten the category names to Qualitätswein and Prädikatswein . Tafelwein evolved into Wein . Prädikatswein Minimum Must Weight Ranges All weights in degrees Öchsle Kabinett: 70-85° Spätlese: 76 -95° Auslese: 83-105° Beerenauslese: 110-128° Eiswein: 110-128° Trockenbeerenauslese: 150-154° Note: The above values are not absolute ranges—minimum must requirements vary by region and variety. For instance, Riesling requires a minimum 80° in the Mosel for Spätlese, but it must achieve 90° for that category in the Pfalz. There is no maximum level for each Prädikat , meaning that declassification is possible, and common in hotter years. Therefore, the four German categories of wine today are the following: Wein : Formerly Tafelwein , this category carries no geographic designation, although wines may be labeled as Deutscher Wein if produced from German grapes. Variety and vintage are permitted on the label. Landwein : An IGP category including trocken and halbtrocken wines produced from any of 26 winegrowing regions, known as Landweingebiete . Qualitätswein: A PDO category, encompassing most of the country’s top dry wines. This category, inclusive of Prädikatswein , covers 96% of German wine production and almost all exports. In light of the low alcohol levels classically achieved by some of Germany’s finest sweet wines, this category requires wines to acquire a minimum 7% alcohol content, rather than the minimum 8.5% mandated by European law. Prädikatswein: A PDO category and a subset of Qualitätswein , encompassing all of the country’s best sweet wines. The lower Prädikate require a minimum 7% acquired alcohol; from Beerenauslese on up, the minimum is reduced to 5.5%. The law survives, but in order to fully understand the modern German label, one must look beyond it to the work of the VDP, an organization representing many of Germany’s best producers that has worked to return emphasis to the vineyard. BACK TO TOP The VDP The Verband Deutscher Prädikatsweingüter, or VDP, is an association of 202 (as of the close of 2022) German producers dedicated to high quality, the preservation of a sense of place, and those grape varieties traditionally cultivated within each winegrowing region. The VDP is a national entity comprising 11 regional associations; today, the organization counts members from all 13 German Anbaugebiete among its ranks. Membership requires a commitment to the VDP’s classification system as well the observance of higher minimum must weights and lower maximum yields than permitted by German law. All wines must be estate grown. Hand-harvesting is required for all single vineyard wines and for any Prädikat wines of Auslese level or above. In their vineyards, members must cultivate a minimum 80% of traditional grape varieties, from selections drawn by each regional association—lists that generally exclude crossings developed for hardiness in the vineyard and high, reliable yields. Additionally, in an effort to restore individualism and impact to the vineyard names of Germany, the VDP prohibits its members from using the loathed Grosslagen of 1971 on their labels. (Out with Grosslagen ; long live Grosse Lage .) Member estates are identified by the mandatory presence off the VDP’s logo, the Traubenadler , on bottle capsules. The VDP was founded in 1910 as the VDNV, or Verband Deutscher Naturweinversteigerer, an assembly of four regional winegrowers’ associations that promoted the sale of Natur (unchaptalized) wines at auction. The organization survived the turmoil of two world wars but faced ruin in 1971, when the newly enacted wine law banned the use of the term Natur. (Echoing concerns of the modern natural wine movement, the German Wine Institute would no longer allow the term’s traditional use, indicating wines without chaptalization, as the wines could contain other additives, like sulfur and Süssreserve . ) Facing dissolution, the core members rebranded their association as the VDP and refocused on the promotion of more stringent requirements for wine quality than the new law demanded. In 1984, the VDP started work on its own vineyard classification, using old tax registries and Napoleonic maps to rediscover parcels gerrymandered out of existence with the new law and Flurbereinigung . A focus on terroir expression as an indivisible part of superior wine quality took hold in the 1990s. In 2002, the project culminated with the launch of a formal, yet extralegal, three-tier vineyard classification system. In 2012, the VDP refined the existing system, establishing the final framework that remains in place today. From the 2011 vintage forward, VDP members may produce wines in four different categories of origin. Emulating Burgundy, the VDP system includes a regional tier ( Gutswein ), a village tier ( Ortswein ), premier cru vineyards ( Erste Lage ), and grand cru vineyards ( Grosse Lage ). Typically, the only statement of origin provided for Gutswein is the name of the Anbaugebiet , often accompanied by a fantasy name. Ortswein is the product of multiple vineyards in a single village and is typically labeled with the village name and/or a statement of soil, such as Kalkstein (limestone), Blauen Schiefer (blue slate), or Buntsandstein (red sandstone). Erste Lage and Grosse Lage wines are single-vineyard selections, and producers are strictly limited in their choice of varieties for both categories. The Erste Lage category is often labeled in traditional fashion, with the vineyard preceded by the village name—e.g., Iphöfer Kronsberg—while the Grosse Lage sites are labeled solely with the vineyard name, in true grand cru fashion: Goldtröpfchen, Rothenberg, Hermannshöhle. Many Grosse Lage and Erste Lage sites may share names with official Einzellagen , yet they are often defined more narrowly in size. Others resurrect the old names of pre-1971 sites engulfed by adjacent vineyards. The name of the category for each individual wine may appear on the capsule alongside the VDP logo, but producers often omit this mention for the Gutswein and Ortswein tiers. Producers may release wines of any sweetness level at any tier of the new hierarchy. However, in an effort to restore the historical meanings connoted by Prädikate , VDP producers must limit their use to sweet wines. Therefore, Spätlese trocken , Auslese trocken , and the like no longer appear on dry wine labels of VDP producers. Absent the mention of a Prädikat , the term trocken continues to signify dry wines at the Erste Lage level or below. For the Grosse Lage category, however, it is replaced by the grander term Grosses Gewächs, or “Great Growth.” A Grosses Gewächs wine is therefore a dry wine from a Grosse Lage vineyard, identified by the appearance of the trademarked acronym “GG” on the label. Grosses Gewächs white wines may not be released until September 1 of the year after harvest. For red wines, the category requires an additional year of aging and at least 12 months in wood. Prädikatswein Grosse Lage wines may be released as early as May 1 of the year after harvest. Remember that all VDP dry wines, including the very expensive Grosses Gewächs bottlings, are simply Qualitätswein in the eyes of the law. Chaptalization is therefore legally possible—and routinely practiced with Spätburgunder—despite the VDP’s original mission of promoting Natur wines. The maximum yield for each category is as follows: Gutswein: 75 hl/ha Ortswein: 75 hl/ha Erste Lage: 60 hl/ha Grosse Lage: 50 hl/ha While the VDP generally requires its membership to adhere to the current system, there are countless exceptions and exemptions to the rules. Remember that the national organization is composed of 10 regional bodies, each with their own traditions. Some estates, with long histories of marketing alternative terms, still use their own label language in place of Grosse Lage and Erste Lage ; for example, Bürklin-Wolf continues to label its top single-vineyard wines as “GC” and “PC.” Schloss Johannisberg continues to label their “Silberlack” Grosses Lage Riesling as Trocken , even as Koehler-Ruprecht was forbidden from retaining its traditional Prädikat declarations on dry wines—a move that led the producer to leave the association in 2014. The rules are not for everyone—in the Mosel, for instance, producers make Grosse Lage Kabinett at yields of 60 to 70 hectoliters per hectare, a violation tolerated by the VDP because the higher yields are more suitable for that style of wine. Because the VDP’s classification system is not a legal construction, it does not always behave predictably. Trying to understand the system by flagging its inconsistencies is to slide headlong into confusion and despair. BACK TO TOP The Grapes of Germany Today, Germany maintains 102,000 hectares of vines. In 2017, it was the world’s 14th largest grower, behind Greece and South Africa. Germany emphasizes varietal expressions over blended wines, and the variety is often a more prominent feature on the label than region. The country adheres to the EU minimum of 85% for varietal labeling. All statistics courtesy of the German Wine Institute. Riesling (24,410 ha, 2022): In the late 1990s, Riesling, Germany’s most distinguished grape variety, surpassed Müller-Thurgau to become the country’s most planted grape. Riesling is the most planted variety in 7 of Germany’s 13 Anbaugebiete , and the country maintains just under 40% of the world’s nearly 64,000 hectares of the vine. Whether the grape originated in Alsace or Germany is unknown; monks cultivated Riesslaner in the Rheingau vineyards of Kloster Eberbach by 1435, and in a 1552 Latin book of herbs, Hieronymus Bock logged Riesling in the modern-day regions of the Mosel, Rheingau, and Rheinhessen. Forces both noble and clerical mandated its cultivation throughout Germany’s emergent fine-wine regions from the late 17th century on. Riesling became synonymous with the Rheingau, a region that was dominated by red wine in the Middle Ages. Indeed, the Benedictine monks of Johannisberg insistent on its propagation were immortalized in the nickname Johannisberger, used throughout the 20th-century New World to refer to the grape. Naturally floral and aromatic, high in acidity, and capable of making age-worthy dry and sweet wines, Riesling is a sommelier secret weapon and Germany’s best and most transparent indicator of terroir . Winemaking is not one-size-fits-all, beginning even before harvest. The decision to make a dry or sweet wine impacts yield: lower yields—and the increased concentration they afford—are necessary for great dry wines, but the sweeter styles often benefit from higher yields as they gain concentration from residual sugar. Some wines undergo cold, pre-fermentation skin contact to extract phenolic content and naturally raise pH; others are whole-bunch pressed for cleaner, purer must. German Riesling producers are divided on the subject of spontaneous (ambient) versus inoculated fermentations; a spontaneous ferment is more unpredictable and requires more oxygen, producing a wilder array of earthy, sulfide-driven flavors, while inoculated ferments are simpler to maintain and can deliver fruit forwardness and cleaner flavors. Fermentation and aging may occur in stainless steel or large oak containers. (Classic German vessels include the Stück , a 1,200-liter oval cask, and its variants, the Doppelstück and Halbstück , 2,400 liters and 600 liters respectively.) Malolactic fermentation is usually stopped, by naturally low pH or by design, although some producers resort to the process in spectacularly acidic, lean years. Perhaps counterintuitively, top dry wines can be leesy and rich, with weight that recalls Chardonnay, while great sweet wines can seem light and delicate, despite intense residual sugar. Germany excels at both ends of the sugar spectrum with Riesling, and despite lingering stereotypes, quantities of the trocken bottlings outpaced sweeter styles by the mid-2000s. Even so, legally dry Riesling in Germany often has a pinch of residual sugar to balance the naturally high acidity the grape achieves in these northerly growing regions. Müller-Thurgau (10,970 ha, 2022): Müller-Thurgau, a Riesling and Madeleine Royale crossing first obtained by the Swiss Dr. Hermann Müller at the Geisenheim Grape Breeding Institute in 1882, became an incredibly important variety in Germany after World War II. Early ripening and high yielding, the variety became such an important component of mass-made Liebfraumilch wines and other low-end products that it quickly emerged as Germany’s leading grape variety in 1969, a position it maintained until Riesling usurped it 30 years later. German consumers during the period loved off-dry Müller-Thurgau for its muscat-like taste, but the variety is less acidic and less aromatic than Riesling and is not considered a quality grape in Germany today. It remains the second most planted variety in the country, but acreage continues to diminish; acreage in 2014 was about half of what it was in 1995. Spätburgunder/Pinot Noir (11,512 ha, 2022): Germany is the world’s third-largest producer of Pinot Noir, trailing only France and the United States. Baden, where Pinot Noir first appeared in the late 800s, leads the way with nearly half of the country’s supply, followed by the Pfalz and the Rheinhessen. From 1964, when Pinot Noir claimed less than 2,000 hectares, the grape’s popularity has soared. It is a beneficiary of climate change and maturing German tastes for fine red wine, and the grape’s ascendance is in line with the overall advancement of red grapes in Germany. Frühburgunder, a natural mutation genetically identical to Pinot Noir, is a rare specialty of Germany. As of 2017, there were 246 hectares in the country. Thicker skinned than Pinot Noir, the grape also ripens about two weeks earlier in the season. Resultant wines are darker in color and fruit expression, with lower acidity. In France, the grape is known as Pinot Noir Précoce or, historically, Pinot Madeleine. Dornfelder (6,812 ha, 2022): Germany’s second most planted red grape variety, Dornfelder, is a cross of Helfensteiner and Heroldrebe developed by August Herold in 1956 and named after a founder of the Weinsberg viticulture school, August Dornfeld. The thick-skinned grape produces a darker, fuller style of wine than Spätburgunder but is highly vigorous in the vineyard. Its current popularity in Germany's domestic market stems from the common belief among consumers that color equals quality in reds. Grauburgunder/Pinot Gris (8,094 ha, 2022): Grauburgunder has been cultivated in Germany since the Middle Ages and shows the most potential in the southern region of Baden, across the Rhine River from Alsace. Germany is actually the world’s second-largest grower of Pinot Gris, trailing Italy in total acreage. Here the wines are typically dry, with more power and richness than Italian Pinot Grigio but less outright funk than in Alsace. Occasionally, sweet botrytized wines are produced, labeled as Ruländer. Weissburgunder/Pinot Blanc (6,181 ha, 2022): Germany is the world’s leading grower of Pinot Blanc, and the grape appears throughout Germany’s Anbaugebiete . Strongholds are Baden and the Pfalz. Weissburgunder in Germany can be simple, innocuous, and aromatically neutral, but at the top end, it has emerged as Germany’s leading textural white grape. Acidity typically rates higher than in Grauburgunder but lower than in Riesling. Great Weissburgunder is subject to many of the same treatments in the winery as good white Burgundy. Silvaner (4,419 ha, 2022): Once the most planted variety in Germany, Silvaner lost its top billing to Müller-Thurgau in 1969 and has been sliding ever since. Today, it makes up just under 5% of the total German vineyard, yet in 2015, Silvaner finally gained a little ground, halting 50 years of decline in the vineyard. A Traminer and Österreichisch-Weiss (“Austrian white”) crossing, Silvaner is Austrian in origin and first arrived in Franken, its natural home in Germany, during the mid-17th century. In comparison to Riesling, it is lower in acid, less aromatic, less fruit driven, and prone to higher levels of alcohol. (If anything, Grüner Veltliner may be a better comparison for style.) Silvaner ripens earlier than Riesling, which led many 18th- and 19th-century growers to interplant it as a form of insurance, a tradition mirrored by grape breeders, who used Silvaner as a parent stock for crossings like Bacchus, Morio-Muskat, and Rieslaner. There are four broad types of the variety: Grüner, Blauer, Roter, and Gelber—green, blue, red, and yellow. By the 20th century, grape breeders isolated the most popular clones of the grape from the Grüner Silvaner sub-variety, which developed a thicker skin, generating greater resistance to rot and mildew but also a higher degree of bitterness and green character in the wines. Today, the newest clones developed at the Würzburg grape-breeding institute in Franken are typically of the Grüner or Gelber Silvaner sub-varieties, exhibiting looser clusters, smaller berries, less susceptibility to botrytis, and heightened aromatics and acid structure. Lemberger/Blaufränkisch (1,929 ha, 2022): German renditions of the Austrian Blaufränkisch variety are beginning to show modest success, and many consider Lemberger to be the second highest quality red grape in Germany. It is cultivated primarily in Württemberg. Scheurebe (1,483 ha, 2022): Named for the grape breeder Georg Scheu, who obtained this cross of Riesling and Bukettrebe at Alzey in 1916, Scheurebe is held as one of the few German crossings that can achieve high quality in the glass. Like Riesling, it can over-deliver in both dry and sweet versions, and it offers some of the pungently aromatic, thiol-based aromas of Sauvignon Blanc: grapefruit, cassis, cat pee. It is most successful in the Rheinhessen and the Pfalz. Like Müller-Thurgau, Scheurebe was originally recorded as a cross of Riesling and Silvaner, an error corrected one century after its birth. Other Varieties: It is international white varieties that are advancing most suddenly in the German vineyard. Chardonnay, ubiquitous elsewhere, was unknown in Germany prior to the 1990s, yet there are nearly 2,000 hectares today, much of it vinified as Sekt . Since 1995, Sauvignon Blanc made its debut and amassed over 1,100 hectares. White German grape crossings are all on the decline in the vineyard. Kerner maintains almost 2,600 hectares under vine, although over 4,500 hectares have been ripped out since 1995. Bacchus, Ortega, and others are similarly on the decline. Important German red grapes beyond those detailed above include Schwarzriesling (Pinot Meunier) and Trollinger (Schiava). Both are around 2,000 hectares in acreage and grow almost exclusively in Württemberg. Regent, an early-ripening red hybrid first authorized for planting in 1996, has actually spread to cover about 1,800 hectares, but this is not a grape for quality German red wines of the future. German Sekt Germans are the biggest sparkling wine consumers per capita, and Germany is the third-largest producer of sparkling wines in the world. The country's history of sparkling wine production is long. The first German to make sparkling wine was Florenz-Ludwig Heidsieck, in 1785 in Champagne. The first sparkling wine made in Germany was in Württemberg, in 1826. Sparkling wine quickly became so popular that Kaiser Wilhelm set a Sekt tax in 1902 in order to finance his navy. It remains today: 1.02 Euro per bottle. Around 85% of the output comes from the seven largest companies, including Henkell, Rotkäppchen, and Söhnlein-Brillant. These are companies that buy base wines from all over Europe and make fizz with the tank method. Ever wonder where all the Airen goes? Well, here is the answer! But that's another story. Since growers now know how to make great Riesling and Pinot Noir, they are keen to improve sparkling wine quality. The leader of this movement is Volker Raumland from Rheinhessen, who founded Germany's first winery focusing only on sparkling wines. He started with a service business, to make Sekt for other wineries, since many lack the special bottling machines and other equipment required. However, he makes outstanding sparkling wines himself and makes base wine solely for this purpose—not too ripe, hand-harvested, using the free-run juice. Ten years ago, when growers had mediocre wine in the cellar, they said, “Oh, let’s make Sekt out of it, put a lot of dosage on top, and sell it.” Those days are almost over! Raumland and many other growers are making very good base wines. Some of these are fermented and aged in oak. A few growers are even making single-vineyard Sekt . Half of the premium Sekt is made from Riesling. For basic Riesling Sekt , long lees ageing is not required, since the lees aromas would overwhelm the aromatic Riesling character. Raumland and other producers like Matthieu Kaufmann (former cellar master at Bollinger) of Reichsrat von Buhl make profound Riesling Sekt . They do some malolactic fermentation and leave the Sekt longer on the lees, resulting in more autolytic character but with the Riesling fruit still shining through. Theirs is a unique and special sparkling wine style. One-third of premium Sekt is made of Pinot varieties, with Pinot Blanc playing an important role. The remaining one-fifth of premium Sekt is made with aromatic varieties. Scheurebe and Gewürztraminer are specialties. Most Sekt is Brut, with a handful of producers making very balanced Brut Nature styles. – Romana Echensperger, MW BACK TO TOP Rheingau The Rheingau is the classic site of Rhenish Riesling cultivation -H.W. Dahlen, General Secretary of the German Wine-Growers Association, 1894 The Rhine River, one of Western Europe’s key routes for transport and trade, flows northward from its headwaters in Switzerland to the North Sea without deviation, save for one short turn to the west. Between the cities of Mainz and Wiesbaden, the Rhine’s wide path collides with the rise of the western Taunus range, and it swerves westward past the town of Rüdesheim am Rhein before turning north again. On this 30-kilometer stretch of river, the central Rheingau rises from the river’s north bank—a massive south-facing slope that climbs, unhurriedly, from 75 meters at the water’s edge to over 300 meters in elevation. Here, where some believe the Riesling vine first sprung from a seed, Germany’s international reputation for world-class wines was forged. The central Rheingau includes most of the region’s vineyards and its most renowned winegrowing villages. Between the outskirts of Wiesbaden on its eastern edge and the village of Rüdesheim in the west are Walluf, Martinsthal, Rauenthal, Eltville, Kiedrich, Erbach, Hallgarten, Hattenheim, Oestrich, Winkel, and Johannisberg. Geisenheim, home to Germany’s top enological school and grape-breeding institute, sits at the river’s edge, downslope and just west of Johannisberg. (Johannisberg itself is technically part of the larger Geisenheim municipality.) From Walluf to the town of Geisenheim, the Rhine River is broad, the hillside sprawling and less abrupt. Soils feature a mixture of slate, quartzite, and sandstone, with layers of loess and clay on the lower slopes and stonier, more eroded soils on the upper slopes, with a higher proportion of slate. West of Geisenheim, the river narrows before bending northward, and the Rheingau hillside becomes more dramatic. Many of the central Rheingau’s vineyards exhibit a leisurely incline, but at its edge, Rüdesheim claims the region’s steepest slopes, which reach a 70% grade in the Grosse Lage site Berg Schlossberg. The classic English nickname for Rhine wines, Hock, is derived from the name of Hochheim. There are two other, smaller areas within the Rheingau Anbaugebiet . The second sector is the Western Rheingau, which extends from the red-wine commune of Assmannshausen northward to Lorchhausen on the right bank of the river, at the entrance to the Rhine Gorge and the Mittelrhein Anbaugebiet . Conditions are more in line with the Mittelrhein than the central Rheingau; colder sites and purer slate soils are common. The third area , the Maingau, is not actually on the Rhine at all. Instead, this small enclave of vines is clustered around the village of Hochheim am Main, east of Wiesbaden in the valley of the Main River, a Rhine tributary. It is uncharacteristically warm, and soils here demonstrate a geological transition from the Rhenish Massif into the Mainz Basin, with loess-covered loams and marls replacing sandstone and slate. Slopes are gentler than on the Rhine itself and overall lower in elevation, rarely exceeding 120 meters above sea level. Despite what could have been a sensible division into two or three Bereiche , the 1971 wine law identifies only one: Johannisberg, named for the small village at the heart of the central Rheingau. On the Rheingau hill, proud castles ( Schloss) and former abbeys ( Kloster ) populate the landscape, signaling the historical importance of the church and aristocracy, the chief architects of viticulture in the Rheingau. As in the Mosel, advancing Roman legions introduced the vine here, but it was in the monastic era that winegrowing came to dominate this small region to a degree unmatched anywhere else in Germany. Benedictine monks founded a Kloster at Johannisberg in the early 12th century, and the Cistercians arrived from Burgundy to establish Kloster Eberbach in 1136. Like their contemporaries in the Côte d’Or, the Cistercians of Kloster Eberbach developed a massive network of vineyards, and by 1435, the monks’ records indicate the cultivation of Riesling. Kloster Eberbach began marking high-quality wines as Cabinet in 1712, and in 1775, Schloss Johannisberg announced the first planned Spätlese harvest of botrytis-affected fruit. Meanwhile, aristocrats secured massive Rheingau vineyard holdings as well. Schloss Schönborn, founded in 1349, Schloss Vollrads, Baron Langwerth von Simmern, Schloss Reinhartshausen, and other winegrowing estates that count centuries of noble lineage still populate the region. Schloss Schönborn and Schloss Johannisberg were among the first producers in Germany to introduce glass bottles, in the early 1700s. The influence of both church and aristocracy would erode in the modern era. The Catholic Church lost many of its lands in Germany at the beginning of the 19th century, in a wave of secularization instigated by Napoleon. Schloss Johannisberg is now under corporate ownership, while the Eberbach Abbey and its famous walled Steinberg domaine are now the property of the Hessen State Winery, the largest single wine producer in Germany. And the stodgy approach of some of the elder aristocratic houses, steadfast in the belief that noble blood produces noble wines, started to prove otherwise. The height of German wine fame in the 19th century rested on the shoulders of Rheingau Riesling, but by the late 20th century, many of the region’s wines seemed less inspired. Today, the Rheingau is finally experiencing renewed vigor, amidst changes in philosophy and management at the old guard, propelled by the energy and imagination of newer producers who number their experience in years, not centuries. The best of the Rheingau today includes Peter Jakob Kühn, Josef Leitz, Eva Fricke, Georg Breuer, and Künstler—all newcomers or names unknown in the mid-20th century. No region in Germany is as committed to Riesling as the Rheingau. It accounts for almost 2,500 of the region’s 3,160 total hectares under vine—8 out of every 10 vines in the Rheingau are Riesling. Almost exclusively, Riesling is grown in the best vineyard sites; many of Germany’s most legendary examples of the wine were produced here. As the first Spätlese and, subsequently, Auslese wines were fashioned from Rheingau grapes by the end of the 1700s, the region has a long history of success with noble sweet wines. Botrytis is a common occurrence near the broad Rhine, especially in vineyards nearest the river. (It's also common in the vineyards closest to the riverside villages, where buildings constrict the flow of wind and encourage rot.) Even as the 50th parallel runs directly through the Rheingau, the moderating impact of the Rhine on local temperatures allows Riesling to hang on the vine into the early autumn for the late harvests necessary for Prädikatswein. In most vintages, the Rheingau adds 40% or more of its production to the Prädikatswein category, even as some of it finishes dry. The modern focus is dry Riesling: around 80% of Rheingau Riesling has nine grams per liter or less of residual sugar. A turn toward dry Riesling in the Rheingau, which would replace off-dry wines as the primary product of the region by the end of the 20th century, began with the founding of the Charta Association in 1984. The association strove to promote more stringent quality guidelines than the 1971 wine law provides, to better define the Rheingau’s great vineyard sites, and to elevate dry Riesling to its historical role as a top product of the region prior to the Second World War. (Its aims echo—and inform—those of the VDP.) Charta Riesling became a brand for its members. Wines in the dry style carried the association’s logo, an emblem of three Roman arches styled from the balcony of the historic Graue Haus hotel in Winkel. Bernhard Breuer of Rüdesheim’s Georg Breuer estate led the charge, and the conversation started by Charta would eventually extend beyond the Rheingau and ignite debate throughout Germany. Locally, producers in the Rheingau pushed for a legal classification of vineyard sites and a new legal designation for top dry wines of the Rheingau: Erstes Gewächs. This “first growth” category, permitted under German wine law for the 1999 vintage forward, applies to dry Riesling and Spätburgunder bottlings from selected Rheingau vineyards. The vineyard classification, based on an 1867 Rheingau map, represented the first site-based quality hierarchy accepted into law in the wake of the 1971 legislation. Unlike the Charta designation, or the coming Grosses Gewächs of the VDP, the Erstes Gewächs category is available to all producers who adhere to its requirements and have a share in the selected land—which amounts to almost one-third of the entire planted area of the Rheingau—resulting in a watered-down sense of “first growth” by anyone’s standards. Erstes Gewächs , now accompanied by the logo of three arches, is legally sanctioned and therefore spelled out in full on Rheingau labels. Rheingau vineyards, whether classified by German law or considered Grosse Lage by the VDP, number as some of the most famous Riesling sites in Germany. Two monopoles of ecclesiastical origin exist: Schloss Johannisberg, planted to Riesling since 1720, and the Hattenheimer Steinberg vineyard of Kloster Eberbach, enclosed by a wall in 1760. There is also Hattenheimer Pfaffenberg, a monopole of Schloss Schönborn since the 1600s. Other great sites are of fragmented ownership, such as Kiedricher Gräfenberg, exemplified by Robert Weil; Hochheimer Hölle and Johannisberger Hölle, a shared name that indicates a rocky hill (not “hell,” the direct translation of hölle ); and the trio of great vineyards at Rüdesheim, named Berg Rottland, Berg Roseneck, and Berg Schlossberg. At the small outpost for Spätburgunder at Assmannshausen, there is one great site, Höllenberg. August Kesseler is the preeminent producer. Mosel Traditionally, Riesling from the Rheingau was bottled in brown glass, while Riesling from the Mosel was bottled in green glass. The valleys of the Mosel River and its tributaries, the Saar and Ruwer, together comprise one of Germany’s most picturesque, historic, and iconic wine regions. Cherished for the attributes of lightness and finesse it can imbue in its wines, the Mosel was for many years Europe’s largest cultivator of Riesling, until finally overtaken by the Pfalz in the mid-2000s. Talk of the Mosel conjures imagery of a winding river snaking its way across a landscape of small villages and precipitous slopes, covered in tiles of broken slate and draped with vines. Coursing between the Hunsrück hills and the Eifel Mountains, the Mosel River creates an idyllic backdrop for winegrowing, even as its best vineyards inhabit some of the most challenging terrain in the world for winegrowers. The earliest evidence of winegrowing in Germany is in the Mosel. Imported by the Romans, who founded the city of Trier in 16 BCE as a provincial capital, viticulture here first prospered at the end of the third century CE, after Probus lifted the imperial prohibition on winegrowing in Rome’s provinces. Early medieval documents detailing vineyard ownership exist from the seventh century, and the church guided its development. The St. Maximin monastery and the Bishop of Trier both owned scores of vines by the late medieval period, and it was a powerful Archbishop of Trier, Clemens Wenceslaus, who in 1786 decreed a mandatory shift to Riesling throughout the vineyard. In early modern times, the Mosel and the Rheingau became models for Riesling—they were the only two areas in Germany producing noble sweet wines with any regularity. Unlike the Rheingau, however, the Mosel began a tradition of producing lightly sweet, low-alcohol Riesling wines in the 19th century. Before the advent of sterile filtration, this could only be accomplished with a heavy dose of sulfur, and with it, the Mosel style of Kabinett Riesling was born, offering a clear alternative to the heavier dry styles of the Rheingau and elsewhere. The Mosel today produces thrilling, electric dry Riesling alongside wines with every degree of residual sugar, yet it is the light and delicate Kabinett Riesling that is its signature gift. Further, with ripeness more easily obtained in the modern era of climate change, this style is increasingly difficult to craft with a classic sense of balance. The Mosel Single-Post System The Mosel’s treacherously steep slopes often register grades of 50 to 80% and may even reach 100% or higher, spelling worry for life and limb despite advantages for the vine. Mosel growers traditionally employed their own system of vine training, the single-post system, to improve workers’ ability to traverse the dangerous hillsides. In the single-post system, growers train vines upright, without wires, employing either a vertical cordon or two canes, wrapped in a characteristic heart-shaped bow. Absent wires, vineyard workers have much more freedom of movement to navigate the difficult terrain. (Pulleys and cables are still required in some places to move machinery.) However, the system faces criticism. In order to improve airflow and reduce botrytis, leaf removal is necessary, but this increases sun exposure, which can lead to TDN-based flavors (petrol) in Riesling. Wire trellises appeared in the 20th century at larger properties, and in the post- Flurbereinigung world, the single-post system, once commonplace, has lost a lot of ground in the Mosel. The Mosel River, at 545 kilometers in length, is the longest tributary of the Rhine River. It begins in the Vosges Mountains in France, home of the Moselle AOP, and forms Luxembourg’s border with Germany. It then carves a winding path for more than 200 kilometers through Germany to the city of Koblenz, where it converges with the Rhine. Vineyards follow its every twist and turn. The modern Anbaugebiet , known simply as the Mosel, includes six Bereiche , three of which lie on the river itself: Bernkastel (the Middle Mosel), followed by Burg Cochem (the Lower Mosel, or Terrassenmosel) and Obermosel (the Upper Mosel). Two Bereiche , the Ruwertal and Saar, mark the vineyards of its two main tributaries, and a sixth, Moseltor, covers a scant handful of vines in the Saarland, near Obermosel. The 50-kilometer-long Bernkastel Bereich , named for the township of Bernkastel-Kues at its heart, holds two-thirds of the Mosel’s vineyard area; its wine-producing villages are responsible for a significant share of the Mosel’s historical fame and current reputation. Collectively, the Mosel’s six districts constitute one of Germany’s coolest climates for winegrowing, as the region crosses the 50th parallel. The moderating effect of the river and the orientation and aspect of its vineyard sites, altitude, and exposure to wind all impact growing season temperatures and the ability to produce quality wine. At this latitude, global warming notwithstanding, average annual temperatures hover right around 10° C (50° F), and the typical growing season is compressed to about 100 days. However, the tweaks and amplifications of climate that the Mosel offers can extend that period by 40 to 50 days in the best sites. The warmest vineyards in the entire valley are south- and southwest-facing slopes along the Mosel River itself, where sunlight and temperature are magnified, and such slopes produce the best wines. Rarely are north-facing slopes planted, even though viticulture expanded in the latter half of the 20th century to include flatter plains and side valleys, none of which offer enough warmth to produce high-quality Riesling. Vineyards in narrower sectors of the Mosel Valley and those at lower elevation are afforded more protection from wind, while forests cap the hillsides, acting as bulwarks against the cold air drafts that blow in from the Hunsrück and Eifel ranges. Proximity to the river helps to mitigate the danger of spring frosts, even as it creates frequent banks of autumn fog, signaling the arrival of botrytis. Soil color and composition also play a role in ripening the vine. The thin, sandy topsoil of the Mosel is typically covered with tiles of broken slate, carried up the slopes and strewn about the vineyards year after year, to collect heat and prevent erosion of the soil beneath. The soil’s trademark element, Devonian slate, helps to defuse nighttime lows and limit diurnal variation by releasing heat stored throughout the day into the canopy. Devonian slate is found in both dark blue and red variations; the effect is intensified with dark-colored slate, the more common variation. The broken, weathered soil also affords excellent drainage. In the Mosel, rainfall varies from 650 to 900 millimeters annually (26.5 to 35.5 inches), and it is evenly distributed throughout the year. Without such dry, well-drained, heat-retaining soils, ripening would be delayed. Additionally, the slate soils of the Mosel have served to limit the incursion of phylloxera. The bug is present, but it cannot thrive, leaving a few pockets of centurion vines in the valley. (Nonetheless, most vines are grafted—it is usually illegal to plant otherwise.) Extremely weathered and nutrient poor, these old, acidic slate soils can lead to nitrogen deficiency in grape must and low wine pH. The combination of resulting sulfur-derived aromas and high acidity easily leads tasters into “mineral” territory. Districts of the Mosel Bernkastel The Middle Mosel follows the winding path of the river from Trier north to Zell. One after another, the famous winegrowing villages of the region appear: Leiwen, Trittenheim, Piesport, Brauneberg, Bernkastel-Kues, Graach, Wehlen, Zeltingen, Ürzig, and Erden. This sector, spanning some 50 kilometers of river, claims around 65% of the acreage of the entire Anbaugebiet and includes many of Germany’s most renowned Riesling sites: Bernkasteler Doctor, Piesporter Goldtröpfchen, Erdener Prälat, Graacher Himmelreich, Ürziger Würzgarten, and the famous sundial (Sonnenuhr) vineyards of Wehlen and Zeltingen. The classic identity of the Mosel was etched here, but quality can vary immensely. Common Grosslagen bottlings like Piesporter Michelsberg or lesser single vineyard wines have diminished the region’s reputation and the price of its best wines. One can even see this in the local architecture. Houses from a century ago, with their slate-tiled roofs, reflect past wealth, while modern construction evokes more modest means. Nonetheless, some of the Mosel’s greatest and most timeless wines emerge from this region, from benchmark producers like Joh. Jos. Prüm, Reinhold Haart, Reichsgraf von Kesselstatt, and Dr. Loosen; meanwhile, upstarts with more recent reputations, like Ansgar Clüsserath, Daniel Vollenweider, and Clemens-Busch, are revitalizing the Mosel’s image. Burg Cochem The Lower Mosel stretches from Zell northward through Cochem to Koblenz, at the border of the Mittelrhein Anbaugebiet where the Mosel River joins the Rhine. The slopes here are even more dizzyingly steep, with grades easily reaching 70% or more. The region, also known as the Terrassenmosel, still hides some old, narrow hillside terraces, originally built by Romans and painstakingly maintained through the centuries, but most of these relics were obliterated with the Flurbereinigung campaign, which leveled and widened hillsides to permit machines. Winningen is a key winegrowing village, home to star producer Heymann-Löwenstein and the premier vineyard site Uhlen. Reinhard Heymann-Löwenstein applied for Germany’s first three single-vineyard PDOs, for three separate parcels within Uhlen: Blaufüsser Lay, Roth Lay, and Laubach. These were approved by the EU in 2018. The outspoken intellectual also has a theory as to the Middle Mosel’s superiority over his more remote stretch of river: “The smart kids from Winningen went to the city (Koblenz). We were left with the stupid kids that made bad wine.” Obermosel The Upper Mosel b ereiche occupies the right bank of the Mosel River from just south of Trier to the French border. (The left bank is in Luxembourg.) This sector of the Mosel sits, with Chablis and Champagne, within the Paris Basin, atop a calcareous soil makeup that replaces the Devonian slate of the Middle and Lower Mosel. Riesling takes a backseat in Obermosel to Elbling, an ancient white grape variety that produces simple, fruity whites and refreshing sparkling wines. Ruwertal The Ruwer is a small tributary of the Mosel River, a stream connecting to the Middle Mosel between Trier and Trittenheim. A slightly cooler region than the Middle Mosel, the Ruwertal has a similar slate soil composition and contains about 200 hectares of vines, mostly Riesling. The church’s historical connection to viticulture is clear here: the Benedictine St. Maximin monastery, so important to medieval viticulture in the Mosel, based its winemaking operations here, at (Maximin) Grünhaus, as early as the 900s. The estate, still in operation and now owned by the von Schubert family, is an Ortsteil and one of the Ruwer’s best wine producers. The other great estate of the Ruwertal, Karthäuserhof in Eitelsbach, also claims an ecclesiastical origin under the domaine of Carthusian monks. Saar A small region south of Trier, the Saar Bereich inhabits the banks of the Saar River, a Mosel tributary. The slate hills are steep and windswept here, but most vineyards do not line the river, which flows almost directly north. Despite its more southerly location, the Saar is therefore one of the coolest areas of the Mosel. Achieving ripeness can be a challenge in cool vintages and the wines—again, mostly Riesling—are often even more austere and acid-driven than those from the Middle Mosel. The best vineyards are the south-facing Saarburger Rausch, the neighboring Hörecker and Altenberg on the Saar River in Kanzem, and the legendary Scharzhofberg in Wiltingen. Scharzhofberg is likely the most famous site in the Mosel—or in all of Germany. Egon Müller is its most lauded producer. Moseltor Geologically connected to the Upper Mosel, with limestone rather than slate soils, Moseltor falls on the other side of a state boundary and is therefore considered a separate Bereich . There are only three winegrowing villages and a handful of vineyards. Rheinhessen Home to one-quarter of Germany’s land under vine, the Rheinhessen is the country’s biggest winegrowing region. The Anbaugebiet spans a large area south of the Rheingau and north of the Pfalz, with the Nahe on its western border and Hessische-Bergstrasse a few kilometers to the east. The distance from the city of Worms at its southern end to its northernmost point at Mainz, the Rheinland-Pfalz state capital, is nearly 50 kilometers. The Rhine River creates a natural border with the Rheingau as well as its eastern boundary, but for much of the region’s 30-kilometer-wide area, the river’s influence is not markedly felt. In such a large area, there is a great diversity of mesoclimates and soils, and no single climatic feature—a river’s moderating influence, or the aspect of a slope—can adequately explain prevailing conditions throughout the entire Anbaugebiet . As such, there is a diversity of grape varieties and no single Rheinhessen style, save for a self-inflicted image: Rheinhessen is known as the land of Liebfraumilch, a region committed to quantity over quality wine. Liebfrau(en)milch "Our Lady’s Milk" likely got its start as a real product of the Liebfrau monastery in Worms in the 18th century. From the 1950s to 1980s, however, it was Germany’s most famous wine brand in the English-speaking world. The 1971 wine law allowed Nahe, Pfalz, Rheingau, and Rheinhessen to produce it, requiring it to contain at least 70% of the following varieties: Riesling, Müller-Thurgau, Silvaner, and Kerner. The wines must contain at least 18 grams per liter of residual sugar, and varietal labeling is not allowed. There is one area historically associated with quality winegrowing in the Rheinhessen: the Roter Hang, a “red hill” of clay and weathered red sandstone ( Rotliegendes ) on the left bank of the Rhine between the villages of Nierstein and Nackenheim. It lies within a larger span of eastern exposures, the Rheinterrasse , which extends south of Nierstein through the village of Oppenheim. Protected from the frost and winds that sweep through much of the Rheinhessen and home to the famed vineyards Pettenthal and Rothenberg, the Roter Hang is a slim, east-facing slope reaching 70 to 80% grade, but it is hardly representative of the entire Anbaugebiet. Riesling from the Roter Hang fetched prices in line with those of the Rheingau in the 19th century—in fact, the most expensive wine aboard the doomed Titanic was a Niersteiner Riesling—but the remainder of the Rheinhessen became better known in the 20th century as a reservoir of uninteresting crossings and unremarkable wines. By the 1970s, most Rheinhessen grapes were directed to off-dry-to-semi-sweet generic Liebfraumilch blends. Liebfraumilch, which originated as a specialty of Worms, became a sugary, bastardized product that debased Germany’s reputation as a wine producer. Additionally, the 1971 wine law appropriated the name of the small village of Nierstein for one of three Rheinhessen Bereiche , diminishing its value. (Niersteiner Gutes Domtal, a collective site introduced in 1971, came to markets in force.) The Rheinhessen name, including that of its most spectacular stretch of vineyards, was tarnished. In the last two decades of the 20th century, however, a new spirit arose. In areas never seriously considered promising, new voices arrived on the scene. Klaus-Peter Keller and Philipp Wittmann, whose estates share access to several vineyards in the southern Wonnegau Bereich , led the charge. Their best vineyards, including several Grosse Lage sites, appear as gently undulating fields rather than dramatic slopes. (In the village of Westhofen they have neighboring parcels in Kirchspiel, Morstein, and Brunnenhäuschen; in Flörsheim-Dalsheim, Keller also maintains plots in Bürgel and Hubacker.) Bereft of the Rhine’s influence, the limestone plateaus and low valleys of the Rheinhessen interior have the potential to create world-class wines, amidst a nearly treeless patchwork of agricultural pursuits. The vineyards appear unspectacular, but some of the best dry Riesling wines in the world today come from the limestone and loess soils in the Bereich of Wonnegau. (Keller sources the most expensive dry Riesling produced in Germany, “G-Max,” from an undisclosed parcel in the region.) Rheinhessen’s third Bereich , Bingen, is named for the town at its northwestern corner and covers much of the western reaches of the Anbaugebiet . The region lacks the star power Wonnegau currently enjoys, but there are clusters of good sites in the villages of Bingen and Siefersheim, the latter anchored by the recent successes of Wagner-Stempel. Keller, Wittmann, Wagner-Stempel, the biodynamic Kühling-Gillot in the Roter Hang , and a select few others represent an explosive new force in German Riesling. Typically, they focus on dry styles and promote spontaneous fermentation as a stylistic choice. They belong to Message in a Bottle, an organization of over two dozen young producers in the region committed to raising the region’s potential and image, internally and internationally. There are classicists with longer track records of quality wines, such as the Gunderloch estate, which owns three-quarters of Nackenheimer Rothenberg, but much of the energy and excitement today in Rheinhessen is with the experimenters and iconoclasts. As Rheinhessen throws off its old image as a bulk producer, Riesling is not the only beneficiary. It asserted itself as the Rheinhessen’s most planted grape as recently as 2013—Rheinhessen held onto Müller-Thurgau as its chief variety longer than any other major Anbaugebiet —but it only accounts for 16% of the total vineyard. Dry Silvaner is a regional specialty, and the Rheinhessen has more Silvaner planted than any other region in the world, including Franken. Scheurebe, originally bred at Alzey in the Rheinhessen, maintains a presence and is currently undergoing a small revival of interest domestically. And despite the dangers of frost and wind, the Rheinhessen is a warmer region and it is experiencing a surge in interest for Spätburgunder and the white and grey Burgundy varieties. Blue Nun and Liebfraumilch cast a long shadow over the Rheinhessen, but today one is just as likely to find quality wines—from Germany's most diverse selection of varieties—here as anywhere else in the country. Pfalz With nearly one-quarter of Germany’s 102,000 hectares of vines, the Pfalz holds Germany’s second-largest cache of vineyards, second only to the Rheinhessen, and commands the country’s largest acreage of Riesling. There is more Riesling in the Pfalz than in Alsace, or in the whole country of Austria, or Australia, or the United States. In comparison to northerly regions like the Mosel, the Pfalz is warm and sunny, with a modern style of Riesling that is resoundingly dry, offering more body, weight, and alcohol than any other classic Riesling region in Germany. Unlike the Rheingau or Mosel, however, the Pfalz is multidimensional: Dornfelder, Müller-Thurgau, and Portugieser follow Riesling in sheer quantities, while the Pfalz’s great vineyards also find room for Spätburgunder, Grauburgunder, Weissburgunder, Scheurebe, and more. (Of these, three—Riesling, Spätburgunder, and Weissburgunder—are currently authorized for VDP Grosse Lage bottlings.) Like the Rheinhessen, this broad region once harbored only a sliver of renowned vineyards, but today good and great wines are made throughout it. Geographically, the Pfalz lies between Rheinhessen and Alsace. (The region’s shifting political allegiance between France and Germany over the past 200 years actually leaves its southernmost vineyards just across the French border in the Alsatian town of Wissembourg.) The Pfalz Anbaugebiet is on the western side of the Upper Rhine Plain, with its best vineyard sites creeping up the Haardt hills—a northern, forest-capped extension of the Vosges Mountains. It is divided into two Bereiche : the Mittelhaardt-Deutsche Weinstrasse and the Südliche Weinstrasse, both of which take their name from the “wine route,” a road opened in 1935 to link the region’s picturesque villages and boost tourism. The northern sector, the Mittelhaardt, begins about 20 kilometers south of Worms and encompasses many of the Pfalz’s most historic and famous winegrowing villages, including Kallstadt, Ungestein, Forst, Deidesheim, Ruppertsberg, and Gimmeldingen. The Südliche (southern) Weinstrasse picks up just south of the city of Neustadt and extends through Schweigen at the Alsatian border. In the Mittelhaardt, the landscape is reminiscent of the Côte d’Or. Small medieval villages, crowned by church steeples, dot the plain below the east-facing Haardt hills, where the best vineyards sit mid-slope and bask in morning sun, before they are enveloped in the long evening shadow of the Palatinate Forest treeline. Many of the Mittelhaardt’s modern Grosse Lage sites were mapped in the 1828 Bavarian Land Registry and have ecclesiastical origins in the 12th and 13th centuries. As in Burgundy, they are often clustered together; the greatest concentration of Grosse and Erste Lage sites occupies a small band of slope between Forst and Deidesheim. And just as the Côte d’Or’s ownership has fractured since the era of Napoleon, so to has the Pfalz witnessed a subdividing of vineyard parcels with every new generation—a trend the German government has attempted to curb by restructuring parcel ownership through its Flurbereinigung campaign, with more successes in the flatter, machine-worked vineyards of the Upper Rhine Plain than the premier sites of the Haardt hillsides. In fact, some of the best Einzellagen in the entire Pfalz region have maintained tight boundaries and tiny parcel ownership despite the 1971 wine law and reallocation under Flurbereinigung. The Grosse Lage vineyards Hohenmorgen in Deidesheim and Freundstück in Forst are both under five hectares in size. At 3.7 hectares, Forster Kirchenstück—the “Church parcel”—is the finest, warmest, and most uniform site in the Mittelhaardt, if not the entire Anbaugebiet . Shared by eight owners, enclosed by a small sandstone wall, and planted entirely to Riesling, the small vineyard was classified in 1828 as the Bavarian kingdom’s best and sits snugly above the village, nestled between the Grosse Lagen Freundstück, Jesuitengarten, and Ungeheur. Other important sites of the Mittelhaardt include Königsbacher Idig and Gimmeldinger Mandelgarten, both south of Deidesheim, and Kallstadter Saumagen, an amphitheater-like suntrap and the finest site north of Forst. The great hillside vineyards of the Mittelhaardt, sun-drenched and protected from wind and rain by the Drachenfels and other low peaks of the Haardt hills, are rich in history and serve as modern redoubts for exemplary dry Riesling; meanwhile, in the flatter Upper Rhine Plain of the Mittelhaardt, the lion’s share of ordinary Pfalz wines are farmed. As the Mittelhaardt has historically been the most important sector of the Pfalz, Mittelhaardt-based producers have long been regarded as standard-bearers for quality in the region. The “three Bs”—Reichsrat von Buhl, Bürklin-Wolf, and Bassermann-Jordan—have important legacies and continue to produce significant quantities of fine wine. (One can compare them side by side only in one vineyard: Kirchenstück.) Koehler-Ruprecht has single-handedly manufactured the reputation of Saumagen, and Müller-Catoir in the village of Haardt continues to prove that classically sweet wines have their place in the Pfalz, producing Riesling, Scheurebe, and Rieslaner in a lusher style. Weingut von Winning is a modern superstar, even as the estate draws criticism for adding new barriques and tonneaux to a Riesling cellar. Yet several of the Pfalz’s most important producers today hail from an unlikely location: the south. Until recently, the Südliche Weinstrasse was a region in decline. The warm, sunny southern sector of the Pfalz was a cheap source of bulk wines prior to the passage of the 1971 wine law, and much of its output wound up in Mosel négociant blends. The idea of Qualitätswein from a single region sunk its fortunes, and vineyards fell into disrepair or were abandoned outright. A small series of serious producers, including Ökonomierat Rebholz, Dr. Wehrheim, and Friedrich Becker, resurrected the region’s fortunes by the mid-2000s. The rediscovery of sites of great potential, like the Birkweiler Kastanienbusch, an 86-hectare, south-facing slope hidden among the Haardt hills, gave new hope to the region. Less tied to tradition than the Mittelhaardt, the southern Pfalz has provided a more diverse vineyard, with some of Germany’s best examples of Weissburgunder and Spätburgunder appearing in vineyards like Siebeldinger im Sonnenschein and Schweiger Kammerberg. In the Südliche Weinstrasse, exposures are more varied, and the best vineyards are frequently steeper than those of the Mittelhaardt. Here, the winegrowing villages are tucked into the hills, rather than aligned neatly along their flank. Pfalz Soil and Geology As in Alsace, one of the most intriguing aspects of the Pfalz for winegrowers is in its complex geology and soil patterns. Neighboring parcels may have entirely different soil compositions; large vineyards may show multiple, distinct geological underpinnings. It’s complicated, and the result of many long years of geological activity and upheaval. Some 250 million years ago, primordial rivers swept alluvial sediment—sand, clay, and silt—into the vast plain that would one day become the Pfalz. Compacted over eons and colored by iron oxide, red sandstone today provides the foundation for the Palatinate forest and the Haardt hills. Additionally, volcanic activity pushed magma to the surface of the earth’s crust, resulting in layers of basalt, and some 50 million years ago, tectonic activity and the rise of the Alps caused the Rhine basin to collapse. The Haardt hills on the west and the mountains of the Odenwald on the east rose sharply as the land between them sunk and filled with seawater. Over time, the area dried up again, but traces of the sea remained: calcareous deposits from this period of submersion formed limestone ( Kalkstein ) and shell-limestone ( Muschelkalk ). As millions of years passed slowly by, water, erosion , and wind filled the Rhine basin with sand, gravel, and loess—the latter is the Pfalz’s youngest soil, arriving after the last ice age. During that glacial age, rivers of ice advanced into Europe, grinding primary rock beneath them into pulverized, fine grains. As the glaciers retreated with warming temperatures, this dusty combination of pulverized rock and other small sediments—loess—was unleashed upon the winds, and much of the soil settled beneath the Palatinate Forest in Pfalz. Once covered by vegetation, the loess held firmly in place; today, it is one of the few truly arable soil types still cherished for wine production. Franken The modern Anbaugebiet of Franken lies within the federal state of Bavaria, a region better known for beer than wine. (This is, after all, the part of Germany that produced the Reinheitsgebot in the 16th century.) Today, it ranks sixth among Germany’s Anbaugebiete in terms of total vineyard acreage. Franken lies on the Main River, a small Rhine tributary, some 130 kilometers east of the Rheingau. With its inland location, absent the moderating force of a major river, Franken’s climate is the most sharply continental of all of Germany’s southwestern regions, with very clearly defined seasons, short and hot summers, and bitterly cold winters. As in Washington State, winter’s severity threatens to kill vines, and spring frosts are an annual plague on productivity. Franken’s climate has never been particularly kind to Riesling, which occupies only 4% of its 6,100 planted hectares and needs the warmest south-facing slopes to thrive. Winter-hardy crossings are popular in the region. The most traditional variety associated with the region, is the mid-ripening Silvaner, which migrated from Austria to Franken during a period of deep, unsettling cold in Europe. Today, it is Franken’s most planted grape, however, at 25% of the region's plantings. Franken Silvaner is bottled in the traditional, squat Bocksbeutel. The Franken white wine style has traditionally been oriented toward the production of bone dry, austere wines. Silvaner is the most important quality grape, followed by a trickle of Riesling, Weissburgunder, and the occasional compelling red Spätburgunder or Frühburgunder. However, most basic “Frankenwein” is still nameless, blended from Müller-Thurgau, Bacchus, Kerner, and the like. Franken Silvaner, not unlike Austrian Grüner Veltliner, can produce lighter, slightly herbal, spicy wines in Franken’s more common sites and heavy, full-bodied wines in the premiere Grosse Lage vineyards—just as in Austria, however, the current trend is to limit alcohol to levels below the 14 to 15% mark in order to retain freshness in the top wines. While Silvaner is a grape that can easily lose varietal character with high yields, its classic hallmarks of phenolics, herbal notes, and subtle aromatics shine through with care and reduced crops. As with Riesling, new oak rarely factors into Franken Silvaner wines, but large barrels, concrete eggs, long lees aging, malolactic fermentation, and skin contact are all in play. Only the fashionable technique of spontaneous fermentation shows mixed results with Silvaner—Riesling has the acidity to taste dry if a wild ferment gets stuck at 6 or 7 grams per liter of residual sugar; Silvaner does not. Bottled in the traditional, squat Bocksbeutel —allegedly shaped like a Roman canteen or, yes, a sheep’s scrotum—Franken Silvaner is a difficult wine to perfect but a truly distinctive local specialty. First planted by Cistercian monks in Franken in 1659, the grape became the most important variety in Germany, eventually encompassing one-third of the entire national vineyard. It lost its top spot to Müller-Thurgau in 1969, yet Franken producers stubbornly hang on to this diminishing local treasure. In Franken, there are three Bereiche: Mainviereck, Maindreieck, and Steigerwald. The westernmost reaches of the Anbaugebiet are in Mainviereck, or the “four-sided Main,” where the river’s flow approximates a rectangular shape. Soils here are typically composed of weathered red sandstone, and the climate is gentler than in areas further east. It has therefore emerged as the only natural home for Pinot Noir in Franken. The villages of Klingenberg and Bürgstadt have earned reputations for quality red wine, while marking the earliest known episodes of winegrowing in Franken, which date back to the 8th century. Bürgstadt’s Rudolf Fürst is the top name for Spätburgunder in Franken. In the center of Franken, the Main River’s course appears to form a triangle—this is the Maindreieck, or “three-sided Main.” With the city of Würzburg on its western edge, Maindreieck produces almost three-quarters of Franken’s wine, from shell-limestone soils. Würzburg itself has always been the commercial center of the region, and its famous Stein vineyard, even at 85 hectares in size, has captivated wine drinkers for centuries. A warm, south-facing limestone and loess slope overlooking the Main, Würzburger Stein is planted primarily to Riesling and Silvaner; it produces some of Franken’s top examples of both grapes with a touch of trademark smokiness but, like other massive grand cru -styled vineyards, its parcels vary dramatically in intrinsic worth. (It also showcases the German willingness to manipulate terrain: the soils here have been replenished and replaced over the course of hundreds of years.) The most important landholders of Stein are Juliusspital, Franken’s largest producer, and Bürgerspital—both charitable hospital ( Spital ) foundations financed by large winemaking operations. The last Bereich, Steigerwald, is located on the eastern end of Franken. Its vineyards are often removed from the immediate environs of the Main River and less subject to humidity and botrytis. With vineyards on the edge of the Steigerwald mountain forest, reaching almost 400 meters in elevation, this is the highest and coolest district in Franken. However, the region’s black, gypsum-laced Keuper soils mitigate low temperatures by warming the vines at night—so much so that vines can often produce quality wines even on north-facing slopes. Castell, where Silvaner first appeared in Germany, and Iphofen are the most important villages of the Steigerwald. The Main River has a tributary, the Tauber River, which converges with it just west of Homburg. The 1971 wine law divided vineyards in the Taubertal, despite sharing similar climate and soil profiles, among three Anbaugebiete : Franken, Baden, and Württemberg. Thus, Baden has a Tauberfranken Bereich , Württemberg has a small slice of the Taubertal near the village of Bad Mergentheim, and a portion of the region remains in the Maindreieck. Baden and Franken producers from the region have the right to bottle in a Bocksbeutel ; Württemberg producers do not. A historic region, around 1,000 hectares of vineyards exist, but the climate here is quite marginal for quality grapes, while sunlight hours are fewer here than in any of the three neighboring regions. Silvaner and Riesling are popular varieties, produced in the image of Franken. Nahe The Nahe region, a rolling landscape of vineyards, orchards, meadows, and farms, lies west of Rheinhessen and south of the Rheingau, with the narrow Hünsruck Hochwald highland forest forming its natural western border and separating it from the Mosel Valley. The Nahe is at a geological crossroads, positioned at the intersection of the Mainz and Saar-Nahe Basins and the Rhenish Massif, which comprises the slate Hunsrück hills of the Mosel Valley and the low Taunus and Eifel Mountains of the Rheingau and Ahr. With great variation in topography, soils, and geology, it is not a region from which to expect homogeneity in landscape or wine. The region also falls in a transitional zone between maritime and continental climatic influences. Protected from wind and weather on the north and west by wooded mountains, the region’s climate remains mild and dry—average annual rainfall is around 500 millimeters (about 20 inches), making the Nahe Germany’s driest winegrowing climate. Most precipitation occurs in the summer months rather than over harvest, and frosts are rare. The region itself is named for the Nahe River, a tributary of the Rhine, and most Nahe vineyards are cultivated in the handful of river valleys that intersect the region. The best vineyards are generally located along the course of the Nahe River, but there are hidden pockets of good and even great vineyards in the smaller transverse valleys of its northern tributaries, like the Gräfenbach and Trollbach streams. In the southern Nahe, viticulture occurs sporadically in the Glan and Alsenz river valleys, but memories of these once-important winegrowing regions have dimmed. The Nahe took its modern shape with the 1971 wine law and now harbors a scattered collection of vines—about 4,200 hectares in total, making the Nahe Germany’s seventh-largest winegrowing region in terms of acreage. As in much of Germany, white grapes are dominant, comprising about 85% of the total area under vine, and Riesling is the star. In the 1960s, the inclination to plant any number of crossings, from Bacchus to Scheurebe to Müller-Thurgau, diversified the Nahe vineyard, even as it lowered its potential. Today, however, Riesling is the only variety permitted by the VDP for Grosse Lage wines. Once-popular Müller-Thurgau and Silvaner have been steadily diminishing in recent years, at the expense of Riesling and red grapes like Dornfelder and Spätburgunder. With refocused attention on Riesling, the best Nahe producers prefer to explore the region’s great geological diversity through the lens of a single variety. There is only one Bereich in Nahe—Nahetal—but the region consists of at least three distinct, classic subregions renowned for quality Riesling along the Nahe River itself: the Upper, Middle, and Lower Nahe. (The vineyards surrounding Bad Kreuznach, which divides the Middle and Lower Nahe, are sometimes considered a separate subregion.) In the Upper and Middle Nahe sectors, the river meanders eastward for 25 kilometers, with vineyards generally planted on dramatic, south-facing slopes along its northern bank. In proximity to the Hunsrück hills, climate tends to be slightly cooler than in the Lower Nahe. The Upper Nahe sector extends from the villages of Monzingen and Martinstein at the far western end of the Anbaugebiet to the small town of Schlossböckelheim. At Monzingen, the Nahe River Valley is wider and slightly warmer, and there are good sites for Riesling. (Unfortunately, its best and most historic site, Frühlingsplätzchen, was expanded from less than 8 hectares to 64 with the 1971 wine law, and it can no longer be considered exemplary in its entirety.) Emrich-Schönleber, based in Monzingen, is the preeminent producer of the Upper Nahe, and in the 21st century, the Shäfer-Fröhlich estate of Bockenau, a village in the Upper Nahe’s hinterlands nearest the Hünsruck hills, rapidly ascended into the ranks of Nahe nobility. The Middle Nahe follows the course of the river eastward for 15 kilometers from Schlossböckelheim to Bad Kreuznach, the Nahe’s largest town and the commercial center of the region’s wine trade. The river narrows and the valley cools just west of Schlossböckelheim, flowing by Oberhausen, Niederhausen (where the Nahe widens briefly again at a hydroelectric dam), Norheim, and the massive, sheer Rotenfels porphyry cliffs of Traisen before turning sharply northward at Bad Münster am Stein, a spa town ( bad means bath) and southern suburb of Bad Kreuznach. The towns of the Middle Nahe are the most famous winegrowing villages of the Nahe, with numerous Grosse Lage sites, including Niederhauser Hermannshöhle, Schlossböckelheimer Kupfergrube, Schlossböckelheimer Felsenberg, Norheimer Dellchen, Traiser Bastei, and Oberhauser Brücke, the last of these a monopole of Nahe’s foremost producer, Weingut Dönnhoff. Situated on weathered volcanic soils, slate, limestone, and schist, these great vineyards were recognized and classified according to property tax valuations as early as 1901, in a map depicting the vineyard areas in the district of Koblenz. The state winery of Niederhausen-Schlossböckelheim, now known as Gut Hermannsberg, shepherded the reputation of many of these sites through a difficult 20th century, yet it is Dönnhoff who provides the clearest emblem of uncompromising wine quality today. From these vineyards, sweeter Riesling wines can be pure and slim, recalling the Mosel, and top dry examples show concentration without corpulence. Just north of Bad Kreuznach, the soil composition becomes heavier with clay and loess, and the Lower Nahe stretches from the town’s northern limits to the river’s confluence with the Rhine at Bingen, marking the tripoint of the Rheinhessen, the Rheingau, and the Nahe Anbaugebiete . The Lower Nahe is a warmer region than either the Upper or Middle Nahe, with more climatic similarity to the neighboring Rheinhessen than the cooler Hunsrück hills to the west. Riesling styles from the Lower Nahe share the fuller body and more opulent style of the Rheinhessen, and Spätburgunder performs best in the Lower Nahe, even as it is still excluded from Grosse Lage vineyards. From the village of Laubenheim northward, the soil mixture shifts from deeper clay and loess to the slate and quartzite more common across the Rhine. The Lower Nahe’s most renowned winegrowing villages lie in this northern sector: Münster-Sarmsheim, Dorsheim, and Laubenheim itself. Schlossgut Diel, encamped in the nearby town of Burg Layen at a partially ruined castle (the sort that affords rich aristocrats seemingly greater prestige when unrepaired) is the reigning producer of the Lower Nahe. At a recent visit to the estate, Armin Diel summed up the Nahe’s progress nicely, explaining, “Twenty-five years ago, there was no real idea of what the Nahe style was. Today, that has changed.” Baden The winegrowing region of Baden, Germany’s third-largest Anbaugebiet , lines the eastern half of the Upper Rhine Valley and runs parallel to Alsace and the Pfalz, between the Rhine River and the Black Forest. Baden extends for nearly 400 kilometers and is divided into nine diverse Bereiche , scattered from the shores of Lake Constance, which separates Germany and Switzerland, to the edge of the Odenwald hills in Hessische-Bergstrasse and the Tauber River Valley, near Würzburg in Franken. So while it is difficult to generalize about the region’s wines, its greatest successes have been with varieties rooted in Burgundy: Weissburgunder, Grauburgunder, and above all, Spätburgunder. The trio accounts for three of Baden’s four most planted grapes, and Spätburgunder alone makes up over one-third of Baden’s almost 16,000 hectares under vine. White grapes still account for a slim majority overall, however. In the northerly Bereiche of Tauberfranken, Badische Bergstrasse, and Kraichgau, and in the Bodensee (the German name for Lake Constance) Bereich in the south, Müller-Thurgau still reigns as the top variety, making it the second most planted variety overall in Baden. (On the Swiss side of Lake Constance is the small winegrowing canton of Thurgau, where the grape’s breeder Hermann Müller was born.) Reinforcing its proximity to Switzerland, more than 1,000 hectares of Gutedel (Chasselas) remain in Baden. In Germany, the Swiss grape is cultivated almost exclusively in the Markgräferland Bereiche at Baden’s southernmost point, where the Anbaugebiet meets the Swiss city of Basel and the French border. Pinot Noir allegedly arrived in Baden in the escort of Carolingian Emperor Charles the Fat, who planted it on the north shores of Lake Constance in 884. In over a thousand years, the center of German Pinot Noir production didn’t move far, landing in four Baden Bereiche between the city of Freiburg and the Black Forest bath town of Baden-Baden. From north to south, they are Ortenau, Breisgau, Kaiserstuhl, and Tuniberg. As in Alsace, these areas have dynamic soil profiles, with various granitic, volcanic, calcareous, and loess formations. On weathered limestone, with their backs against the Black Forest, 20 kilometers or more from the Rhine, the vineyards of Breisgau can produce an almost Côte de Nuits-like style of Pinot Noir. (See the wines of the late Bernhard Huber in Malterdingen.) In the Kaiserstuhl, however, the weather warms, the wines become more muscular, and the vines lie nearly within reach of the river’s banks. The compact district, which occupies a chain of hills rising steeply above the river west of Freiburg, supplies some of the Upper Rhine Valley’s most splendid, dramatic scenery—and the Kaiserstuhl is likewise Baden’s most celebrated zone for Spätburgunder. The Kaiserstuhl hills crown an extinct volcano, draped in varying layers of loess. The district experiences Germany’s warmest and sunniest winegrowing climate—in warm vintages, Spätburgunder passing the 15% mark is not unheard of—and it is protected from wet weather by the rain shadow of the Vosges Mountains. Kaiserstuhl’s best Spätburgunder sites are often its steepest, with purer volcanic soils rather than windblown loess, such as Achkarrer Schlossberg and Ihringer Winklerberg, Germany’s hottest vineyard. If anything, Kaiserstuhl’s greatest viticultural liability is one sommeliers don’t usually associate with Germany: too much sun, too much heat, too much potential alcohol. Kaiserstuhl has a subregion of sorts, the Tuniberg Bereich , which formally separated from Kaiserstuhl in 1991. Situated on calcareous rather than volcanic subsoil, Tuniberg has a more thorough distribution of loess and loess-loam topsoils, but its wines have not achieved the same fame as those of Kaiserstuhl. Overall, the Baden style of Spätburgunder, exemplified by the Kaiserstuhl wines, is ripe and robust. These wines are richer in body and lower in acidity than Ahr examples. Chaptalization is still practiced, even as Baden is the only German Anbaugebiet that enters the EU’s Climate Zone B, with lower limits on the amount of sugar that may be added to bolster alcohol. In the warmer climate, partial whole-cluster fermentations are not uncommon. Luxurious treatment in new oak is a frequent feature for the best wines—often it is French in origin, but Baden oak from the Black Forest is a common sight in cellars as well (which, after all, is essentially Vosges oak, save for a national boundary). In the Baden vineyard, an important reconsideration involves the adoption of Dijon clones, once thought essential to success in the Burgundy model. As in Russian River, Baden is just too warm for these grapes, and producers are starting to take a fresh look at Swiss Mariafeld clones and some new German clones, newly selected for quality rather than yield. Alongside Spätburgunder, the VDP permits the production of Weissburgunder, Grauburgunder, Riesling, and Chardonnay as Grosse Lage wines throughout Baden. Weissburgunder is produced in nearly as a wide a range of styles as Chardonnay. Basic examples are usually fresh and fairly neutral while top Grosse Lage wines gain weight, incurring malolactic fermentation and new oak aging. Some are oxidative in style and some are more reductive, in the manner of top white Burgundy. The barrique -fermented, richer style of Weissburgunder is especially prevalent among producers in Kaiserstuhl, where the grape comprises about 10% of the total production. Grauburgunder, which has achieved more success in Baden than elsewhere in Germany, is typically dry and golden in color. Skin contact, drawing out Pinot Gris’ coppery tones, is routine. Grosse Lage Grauburgunder is rarely produced outside of Baden, and here it is almost always dry. (Sweeter styles, when made, are usually labeled under the synonym Ruländer.) Finally, great full-bodied Riesling can be produced in Baden, particularly in Ortenau and Kraichgau, recalling the short distance to Alsace. But there is little viticultural exchange; as one Baden winemaker confides, vintners on either side of the border rarely cross the river. Württemberg Württemberg, one of Germany’s largest growing regions, is also largely undiscovered by international audiences. As Baden’s neighbor, the southerly Anbaugebiet of Württemberg specializes in red wines to a degree exceeded by none other than the tiny Ahr. It represents Germany’s fourth-largest collection of vineyards, with over 11,000 hectares of vines, and 70% of its total acreage is devoted to red grapes. But thus far, the only real international success for German red wine to date has been Pinot Noir, which Baden and the Ahr have rallied behind. Not so with Württemberg: the second most planted grape in this diverse region is Trollinger, better known as Schiava in Italy. Popular domestically, Trollinger is unlikely to win international audiences over. The region contains a significant amount of Lemberger (Blaufränkisch), which critics admit is far likelier than Dornfelder to achieve greatness, but it is subject to marketing woes—its German name is unknown, leaving producers to vacillate over promoting its local moniker or supporting the more well-known Austrian name. Schwarzriesling (Meunier) is a local specialty; German cultivation of the Champagne grape is almost exclusive to Württemberg, where it typically produces light, fruity, quaffable wines. Riesling is the most planted white grape in the region and most planted grape overall. Schillerwein, a specialized style of rosé wine, is unique to the Württemberg region. Alongside pink Champagne, it is one of the few styles of European rosés for which blending is permitted. For Schillerwein, it is the rule. Historically, the pale pink wine was composed of a field blend of red and white grapes, crushed and fermented together. Today, the red and white lots are blended prior to fermentation to achieve the wine’s bright rosy color—its name derives from the German verb schillern , which means to shimmer or scintillate. They are typically light, trocken or halbtrocken in style, and contain 11 to 12.5% finished alcohol. In Württemberg, where per capita drinking is highest in all of Germany, the wine is gulped rather than sipped, traditionally from stemless glass mugs common in the region’s wine taverns. Like Baden, Württemberg is divided into far-flung sectors. It contains a cluster of northern Bereiche situated around the cities of Stuttgart and Heilbronn, and a small set of vineyards along the north shores of Lake Constance. In the north, vines are cultivated along the Neckar River and its tributaries, such as the Kocher, Jagst, Tauber, and Rems. (The Neckar itself is a major tributary of the Rhine; the rivers meet just south of Worms.) Württemberg’s largest concentration of vineyards is in the Württembergisch Unterland Bereich between the capital city of Stuttgart and Heilbronn, and, due to its proximity to the population, there is an up-and-coming set of independent, quality-minded projects in the Remstal-Stuttgart Bereich , just east of the capital. Nearly three-quarters of the production, however, is still concentrated in the hands of regional cooperatives. One of Württemberg’s most famous estate producers is Weingut Graf Neipperg of Schwaigern. Owner Karl Neipperg is the latest in a long line of lords whose presence in Württemberg can be traced to the 12th century; however, his brother, Stephan von Neipperg of Saint-Émilion, is easily the more widely recognized figure in the wine world today. Ahr One of Germany’s smallest and most northerly winegrowing regions, the Ahr Valley has nonetheless earned a reputation as one of the country’s best spots for Spätburgunder. The grape, along with its early-ripening mutation Frühburgunder, accounts for almost 70% of the Ahr’s planted acreage. (In contrast, Riesling accounts for only 8% of the total Ahr vineyard.) The region may be tiny, but the Pinot Noir grape maintains a tighter grip on vineyards here than anywhere else in Germany. And it has come a long way. In his 1988 book Life After Liebfraumilch: Understanding German Fine Wine , Stuart Pigott denuded Ahr reds, labeling the category as “presumptuous rosés” in a “puddle of mediocrity.” Robert Parker was even less charitable, writing off German Spätburgunder entirely as “abortive.” (Nice, Bob.) Today, top Ahr Spätburgunder from the estates of Jean Stodden, Meyer-Näkel, J.J. Adeneuer, and others experiences great domestic and international demand, commanding high prices and acclaim. The terroir is distinctive: Ahr Spätburgunder is a rare example of slate-grown Pinot Noir, and its admirers attribute a smoky undertone to this unique union of grape and soil. The Ahr River is really more of a creek, meandering 25 kilometers eastward from Altenahr at the region’s western edge through Ahrweiler, Walporzeim, and Bad Neuenahr, finally meeting the Rhine near Heimersheim. Its vineyards span about 125 meters in elevation. The slopes here can be just as steep—reaching 60 to 70% grade or more—and slate-covered as those in the Mosel, but the river is too small and removed from the vineyards to have any great impact on vineyard temperature and vine. For ease of comparison, growers divide the valley into the Upper Ahr west of Walporzheim and the Lower Ahr, spanning the remaining distance to the river’s confluence with the Rhine. The Lower Ahr Valley is more densely planted, with more basalt-derived clay and sand atop dark slate. It is also warmer, with harvests occurring on average 10 days earlier than in the Upper Ahr Valley. Because of this, Lower Ahr wines exhibit a more opulent character. Some of the most ancient vineyards, however, are further west. In the nearly pure slate soils of the Upper Ahr Valley, phylloxera is nonexistent, and there are a few century-old vineyards, still trained in the single-post system. The region’s full turn toward red wine production began in earnest in the 1980s, with Meyer-Näkel in the village of Dernau leading the charge. In that era, many Ahr wines, as Pigott rightly criticized, were essentially rosés—and not infrequently off-dry, either. Blauer Portugieser was a popular grape alongside Pinot Noir. Following a generational change, Meyer-Näkel pivoted its gaze toward Burgundy and began emphasizing dryness, abandoning thermovinification, employing longer macerations, and aging in French oak barrels. Others took notice, and a revolution in style began. Guyot training replaced the traditional single-post system in serious vineyards, providing more sun exposure in the Ahr’s northerly climate. Dijon clones of Pinot Noir and new clones from Geisenheim, selected for quality, began to appear alongside the Swiss Mariafeld clones and German clones more often selected for high yields and cold hardiness. Today, Ahr Spätburgunder is among Germany’s finest, even as its output is still miniscule in comparison to more massive regions like Baden and Pfalz. How has a region north of the 50th parallel managed such success when areas to its south, like the Mosel, have trouble reliably ripening red grapes? Aided by its east-west orientation, the Ahr Valley benefits from the moderating influence of the Gulf Stream, and the growing season here is longer than in nearby regions like Mittelrhein or the Mosel. The whole region is a canyon, protected from wind and rain amidst the low Eifel Mountains. In this rain shadow, sunlight hours are correspondingly higher, and the region experiences fewer bouts of botrytis than the Mosel. But it is still a cool climate winegrowing region, with an average annual temperature of only 9.8° C (49.5° F). The dark slate soils of Ahr vineyards store heat for chilly evenings, and south-facing aspects are essential. All of the Ahr’s best vineyards and Grosse Lage sites are on steep slopes above the river’s northern banks. Despite the threat of erosion, almost all Ahr vineyard rows run down the slopes (north-south) in order to maximize sun exposure. Whole-cluster fermentations are essentially unknown since stems remain green, and chaptalization is common. “We can’t be Öchsle fetishists,” retorts Jean Stodden. “We need ripeness, not sugar. We are so far north; you can always add sugar.” Frühburgunder, known in France as Pinot Noir Precocé, has replaced Portugieser as the second most planted red variety in the Ahr. (It is genetically the same variety, but producers in the Ahr traditionally treat it as distinct.) Frühburgunder is a troublesome grape to get right. It is ready for harvest about two weeks before Spätburgunder—a period in which it is the only ripe fruit or berry in the region, making it a prime target for wasps and birds (and tourists...) and necessitating netting. It’s also a ready victim of millerandage . Frühburgunder develops thicker skins than Spätburgunder, with more color and less acidity in the glass. Fruit flavors become concentrated and liqueur-like, and the wine often has more richness and immediate approachability than Ahr Spätburgunder. Mittelrhein With less than 500 hectares of vines, Mittelrhein is one of Germany’s smallest Anbaugebiete . Adjacent to the Rheingau, the Mittelrhein winegrowing region follows the course of the Rhine River 120 kilometers northward from Bacharach to Bonn. The city of Koblenz, where the Mosel and Rhine rivers meet, is located in Mittelrhein, as is the confluence of the Ahr and Rhine. As the Rhine River resumes its northward course after a shift west in the Rheingau, it enters a narrow, spectacular gorge. Majestic medieval castles stud its banks and slopes. This is the “Middle Rhine,” a UNESCO World Heritage Site and an important historical crossroads of culture and trade. The Mittelrhein marked a past divide between areas of French influence and Prussian control, as the narrow, restrictive gorge created an ideal boundary. Its many ruined castles suggest the ease with which local rulers could extract tolls from commercial vessels on this stretch of the river. Two Bereiche , Loreley and Siebengebirge, neatly divide the slim Mittelrhein region into southern and northern sectors. The vast majority of the Mittelrhein’s vineyards and all of its Grosse Lage sites are located within the southern Bereich of Loreley, which stretches from Bacharach past Koblenz to the village of Unkel. In an old dialect, Loreley roughly translates to “murmuring rock,” referring to a massive slate promontory jutting sharply upward from the Rhine’s right bank, spawning old legends of siren songs plaguing boatmen below. Siebengebirge, the northernmost winegrowing area in western Germany, is a cluster of uplifted hills of volcanic origin southeast of Bonn. (There are 40, not sieben .) It is a much less significant winegrowing district, and fewer than two dozen hectares of vines remain under cultivation. In Loreley and throughout Mittelrhein, Riesling is the most planted variety—the grape accounts for almost 70% of the total acreage. With the steep slopes of the Rhine gorge and its Devonian slate soils, conditions are similar to those in the Mosel, but the south-facing orientations essential to producing great Riesling are much rarer in the Mittelrhein. A couple of superior, south-facing sites (Bopparder Hamm, Oberweseler Ölsberg) are perched along sharp bends in the Rhine, but most of the Mittelrhein’s best vineyards are secluded in side valleys in Bacharach and Oberwesel. Stylistically, Riesling producers in Mittelrhein have more interest in trocken and halbtrocken styles of wine than those in the Mosel—for the 2014 vintage, 65% of Mittelrhein’s production was recorded as dry or off-dry, while the majority of Mosel wines were still clocking in at lieblich (medium sweet) or süss. Hessische-Bergstrasse Hessische-Bergstrasse is one of the smallest Anbaugebiete in Germany, both in physical sizes and hectares planted to the vine. It’s 50 kilometers due south of the city of Frankfurt and aligned in latitude with the southern Rheinhessen, 30 kilometers to its west. Historically, the Bergstrasse’s vineyards constituted a sort of satellite region for the Rheingau, as they were once among the thousands of hectares tended by the Cistercian monks of Kloster Eberbach. Today, less than 500 hectares remain along the “Hessen Mountain Road,” gently sloping downward from the Odenwald hills into the valley of the Rhine River. Most are clustered around the village of Heppenheim in the Starkenburg Bereich , but there is a small “island” of vineyards further north, nearer to the Main River and separated from the remainder, which comprises the Umstadt Bereich . Prior to 1971, the Bergstrasse region included an additional swath of land past its current southern border, but the new wine law cleaved it in two. The new Anbaugebiet remained within the borders of the federal state of Hessen, while vineyards to the south were annexed by Baden to become Bereich Badische-Bergstrasse. The region is colloquially known as the “spring garden,” signaling a transition in phase from the cooler areas to its immediate north to the warmer growing region of Baden directly south of it. Riesling is still the region’s most planted grape variety, accounting for 45% of the total acreage, but the wines rarely achieve the same tense acidity as those produced in the Rheingau. Not that many have the opportunity to find out—Hessische-Bergstrasse wines are usually consumed locally and infrequently exported. Over half of the region’s acreage is under the control of the Bergstrasse Winzer eG cooperative, located in the village of Heppenheim. One reminder of the region’s past link to the Rheingau remains: the largest vineyard holding (35 planted hectares) belongs to Kloster Eberbach and the state winery, Hessische Staatsweingüter. Sachsen and Saale-Unstrut Following Germany’s 1990 reunification, the country’s total number of Anbaugebiete increased from 11 to 13 with the addition of two areas previously under East German rule, Saale-Unstrut and Sachsen (Saxony). At 51° N latitude, these are Germany’s northernmost winegrowing regions, far to the east of the country’s more renowned vineyards. Sachsen, which follows the course of the Elbe River through Dresden to Meissen, is near the Czech border; the namesake river valleys of Saale and Unstrut are about 150 kilometers west of Sachsen, near Leipzig. Both areas have supported viticulture for many centuries—Sachsen’s first documented vineyard appeared at a local bishop’s behest in 1161, and Benedictine monks were tending vines in Saale-Unstrut by the late 900s—but phylloxera and two world wars took a toll, reducing the thousands of hectares and proud histories in each region to a smattering of vines by the 1950s. The few remaining estates in Sachsen and Saale-Unstrut functioned as state-run cooperative wineries during the communist era; quality winemaking was not in the program. Today, however, each region is experiencing a minor renaissance. With almost 800 hectares in the ground in 2016, Saale-Unstrut is Germany’s fastest-growing region, and Sachsen, led by Schloss Proschwitz—the region’s largest estate and the first VDP member in Saxony—is making good wines, even if most of them never make it further afield than a Dresden tavern. White grapes radically outnumber reds in both Sachsen and Saale-Unstrut. As a reminder of their cool continental climates, as well as both regions’ recent entries into the quality wine business, Müller-Thurgau remains the most planted variety in each region. (Riesling will likely soon overtake it in Sachsen.) Average must weights are lower here than in southwestern Germany. One local specialty claimed by Sachsen is Goldriesling, a grape crossing developed in 1893 at the Oberlin Institute in Alsace. The grape is not commercially farmed in Alsace and claims only about a dozen hectares in Sachsen. Several estates make dry to off-dry, lively, aromatic wines with the rare variety. BACK TO TOP GuildSomm would like to thank Romana Echensperger, MW, for her help in reviewing this guide.Previewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/research/expert_guides/w/expert-guides/2438/greeceThu, 29 Oct 2026 13:34:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:109b5d6a-5d41-4d9f-ae01-effb0cf099e9Jonathan EichholzIf Greek wine has already seen a new dawn, one thing is for sure: it is just the beginning. New wineries, new faces, and new ideas crop up at every harvest and at an ever-accelerating pace, making Greece one of the most vibrant wine regions in the world. -Konstantinos Lazarakis, MW, "The Wines of Greece" Contents History of Greece Greek Wine in Context The Land Climate Greek Wine Law The Grapes of Greece Regions of Greece Bibliography History of Greece The Greeks played a fundamental role in the history of wine. They not only spread vines and knowledge of winemaking to many nations but also were extremely enthusiastic consumers, incorporating wine into a range of cultural activities. This created lasting associations that continue to inform wine’s elevated reputation and stature. Wine was of religious importance (Dionysus, god of wine and therefore hedonism, which evolved to become Rome’s Bacchus) and military consequence (it was rationed to soldiers), was celebrated for its medicinal properties, was the liquid fuel of philosophers, and was drunk both by leaders and the lower classes. It was also a yardstick against which the Greeks measured their enemies. Beer-drinking societies such as the Gauls were looked down upon, and those that consumed undiluted wine, such as Thracians, were equally scorned. In short, the Greeks viewed not just the consumption of wine, but the proper consumption of wine, as essential to keeping civilization civilized. Toward this end, the Greek oenohoos could even be considered the forerunner to the sommelier. These proto-sommeliers were responsible for blending wine and water during the era’s many symposia, in an effort to stoke spirited discourse while avoiding crass drunkenness—a fine balance indeed. Depiction of an oenohoos What is defined today as “Greek wine” is wine made within Greece’s current political boundaries. This sounds straightforward, but those boundaries have changed many times over the past several millennia. For example, Thrace, which at one point included over 200 tribes from Eastern Europe and Asia Minor that were sworn enemies of Athens, is now a proud part of the Greek state. The following is a simplification but attempts to outline the sequence of governing powers of Greece. The Minoan civilization, which was largely confined to Crete and Santorini, was the dominant force in Greece from roughly 3000 BCE until (most likely) the eruption of Santorini in the 17th century BCE. The Mycenaean civilization came next. They were based in the Peloponnese and ruled from the 17th century to approximately 1100 BCE. This was followed by the Homeric Period, in which many different cultures, such as the Dorians in the north and the Ionians in the west, came together (not always peacefully) to form a rough version of what Greece looks like today. During the eighth century BCE, important city-states such as Sparta and Athens arose and came to dominate Greek culture. Though Athens and Sparta were in various forms of conflict for centuries, this was a period of great cultural accomplishment in Greece and is often referred to as the Classic or Golden Age. During the fourth century BCE, power shifted to Macedonia in the north, where first Philip and then his son Alexander the Great ruled. The death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE marks the end of the Classical period and the beginning of the Hellenic Age, which lasted until the Roman occupation in 146 BCE. Nearly 400 years later, in 330 CE, the Christian Byzantines took over; they were displaced by the Muslim Ottomans in 1453. Meanwhile, between the 12th and 17th centuries, the Venetians controlled much of the Ionian and Aegean Islands (including Crete), as well as part of the Peloponnese, before being overwhelmed by the Turks. Greece won its independence in 1832 and joined the European Union in 1981. Ancient History The history of Greek wine begins on the island of Crete, where the Minoan civilization likely received instruction from the Near East via Egypt around the year 2500 BCE. From here, viticulture spread to Santorini (called Thera at the time), and later to the rest of the Aegean and the mainland. The Greeks then circulated the vine throughout the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, and up the Danube almost as far as Austria. They also traded the finished product widely. But the wines consumed during this era were far different than those enjoyed today. Wine was almost never drunk straight; it was typically cut with water (sometimes sea water) before serving, and would have been mixed with a range of ingredients, from herbs to spices to honey. Over time, different regions became known for their associated alterations—an early example of “sense of place.” Wine was transported in large amphorae and served out of smaller clay vessels. To prevent oxidation, such containers were often sealed with pine resin. This informed the taste of the wine and is the origin of today’s Retsina. Ancient amphorae, recovered from the sea The Greek wine industry peaked between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE and, though it declined in importance, remained dominant even after the Roman conquest of 146 BCE. A major turning point was the founding of the Christian Byzantine Empire (330 CE), which saw the center of power shift from Rome to what is now Istanbul. The Byzantine era lasted over 1,000 years, during which time Greek wine underwent significant changes. Wooden barrels were introduced during the seventh century, replacing amphorae. Sweet wines made from dried grapes grew in popularity until they became the most famous wines of Greece. Wine stopped being diluted with water, and alterations were reduced, though use of pine resin—now as a flavoring agent rather than a sealant—persisted. During the 11th century, the Greek wine industry was dealt a blow when the Venetians were granted favorable trading status, allowing them to sell imported wine at incredibly low prices. Greek producers were unable to match this, and several centuries of unchecked competition took its toll. By the time the Ottoman Turks conquered the area in 1453, Greece’s wine industry was a shadow of its former self. During the nearly 400 years of Turkish occupation, the Greek wine industry withered, especially on the mainland (the Ionian Islands never really came under Turkish rule, and many parts of the Aegean Islands experienced only a truncated occupation). Though the new rulers were Muslim, winemaking was never forbidden, but punitive taxes discouraged production, and a significant number of vineyards were simply abandoned. To compound the damage, following the Greek War of Independence (1821 – 1832), the retreating armies burned many fields and vineyards on their way back to Turkey. Greece had won its freedom but had little left with which to toast. Independence, Phylloxera, and Poverty The period following independence was a fragile time for the Greek economy. Wine production was slow to recover from the previous era’s ravages, but viticulture soon found a way to thrive: through the cultivation of raisins. Now able to trade freely with Europe, Greece had been selling a significant quantity of raisins to the British since gaining its independence, but France’s phylloxera crisis of the 1870s and 1880s opened a new market that was both vast and insatiable. There, producers without vines were steeping raisins in water and fermenting the broth into a kind of wine. To satisfy this sudden demand, Greek landowners expanded their vineyards substantially, often at the expense of other crops. During the 1880s, raisin cultivation leapt from 24,000 to 114,000 hectares, with much of that growth concentrated in the Peloponnese. This made raisins the number one crop in Greece, as well as the primary national export. To say that the country’s fortunes were tied to a successful raisin trade would be an understatement. Unfortunately for the Greeks, France’s vineyards began to recover in the 1890s. In a bid to protect their own producers, the French quickly moved to reduce imports and restrict the production of “fake wines,” such as those made from raisins. As a result, Greek exports to France plummeted, and the country was faced with a grape glut that saw prices slashed by as much as 85%. This not only caused social unrest but was financially devastating to the country, and directly contributed to Greece’s declaration of bankruptcy in 1893. But Greece’s problems were far from over. Phylloxera arrived in 1898 and quickly tore its way through Macedonia and the north. Its southward spread was more languid (Crete, for example, didn’t report any phylloxera until the 1970s), but even still, recovery was slow. This is partly because of Greece’s depressed economy (grafted vines needed to be individually purchased—a major expense), but also because of a series of armed conflicts. The first round of one-two punches came when the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913 bled into World War I, and the second when World War II was immediately followed by the Greek Civil War. During this long span of time, viticulture suffered and wines were notoriously rustic. As quantity was valued over quality, overproduction was a regular occurrence, which was destabilizing to the market. In response, the government established several winemaking cooperatives to absorb the excess crop. Many, such as the one on Samos (Greece’s first, founded in 1934), remain an important part of the Greek wine industry today. The Modern Era "My father had the hard job, educating foreign markets on indigenous Greek varieties. By the time I started working the markets, all the American sommeliers already knew how to pronounce Assyrtiko and Moschofilero. My job became easy. I could focus on other things—our story, our terroir." – Argyris Gerovassiliou Retsina Retsina can trace its origins back to antiquity and is characterized by its distinctive pine flavor. It has long been thought that the style originated when pine resin was used to seal clay wine vessels, which made a mark on the taste of the wine, though many now argue that the resin was always added expressly for its flavor. This was not unusual, as ancient Greek wine was often mixed with a variety of substances, including honey, seawater, and herbs. Long after other wine alterations faded from practice, pine resin remained in vogue, partly due to its antiseptic properties. During the rise of tourism that started in the 1950s, Retsina production spiked, as the resin was useful in masking the rustic nature of the era’s wines. Of course, as clay vessels were no longer in use, the resin had to be manually added to the wine. Today, the sap must be added during the first half of fermentation, with a kind of tea bag. Legally, the resin, which is extracted from Aleppo pine trees ( Pinus halepensis ), can account for 0.15 to 1.0% of the wine’s final volume. Retsina is one of only two traditional PGIs (the other is Verdea), and while the wine can be made anywhere, production tends to be concentrated in Central Greece. Within that region are 15 different appellations that can be listed on the label. They are Gialtra, Evia, Karystos, Viotia, Thebes, Halkida, Megara, Attica, Pallini, Pikermi, Spata, Mesogia, Markopoulos, Peania, and Koropi. To be labeled Retsina, the wine must be produced exclusively from the Savatiano and Roditis varieties. As Roditis is pink-skinned, it can be used to create a rosé of Retsina called Kokkineli. Though Retsina has been long-reviled by many, a handful of top producers are crafting elegant, understated versions that are slowly winning sommeliers over. These wines tend to employ the legal minimum of resin and experience only brief infusions. Even sparkling and pét-nat Retsina are being made, typically as a way for producers to attract young drinkers to the ancient beverage. Greece’s economy began to recover after World War II, largely through a swell in tourism. Visitors were thirsty, but Greek wine was rough, so the addition of pine resin to mask its worst offenses became commonplace. In this way, the ancient product of Retsina grew to be known as the de facto beverage of Greece. While 2016 statistics reflect Retsina at 7 to 7.5% of the national production, this unconventional and often-polarizing wine continues to inform the country’s vinous reputation. Historically, most of Greece’s wine was produced and distributed in bulk, but bottled wine became more commonplace starting in the 1950s and 1960s. In 1969 and 1970, Greece enacted its first modern wine laws using the French AOC system as a model, and by 1971, many of today’s appellations were delimited. This coincided with a marked increase in quality, spearheaded by five companies: Boutari, Achaia Clauss, Kambas, Kourtakis, and Tsantali. Most of these wineries were founded in the late 19th century and were significant in size. Boutari played an especially important role, establishing satellite wineries in many of Greece’s major appellations and sending its winemakers and vineyard managers to study in France far before that was commonplace. A sixth winery of historical importance, Domaine Porto Carras, launched in 1970 and tapped famed Bordeaux enologist Émile Peynaud as its consultant. However slowly, Greece was catching up to the rest of the world. The 1980s was a critical decade for Greek wine. Greece joined the EU in 1981, easing the export process and opening new markets; the country’s first enology school opened in Athens; boutique producers grew in importance; and an increasing number of winemakers sought international experience. This last element had both positive and negative ramifications for the Greek wine industry. While it certainly led to an improvement, or at least a modernization, of winemaking techniques, it also sped up the planting of so-called international varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay that had begun in previous decades. Greece had already lost many indigenous vine types during the phylloxera epidemic, and this movement threatened to displace even more. These trends continued during the 1990s, altering the timbre of many wines. Overall, Greek wines were cleaner and more fault-free than ever, but many suffered from an abundance of extraction and new oak. Thankfully, the first two decades of the 2000s have seen a pulling back from such tendencies. More producers are embracing their indigenous stock as a strength rather than a marketing liability, and international varieties, though still present, are on the decline. Some wines continue to be made in a ripe and bombastic style, but that, too, seems to be waning. Indeed, while Greece still offers an astounding range of wines, the dominant national style seems to be bright, fresh whites that pair perfectly with the coastal cuisine and structured, savory reds that are ideal companions to the culinary traditions of inland Greece and the mountainous north. Greece’s economy continues to be a point of concern, however. The international depression that followed the economic fallout of 2008 was particularly hard on Greece, and the nation remains in crisis. This has destabilized Greece’s relationship to the rest of Europe, and a strong separatist contingency is at work inside the country. While all this is threatening to the wine industry, there is some good news. For one, wine exports are on the rise. As of 2015/2016, Greece exported 12% of its wine production, and while most of that still goes to Europe, the US and Canada represent the second and fifth biggest markets, and both are growing. Part of the success of the export markets is that today’s producers can capitalize on the pioneering efforts of the previous generations; they are showing their wine to buyers that are already (market-depending) conversant in the major Greek varieties. Hopefully, this growth will continue and help keep quality producers in business while the nation of Greece weathers this most recent in a long string of hardships. BACK TO TOP Greek Wine in Context In 2015/2016, Greece boasted around 61,500 hectares of vines. Of these, 90% are divided among the over 300 indigenous varieties of Greece. Statistically, the most important are Savatiano (16.52%), Roditis (14.34%), Agiorgitiko (5.28%), Liatiko (3.85%), Xinomavro (3.44%), Muscat of Hamburg (3.13%), and Assyrtiko (3.12%). The dominance of Savatiano and Roditis is in part due to their use as the base for Retsina. Large landholdings are rare—the average vineyard is around a half a hectare, and the number of individual growers in Greece is estimated at around 160,000. As most of these vineyards are planted along some sort of slope, almost all work, including harvest, is conducted by hand. From these vines, 1,100 wineries produce 2.5 million hectoliters (around 28 million cases) of wine. Though this makes Greece the 16th or 17th largest producer in the world (the precise ranking fluctuates by vintage), it only accounts for 1% of the world’s wine. BACK TO TOP The Land Asked to imagine Greece, most people would likely conjure an image of a sandy beach caressed by sapphire waves. But while Greece certainly does boast a staggering amount of coastline, its many mountains also play a significant role regarding the character of its wines. Greece occupies the southernmost end of the Balkan peninsula, tucked between the 34th and 42nd parallels. In the north, it is bordered by Albania, Bulgaria, Turkey, and North Macedonia. A full 70% percent of Greece is covered by mountains, making it Europe’s third most mountainous country after Switzerland and Austria. ( See elevation by PDO in the Compendium .) The main range, the Pindos, which forms the spine of Greece, is the southernmost extension of the central Alps. This range extends down from the north, through the Peloponnese, and under the sea, where it occasionally surfaces as islands. Mount Olympus, which crests the clouds at an elevation of nearly 3,000 meters (9,850 feet), is Greece’s tallest peak and the historic home of its gods. It is located on the eastern edge of the country, close to the Aegean Sea. As Greece is so mountainous, there is little flat terrain. The few plains that exist are concentrated in the regions of Thessaly, Sterea Ellada, Macedonia, and Thrace. In the interior, Greece sports very few lakes and almost no major rivers. Water abounds along the exterior, however, as Greece is surrounded by seas on three sides: the Aegean to the east, the Ionian to the west, and the Libyan to the south of Crete. Within these seas are several thousand islands, though just slightly over 100 of them are inhabited. These islands are divided into two main camps: the Ionian, of which Cephalonia is the most important, and the Aegean. The Aegean Islands are further subdivided into the Cyclades (which contains Santorini), the Dodecanese, and the North Aegean Islands. Crete also occupies the Aegean but tends to be considered on its own terms because of its size and history of independence. Evia is another large Aegean island, though it gets lumped in with Central Greece due to the similarity of its viticulture and its proximity to Athens. The mainland of Greece is carved into several regions, which are similar to states. Macedonia and Thrace occupy the north, with Epirus and Thessaly forming the band just south of them. The area beneath them is straddled by the broad region of Central Greece, also known as Sterea Ellada, which contains the island of Evia and is appended by Attica, the small but extensively planted area surrounding Athens ( Attica is Greek for “Athens”). The most southerly section of continental Greece is the Peloponnese, a large peninsula that is separated from the mainland by the narrow Corinthian Gulf. Greece is one of the few places in the world where oceanic crust not only protrudes from the sea but forms mountains. Because of this, the wine regions feature a considerable amount of limestone and are generally low in fertility. That said, there are regional variations. Santorini is almost entirely volcanic in composition, the plains (especially in Sterea Ellada) feature a good amount of clay, alluvial formations are common along the coast, and igneous material is concentrated in the northern regions. BACK TO TOP Climate Greece’s climate is predominately Mediterranean, with abundant sunshine; hot, dry, extended summers; mild winters; and truncated springs. There are some exceptions to this, especially in the interior. Epirus, the central part of the Peloponnese, western Thessaly, and western Macedonia feature continental climates with more defined seasons and cooler, wetter winters. Attica is the hottest and driest part of Greece, while Epirus and Amynteo are tied for coolest. Speaking broadly, in the winter, inland areas tend to range from 32 to 41 degrees Fahrenheit while coastal areas hover between 41 to 50 degrees Fahrenheit. In the summers, the temperatures are more even across the county, with the national average around 84 to 95 degrees Fahrenheit. In general, rains are most abundant in the north and the west of the country, while the eastern edge of the mainland and the Aegean Islands are dry. When it comes, precipitation tends to fall between October and March; only Thrace and Macedonia regularly experience summer or harvest rains. Irrigation is technically forbidden across Greece (as in the rest of the EU), but the practice is widespread. This is largely because the government grants exceptions for newly planted vines and times of extreme drought or heat. As Tsantali Viticultural Director George Salpiggidis puts it, “The government has given growers a window regarding irrigation, but we use it as a door.” Due to the at-times extreme heat, elevation plays an important role in Greek viticulture, with many of the finest wines coming from the highest slopes. Cool winds from the north and proximity to the seas also serve to mitigate the heat. A wind known as the Meltemi regularly sweeps the Aegean. The name loosely translates to “a year of bad weather” and occurs when a high-pressure system falls over the Balkans and a low-pressure system sits over Turkey. It blows very dry air from the north, typically between mid-May and late September, which has an especially profound effect on Santorini. Similarly, Crete must contend with hot winds coming off Africa in the south. The mountain spine that runs west to east across the island acts as a natural barricade, and many of the island’s vines are planted to its north. BACK TO TOP Greek Wine Law Dessert Wines Sweet wines are an important part of the Greek wine landscape. As the national climate is dry, botrytis is not really a factor. Because of this, most Greek dessert wines are produced using air- or sun-dried grapes or through fortification, sometimes both. Vin naturellement doux wines are created solely from dried grapes. Vin doux wines are created when unfermented must is shocked with spirits; this is sometimes referred to as vin de liqueur . Vin doux naturel wines are produced when spirits are added to a partly fermented wine, and fortification is generally executed using Tsipouro, Greek grappa. This is considered the superior approach to fortification, and all grand cru Greek wines must be made using this method. Also, in order to be labeled grand cru, a Greek dessert wine must hail from a select group of vineyards, which are generally at a high elevation and are subject to stricter maximum yields. Though Greece abounds in dessert wine, grand cru designation is only applicable to certain Muscats and sweet Liatiko from Crete's Daphnes PDO. Greece boasts some of the oldest wine laws on earth, with an ancient delineation within Thrace considered one of the first. Several millennia later, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, Greece made its modern attempt at defining appellations. Those laws were tweaked again in the 1980s, following Greece’s induction into the EU. Originally, Greece’s top designations of origin were OPAP (Onomasia Proelefsos Anoteras Piotitos, or Appellations of Superior Quality) and OPE (Onomasia Proelefsos Elenghomeni, or Controlled Appellations of Origin, specific to Greece’s traditional sweet wines), with TO (Topikos Oinos) the rough equivalent of France’s Vin de Pays. The system was overhauled in 2009, resulting in the PDO/PGI system seen today, with both OPAP and OPE being absorbed into the PDO stratum. (They technically still exist and might be seen on labels, but this is rare.) Greece’s PDOs (Protected Designations of Origin) number 33 and are largely protective in measure; all but two (the Slopes of Meliton and Messenikola) are dedicated entirely to indigenous varieties. To be bottled as a PDO, 100% of the fruit must be both grown and vinified within the appellation. As of 2015/2016, PDO wines (48.69% white) represent only 19.62% of Greece’s total production. PDO wines may be labeled with aging designations of reserve or grande reserve , defined below. Next in the hierarchy are the 120 PGIs (Protected Geographic Indication), which come in three levels: regional, district, and area, where an Area PGI can be as small as a single vineyard. To be bottled as a PGI, a minimum of 85% of grapes should come from the appellation, though all grapes must be vinified within the PGI’s boundary. Statistics from 2015/2016 reflect that PGIs (61.22% white) account for 62.47% of Greece’s production. The PGI stratum also includes two traditional wines: Verdea, an oxidized white wine from the Ionian island Zakynthos, and Retsina, which can only be produced in 15 locations within Greece. Traditional PGI wines marry process and place, and, as the name implies, serve to preserve ancient methods of wine production. Retsina cannot be labeled with a vintage. PGI wines and Varietal wines (defined below) may be labeled with the aging designation of cava (also defined below). It is important to note that after the EU parallel system of PDO and PGI was incorporated into Greek wine law, the various PGI were broadened in size and grape variety allowances to ensure that all wineries throughout Greece could place an appellation more specific than their Regional PGI on the label. Varietal and Table wines occupy the next rung down the latter. Table wines cannot display vintage, varietal composition, or region of origin on the label. The Varietal category of wine, debuted in 2011, allows the vintage and variety to be displayed on the label, but not the origin of the fruit. As far as labeling laws go, a minimum of 85% of a wine must come from the stated vintage. Similarly, if a single variety is listed on the label, 85% of the fruit must come from that variety. If more than one variety is listed, 100% of the wine must be composed of those varieties. Glossary of Terms Asproudi (plural: Asproudes): A generic term for unknown white grapes ( aspro means “white”). Cava: For PGI and Varietal wines only. Refers to a minimum of oak aging. For white and rosé wines, this is one year of aging with at least six months in barrel. For reds, three years of aging with at least one year in barrel. Grand cru: Applies to certain sweet wines, made via the vin doux naturel process, that are sourced from select vineyards of a given region, typically from higher elevation sites. Grand/Grande reserve: For PDO wines only. Refers to a minimum of oak aging. For white wines, this is two years of aging with at least one year in barrel and six months in bottle. For reds, four years of aging with at least 18 months in barrel and 18 months in bottle. White grande reserve wines cannot be aged in barrels larger than 600 liters. Kouloura/stefani: A traditional method of vine training specific to Santorini, wherein vines are trained along the ground in a basket shape. This protects the grapes from the harsh, hot winds. Ktima: Estate. Mavroudi: An indigenous variety but also a generic term for unknown red grapes ( mavro means “black”). Paleomenos se vareli: For PDO, PGI, and Varietal wines that are labeled with cava, reserve, or grande reserve. Indicates extended oak aging beyond the required minimums. Reserve: For PDO wines only. Refers to a minimum of oak aging. For white wines, this is one year of aging with at least 6 months in barrel and 3 months in bottle. For red wines, two years of aging required with a minimum of 12 months in barrel and 6 months in bottle. BACK TO TOP The Grapes of Greece Greece claims to possess over 300 indigenous varieties, but the precise number is impossible to ascertain without a massive, nationwide genetic census. No matter the exact count, Greece as a country is very much committed to its native stock. As of 2015/2016, international varieties represent only 10% of Greece’s vines, and that number is shrinking. And Greece’s grapes are just as committed to their country! Very few have crossed national borders, with less than 30 planted outside of Greece. In general, two-thirds of Greece’s vineyards are planted to white grapes, and one-third to red. It is important to note that there are no official English spellings of Greek varieties. Also, as Greek viticulture predates the field of ampelography by several thousand years, many Greek varieties go by multiple names, depending on where they are grown. Red Grapes Agiorgitiko: Agiorgitiko, which translates to “St. George’s grape,” is probably Greece’s best-known red variety, due in large part to the charming nature of its wines. It tends toward high yields, which can be managed through close planting, and sets small clusters of thick-skinned berries that are prone to mildew and disease. It has long been described as late-ripening, but that reputation was due in part to the rampant presence of virus. Now that virus-free clones are available, fruit is ready a bit earlier in the year. The grape is planted in various pockets of Greece, primarily Attica and the central Peloponnese, but it is most famous as the solely permitted variety in the PDO of Nemea. There, it produces a range of wines: rosés, light reds made via carbonic maceration, ageworthy reds, and dessert wines made from dried fruit or the addition of spirits. Across the spectrum, Agiorgitiko’s wines tend to be deeply colored, full of soft, plummy fruit, and tinged with spices and cocoa. Both the acidity and tannins are often high (though exaggerated ripeness can mitigate that), although many winemakers seek to produce wines with lower tannins through carbonic maceration or late harvesting. Some more modern producers are experimenting with the creation of “Super Nemeas” by blending Agiorgitiko with Cabernet Sauvignon. Notable PDOs: Nemea Liatiko: Liatiko is an indigenous variety of Crete, where it is used to create both still and sweet wines. It is known to ripen early, often before August; its name is thought to derive from the word for July. As a variety, it is low in both tannin and color but has medium acidity and pronounced, often floral, aromatics. Historically, it is thought to have been a component of the famous, ancient Malvasia wine. Today, it is vinified on its own as a red wine in Daphnes, and blended with the more deeply hued Mandilaria in Sitia. For the dessert PDOs of Malvasia Sitia and Malvasia Candia, its dried grapes are vinified like a white wine and are merely one permitted element of a complex blend. On its own, the wine can be a bit simple, but when blended or dried for dessert wine, the enticing aromatics and body make for a compelling wine. Notable PDOs: Daphnes, Sitia Limnio (Lemnio): Limnio takes its name from the island of Limnos, where it likely finds its origin. It is a highly disease- and drought-resistant, late-ripening variety that produces tight bunches that mature unevenly. It tends to produce light-to-medium colored wines that can be austere, with higher tannin and alcohol, moderate acid, and an herbal nose. In the Slopes of Meliton PDO for red wine, it accounts for 70% of the blend, with the remainder composed of Cabernet Sauvignon and/or Cabernet Franc. In the PDO Limnos, it is vinified on its own. Beyond PDOs, it is also planted in Macedonia, Thrace, and in the famous Mount Athos Vineyard. Notable PDOs: Limnos, Slopes of Meliton Mandilaria: One of the important red varieties of Greece’s islands, Mandilaria is known above all for the dark hue of its wines. Beyond that, its wines tend to be low in alcohol and aromatics, but high in both tannin and acid. One account of this odd combination of attributes, it is often blended. In Crete, it is typically combined with Kotsifali or Liatiko; on Paros, it is paired with Monemvasia (a white grape, though the finished wine is red); and on Santorini, where it is the most widely planted red grape, it is blended with Mavrotragano. The only PDO that features uncut Mandilaria is Rhodes, where the extended growing season allows the wine to gain more body than is typical. There, it is produced as dry red, rosé, and sparkling wine. Notable PDOs: Archanes, Candia, Paros, Peza, Rhodes, Sitia Mavrodaphne: Mavrodaphne is both a grape and a brand name, as it is the moniker of one of the most historic wines of Greece. It is grown primarily on the Ionian Islands and the west Peloponnese, where through extended oak aging, it is commonly made into an oxidized sweet wine comparable to a Tawny Port, though some winemakers are producing it in a more robust, Ruby Port-like style. Two PDOs are associated with this dessert wine: Mavrodaphne of Patras and Mavrodaphne of Cephalonia. In both PDOs, Mavrodaphne can be blended with Corinthiaki, a Vitis vinifera table grape commonly used to make raisins. Mavrodaphne is a vigorous variety that requires strict yields to retain quality. It sets loose clusters of thick-skinned grapes that, when vinified dry, produce a deeply colored, tannic wine with a slightly herbal nose. As sweet wines decline in fashion, Mavrodaphne is increasingly fermented to dryness, and is often blended with Refosco (as at Domaine Mercouri) or Cabernet Sauvignon, though no PDOs accommodate this style. Notable PDOs: Mavrodaphne of Cephalonia, Mavrodaphne of Patras Xinomavro: The flagship grape of northern Greece, Xinomavro is a difficult variety to grow, and when poorly made, the wine can be aggressively herbal or structured. When treated properly in the vineyard and cellar, however, the result is one of the longest lasting and most profound red wines of Greece, often compared to Pinot Noir or Nebbiolo. Both tannin and acid levels are naturally very high in Xinomavro, but the color tends to be light, and the wine is sensitive to oxidation. Even at its most concentrated, this is never a fruity wine—the dominant aromas tend to be tomato, herb, olive, and sour cherry. That said, it is versatile in the cellar and regularly fashioned into a range of wines including sparkling rosé, dry rosé, and dry red. Because of its acerbic tendencies, it is often blended. In Goumenissa, it is cut with the soft-bodied Negoska, and in Rapsani, it is combined with Krassato and Stavroto. Beyond the PDOs, Xinomavro is planted widely in both Macedonia and Thrace, where it is occasionally blended with Syrah or Merlot. Notable PDOs: Amynteo, Goumenissa, Naoussa, Rapsani White Grapes Aidani: Aidani is planted on a handful of Aegean Islands, but it is most strongly affiliated with Santorini, also its likely point of origin. It is known to be especially drought-tolerant—useful on parched Santorini. There, it is blended with Assyrtiko and Athiri to produce a dry white wine and the dessert wine Vinsanto (not to be confused with the Tuscan dessert wine, Vin Santo). In both cases, Aidani acts as the softening agent, adding weight and texture as well as pronounced, often floral aromatics. It is rarely vinified on its own, but when it is, the result is something close to Viognier—broad and waxy with diminished acidity and an expressive nose. Notable PDOs: Santorini Assyrtiko: Assyrtiko is considered by many to be the finest of Greece’s indigenous varieties. Certainly, its wines are among the most famous, especially the powerful, steely creations of Santorini. There, Assyrtiko must account for 85% of the dry wine’s composition, with the balance comprised of Aidani and Athiri. The resulting wine tends to be somewhat high in alcohol but also vibrant and fresh. The aromatics are not particularly distinctive, but the rocky, chalky undertone to the wine is compelling. As noted, Assyrtiko is blended with Athiri and Aidani to create Vinsanto, in which Assyrtiko must represent a minimum of 51%. In the vineyard, Assyrtiko is known for being drought tolerant, adaptable, and disease resistant. It sets compact clusters of large berries, and the wood of its trunks is especially hard, which helps it resist the intense winds that batter Santorini. Naturally high levels of tartaric acid keep the wines crisp despite hot conditions. In the cellar, Assyrtiko is more challenging to manage, as the wine is prone to oxidation. Beyond Santorini, Assyrtiko features in several PDOs, but only as the minor component of a larger blend. For dry whites, it is combined with Malagousia and Athiri in Rhodes (the same blend is used for sparkling), with Athiri and Roditis in the Slopes of Meliton, and with a laundry list of other varieties in Candia (Crete). It also regularly used in dessert wines, where its acidity adds definition and lift. Beyond the PDOs, Assyrtiko is planted in all corners of Greece and various spots around the globe. The wines tend to be more aromatic and less intensely structured outside of Santorini, though they still abound in personality. In Amynteo, Assyrtiko informs several sparkling wines, and throughout Macedonia and Thrace, it is occasionally blended with Sauvignon Blanc. Notable PDOs: Malvasia Paros, Santorini, Slopes of Meliton Athiri: Athiri, which is also likely native to Santorini, is the most neutral of the island’s three flagship white varieties. Its primary attributes are its drought resistance and ability to retain quality at high crop levels. Because of this, it is widely planted across Greece. On its own, its wines offer medium acid and alcohol, and floral, citric, but somewhat neutral noses. It is rarely bottled as a varietal wine but contributes to the blends of a wide range of dry, sparkling, and dessert wines. Notable PDOs: Rhodes, Santorini, Slopes of Meliton Debina: Debina is an important variety in Epirus, where it excels in sparkling and still forms in the high-elevation PDO of Zitsa. It sets big, compact bunches and is sensitive to drought; happily for Debina, Epirus receives relatively high rainfall. The wines tend to be elegant and refreshing, if a bit simple, with semi-aromatic noses of green apple and lemon. Alcohol levels are generally low and acidity is high, hence its predilection for sparkling. Notable PDOs: Zitsa Malagousia: Malagousia is now fairly well known, but not too long ago, it flirted with extinction. While working at Domaine Porto Carras in the 1980s and 90s, winemaker Evangelos Gerovassiliou got ahold of cuttings from an experimental vineyard. He saw promise in the lost variety and began to cultivate it. When he started his own brand in Epanomi (a northern coastal town near Thessaloniki), he took some Malagousia with him, and it is now one of his most famous wines. Since then, the variety has spread across Greece and does especially well in the Peloponnese, Thessaly, and Macedonia. As its success is a recent phenomenon, it exists largely outside of the PDOs, only accounting for part of the blend in Rhodes’ still and sparkling PDO wines. Malagousia is difficult to grow and sensitive to disease, which is likely a contributing factor to its abandonment. At its best, the wines are distinctive and aromatic. They tend to have medium-to-elevated acid with high alcohol, a creamy texture, and a spicy, floral nose reminiscent of Muscat. If overripe, the wine can become flabby and tropical. Malagousia takes well to oak aging, though such wines represent a minority of production. Notable PDOs: Rhodes Moschofilero: Moschofilero is a pink-skinned variety that is planted across the Peloponnese and the Ionian Islands but reaches its apogee in the PDO of Mantinia, where it produces both dry white and sparkling wines. As it is a naturally high-yielding vine and ripens very late in the year, achieving full maturity is an annual concern in high-elevation Mantinia. Because it is prone to mutation, several clones exist. The wines are typically elevated in acid with light-to-medium body, but the primary attribute of Moschofilero is its bouquet, which tends to be strongly floral and citric but rarely as heady as Muscat or Malagousia. Some producers will subject Moschofilero to a brief period of skin contact, which can give the wine a pale pink or greyish hue, occupying a space somewhere between white and rosé but not defined as a legal category. Notable PDOs: Mantinia Muscat Blanc: Thought to originate in Greece, Muscat is an extremely ancient type of vine; indeed, many postulate that it is the oldest vinifera still cultivated today. Due to its long lineage and mutable nature, Muscat has spun off a whole family of offspring and clones. The two most important to Greece are Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains (typically referred to inside Greece as simply Muscat Blanc or White Muscat) and its offspring, Muscat of Alexandria. Of the two, Muscat Blanc is considered the finer and boasts smaller berries and more complex aromatics. In the vineyard, Muscat Blanc has moderate-to-high yields. It is quite disease prone and can easily get overripe, so pick date is crucial. This variety’s most distinctive attribute is its perfume, which is rich in terpenes and smells of roses, orange water, and honey. In Greece, Muscat Blanc is widely planted and only appears in the PDOs for dessert wines, made through a variety of methods including late harvest, drying, and fortification. Notable PDOs: Muscat of Cephalonia, Muscat of Patras, Muscat of Rhodes, Muscat of Rio Patras, Samos Muscat of Alexandria: Muscat of Alexandria is considered second in quality to Muscat Blanc, but it still plays an important role in Greek wine. It is just as susceptible to disease as Muscat Blanc but sets a bigger crop with huge clusters of large berries. Acidity is low to medium, and sugars can get high. Its heady aroma veers toward grapey and floral, with a pronounced orange tone. While not as prevalent as Muscat Blanc, it is still widely grown across Greece, but only features in the PDOs of Lemnos, both dry and sweet. Notable PDOs: Lemnos, Muscat of Lemnos Robola: Robola is an important grape on the Ionian Islands, but it is at its best on Cephalonia, where it is vinified into a crisp, refreshing, dry wine. Though it is sensitive to both disease and drought, rainfall is sufficient in the Ionian Islands for the grape to thrive. It is also quite productive, but the extremely rocky soil of Cephalonia tames its vigor. Inside Greece, it is referred to as “Assyrtiko’s little brother,” and indeed, there are several similarities: it is naturally high in acid, with medium-to-high alcohol, a penetrating mineral tone, and a rather neutral, if lemony, nose. It also is prone to oxidation in the cellar. Contrary to popular misconception, it is not a relative of Ribolla Gialla. Notable PDOs: Robola of Cephalonia Roditis (Rhoditis): Roditis is the second most widely planted grape in Greece, largely due to its regular use as a base wine for Retsina. It is cultivated all over the mainland but is especially prevalent in Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Thrace, and Macedonia. It is pink-skinned and very vigorous, but produces a quite neutral wine. Its best expression comes from Patras, in the north of the Peloponnese. There, it is vinified into a dry to medium-sweet white wine that tends to be medium-to-high in acidity, relatively high in alcohol, broad, creamy, and redolent of melon. In the Slopes of Meliton PDO, it is blended with Assyrtiko and Athiri, and in Anchialos, it is blended with Savatiano, though the wines barely register on the market. Notable PDOs: Anchialos, Patras, Slopes of Meliton Savatiano: Savatiano is the mostly widely planted variety in Greece, due to its long history as the base wine of Retsina. It can be found in most corners of the country but is especially ubiquitous in Attica and Central Greece. In the vineyards, it is of moderate vigor and is fairly disease resistant. Though its reputation has been marred by Retsina, careful site selection and reliance on old vines can lead to some compelling results. One need only refer to the ageworthy dry whites of Papagiannakos in Attica for proof of Savatiano’s potential. At their best, the wines are dense and creamy, with medium acidity and a concentrated nose of peach, banana, and white flowers. When crop levels are high or the vines are planted in less than ideal sites, the resulting wines are forgettable. Savatiano can be used up to 20% in the Roditis-based Anchialos PDO. Vidiano: Vidiano is native to Crete. While it is not quantitatively significant, it produces what are arguably the island’s finest white wines. Part of what makes this grape so fine, and so well-suited to Crete, is its ability to retain acidity in extreme heat. At its best, the wine is comparable to Marsanne, with a creamy texture (though more vibrant acidity), and a nose of apricots, lime, and flowers. In Candia, it is a minor part of a big blend that produces both dry white and sweet PDO wines. Notable PDOs: Candia, Malvasia Candia, Malvasia Sitia Vilana: Native to Crete, Vilana is the most widely planted white grape on the island. It is a high-yielding variety that is susceptible to disease and prone to oxidation in the winery. The wines, always dry, can be insipid, but when planted in poor soils at high elevation, better quality can be achieved. The wines tend to be medium in both acid and body, with moderate-to-high alcohol. The nose tends to feature ripe stone and tropical fruits, and oak aging is not uncommon. Only in the Peza PDO does it stand alone; otherwise, it is the component of a blend. Beyond the PDOs, it can be found in combination with Sauvignon Blanc, Thrapsathiri, and/or Vidiano. Notable PDOs: Peza, Sitia BACK TO TOP Regions of Greece The contemporary Greek state is largely recognized as being founded in the 1830s, but it would take almost another century for all the elements that form what is now known as Greece to come together. The Ionian Islands joined in 1864, followed by Thessaly in 1881. Between 1913 and 1914, Epirus, Macedonia, some of the Aegean Islands, and Crete were added. In 1920, Thrace merged with the rest of the country, and in 1947, the final piece fell into place: the Dodecanese Islands, which prior to that had belonged to Italy. For the purposes of this guide, we have divided Greece into the following sections: Northern Greece (Thrace, Macedonia, Thessaly, Epirus), Central Greece, the Peloponnese, the Ionian Islands, the Aegean Islands, and Crete. Northern Greece Macedonia and Thrace occupy the most northerly band of the Greek mainland. The regions of Epirus and Thessaly sit just beneath them, occupying more or less the same latitudes. Greek wine scholars are divided as to whether these last two regions should be considered a part of Northern Greece or Central Greece. For purposes of this guide, due in large part to the nature of the wines, they are included with Northern Greece. Thrace Thrace is a long, skinny region sandwiched between the Aegean Sea and Bulgaria, with which it shares some viticultural similarities. Cool winds come down from the north, though they are largely blocked by the Rodopi Mountains, and warm, wet air flows off the Aegean in the south. This creates significant humidity, making botrytis a regular concern. The soil near the coast is generally deep and sandy, further inland it becomes more clay dominant and fertile, and up in the area’s many mountains, it is more rocky and poor. The Area PGIs of Avdira and Ismaros are in the mountains, at around 350 meters (1,150 feet) in elevation. Thrace’s dominant climate is Mediterranean, but some of the more inland areas are continental. Fragmented Wineries Because Greek wine law mandates that a PDO wine needs to be vinified within the geographical limits of the appellation, many of Greece’s larger wineries are composed of a collection of smaller production facilities. Boutari, for example, counts seven wineries under its umbrella, in Naoussa, Santorini, Crete, Mantinia, Goumenissa, and Attica. Similarly, Tsantali is splintered into six sites, with wineries in Naoussa, Santorini, Rapsani, Mount Athos, Halkidiki, and Thrace. Thrace was a historically important region for viticulture, especially during the Byzantine era, but much of the area’s production disappeared following the phylloxera infestation of the late 1800s and never returned. Part of the stalled recovery can be blamed on the fact that this remote corner of Greece lacks a major economic center, and therefore a strong local market. Thrace’s fortune changed in the early 1990s when industry giant Tsantali established an outpost. Not only did Tsantali’s investment revitalize local production, but the winery also successfully lobbied for the creation of a handful of PGIs (at the time, TOs). In addition to the broad, Regional PGI of Thrace, there is now the District PGI of Evros in the eastern end of the region and two Area PGIs, Avdira in the west and Ismaros in the east. Thrace does not have any PDOs. The two most important indigenous varieties are Mavroudi, a small-berried, tannic red grape, and Limnio. Beyond that, a significant number of international varieties, allowed in the PGIs, are planted. Blends of Greek and international varieties are popular, with the combination of Sauvignon Blanc and Assyrtiko one of the more successful. PDOs: None Regional PGIs: Thrace District PGIs: Evros Area PGIs: Avdira, Ismaros Macedonia Macedonia is a large, sprawling region that occupies much of Greece’s northern border. On its coast is Thessaloniki, Greece’s second largest city and an important port. Red wine is the specialty of the region, with Xinomavro in the starring role. Moschomavro is also widely planted, but it is not considered as high in quality and is not included in any PDOs. When vinified on its own, Moschomavro tends to make light-bodied, fruity, and easy-drinking reds. Because the region is so vast, topography and climate vary significantly, resulting in a wide range of wine styles. Yet the overall quality tends to be high. Greek wine scholars posit that Macedonia’s qualitative edge is because it is home to two of Greece’s major winemaking families: the Boutaris and the Tsantalis. These juggernauts fulfilled the role that co-ops played in many other regions, claiming much of the area’s fruit. However, because they were commercial and not government operations, there was greater pressure for quality on the growers. The western rim of Macedonia bumps up against the Pindos range. Here are the region’s highest levels of rainfall, and both hail and snow are common. The district of Florina, which contains the Amynteo (Amyndeon) PDO , is one of the coldest pockets of Greece. Amynteo occupies a plateau that sits between 520 and 720 meters (1,705 – 2,630 feet) in elevation, and its vineyards are mostly flat. The plateau is ringed by mountains and features some of Greece’s only lakes. These lakes moderate the climate, which here is technically continental. Limestone and loam are prevalent, but the dominant soil type is sand. Indeed, in some places, the sand content is so high that phylloxera cannot thrive. As a result, Amynteo boasts some of Greece’s last remaining patches of own-rooted vines. The PDO of Amynteo allows for only Xinomavro, which can be made in a variety of styles, from red to rosé to sparkling rosé (made via tank or traditional method), and either dry or off-dry. This is one of the few PDOs for rosé in all of Greece, and the wines tend to be a bit more elegant than the big and fruity national style. The dry reds are also on the elegant side, as it is colder here than in Naoussa or Goumenissa, Macedonia’s other Xinomavro-based PDOs. These examples of Xinomavro are often lean and light, with more floral, lifted aromatics and occasionally a more pronounced herbal tone. Some of the most successful wines of the area are traditional method, dry sparkling wines. Sparkling wine must be rosé to be bottled as PDO, but Xinomavro blanc de noirs and sparkling Assyrtiko can be thrilling. Beyond Xinomavro, the vineyards of Amynteo also feature lesser amounts of Merlot, Syrah, Roditis, Malagousia, and Sauvignon Blanc, which are vinified into the area’s many PGI wines. Moving eastward, the next PDO is Naoussa , which reigns with the Peloponnese’s Nemea as the most famous red wine appellation in Greece. Though the vineyards sit at lower elevations than in Amynteo, between 80 and 350 meters (260 – 1,150 feet), they are more pronounced in slope. Naoussa’s vineyards form a near-contiguous east-facing band that extends along the slopes of Mount Vermion, a popular winter ski destination. The soils are heavier than in Amynteo, with more clay and less sand, as well as considerable limestone. It is slightly warmer and more humid than in Amynteo, but Naoussa’s climate is still categorized as continental. A vineyard in Naoussa Naoussa owes its early renown to Boutari, which got its start here in 1879. As Boutari was the first to bottle wine in Greece, Naoussa was, by extension, among the first regions to be regularly listed on a label. Within the appellation, there is considerable awareness of and conversation around the presence of “crus.” While it’s hard to directly compare the 13 crus (it is rare for a winery to produce wine from more than one village), certain ones seem to stick out. Trifolos is located at a lower elevation, and the wines seem to possess more body and generosity, possibly due to the richer soils. Fytia is among the higher elevation subregions; the soil is more spare and rocky, and its wines are far more chiseled. Ramnista is the home of Kir-Yianni, one of the more modern and polished producers. Perhaps it is their influence, but the wines of Ramnista seem fuller in body, with smooth tannins and lifted aromatics. Setting aside regional expression, most producers seem to fall into one of two camps: traditional or modern. Traditional Xinomavro is lighter-bodied, tannic, and at times rustic, while modern Xinomavro offers more fruit, extraction, and a darker hue. Legally, the PDO also allows for semi-sweet Xinomavro, but these are never as successful as the dry styles. Outside of the PDO, Xinomavro is often blended with international varieties, such as Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, or Syrah. The PDO of Goumenissa is located to the northeast of Naoussa, at the foot of Mount Paiko. The vineyards are planted along the rolling foothills, over a narrower range of elevation (150 – 300 meters, or 490 – 985 feet). The soils tend to be deep clay-loam and the dominant aspect is south. This is the warmest of the three Xinomavro-dominant PDOs, and sunshine is ample. These conditions lend themselves to a riper and more generous style, an expression compounded by the dictates of the PDO that require Xinomavro be co-fermented with at least 20% Negoska, a softly structured and fruit-forward variety. Goumenissa has the least established reputation of Macedonia’s PDOs. This is partly because the region languished after phylloxera and didn’t really come back to life until Boutari moved in during the 1970s. Along the Aegean coast further to the east is an area known as Halkidiki. This is one of the most widely planted regions of Macedonia, and it is readily identified by its three finger-like peninsulas that extend into the sea. The central peninsula is home to the PDO Slopes of Meliton (Plagies Melitona), an appellation that applies solely to the vineyard of a single estate, the historic Domaine Porto Carras. With 450 hectares under vine, this one of the largest single vineyards in Greece. The soil is sandy loam with limestone, and the vineyards extend from 100 to 350 meters (330 – 1,150 feet) in elevation. Many of the slopes are steep, which necessitates terracing, and the climate is Mediterranean. The PDO allows production of a dry red made from Limnio with Cabernet Sauvignon and/or Cabernet Franc and a dry white made from Assyrtiko, Athiri, and Roditis. Granted in 1982, this was the first of two PDOs to allow international varieties. The next peninsula to the east is home to the famous Mount Athos Vineyard, defined as an Area PGI, the fruit from which is divided between the monk-owned Mylopotamos and Tsantali. This 70-hectare vineyard is an isolated pocket of vines, situated between heavy forest and the Aegean. Most of the vineyard sits between 220 and 250 meters (720 – 820 feet) and enjoys sandy clay loam and a decidedly Mediterranean climate. Over half of the vineyard is planted to Cabernet Sauvignon, with Grenache, Assyrtiko, Athiri, Limnio, Chardonnay, Xinomavro, and Roditis, in descending order of prevalence. This vineyard is famous not only for its beauty but for the mysticism that surrounds it. Over a dozen monasteries occupy this peninsula, which has been significant to the Eastern Orthodox Church for centuries. The vineyard is owned by the monasteries and no women are allowed to walk its vines. Heading back west along the coast toward Thessaloniki is the small but growing viticultural area of Epanomi. Its primary importance is as the home of Gerovassiliou, the eponymous winery of Evangelos Gerovassiliou, who grows Malagousia to great effect. When he decided to revitalize his father’s vineyard in 1981, there were no other producers in the area; now there are a half a dozen. Situated close to the coast, this area is quite flat and low in altitude, with soils of sandy clay studded by marine fossils. Gerovassiliou and his neighbors produce a broad range of wines that often combine Greek with international varieties. These wines are bottled as PGI Epanomi. Another region of note in Macedonia is Drama, which forms part of the eastern border with Thrace. Drama’s vineyards are clustered into two main areas ringed by three mountains—a long, skinny, northeast-facing site that hugs the slope of Mount Menikio and a broad, flat plain to the east of Drama where the vines compete with cereal grains. As Drama is relatively far inland, the climate is continental and relatively cool. International varieties dominate, along with smaller amounts of Limnio and Agiorgitiko. In the west of Macedonia is a rarely seen but traditional sweet wine called Siatista (PGI), made of dried Xinomavro and Moschomavro. PDOs: Amynteo, Goumenissa, Naoussa, Slopes of Meliton Regional PGIs: Macedonia District PGIs: Drama, Florina, Grevena, Halkidiki, Imathia, Kastoria, Kavala, Kozani, Pella, Pieria, Serres, Thessaloniki Area PGIs: Adriani, Agora, Epanomi, Ilion, Krania, Mount Athos, Nea Messimvria, Pangeon, Siatista, Sithonia, Slopes of Paiko, Slopes of Vertiskos, Thassos, Velventos Thessaly Thessaly (Thassalia) is a large, fertile plain surrounded by the Pindos Mountains, which include Mount Olympus in the east, the mountains marking a northeastern boundary between Thessaly and Macedonia. Due to this rare flat expanse, Thessaly is one of the few regions of Greece where the population derives most of its income from agriculture. Wine-grape viticulture tends to be relegated to the mountainous edge (table grapes and raisins are commonly cultivated on the plains). The mountains act as both wind shield and humidity trap, which aids farming. Thessaly is one of the few regions that abound in fresh water, boasting several rivers and regular runoff from snow-capped mountains. Most of the soils are composed of schist and grey clay, and the climate is Mediterranean with chilly winters. The region was once rich in indigenous varieties, but many of them were lost because of phylloxera. Today, Muscat of Hamburg and Roditis are the most widely planted. Muscat of Hamburg is more often used as a table grape or in the production of Tsipouro (Greek grappa) than in the production of wine, while Roditis is the feature grape of the Anchialos PDO, feeds local Retsina production, and is planted in various District and Area PGIs. Of the remaining indigenous varieties, Limniona is probably the most exciting. Though the variety is not featured in any PDOs, it can be bottled under a handful of PGIs. The wines tend to be dark and soft, with lifted, floral aromatics and a bright acidity. Domaine Zafeirakis makes an especially beautiful Limniona, which is reminiscent of Pinot Noir. Other varieties of local import include Assyrtiko, Malagousia, Batiki, Chardonnay, Limnio (to which Limniona is not related), Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, and Merlot. Thessaly contains two districts and three PDOs, the most important of which is Rapsani . This appellation is composed of a handful of villages on the southeast-facing slopes of Mount Olympus. There, the vineyards stretch from 150 to 800 meters (490 – 2,625 feet). Rapsani can be considered by zones of quality based on elevation, with the zones running from 50 to 150 meters, 150 to 350 meters, and 350 to 800 meters. The soils tend to be light and rocky, with loess at the bottom stratum, sandy loam in the middle, and red-tinged ferric schist at the top. As with many other places in Greece, the finest wines are thought to come from the highest elevations. The climate is Mediterranean with high humidity, and hail is a regular winter concern. Greece’s smallest PDO, Rapsani has 60 producing hectares and 30 newly planted hectares as of 2017. The appellation was granted in 1971, when there was one winery. When Tsantali arrived in the late 1980s, the area was effectively abandoned and the vineyards needed major rehabilitation. Today, Tsantali owns no vineyards but vinifies 95% of the region’s fruit. The other 5% is divided between a handful of small local wineries. Rapsani is the only PDO to feature Xinomavro outside of Macedonia. Here, it must be co-fermented with varying percentages of Stavroto and Krasato. While historically the grapes were present in equal parts, that is not legally enforced, and in truth, many of Tsantali’s Rapsani bottlings tend to prioritize Xinomavro. In the blend, Krasato balances Xinomavro’s strict tendencies by adding softness and extract. Stavroto is the most difficult to cultivate, as it is easily infected by rot. When ripe, it offers low sugars, medium acidity, and high tannins. Compared to Macedonia’s Xinomavro-based reds, Rapsani wines tend to be a bit riper and softer, though still structural enough to withstand cellar aging. Thessaly’s other two PDOs are Anchialos and Messenikola. Messenikola is located on the southwest edge of the region. Granted in 1994, this is only the second of Greece’s PDOs to feature international varieties, as its dry reds are fashioned out of Mavro Messenikola, with a maximum combined total of 30% Carignan and Syrah. The appellation sits near the banks of Lake Plastira, on gravel-rich clay soils at elevations up to 750 meters (2,460 feet). The wines are middling in quality, and tend to be pale and low in extract. The wines of Anchialos are rarely seen on the market, but legally they should be composed of 80% Roditis with 20% Savatiano. For medium-sweet and medium-dry wines, oak aging is forbidden. Dry wines are defined by the fruity nature of the grapes, implying that skin contact would be avoided. PDOs: Anchialos, Messenikola, Rapsani Regional PGIs: Thessaly District PGIs: Karditsa, Magnissia Area PGIs: Elassona, Krania, Krannonas, Meteora, Tyrnavos Epirus Epirus is the westernmost region of mainland Greece, and the Ionian island of Corfu lingers just offshore. This is one of the most remote and mountainous areas of the country, with most of the region sitting at or above 700 meters (2,300 feet) in elevation. Prior to World War II, Epirus abounded in viticulture, with most wines consumed locally. The war saw the emptying of villages, however, and as the population declined, many vineyards were left to founder. Phylloxera’s arrival in the 1950s was the final nail in the coffin. The region is divided into four governmental districts, but only one, Ioannina, is defined as a District PGI. Ioannina is the largest and most northerly region and shares a border with Albania. Its soils are clay-based with moderate amounts of limestone, and it receives some of the highest rainfall in Greece. Within Ioannina are two main grapegrowing regions: the PDO of Zitsa and the Area PGI of Metsovo. While neither region produces a significant quantity of wine, both are regarded for their high quality. PDO Zitsa occupies a particularly limestone-rich elevated plateau near the center of the Ioannina PGI. The vineyards sit between 500 and 700 meters (1,640 – 2,295 feet) in elevation, and enjoy a cool continental climate that is influenced by the Pindos Mountains to the east and the Ionian Sea to the west. Debina is the main grape of the region, and the PDO allows it to be made into still, semi-sparkling, or sparkling wines—both dry and off-dry—with the sparkling wines fashioned by either the tank or traditional method. When made in a dry style via the traditional method, these are some of the finest sparkling wines in Greece: light-bodied with bright acidity and delicate aromas of green apple, lemon, and citrus flowers. PGI Metsovo, which sits at the eastern end of Ioannina, is best known for its Cabernet Sauvignon, though its original stab at this variety in the 1960s led to very green wines that were severely panned. Today, producers have figured out how to farm for proper ripeness, using a range of methods that include lowering yields. Cabernet is joined by two other red varieties in Metsovo—Bekari and Vlahiko. Both are indigenous to the area, with Bekari known for its dark hue and Vlahiko being high in acid but low in color and tannin. Other varieties seen in Epirus include Roditis, Malagousia, Chardonnay, Riesling, Traminer, and Sauvignon Blanc. PDOs: Zitsa Regional PGIs: Epirus District PGIs: Ioannina Area PGIs: Metsovo Central Greece Central Greece , also known as Sterea Ellada, possesses no PDOs, but the eastern half of the region is rich with Area PGIs. This is a broad geographical span that contains many subregions, notably the island of Evia and Attica. Sterea Ellada is strongly affiliated with the production of Retsina, and to this end, the dominant varieties are Savatiano and Roditis. While a handful of producers have established reputations for quality, most wines from this area are mass produced. Inoffensive yet forgettable, they are destined for the anonymous carafes of the many tavernas of Athens and the islands. The Pindos Mountains cover much of central Sterea Ellada, with plains on either side. This results in a complex topography with a wide diversity of soils and stark climatic differences. The western end of the region gets significant rainfall, the high elevation sites in the center can be cold, and the eastern edge is hot and arid. Sterea Ellada is home to seven regional units. Two of these, Attica and the island Evia, are District PGIs. Another two, Fthiotida and Viotia, contain Area PGIs within them. Viotia is also a PGI District for Retsina. It is directly north of Attica, sandwiched between the Corinthian and Evian gulfs. While also hot and dry, mountains protect much of this growing area from the warm Aegean winds that sweep Attica. The best vineyards are located on the north-facing slopes of Mount Parnitha, which can reach as high as 500 meters (1,640 feet) in elevation. Savatiano and Roditis are the most widely planted varieties. Other wine grapes include Malagousia, Assyrtiko, Sauvignon Blanc, Agiorgitiko, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Syrah. Fthiotida is located to the northwest of Viotia and shares a border with Thessaly. Historically, this was an important grapegrowing region, until the twin disasters of World War II and phylloxera saw many of its vineyards converted to other pursuits. The area came back into fashion in the early 1970s when the esteemed producer Hatzimichalis set up shop. The topography of Fthiotida is extremely diverse. It is effectively a valley basin, which extends from the sea and is surrounded by mountains. This creates a range of aspects, elevations, and mesoclimates that are difficult to generalize. That said, the region tends to be nearly as hot as Viotia, but with more mountain breezes. Interestingly, Savatiano is hardly seen in Fthiotida, partly because the region was reborn in a more modern era. In its place stands a bevy of international varieties, specifically Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot. Evia PGI is Greece’s second largest island after Crete, and it closely traces the eastern edge of Central Greece. From a varietal perspective, Evia marries Central Greece and the Aegean Islands; while Savatiano dominates, Roditis, Malagousia, Agiorgitiko, and the commonly found international varieties comingle with the Aegean mainstays of Assyrtiko, Mandilaria, and Liatiko. The red variety Vradiano is local to Evia, though it does not represent significant plantings. Like the rest of Central Greece, Evia is mountainous, with an undulating topography, cooler temperatures in the north and hot, dry conditions in the south. Attica PGI (Attika, Attiki) is one of the most widely planted parts of Greece, though most of its vines are dedicated to the production of Retsina or mass-market wines. It is located at the southeastern tip of Central Greece and is surrounded on three sides by the Aegean Sea and its gulfs. While the Aegean does offer some moderating influence, it also introduces warm winds, which helps to make this one of the hottest and driest parts of Greece. This is compounded by the presence of mountains, which cut off Attica from any cooling northern breezes. In the east end of the region, the soils are more fertile and rich in loam, while limestone dominates in the west. Attica possesses 11 PGI Areas and can be broadly defined as North Attica, the coolest and least fertile; Mesogia, the flat plain to the east of Athens; and Megara to the west, which is the source of mostly bulk wine. Savatiano is the most important variety, with Roditis, Malagousia, Assyrtiko, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Agiorgitiko, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Syrah playing supporting roles. In recent years, Attica producer Papagiannakos has shown the heights of what is possible for both Attica and Savatiano. By focusing on old vines and top-shelf vinification techniques, he has produced varietal Savatiano that is both compelling and ageworthy, as well as more subtle interpretations of Retsina that challenge popular conceptions of the style. PDOs: None Regional PGIs: Sterea Ellada District PGIs: Attica, Evia Area PGIs: Anavyssos, Gerania, Ilion, Karystos, Koropi, Lilantio Pedio, Opountia Lokrida, Markopoulo, Martino, Opountia Pallini, Parnassos, Peanea, Ritsona, Slopes of Kitherona, Slopes of Knimida, Slopes of Parnitha, Slopes of Pentelito, Spata, Thebes, Valley of Atalanti, Vilitsa Traditional Retsina Area PGIs: Retsina of Attica, Retsina of Evia, Retsina of Gialtra, Retsina of Halkida, Retsina of Karystos, Retsina of Koropi, Retsina of Markopoulos, Retsina of Megara, Retsina of Mesogia, Retsina of Pallini, Retsina of Peania, Retsina of Pikermi, Retsina of Spata, Retsina of Thebes, Retsina of Viotia The Peloponnese The Peloponnese is the southernmost section of the Greek mainland. This massive landmass is very nearly an island, save for the presence of a narrow land bridge that qualifies it as a peninsula. It is significant to Greek wine both in terms of quantity and quality: its Nemea and Mantinia PDOs are two of the most lauded in Greece; its western shores are home to Domaine Mercouri, one of Greece’s top boutique estates; Patras is physically the largest PDO of Greece; and the newest PDO of the Peloponnese, Monemvasia (Malvasia), honors what was once the most famous wine of the ancient world. The Peloponnese is separated from the mainland by the narrow Gulf of Corinth. Like much of Greece, it is mountainous, with seven different peaks approaching 2,000 meters (6,560 feet) in elevation. These mountains, constituted of mainly limestone, and the southern shores of the Peloponnese mark the beginning of the Hellenic Trench, an important fault area where the African plate and the Eurasian plate meet. The northeastern portion of the Peloponnese, the peninsula of Athens, and the island of Evia are all in an active volcanic zone. Aside from the very center of the peninsula, which is continental, the climate is categorized as hot Mediterranean, though proximity to the coast and especially elevation serve to mitigate the heat. The Peloponnese is the most extensively planted section of Greece, with most viticulture concentrated in the north, specifically in the PGI Districts of Achaia, Corinth, and Arcadia. Rainfall tends to be highest in the west, while conditions in the east are arid. This disparity—as well as that between the coastal and inland areas, and between low and high elevations—makes for a staggering variety of wines and wine styles. Indeed, the Peloponnese boasts the greatest viticultural diversity in all of Greece, with an impressive number of indigenous varieties. The peninsula contains seven PDOs, three for dry wines and four for sweet. Nemea is by far the most important. Its reds are composed entirely of Agiorgitiko, whose charming nature has trumped its difficult name and made it one of the most revered wines of Greece. Wines made from Agiorgitiko are often referred to as the “Blood of Hercules,” as legend has it that this wine gave him the strength to defeat the Nemean lion. The production of both dry and sweet reds is permitted in the PDO, though the dry wines are far more common and far more successful than the dessert styles. Historically, dry Nemean reds were crafted in a light and fruity style, occasionally via carbonic maceration. Starting in the mid-1980s, Skouras modernized Nemea through his popular Megas Oenos, a blend of Agiorgitiko and Cabernet Sauvignon that aged in new French barrels. Later, in the 1990s, Gaia estate pioneered a richer, more extractive style of pure Agiorgitiko. There, Agiorgitiko was treated more like a noble grape, subjected to deeper extraction and more serious oak aging. The results were roundly praised, and this approach has since gained in popularity. By law, sweet wines can be produced by vinifying either late harvest or air-dried grapes, or through fortification. Rosés are common and tend to be deeply colored and fruit forward, though they cannot be labeled as a PDO. Blends of Agiorgitiko with international varieties are also popular, especially those that feature Cabernet Sauvignon. Megas Oenos, produced by Skouras, is the most famous example of this style. A view from Nemea Nemea is in the Corinth district, which occupies the northeast corner of the Peloponnese (though a small portion of the PDO crosses over into the Argolida district to the south). This is a sizable appellation that contains 17 villages and is divided into three distinct zones based on altitude. The lowest zone extends from 200 to 450 meters (650 – 1,475 feet) and features high temperatures and rich soils that are dominated by red clay. Historically, this is where dessert wines and the lightest and most fruit-forward dry reds were sourced. The second zone ranges from 450 to 650 meters (1,475 – 2,135 feet) in elevation. This is a notably cooler area, with poor and varied soils. The final tier sits between 650 and 850 meters (2,135 – 2,790 feet) and is the coolest of the three, with considerable limestone. Historically, the middle region was the sweet spot for serious dry reds, while the upper zone was mined for rosé. That approach is changing, however, as producers embrace the more light and sculptural style of dry red that can be coaxed from the highest slopes. As in Naoussa, Nemean producers are trying to draw consumer attention to “crus,” some of which are beginning to register. One of the most famous is Koutsi, a limestone-rich region that sits at around 650 meters (2,130 feet) and is the headquarters for Gaia. In the center of the Peloponnese lies the district of Arcadia, which touches the Argolikos Gulf in the east and then extends and expands inland. This is the coolest, most continental part of the Peloponnese, and most of the region is planted to white grapes. The PDO of Mantinia is located at its center, just north of Tripoli, the capital city of the Peloponnese. Here, the soils are rich in clay and rocky, tinged lightly red with iron in many places. Mantinia occupies a plateau that averages 750 meters (2,460 feet) in elevation and is surrounded by high mountains. These mountains sequester the region, imbuing it with a separate, singular climate wherein winter snows are common. As a result, ripeness is not always a given, a rare phenomenon in Greece. A vineyard in Mantinia According to PDO dictates, Mantinia wines must be made with a minimum of 85% Moschofilero, though in practice most are varietal. If blended, the balance should be composed of Asproudes (the generic term for indigenous white grapes). In Mantinia, this typically refers to Glikerithra, a high-sugar, low-acid variety of middling reputation. The resulting wines can be still (only dry) or sparkling (tank or traditional method, ranging from dry to sweet), and tend to be light-bodied and floral, with a high acidity and heady perfume. Beyond Moschofilero and Glikerithra, Arcadia is planted to Roditis, Savatiano, Lagorthi, Assyrtiko, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Agiorgitiko, Mavroudi, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot. The District PGI of Achaia is located to the north of Arcadia and west of Corinth, forming the northernmost coast of the Peloponnese. This is a very significant district for viticulture, as both wine grapes and raisins are widely cultivated. Achaia’s mountains are especially dramatic, with the three massive peaks along its southern end effectively cutting it off from all points south. Achaia has some of the steepest slopes in Greece, most of which face north toward the Corinthian Gulf. The climate is warm, so elevation is essential, though the gulf does provide a moderate cooling influence. Achaia’s main city, Patras, sits close to the water and is associated with all four PDOs—Patras, Muscat of Patras, Muscat of Rio Patras, and Mavrodaphne of Patras. Of Achaia’s four PDOs, only Patras (Patra) is for dry wine, which must be made entirely of Roditis. At their best, Patras whites tend to be both high-pitched and creamy, with a lemon-scented nose. Clonal selection is critical, as some local strains of Roditis are geared more for production than for quality. Elevation is also essential, and while the region stretches from 250 to 900 meters (820 – 2,955 feet), the best wines tend to hail from high on the slopes. Mavrodaphne of Patras is the most famous of Achaia’s sweet wines, though it is not as widely admired as Cephalonia’s Mavrodaphne. Mavrodaphne of Patras was first created in 1861 by Achaia Clauss, a winery of great historic significance. Founder Gustav Clauss had spent time in the Douro before establishing his estate, and had originally crafted his wine in Port’s image. Legally, Mavrodaphne of Patras must be composed of a minimum of 51% Mavrodaphne with the balance of Corinthiaki, which is more commonly used for raisins. While the inclusion of fresh Corinthiaki grapes leads to richer, sweeter wines, the best producers are eschewing it to focus exclusively on Mavrodaphne. The wines are always fortified, but this can occur at different times. Top producers will add spirits to arrest an already in-process fermentation (the same method used to produce a French vin doux naturel), while more production-oriented wineries will simply blend spirit and unfermented must (akin to mistelle or vin de liqueur). The wine is then aged in oak for at least a year, but extended aging is common among quality producers and solera systems are often employed. To be labeled as a reserve, a wine must age a minimum of three years—two years in cask and one year in bottle. Vieille reserve requires a minimum of five years of aging, including at least two years in cask and two years in bottle. And grande reserve must age a minimum of seven years, with at least three years in cask and three years in bottle. Mavrodaphne of Patras can be bottled as either a vintage or a non-vintage blend, though a non-vintage wine must be aged for at least three years after the blend is completed. The appellation extends from sea level to 250 meters (820 feet). Muscat of Patras and Muscat of Rio Patras are both made exclusively from Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains, but differ significantly in their expression. As most of the Muscat of Patras appellation is on clay-based soils, the wines tend to be richer in texture, even heavy. The wine is also sourced from lower elevations, from sea level to 250 meters (820 feet). The Rio Patras appellation is closer to the coast and has a milder climate, which results in more high-toned, floral wines. Wines are sourced from elevations of 0 to 450 meters (0 – 1,475 feet). Both PDOs can be made via three different methods: fortification before fermentation (vin de liqueur), fortification after some fermentation (vin doux naturel), or by vinifying dried fruit. Wines produced with the vin doux naturel method and hailing from select vineyards can be labeled as grand cru. Outside of the PDOs, Achaia is planted to a mix of varieties, both native and international, with the most significant being Assyrtiko, Moschofilero, Lagorthi, Malagousia, Robola, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Agiorgitiko, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Syrah. The Ilia district lies to the southwest of Achaia, and most of its coastline traces the Ionian Sea. This is one of the more flat, fertile, and rainy parts of the Peloponnese, so agriculture plays a significant role in the local economy. The district is best known as the home of Domaine Mercouri, one of Greece’s finest wine estates. This historic winery got its start in 1864 when, because of ties to Italy, it famously planted Refosco (known locally as Mercouri). Domaine Mercouri ceased operations in 1960 but was resuscitated in 1985 by the third and fourth generations of the family. Today, indigenous Greek varieties such as Mavrodaphne, Agiorgitiko, Assyrtiko, and Avgoustiatis (an aromatic Ionian red grape) are expertly combined with both French (Syrah, Mourvèdre, Viognier, Grenache) and Italian (Ribolla Gialla, Refosco) varieties, the results of which are bottled as either PGI Ilia or Letrina. Mercouri’s success has inspired other wineries to set up shop, but Ilia remains a minor region from a wine perspective. Laconia PGI, located in the southeast of the peninsula, is the final district of viticultural note in the Peloponnese. It is less mountainous than other regions, with inland plains and rolling hills near the coast. While not widely planted, Laconia is rich in indigenous varieties, many of which can only be found in old-vine field blends. Though these vineyards survived, winemaking virtually disappeared from the region following World War II, and most of the active wineries have been founded since the 1990s. Laconia is historically significant: not only is it the home of Sparta, it was also once the source for the most famous wine of Greece, Malvasia. The uniquely confusing history of Malvasia begins in the port town of Monemvasia, which is also the name for one of Greece’s indigenous white grapes. This town gave its name to a dessert wine (likely made from a blend of grapes, which may or may not have included Monemvasia), which was traded widely starting in the 13th century. When the Venetians occupied the Peloponnese, they renamed both the port town and the wine Malvasia, which has nothing to do with the grape by that name. The name Malvasia became so synonymous with dessert wine that Crete (which was also under Venetian rule) began producing its own Malvasia, from its own local grapes. Centuries passed, production dwindled down to a trickle, and the area’s cachet faded, but in 2010, after much lobbying by the Monemvasia winery, the Greek government awarded the region with a PDO in a bid to resuscitate its legacy. They named it Monemvasia-Malvasia , thereby linking both monikers. Today, the wine must be made from a minimum of 51% Monemvasia, with the balance composed of Assyrtiko, Asproudes, and Kydonitsa (a low-acid, high-alcohol white grape). The grapes must be dried, though fortification is optional. The wine is then aged in barrel at least two years prior to release and can be bottled as either a single vintage or a blend of vintages, wherein the most recent vintage is listed on the label. Elevations range from sea level to 500 meters (1,640 feet). PDOs: Mantinia, Mavrodaphne of Patras, Monemvasia-Malvasia, Muscat of Patras, Muscat of Rio Patras, Nemea, Patras Regional PGIs: Peloponnese District PGIs: Achaia, Argolida, Arkadia, Ilia, Korinthos, Laconia, Messinia Area PGIs: Klimenti, Letrina, Pisatis, Pylia, Slopes of Egialia, Slopes of Petroto, Tegea, Trifilia Ionian Islands The Ionian Islands sit off the western coast of mainland Greece. They take their name from the Ionian Sea, which is the southern continuation of the Adriatic. These islands regularly receive some of the highest levels of rainfall in Greece, which makes fungal infections a regular concern. While the climate is classified as Mediterranean, it is milder here than in the rest of the country. These islands are also mountainous and steep, especially when compared to the Aegean Islands, and feature a wide range of soil types planted to a slew of indigenous varieties. Interestingly, the Ionian Island group is the only part of Greece to claim no Regional PGI. These islands have a unique history as they never fell under the control of the Ottoman Empire, and so their wine production wasn’t subjected to the punitive taxes experienced by the rest of Greece. Instead, the Ionian Islands were ruled by the Venetians for over 400 years (1386 – 1797), briefly belonged to France, and then became a British protectorate until joining the Greek state in 1864. As the Venetians and the British were supportive of viticulture, the wine industry thrived, despite the islands’ relatively remote location. There are seven main Ionian islands, but only four are viticulturally significant. The largest and most important is Cephalonia (Kefalonia), which is the only Ionian island to possess any PDOs. This island has a long history under vine, but its industry was slashed to a shadow of itself following the devastating earthquake of 1953. Thousands of residents were killed, and many survivors fled the island afterward in search of more stable ground. This resulted in a dramatic drop in wine production that has never fully recovered. But what Cephalonia currently lacks in quantity it makes up for in quality, especially with its dry white wines from the Robola of Cephalonia PDO . Elegant and refreshing, these can be some of the finest whites in Greece. The appellation itself is fragmented, composed of separate areas in the central and southern parts of the island. While all vineyards must be situated at or above 50 meters (165 feet) in elevation, the best wines tend to come from between 400 and 850 meters (1,310 — 2,790 feet) on the rocky, limestone-rich slopes of Mount Ainos. Around 85% of all PDO Robola wines are made by a single source, the Cooperative of Cephalonia Robola Producers. That said, the smaller wineries are leading the quality charge, especially Gentilini, which has experimented with oak aging and natural fermentation to great effect, and Sclavos, one of the few biodynamic estates in Greece. The Muscat of Cephalonia PDO is located on the western end of the island. This dessert wine, composed exclusively from the Muscat Blanc variety, can be forged via three different methods: vin doux, vin doux naturel, and vin naturellement doux. Only those wines that are made via the vin doux naturel method and are sourced from select vineyards may be labeled as grand cru. The designation also requires that the grapes meet a higher ripeness requirement and be cropped at less than half of the yields required for other wines. Elevations range from 0 to 200 meters (0 – 655 feet). The Mavrodaphne of Cephalonia PDO is scattered across the island and tends to feature heavier clay-based soils. It has a qualitative advantage over Mavrodaphne of Patras in that Cephalonia features a particularly well-regarded clone of Mavrodaphne: Tsigelo. To be labeled with the PDO, the wine must be fortified, though no specific method is required. Beyond the PDOs, some excellent dry Mavrodaphne is being produced, and the indigenous white grapes Tsaousi and Moschatella are widely planted. Tsaousi doubles as a table grape, and Moschatella makes for heady, aromatic wines reminiscent of Muscat (to which it is not related). Elevations range from 0 to 450 meters (0 – 1,475 feet). Zakynthos is the most southerly Ionian island and has the warmest climate. It is located just off the coast of the Peloponnese and is visible from Domaine Mercouri. Zakynthos is less dramatic from a topographic perspective, with lower elevations, flatter slopes, and more fertile soils. Because this island was relatively easy to farm, the Venetians planted much of it to raisins. Zakynthos still boasts raisin vineyards today, but it is also home to over 30 indigenous varieties, a remarkable number for such a small place. Its best-known wine is Verdea, Greece’s only other traditional PGI wine beside Retsina. Verdea has been produced since the 19th century, and PGI regulations dictate it be composed of a minimum 50% percent Skiadopoulo, a white grape with a high sugar content and moderate acidity. Many other varieties can be included, but Pavlos, Robola, and Goustolidi are most common. Traditionally, this wine is high in alcohol and dry, with an oxidative tone from extended oak aging. Recently, some producers are freshening up the style in a bid to increase its popularity. Nonetheless, this wine remains a rarity, even inside Greece. Lefkada is located to the north of Cephalonia; of all the Ionian Islands, this one sits closest to the mainland, to which it is connected by a bridge. Lefkada is a small, steep island, dominated by the presence of Mount Elati. It is not particularly important viticulturally, and is mostly planted to the high-sugar, phenolic red grape Vertzami (also known Lefkaditiko). Corfu is the most northerly Ionian island and is far better known as a vacation destination than a center of wine production. It is mostly flat with one major peak, Pandokratoras. Red varieties, though not produced under the PGI Corfu, tend to be planted in the more steeply sloped northern terrain, while white grapes like the green-hued Kakotrigis and Petrokoritho are generally planted in the rocky, lower elevation sites in the south. PDOs: Mavrodaphne of Cephalonia, Muscat of Cephalonia, Robola of Cephalonia Regional PGIs: None District PGIs: Corfu, Lefkada, Zakynthos Area PGIs: Halikouna, Mantzavinata, Metaxata, Slopes of Ainos, Verdea Aegean Islands The Aegean is the primary sea of Greece, and within its waves are thousands of islands, a handful of them viticulturally significant. Crete, the giant landmass that marks the southern limit of the Aegean, is a juggernaut of production, accounting for 11.9% of Greek vines, while all the other islands together represent 10.67%. This places over a fifth of Greek vineyards in the Aegean . Happily for wine lovers, but perhaps frustratingly for students, the resulting wine is fragmented into hundreds of different faces, as each island has its own varieties, traditions, and personality. Within the Aegean are four island groups: the Cyclades, the Dodecanese, the North Aegean, and the Sporades. As the Sporades don’t really contribute to the wine industry, they are excluded from this guide. Aegean Islands: Cyclades The Cyclades, named for the circular shape of its formation, is a cluster of islands located in the south Aegean, just north of Crete. It encompasses 33 major islands, including the vacation destination of Mykonos, plus several smaller islands, many of them uninhabited. From a viticultural perspective, the most important are Santorini and Paros, with Santorini being especially revered for the quality of its dry white and dessert wines. While these islands boast a long history under vine, the wines, with a few exceptions, were traditionally sold as generics or blended with other wines. During France’s phylloxera crisis, the islands joined the rest of Greece in supplying grapes and wine to desperate vignerons, but France’s sudden recovery in the 1890s resulted in an almost total collapse of Aegean winemaking. Vineyards remained in the ground, however, and cooperatives became the primary home for their fruit. For a long time, the populations of these islands subsisted at the poverty level, until the rise of tourism in the 1970s brought new avenues for income. Now, tourism is the dominant industry, especially in the Cyclades, which are closer to mainland Greece than most of the islands. While the swell of tourism was a boon in that it created new markets for wine, the subsequent rush of development has displaced many vineyards and continues to threaten even more. In general, the Cyclades experience some of the hottest and driest conditions in Greece. This is compounded by relentless winds, which can interfere with fruit set in the spring and enhance water stress throughout the year. The especially strong Meltemi, which kicks up most significantly in late summer, impedes tourism (its gusts are sufficient to ground planes) and stalls photosynthesis (the high winds cause the leaf stomata to close). This can be challenging to manage but is considered essential to extending the growing season and preventing Cyclades wines from becoming overripe. As the soils are extremely poor and lacking in clay, phylloxera has never infected these islands. This makes the Cyclades home to some of the oldest vines and root systems in Greece. Regional compositions vary, but across the islands, the dominant white grapes are Assyrtiko and Monemvasia, and the most widely planted red is Mandilaria. Santorini Today, Santorini is one of the jewels of Greece, with stark, resplendent architecture and wines that are among the most fetishized of Greece’s exports. This success is a modern phenomenon, however. As recently as a few decades ago, the people of Santorini were struggling to get by, and most wines were produced by a large cooperative. While so sudden a turnabout may seem dramatic, such is the history of Santorini: full of highs, lows, and remarkable twists of fortune. The rocky cliffs and vines of Santorini Santorini first came under vine during the Bronze Age, when it was a Minoan colony called Thera. Back then, the island looked much different, as it didn’t assume its current shape until it erupted dramatically during the 17th century BCE. This was a cataclysmic explosion that caused massive tsunamis and is credited with wiping out the Minoan civilization. Much of the island was either scattered into the atmosphere or sank into the sea (rumored to be the origin of the Atlantis myth). What is now the crescent-shaped archipelago of Santorini is just the unsubmerged sections of the ancient volcano’s caldera. This volcano is still active and erupted as recently as 1950. The Phoenicians followed the Minoans in custody of Thera, which then became a Spartan colony in the ninth century BCE. In 146 BCE, Santorini and the rest of Greece came under Roman rule before joining the Byzantine Empire in 330 CE. It was the Byzantines who changed the island’s name to Santorini, in honor of Saint Irene. Ottomans then occupied the island from 1576 to 1831, a dim time for viticulture, before Santorini and Greece were liberated in 1832. Santorini possesses incredibly poor volcanic soils that offer almost no organic matter. This soil is so infertile that even olive trees can’t thrive. Aside from capers and vines, cherry tomatoes were an important Santorini export, but that industry was effectively wiped out after a massive earthquake in the 1950s destroyed the factories. The decades that followed were grim for the citizens of Santorini, until tourism accelerated in the 1970s. Since 1947, the sole commercial wine producer on Santorini was the cooperative Santo, which is still in operation today. Smaller outfits called kanavas had long peppered the island, but their production was mainly confined to home use. One such kanava , owned by the Argyros family, expanded in scale in the 1970s and is now a top producer. Next came Boutari, the first major outside winery to set up shop on Santorini, with an inaugural vintage in 1989. Boutari worked to revitalize the local industry and made huge strides in quality by picking earlier than was traditional and introducing technologies such as stainless steel and temperature control. The following decade saw a handful of other key wineries open. Hatzidakis came to Santorini as Boutari’s winemaker before purchasing his own vineyard in 1996, and Sigalas and Gaia, another outsider, also got their start in the 1990s. These estates are some of the most renowned in Greece, and in addition to raising the bar in Santorini, the quality of their wines echoed across the country, inspiring a new generation of Greek vintners. These producers were certainly skilled, but they were also aided by the unique nature of Santorini’s vineyards. Much of Santorini’s soil is tinted black with volcanic basalt that sits atop metamorphosed limestone and schist. Because of the utter lack of clay, phylloxera never took hold, and many of Santorini’s vines have root systems that are several hundred years in age. The climate is hot and exceedingly dry, and the island contains neither rivers nor lakes to supply fresh water. Indeed, for much of the growing season, morning fog and dew are the only sources of moisture. To capture this, vines are trained in a distinctive low-lying basket shape called kouloura or stefani . This method of training also serves to protect both vines and fruit from the angry winds that regularly whip the island. Vineyards are scattered throughout Santorini but tend to be concentrated in the center and along the west coast. This is not a particularly high-elevation island; vineyards are located between 0 and 300 meters (0 – 985 feet). The other tiny islands that form the Santorini complex are also eligible for the appellation but are sparsely planted. In 2018, it was announced that Biblia Chora, the famous Macedonian producer, will establish an estate on Thirassia, which enjoys a similar soil and climatic profile to Santorini proper. The basket-shaped kouloura training system typical of Santorini Historically, Santorini was home to a host of indigenous varieties, and while several dozen still exist, a handful dominate. Assyrtiko is by far the most widely planted, accounting for roughly 80% of all vines. The other important white grapes are Athiri and Aidani. These are typically used as Assyrtiko’s blending partners, though Aidani is occasionally vinified on its own, yielding creamy, waxy, floral wines of moderate acidity. Other indigenous white grapes include Thrapsathiri and Platani, but these are planted in insignificant quantities. Only 15% of Santorini’s vineyards are dedicated to red grapes, the two most important of which are Mandilaria and Mavrotragano. Varietal Mavrotragano wines are occasionally seen and can be successful, yielding dark and dusty wines with a black fruited, slightly herbal nose. Aidani Mavro and Mavrathiro are also present, but in scant amounts. Across all varieties, yields are extremely low on Santorini, especially for old-vine Assyrtiko. Santorini’s single PDO is inclusive of a range of wine styles. The most important of these is the dry white wine produced from a minimum of 85% Assyrtiko blended with Aidani and Athiri. These are distinctive, powerful, though not especially aromatic, wines of depth. They tend to have higher alcohol levels, intense acidity, and elevated phenolics. While the dominant mode of production includes fermentation in stainless steel, the use of oak or acacia barrels is not uncommon. Vinsanto, the famous dessert wine of the island, is also included in the PDO. This wine must be made from a minimum of 51% Assyrtiko, with Aidani and Athiri composing the balance. Legally, Vinsanto must be produced using dried grapes, with or without fortification, though fortification is rarely if ever practiced. Following drying, the grapes are pressed, and the resulting wine is aged in barrel for a minimum of two years, though top producers often keep the wine in barrel for far longer. Nykteri is also included in the PDO. This unusual dry wine is a historical product of Santorini, made with very ripe grapes that are harvested before dawn and pressed within a day. The wine is then aged for a minimum of three months in barrel, though longer is common, and sometimes, flor develops. The result is a full-bodied, distinctive wine high in both alcohol and acidity. Outside of the PDO are dry reds made from Mavrotragano (sometimes with Mandilaria) and a red dessert wine called Mezza, which is produced from air-dried Mandilaria grapes. Paros The island of Paros sits in the center of the Cyclades group, and as a result is slightly more sheltered than its sister islands. While arguably more famous for its marble than its wines, Paros does possess two PDOs, Paros and Malvasia of Paros . Paros is a flat island interrupted by a central peak, Mount Profitis, which reaches over 750 meters (2,460 feet) in elevation. Climatically, Paros is extremely hot and dry but less windy and more humid than Santorini. The soils are a fertile combination of sand, loam, and limestone. Vineyards are found across the island, from 0 to 750 meters (0 – 2,460 feet), but the best sites occupy the mountain slopes at elevations of 250 to 400 meters (820 – 1,310 feet). The main varieties are Mandilaria, Monemvasia, Assyrtiko, and Savatiano, though Roditis and Mavro Aidani are also present. The PDO of Paros allows the production of dry white wine from Monemvasia and dry red wine from a minimum of 35% Mandilaria co-fermented with Monemvasia. The latter is the only instance of a dry red PDO wine in Greece that allows the inclusion of a white grape. Malvasia of Paros is a sweet wine made from sun-dried grapes, Monemvasia with a maximum of 15% Assyrtiko. Fortification is optional, but the wines must be aged for a minimum of two years to be labeled with a vintage. If vintages are blended, the wines may be labeled with an average age in four-year increments if aged for at least four years (e.g., 4, 8, 12, 16 years old). PDOs: Malvasia Paros, Paros, Santorini Regional PGIs: Aegean Sea District PGIs: Cyclades Area PGIs: Syros, Thapsana Aegean Islands: Dodecanese The remote Dodecanese Islands are located to the east of the Cyclades, close to the Turkish coast. This group is composed of 12 islands, but Rhodes is of serious viticultural note. Kos, which is unusually fertile and verdant for an Aegean island, has a small but insignificant wine industry. Rhodes Rhodes is the largest of the Dodecanese Islands. Its landscape is dominated by Mount Atavyros, which exerts considerable influence on the island’s viticulture. Vineyards are planted between sea level and 600 meters (1,970 feet). Across the island, the soils are a combination of sand, clay, and limestone, but are rockier and more infertile at higher elevations. Rhodes is rather hot and dry, with very mild winters. Though rainfall is scarce, Rhodes possesses a surprising amount of fresh water reserves, which can be used for irrigation. The aggressive nature of its climate makes Rhodes’ tradition of sparkling wine seem a bit surprising, but for decades this was a regular source of “Greek Champagne.” The main producer, CAIR, is an unofficial cooperative that was founded in 1928 and established the island’s reputation for sparkling. Though a handful of boutique producers grew around it, the economic crisis of 2008 caused many to close, and today CAIR once again dominates production. The main grapes of Rhodes are Athiri, which excels on the upper slopes, and Mandilaria (also known as Amorgiano), typically found at lower elevations. Muscat Blanc, known locally as Moschato Aspro, is also planted, as are Assyrtiko, Malagousia, the indigenous Mavrothiriko, and a significant quantity of French grapes (including Ugni Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, and Grenache). The Rhodes PDO covers a range of wines—white, red, and rosé—which can all be made in either dry, semi-dry, or semi-sweet styles. The PDO also allows for sparkling wine, both white and rosé, which can range from dry to sweet. White still or sparkling wines must be composed of a minimum of 70% Athiri (with a balance of Assyrtiko and Malagousia), while reds or rosés must be composed of a minimum of 70% Mandilaria (with a balance of Mavrothiriko). Muscat of Rhodes (rarely seen in the market) must be made entirely of Muscat Blanc and can be produced via the vin doux, vin doux naturel, or vin naturellement doux method. Those made in the vin doux naturel style and sourced from select vineyards may be labeled as grand cru. PDOs: Muscat of Rhodes, Rhodes Regional PGIs: Aegean Sea District PGIs: Dodecanese Area PGIs: Kos Aegean Islands: North Aegean The North Aegean Islands are located to the north of the Dodecanese and far enough east that, like many Greek islands, most sit closer to Turkey than to mainland Greece. While summers are hot, dry, and windy, the winters are colder and more rain soaked here than in the rest of the Aegean, and the heat spikes are less extreme. There are five main islands in the North Aegean, and two of them possess PDOs for sweet Muscat: Lemnos and Samos. Ikaria, an Area PGI, once had a significant wine culture. In antiquity, it was the source of the famous Pramnian red, a traditionally high-alcohol wine made from the Fokiano grape. Today, however, it is a minor player at best. It is home to only four producers, and its dominant grape is Mandilaria, though the white grape Begleri is the focus of the more modern wine movement. Similarly, the once-robust wine industry of the district of Chios has declined to the point of obscurity, though some are working to revive its ancient wine traditions. With a PGI created in 2010, Lesvos has limited viticulture and is better known as a source of Ouzo, but its industry is growing. Eresos-Antissa, Kalloni, and Plomari are all expected to earn Area PGI soon. Samos Sweet Muscat from Samos is among the most famous wines of Greece, and the story of its rise is fascinating. Historically, Samos was known for dry red wines, but its viticultural traditions were interrupted in the latter half of the 15th century when most of the islanders fled after being constantly overrun by pirates. Samos remained virtually uninhabited for nearly a century, until the Ottoman rulers offered incentives for citizens to return. These new settlers planted new vineyards, and Muscat Blanc was a popular choice. The arrival of phylloxera at the end of the 20th century caused further adjustments to Samos’ varietal makeup, and Muscat Blanc became even more prevalent. In 1934, a law was passed stating that only wines made from Muscat could claim a Samos origin, which cemented the variety’s hegemony and served as a rough approximation of Greece’s first appellation. That same year, the United Winemaking Agricultural Cooperative of Samos (UWC Samos) was founded. Today, 95% of the island’s vineyards are dedicated to Muscat Blanc, referred to locally as Moschato Aspro. The remaining 5% of vineyard land is mainly dedicated to two red grapes: Ritino and Fokiano. Historically Samos’ wines were vinified exclusively by the co-op, but recent legal changes have allowed for the establishment of a handful of small producers. Ouzo Along with Tsipouro, Ouzo is one of the national spirits of Greece. Both are distilled from grape pomace, but while Tsipouro is occasionally anise flavored, Ouzo is always anise flavored. Often, other flavoring agents are added as well, but the precise recipes are secrets closely guarded by the distilleries. When first poured, it is clear, but the addition of water or ice causes oils to come out of solution, and the liquid takes on a cloudy appearance. Ouzo is generally served with small-plate dishes called mezedes , similar to appetizers, or during celebrations like weddings. Ouzo production has a long history in Greece, but the first commercial distillery, Tyrnavos, opened in 1856. In 2006, Ouzo was granted protected (PDO) status from the EU. Minimum allowed ABV is 37.5%. Opa! Samos is a very steep island with granitic soils, where the topography is dominated by Mount Ampelos. Vineyards are planted between 0 and 900 meters (0 – 2,955 feet), and most, but not all, of the island is eligible for the PDO. Though there is a range of altitudes and aspects, the best vineyards tend to be planted at high elevations on terraced, north-facing slopes. Some dry PGI wines are produced, but dessert PDO Muscat is the primary focus. The Slopes of Ambelos PGI is a specific zone of the island that pertains to the production of dry whites from Muscat. It is worth noting that Samos is the only Muscat-based PDO that does not include the grape in the name of the appellation. Samos Muscat can be naturally sweet or fortified before or during fermentation to retain sugar, and can be made from fresh or sun-dried grapes. Those wines made using the vin doux naturel approach and hailing from select vineyards are eligible for grand cru designation. Both oak-aged and unoaked Muscat are produced. This wine has an especially strong international presence, with significant exports to France. The United Winemaking Agricultural Cooperative of Samos is the island’s dominant producer, not only historically but also in terms of volume, and it is widely acknowledged for the quality of its wines. UWC Samos produces several different wines that range from dry to sweet but is best known for its dessert line. The entry-level Samos Vin Doux is the co-op’s most important wine from a production standpoint, but there are also three premium dessert wines. Nectar is made from dried grapes fermented without fortification (vin naturellement doux) and is aged in oak for six years (formerly three) before release. The Anthemia also spends a good amount of time in oak (generally five years), but is produced via the vin doux method, wherein the unfermented must is fortified. This makes for a primary fruit flavor, given complexity by the many years in oak. The grand cru is sourced from a select group of vineyards above 400 meters (1,310 feet) in elevation, and yields are kept quite low. Though sweet, this is generally the “driest” of the dessert wines, as it completes much of its fermentation prior to a light fortification (vin doux naturel). This wine sees no oak so tends to be lighter and brighter in hue than the amber Nectar and Anthemia. Lemnos Lemnos (sometimes spelled Limnos) is the origin of the grape Limnio, though this variety no longer plays a starring role on this island. Here, Muscat of Alexandria takes center stage, and both dry and sweet wines are made from its fruit. The PDO of Lemnos allows for dry red from Limnio to be made (here called Kalambaki) along with dry, semi-dry, and semi-sweet Muscat. Fully sweet Muscats belong to the Muscat of Lemnos PDO , wherein the grapes may be dried and/or fortified. These wines are generally considered second in quality (more fruit forward and simple) to Muscat of Samos. This is likely due to their reliance on Muscat of Alexandria, rather than the smaller-berried Muscat Blanc variety. Wine from select estate vineyards that adhere to lower yield restrictions are eligible for grand cru designation. Lemnos is one of the hottest and driest islands in the North Aegean cluster. It is also especially flat. The soils are volcanic in origin and rich with limestone, and most of the vineyards are found on the cooler, western end of the island, between 0 and 300 meters (0 – 985 feet) in elevation. PDOs: Lemnos, Muscat of Lemnos, Samos Regional PGIs: Aegean Sea District PGIs: Chios Area PGIs: Ikaria, Lesvos, Slopes of Ambelos Crete The story of Greek wine begins on Crete , its largest and southernmost island. There, the technologically advanced Minoan civilization (the first to master indoor plumbing!) produced the inaugural Greek wines before spreading the knowledge of its manufacture to Santorini and the mainland. The history of Cretan wine since that time has been dramatic, but the period of Venetian rule (1204 – 1669) was particularly auspicious. The Venetians were encouraging of viticulture in general and established the island’s tradition of Malvasia dessert wine production. These were modeled after the popular wines from the Peloponnesian port of Monemvasia, a legacy that was recently honored with the creation of two PDOs: Malvasia Candia and Malvasia of Sitia. Crete’s good fortunes ended in 1669, however, when it came under the jurisdiction of the Ottoman Empire. This era was a damaging one for the wine industry, and though Crete gained its independence in 1898 (and joined the Greek state in 1913), its wine industry would take decades to recover. Up to and through World War II, Crete’s wine production was predominately bulk wine of middling quality, made by six giant cooperatives. That began to change in the 1950s and 60s, when a handful of large companies moved in and started producing wines of a higher caliber. Still, Cretan wines remained in a somewhat sorry state until the 1990s, when producers operating on a more boutique scale gained traction. Many of these artisan operations were run by growers, who began to realize that the best way to get good wine on the market was to make it themselves. Quality remains uneven, but many exciting wines are being produced on Crete. This new wave of producers is emphasizing indigenous varieties, many of which became endangered after phylloxera swept the island in the 1970s. While blending with international varieties is common, the most promising wines are varietal bottlings of obscure Cretan grapes such as Liatiko, Dafni, Plyto, Vilana, and especially Vidiano. Crete is a long, thin island that measures 159 miles long and 37 miles across at its widest and separates the Aegean Sea from the Libyan Sea. It is extremely mountainous, with the only plains located along the coasts. A large range runs east to west along the length of Crete, dividing the island in two. Its three highest peaks—Psiloritis, Lefka Ori, and Dikti—help block the hot African winds that blow from the south, which gives the two halves of the island very different climates. Viticulture is confined to the more temperate north, with the best sites situated along the higher slopes. But even with the advantages of elevation and exposure, the overall Cretan climate is extremely hot and dry. Variations also run laterally, with cooler temperatures and higher rainfall in the west and more arid conditions in the east. From a soil perspective, the terrain of Crete is far more fertile than in the nearby Cyclades, and tends to feature limestone mixed with clay. A vineyard in Crete The island is divided into four districts; from west to east, they are Hania, Rethymno, Iraklio, and Lasithi. Hania and Iraklio, the most important for viticulture, derive their names from the two largest cities in Crete. Iraklio is the leader both in terms of commerce and viticulture and contains five of Crete’s seven PDOs. It features a complex mountainous topography, as it occupies the area between Mount Psiloritis and Mount Dikti. Hania, the westernmost district, has the highest levels of rainfall and the coolest temperatures; it is also one of the flatter areas, with few vineyards planted above 500 meters (1,640 feet). To its east, the district of Rethymno contains Mount Psiloritis, but is not widely planted. Lasithi in the far east occupies the narrowest section of Crete, and is also the hottest and driest. Though this is the least developed of Crete’s districts, it contains two PDOs: Sitia and Malvasia Sitia. Of all the Iraklion PDOs, Peza is often the most highly regarded. This appellation only allows the production of dry wines: whites from Vilana and reds from a combination of Kotsifali and Mandilaria. At their best, Peza whites are light and crisp, while the reds are darkly colored, fragrant, and spicy. The appellation covers 15 villages and stretches from 300 to 800 meters (985 – 2,625 feet) in elevation. The soils carpeting that span are diverse but tend to be sandier and less fertile at higher elevations. The Archanes PDO only allows for dry red wines with the same varietal composition as Peza. This appellation includes seven villages and occupies a north-facing basin. Its vineyards are planted between 300 and 450 meters (985 – 1,475 feet). The wines are similar to red wine from Peza but tend to be a touch darker and slightly riper in style. In the western end of the Iraklion district, on the northeast slopes of Mount Psiloritis, the Daphnes PDO is committed entirely to Liatiko (both dry and sweet). Most of its vines are planted between 150 and 600 meters (490 – 1,970 feet) in deeper, more clay-rich soils than are found in Iraklion’s other PDO zones. Daphnes has the least established reputation of the PDOs. This is partly because the area was long dominated by co-ops, and partly because the Liatiko grape can be difficult. It is an early-ripening variety that often lacks in color, tannin, and fruit. These deficits are typically compensated for via air-drying, but careful producers such as Douloufakis have been able to coax some interesting red-fruited results for the dry wines. Legally, the dessert styles can be produced through air drying and/or fortification. Those wines crafted with the vin doux naturel process and from select sites may be labeled as grand cru. In 2011, new PDOs Candia and Malvasia Candia were added in Iraklion. Candia , which was the Venetian name for the city of Iraklion, acts as a kind of catch-all for the region, allowing the production of dry whites and reds from a wide range of varieties. The reds must be composed of the typical Cretan combination of Kotsifali (minimum 70%) and Mandilaria, but the white blend is a bit more complex. Legally, it is a blend of a minimum 85% Vilana with Assyrtiko, Athiri, Vidiano, Thrapsathiri, and Liatiko. The Malvasia Candia PDO allows for sweet white wines that can be produced either through the vin doux naturel or vin naturellement doux methods. The list of permitted varieties is subtly different than for the dry Candia whites. Assyrtiko, Athiri, Vidiano, Thrapsathiri may be blended with a combined maximum of 15% Malvasia di Candia Aromatica and Muscat Blanc. Though Malvasia Candia is rarely produced, these appellations are useful in that they enable producers to draw upon a greater range of varieties for their PDO wines. Needless to say, the results are diverse, and dry Candia PDO wines are some of the more exciting to come out of Crete. Both PDOs allow grapes to be sourced from vineyards up to a maximum of 700 meters (2,300 feet). The Lasithi district on the eastern end of the island offers the greatest concentration of limestone in Crete, which helps the wines stay fresh in such hot and dry conditions. Most vineyards lie between 250 and 650 meters (820 – 2,130 feet) in elevation and aspects vary. The PDO of Sitia occupies a broad swath of land and is inclusive of a range of styles, from dry whites and reds to sweet reds made using a variety of methods. White wines must be composed of at least 70% Vilana with Thrapsathiri, while the reds must feature 80% Liatiko with Mandilaria. Dessert wines made in an unfortified style from dried grapes must be composed entirely of Liatiko to claim the PDO. As the addition of Mandilaria brings considerable darkness and fruit to the wine, Sitia’s examples of dry Liatiko are often the most approachable in Crete. The Malvasia Sitia PDO exists only for sweet white wines, made via either the vin doux naturel or vin naturellement doux method, and the legal varietal composition is identical to that of Malvasia Candia. These are the only two Malvasia wines in Greece to actually feature the Malvasia grape, though it plays only a minor role. For both PDOs, vineyards extend from 300 to 750 meters (985 – 2,460 feet). Beyond the PDOs, producers across Crete are experimenting with lesser-known indigenous varieties such as Plyto, which makes high-pitched, lemon-scented wines; Dafni, which produces an intensely herbal white wine; Thrapsathiri, whose wine is broad and peachy; and Romeiko, a light-colored red grape that produces an oxidative wine called Marouvas. Vidiano is arguably the best of Crete’s native whites, and its plantings are on the rise. When well made, it yields complex dry whites that are both rich and bright, and often well-suited to oak aging. International varieties are also prevalent, the most important of which is Syrah, which is regularly blended with a variety of indigenous Cretan stock. Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, Viognier, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot can also be found. Though the district of Hania contains no PDOs, some excellent and forward-looking wines are being produced there. Aside from the usual indigenous suspects, the Manousakis Winery is making great strides with both white and red Rhône varieties, which so far seem to enjoy their new life on Crete. PDOs: Archanes, Candia, Daphnes, Malvasia Candia, Malvasia Sitia, Peza, Sitia Regional PGIs: Crete District PGIs: Chania, Heraklion, Lasithi, Rethymno Area PGIs: Kissamos BACK TO TOP Bibliography Lazarakis, Konstantinos. A Guide to the Wines of Greece. Athens: National Interprofessional Organization of Vine and Wine of Greece, 2016. http://customers.peakad.gr/wines_of_greece/guide/english/mobile/index.html . Lazarakis, Konstantinos. The Wines of Greece. London: Octopus Publishing Group, 2005. Meloni, Giulia, and Johan Swinnen. “Bugs, Tariffs and Colonies: The Political Economy of the Wine Trade 1860 – 1970.” American Association of Wine Economists (October 2016). http://www.wine-economics.org/aawe/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/AAWE_WP206.pdf . Phillips, Rod. 9,000 Years of Wine: A World History. Vancouver: Whitecap Books, 2017. Robinson, Jancis, Julia Harding, and José Vouillamoz. Wine Grapes. New York: HarperCollins, 2012. Wines of Greece. Accessed Winter/Spring 2018. http://www.newwinesofgreece.com . Special thanks to Yiannis Karakasis MW, Stavroula Liapa, and Sofia Perpera. Compiled by GuildSomm Senior Staff Writer Kelli White (June 2018)Previewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/research/expert_guides/w/expert-guides/2428/spainThu, 29 Oct 2026 13:31:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:248f644e-847a-44ae-9384-9265f384d4d4Jonathan Eichholz"I would sooner be a foreigner in Spain than in most countries. How easy it is to make friends in Spain!" - George Orwell, "Homage to Catalonia," 1938 Contents History of Spain Land & Climate Spanish Wine Law The Grapes of Spain Atlantic Coast Duero River Valley Ebro River Valley Mediterranean Coast Central Plateau Andalucía The Islands Bibliography Home to the world’s largest vineyard area, Spain boasts a winegrowing history that is ancient and discontinuous. Several events throughout its three millennia of viticulture have threatened the industry, including the Moorish conquest of Iberia, the phylloxera crisis, a devastating Civil War, and several decades under a fascist regime, during which winemaking customs lost favor to bulk production and cooperatives. Today, Spain’s languages, cultures, and food and wine traditions remain distinct—long after the country's unification in the late 15 th and early 16 th centuries. Spain’s heritage styles—its deep-hued rosados , nutty rancios , and slowly aged gran reservas —are now joined by more contemporary aesthetics. While some growers have adapted to a modern palate, others hold to tradition. Others still seek to reimagine classic Spanish wines for the 21 st century, reclaiming indigenous grape varieties and marrying innovation to ancestry. Born from these varied philosophical approaches is a Spanish wine industry equipped with the diversity and talent to capture new generations of consumers while safeguarding a long-cherished identity. History of Spain Ancient History Anthropological studies have found trace evidence of Vitis vinifera in Spain dating as early as 3000 BCE. Fragments of vine wood and other vestiges of ancient grapes have been identified at three sites in Southern Spain. The introduction of viticulture to Iberia, however, is widely attributed to the Phoenicians, who arrived and established what would become Cádiz in today’s Andalucía approximately two millennia later, around 1100 or 800 BCE, depending on the account. A seafaring and mercantile people, the Phoenicians, whose borders corresponded roughly to modern-day Lebanon, traveled across the Mediterranean basin trading goods, among them wine. Examples of lagares (stone troughs used for crushing grapes) dating to the period have been found in several locations in southern Spain. Evidence also suggests that Jerez’s famed Macharnudo vineyard was planted soon after Phoenician colonization. But the Phoenicians weren’t the first to settle Iberia. By the Bronze Age, two distinct cultures had been established—the Iberians, who had arrived from North Africa, and the Celts, who came from further north. The Greeks were next to arrive. Their first major outpost, however, was more northern, near the Pyrenees, a city they called Emporion (today Ampurias, or Empúries in Catalan). The Carthaginians descended from the Phoenician people and succeeded them in trade relations between the Eastern and Western Mediterranean. They clashed with the Romans, both in Iberia and beyond. Tensions escalated into the Second Punic War, where Greeks, Iberians, and Celts fought for both the Carthaginians (led by the general Hannibal) and the Romans. Ultimately, Rome prevailed, by 206 BCE driving the Carthaginians from what the Romans then called Hispania. The Romans expanded upon the traditions of winegrowing already established on the Iberian Peninsula, bringing modern technologies and improved wine quality. They introduced various innovations, including the implementation of smaller amphorae constructed from finer, more durable, and less porous clays. The Romans also exported some Iberian wines back to Rome and the Italian Peninsula. Rome’s stronghold over Iberia began to crumble in the late fourth and early fifth centuries CE, less than 100 years before the Western Roman Empire’s fall. The Visigoths, after sacking Rome in 410, settled in Gaul and Spain. Other Germanic tribes, including the Vandals, Suevi, and Alans, also invaded Iberia. The Visigoths, who had already converted to Arian Christianity (not Catholicism, as the Franks had), triumphed over the other tribes and extended their reach throughout the peninsula, which they would rule for the next three centuries. Medieval Times to Early Modern Period In 711, Ṭāriq ibn Ziyād led a Muslim Berber army across the Strait of Gibraltar, and the following year, he defeated King Roderick, Spain’s last Visigoth monarch. This began the Moorish conquest of Spain, and within a half decade, nearly all of Iberia had fallen under Muslim rule, save some stretches in the north. The Moors offered some degree of religious tolerance toward the Jews and Christians they had conquered. While alcohol is strictly forbidden in Islamic scripture, viticulture and winemaking persisted in Iberia over the course of their leadership. In addition to wine, grapes were cultivated for raisins and distillation—a science mastered by the Moors, though its applications were for medicine, perfume, and other goods, never for consumption. The Reconquista (reconquest) of Spain by Christian forces began almost immediately upon the Moors’ arrival. Though it would take almost eight centuries for the peninsula to completely come into Catholic reign, they slowly chipped away at Moorish territory over this timespan. Notably, Porto was reconquered in 868, a date typically given to the initial establishment of Portugal as separate from Spain. This piecemeal Reconquista of Iberia allowed for a series of autonomous kingdoms, which would only later unify and form what is now considered Spain. As Moorish reach waned, French monks crossed the Pyrenees to establish monasteries in these newly independent areas, bringing with them winemaking knowledge. Some of the earliest monasteries were in Galicia’s Ribeiro area, and their grapegrowing success led the English to import their wines across the Bay of Biscay. In 1469, Isabella I of Castile married Ferdinand II of Aragon, both heirs to their respective kingdoms, representing the de facto unification of Spain once Ferdinand succeeded the throne in 1479. The joint rulers expelled the remaining Moors (as well as the Jews) from Granada in 1492, the same year Christopher Columbus set sail for the Americas in Ferdinand and Isabella’s name. The Renaissance years also brought a renaissance for Spain’s wines. Despite the ongoing conflict with England, including its devastating defeat of Spain’s armada in 1588, the country became a critical export market for Iberian wines. English influence and investment in Sherry (as well as Port) remains clear today. England gained a palate for sack , considered a forerunner of Sherry, though important examples of Málaga sack and Canary sack are also well documented. Scholars debate exactly what sack was—particularly its degree of sweetness and whether or not the wines were fortified. It was likely an inexpensive imitation of the dried-grape wines that had reemerged in Italy and Greece in the Middle Ages (such as Tuscan vin santo ). While the Italian and Greek examples were highly prized and incredibly expensive, the Spanish diluted the market and likely the wines themselves, blending raisinated grapes with fresh must to yield a poorer-quality product. The remarkable expansion of European wine stocks following the end of the Reconquista favored these less expensive sacks over their eastern counterparts. Those wines were primarily accessed by nobility, while sack achieved a wider audience, including England’s middle class. Fortification likely came later, but by the time of the Age of Exploration, it was an important preservative, allowing Spain’s wines to cross the Atlantic. The high amounts of residual sugar in some wines, as well as intentionally oxidative rancio styles, also prevented spoilage on these long voyages. In its early years, Spain forbade its new colonies from producing their own wines, with the purpose of bolstering Spanish transatlantic exports (still, early wine industries were created in Argentina and Chile). The Spanish achieved other technological advancements during this timeframe, such as the transition from animal skins and amphorae to wooden butts and casks as storage vessels. Toward the late 1700s, Manuel Esteban Quintano Quintano, a priest from Rioja, traveled to Bordeaux and observed the oenological practices there. Upon returning, he began to experiment with cask-aging, a completely foreign practice locally. He went on to export his wines to Cuba in barrel, receiving a positive response. Yet financial challenges—such as the cost of investment and aging before sale—and cultural pushback stopped barriques from catching on. That would change in the mid-1800s, when two prominent Spaniards were exiled during the Carlist Wars, a series of civil wars throughout that century. Peruvian-born Luciano de Murrieta García-Lemoine, later the Marqués de Murrieta, spent part of his exile in Bordeaux studying the region’s wines. He would later adopt Bordeaux’s élevage techniques at his own Logroño property, with his first oaked vintage in 1852. Camilo Hurtado de Amézaga y Balmaseda, the Marqués de Riscal, similarly returned from exile in Bordeaux. Along with knowledge of Bordeaux winemaking, he brought cuttings of Cabernet Sauvignon, first harvesting the resulting vines in 1860. Phylloxera to Franco The great phylloxera crisis that ravaged vineyards worldwide throughout the mid- to late 19 th century initially proved beneficial to the Spanish wine industry. It wasn’t the first scourge to hit Europe; oidium arrived in France in the late 1840s, and during its devastation, the French relied on their southern neighbor to fill their wine deficit. The railway had not yet been constructed, so Spanish vineyard growth was concentrated around port cities such as Alicante. When phylloxera first took hold in France in the 1860s, the country needed replenishment once again but could look to the interior, using rail transport. Rioja was one of the chief beneficiaries, and its cultural and financial exchange with the French during the last decades of the 19 th century allowed for the evolution of Rioja wine as it is generally understood today. An 1877 trade deal between France and Spain reduced tariffs on the outgoing wines, further allowing Spain’s industry to boom. In all, Spain’s vineyard area rose 40% between 1860 and 1888. This expansion, however, amplified the tremendous bust that followed once phylloxera entered Spain in the late 1880s. Trade agreements were lifted, and in 1892, tariffs were imposed on Spanish wines coming into France, whose own vineyards began to recover and who also found in Algeria a new source of wine. Spain had experienced a 32-fold increase in exports between 1850 and 1891. At the peak during the phylloxera crisis, Spain provided 80% of imports into France, a number that dwindled to 26% in the 1930s. By the time phylloxera arrived in Spain, its treatment was understood—grafting onto phylloxera-resistant American rootstock—though the country was left little time for recovery between its own epidemic and World War I. At the onset of the war, Spain had lost one-third of its national vineyard. The industry was further stifled as France recovered, no longer needing droves of Spanish imports. The 20 th century offered little relief to Spain and its wines. The king went into exile in 1931 after local elections that gave a majority to republican parties, and the Second Republic was proclaimed. In 1936, Francisco Franco led the Nationalist uprising against the Republicans and became head of state. The Civil War lasted until 1939, and Franco would rule as dictator until his death in 1975. In the decades following the Spanish Civil War, Spain’s wine industry struggled to modernize. As poverty swept rural winegrowing areas, production was centralized under local cooperatives that emphasized quantity over quality. Other than Sherry and a few select wineries, including the iconic but elusive Vega Sicilia, Spanish wine was largely ignored by international audiences. Poorer-quality grapes like Palomino (vinified as a table wine) gained widespread plantings due to their vigor. Spain continues to suffer from the reputation established during this time, as well as the persistent bulk industry that dominates production. Toward the end of Franco’s regime, there were signs of a new era for Spanish wine. In the 1960s, Miguel Torres introduced stainless steel and temperature-controlled fermentation to his family’s winery in Catalonia. In 1972, famed French enologist and winemaker Émile Peynaud, working as a consultant for the Marqués de Riscal, identified Rueda and its grape Verdejo for the possibility of creating a more contemporary style of non-oxidative white wine. He also suggested planting Sauvignon Blanc in the region. Spain’s transition to democracy began in 1975. The first general election since 1936 was held in 1977, and the country started its return to greater economic prosperity with more potential international business. In 1986, Spain joined the European Union; in 1999, it adopted the euro, which began circulating in 2002. Its democratization opened opportunities for Spain’s aspiring winemakers to travel and study in France, California, and beyond, returning with contemporary practices. Fit with a global perspective, these younger generations also sparked a new passion for Spain’s heritage styles and indigenous varieties. As a result, Spanish wine today is more diverse and internationally accessible than ever. Spanish Wine in Context According to the International Organisation of Vine and Wine, in 2018, Spain harvested 969,000 hectares of vines, equal to 13% of the global vineyard surface and more than any other country. That also corresponds to roughly 2% of Spain’s total land being dedicated to viticulture. Spain, however, is not the world’s largest producer of wine. It comes in third, with 44.4 million hectoliters, trailing Italy and France. The discrepancy in these two rankings might be accounted for through low yields, the wide vineyard spacing of Spain’s plentiful old vine sites, and the distillation of grapes for brandy. Spain does eclipse all other nations as the world’s largest exporter of wine, shipping 21.1 million hectoliters outside its borders. Yet the total value of Spain’s exports is less than a third of France’s and less than half of Italy’s. This is due to Spain’s substantial bulk industry, comprising more than 50% of total output, a great deal of which is sold to France and bottled as Vin de France. Land & Climate The Land Iberia represents the meeting of the Atlantic Ocean with the Mediterranean Sea through the Strait of Gibraltar, which halts the near convergence of Europe with Northern Africa. This has allowed the peninsula a cultural mixing unique in Western Europe and has significant implications on geological and climatic conditions. The Iberian peninsula (Click to enlarge and zoom in) Spain is separated from France by the Pyrenees Mountains, the small nation of Andorra nestled within that border as well. It shares the Iberian Peninsula with Portugal, which occupies the southwestern corner. Mainland Spain’s latitude is roughly between 36° and 44° N, placing it squarely within the range of 30° to 50° N considered standard for quality viticulture. It follows only Switzerland in having the highest average elevation in Europe, and this elevation proves essential to maintaining freshness for many regions. According to The World Atlas of Wine , “a good 90% of all Spanish vineyards are higher in altitude than any major French wine region.” Spain’s autonomous communities (Click to enlarge and zoom in) At the heart of Iberia, Spain sits atop the Meseta Central, a large plateau that includes the capital Madrid, which has an average elevation of 660 meters above sea level. The country is bisected by the Sistema Central, a mountain range that effectively separates the Meseta in two. The northern section is both higher and smaller than the southern portion. In addition to the Pyrenees and the Sistema Central, several mountain ranges cut through the Spanish countryside. The Cantabrian Mountains begin in Galicia and continue parallel to the northern coast. The Sistema Ibérico runs perpendicular to the Sistema Central, stretching from Castilla y León to Valencia. The Sierra Morena range borders the Meseta Central to the south, and the Sistema Penibético, which includes the Sierra Nevada range, lines the southeast of the peninsula. Water surrounds Spain, with the Mediterranean to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and its gulf, the Bay of Biscay, forming a right triangle with northern Iberia, western France, and the British Isles. Several major rivers flow through Spain, and vineyards are cultivated on many of their banks. Some of the most important, from north to south, are the Miño, Ebro, Duero, Tagus, Guadiana, and Guadalquivir. Legally, Spain is divided into 17 autonomous communities, or comunidades autónomas , further split into 50 provinces. Fifteen of Spain’s autonomous communities compose the mainland, while two involve a series of islands: the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean and the Canary Islands off the coast of Northern Africa. All but two, Cantabria and Asturias, have DO wine regions. Additionally, Spain has two autonomous cities, Melilla and Ceuta, both interrupting Morocco’s northern coastline. Climate Despite the common image of arid, windmill-dotted plains, the climate across Spain varies widely. Generalizations might specify some pockets as Mediterranean, continental, or maritime, but it is difficult to make broad assumptions. The country generally grows warmer toward the south, with the Sistema Central providing a marked shift in temperatures. Exceptions exist, such as the warmer pockets of the Catalan coast and cold, high-elevation sites in Andalucía. Spain experiences seasonality, especially beyond the Mediterranean coastline, with both scorching summers and harsh winters in some regions. Diurnal swings can be wide, particularly at higher elevations. Several wind patterns also affect temperatures. The Poniente blows from the west, bringing cold air from the Atlantic, while the Leveche brings in hot, drying currents from the African desert. Another warm—but humid—wind, the Levante, comes in from the east, funnels through Gibraltar, and can be felt throughout southeast Spain. The northern coast, extending through Galicia and narrowing to its end in Basque Country, encompasses what is often called Green Spain. Rainfall here is the highest in the country, with parts of Galicia receiving more than 2,000 millimeters per year. Precipitation drops dramatically just outside Green Spain’s boundaries, with much of the country receiving less than 500 millimeters annually. Dry-farming remains standard, though irrigation for viticulture was legalized in 1996 in certain circumstances. Spanish Wine Law Spain’s wines are organized under a quality pyramid similar to the Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée system in France, Denominazione di Origine Controllata in Italy, or Denominação de Origem Controlada in Portugal. The first Spanish Denominaciones de Origen (DOs) were awarded in 1932, four years before the codification of France’s first AOCs. DO Defectors In December 2015, the modernist winery Artadi withdrew from the Rioja DOCa, citing an inability to express specificity of site under the appellation scheme. Its defection reflected widespread questioning of the DO system. Many argued that even the best-known DOs and DOCas, like Cava and Rioja, sacrificed consistent quality to appease the interests of larger producers. A number of producers in different DOs hoped to break down their appellations into smaller tiers in the tradition of Burgundy. The month following Artadi’s departure, influential winemaker Telmo Rodríguez published his “terroir manifesto,” addressing these concerns and calling for a nationwide pivot toward quality over quantity. It was signed by about 150 Spanish winegrowers and others in the industry. That same year, 40 wineries in Rioja Alavesa pitched a new and separate Viñedos de Álava DO. The motion has since been retracted, following Rioja’s new categories, which were first voted upon in 2017. Many, however, still view these as an insufficient solution. The conversation isn’t limited to Rioja, as evidenced by recent movements in Cava. The 2019 establishment of Corpinnat in response to mass-produced Cava has presented the DO with an identity crisis. It lost many top-shelf producers who contributed to the Cava de Paraje category, in addition to those producers who had already left and belong to Clàssic Penedès. The lowest-quality tier of Spanish wine is Vino de Mesa (or VdM), translating to “table wine.” These wines can be blended from various areas of the country but by law will bear no region on the label, although they can list the address of the registered bottler or, if within an established DO, only the postal code. Since 2008, these wines have been allowed to state both vintage and variety. A step above, Vino de la Tierra (VdlT) will come from within a confined area of varying size, from a collection of villages to a whole autonomous community. The VdlT might also be used for quality wines made by experimental winemakers looking to operate outside the confines of higher-tier regulations. Both VdM and VdlT wines fall under the broader table wine umbrella within European Union law, while VdlT wines are also designated Protected Geographical Indication (PGI), which mandates that 85% of grapes derive from a given area. The remaining tiers all qualify as PDOs (Protected Denominations of Origin) under the European Union. Spain continues to legislate several further sub-designations within that category: Vino de Calidad con Indicación Geográfica (VC or VCIG), Denominación de Origen (DO), Denominación de Origen Calificada (DOCa), and Vino de Pago (VP). The most basic PDO wine is VCIG. While still overseen by a governing body, or órgano de gestion , VCIGs adhere to less rigid regulations than higher tiers. The VCIG tier also operates as a stepping stone between VdlT areas aspiring for Denominación de Origen status. Regions must wait a minimum five years before applying for elevation to DO. The DO rung encompasses most regions familiar to wine consumers. Rías Baixas, Sherry, Ribera del Duero, and more than 60 others are DO wines. In general, DO regions refer to a single, confined winegrowing area, but non-contiguous appellations can be designated as well (the widest-spanning example being Cava). Each DO is governed by a consejo regulador, to which wineries must submit samples of all of their wines to make sure they adhere to regional standards. It is also the role of the consejo to enforce the pliego de condiciones , the official document that dictates appellation regulations. The pliego de condiciones clarifies every aspect of winegrowing, including yields, vine training, viticultural practices, vinification techniques, and permitted varieties. Spain's quality tier above DO is DOCa. While DOCa has no equivalent in France, it could be compared to Italy’s Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita classification. Unlike Italy’s DOCGs, however, Spain only has two DOCa regions. The first, Rioja, was granted DOCa status in 1991, three years after the category was established. Priorat followed and was recognized by Spain in 2009 (after elevation at the Catalan level in 2000). It usually features the Catalan translation Denominació d’Origen Qualificada (DOQ) on its labels. A final PDO category, Vino de Pago , was established in 2003. Vinos de Pago were first conceptualized in Castilla-La Mancha, which still has the highest concentration of these appellations. A Vino de Pago is a designation awarded to a single estate that may exist within or outside of a DO. Few Vinos de Pago are found within prestigious appellations. Vinos de Pago must be estate bottled and the vineyard owned by the winery operating in its bounds. The estate must be in production for a minimum of 10 years before applying for Vino de Pago status. Regulations within Vinos de Pago are very specific and often more stringent than those of DOs that surround them. For example, Vinos de Pago, in setting their own pliegos, might allow for the use of less-traditional varieties or methods, ­in contrast to nearby DOs. In theory, a Vino de Pago should transcend the quality of wines vinified in its broader DO, should there be one, or at least show distinction. In reality, many contest the effectiveness of the Vino de Pago scheme, debating the overall quality of these wines and how many cater to more international palates. Others point to the relatively large size of individual Pagos, the smallest being 1.5 hectares (Vallegarcía), and how some might use the category to skirt other restrictions under DO law, such as the prohibition against irrigation. Spain's Vinos de Pago A hypothetical Vino de Pago Calificado category is also primed should an estate within Rioja or Priorat (or any future DOCas) apply for Pago status. As of 2025, 27 Vino de Pago estates are active. They should not be confused with Grandes Pagos de España, a separate non-governmental consortium of Spanish wineries who co-market their wines with minimal overlap. Beyond appellations, Spain also conforms to a series of aging designations that are regulated on its bottles. Historically, Spanish wines have been associated with long-term aging in oak, particularly American, barrels. The aging classification scheme attempts to formalize the different styles of wine that emerged under that tradition, and each will require a minimum amount of time spent in barrel, as well as total time aging, before release to the market. While these regulations exist for the whole of Spain, several regions, including Rioja and Ribera del Duero, have drafted their own, stricter minimums for aging requirements. Yet even in regions that still champion these terms, the aging classification has become less popular, as producers favor shorter aging in newer French oak vessels, or less oak influence altogether. They are particularly rare for white and especially rosado wines. Wineries that do continue to bottle age-designated wines might far exceed these minimum requirements by years or even decades, including at the crianza tier. Aging requirements for Spain, Rioja, and Ribera del Duero (Credit: Brandon Lee Wise) In recent years, Spanish winegrowers have shown interest in creating further regional breakdowns with the aim of communicating greater specificity of place on their labels, beyond often wide-reaching appellations. The movement takes inspiration from Burgundy and its pyramid of regional, village, premier cru , and grand cru wines. The first to make such strides was Priorat in 2009, with the creation of the Vi de Vila category, allowing for wines to be labeled by village. Bierzo and Rioja followed suit in 2017, as did Rueda in 2019. These village programs break with traditions of blending, long viewed as fundamental in many Spanish wine regions. The Grapes of Spain White Grapes Airén: The fifth most planted wine grape globally, and second among white grapes (according to the International Organisation of Vine and Wine’s 2017 report), Airén is better recognized for its quantity than its potential quality. Suggested to be indigenous to Cuenca in Castilla-La Mancha, Airén is extremely vigorous, in addition to being both drought and disease resistant. As a result, the variety allows for extensive plantings, in 2017 covering more than 22% of Spain’s vineyard area. Airén is, however, on the decline, as vine-pull incentives have reduced its hectarage. Historically, it has been used as a blending component to soften Tempranillo in various appellations. When fermented on its own, Airén delivers inoffensive but indistinctive white wines. Today, it is widely distilled into brandy, drawing parallels to Cognac’s rather neutral Ugni Blanc. A 200-year-old Albariño vine in Rías Baixas (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak) Albariño: Considered one of Iberia’s finest white grapes, Albariño is most notably cultivated in Galicia and primarily Rías Baixas, whose appellation name was once simply Albariño. Just south of Galicia is the Portuguese region of Minho, where the grape—there referred to as Alvarinho—is often a key quality component in Vinho Verde production. Formerly misidentified as Savagnin, Albariño displays a degree of genetic diversity in northwestern Iberia that suggests it is quite ancient. Its offspring include Caíño Blanco, a crossing with Amaral. In the vineyard, Albariño is susceptible to mildew, but its thicker skins make it less prone to botrytis, allowing it to succeed in the damp climate of Rías Baixas. It proves particularly well adapted to granite soils and ripens early to mid-season. In Rías Baixas, some Albariño vines as old as 300 years remain in production. Wines vinified from Albariño are often identified by their elevated acidity and saline, peachy flavors. Also typical are gentle floral aromatics and bitterness on the palate. Depending on style, Albariño can be crafted into lighter, crisp white wines intended for immediate consumption, as well as more structured renditions, with extended lees contact and capacity to age. A few producers ferment and mature in oak. While Albariño is most recognized in monovarietal bottlings, it was historically only blended. Today, the grape can still be used in blends, both in Rías Baixas and elsewhere in Galicia. Godello: Though less well known than Albariño, Godello is Galicia’s other exemplary white variety and can yield wines of equal pedigree. While the grape faced the possibility of extinction in the 1970s, it soon after experienced a resurgence in Valdeorras, its most noted region. It is also found in all other Galician appellations, as well as Bierzo. The early-ripening Godello offers small-berried, compact clusters with thick skins but is more vigorous than Albariño. It shows susceptibility to botrytis and powdery mildew. Godello is widely praised for its freshness and stony, savory character, which is matched with a medium-full body. The grape also has the potential for longevity. Macabeo: Also known as Viura in Rioja and Macabeu in Catalonia, Macabeo is believed to originate near Penedès. Research has identified obscure varieties Hebén and Brustiano Faux as Macabeo’s parents and a possible genetic relationship to common blending partner Xarel·lo. Producing large, compact, and late-ripening bunches, Macabeo can readily be infected by botrytis, especially in less-suitable, wetter environments. Macabeo’s adaptability to an array of winemaking techniques allows it to be grown in a number of appellations. However, when bottled as a simple white wine, either alone or in blends, it can lack distinction. In Rioja, it provides the backbone to traditional oak-aged, semi-oxidative white wines; though scarce, these are extremely long lived. There are also examples of fresher, more modern white Riojas crafted by a new generation. Macabeo is a traditional ingredient in the Cava blend, along with Xarel·lo and Parellada. Palomino Fino: Palomino Fino, or simply Palomino, is most recognized for its contributions to Sherry. The ancient variety is native to Andalucía and has been documented in the Canary Islands, where it is called Listán Blanco (no relation to Listán Prieto), since the 15 th century. It purportedly earns its name from the knight Fernán Yáñez Palomino, who first brought the grape there. Palomino can also be found in France, albeit in declining hectarage, where it historically has been distilled into Armagnac. Palomino is a vigorous variety, amassing high yields of large clusters with large, thin-skinned berries. The grape performs best in hot, dry climates, such as those found in the Jerez triangle, but can suffer from low acidity. As a still table wine, Palomino results in a rather flavorless white with diminished alcohol. Yet it can accomplish great complexity in dry generoso styles of Sherry and provides the core of blended sweet Sherry, mixed with Pedro Ximénez, Moscatel, or other grape-derived sweetening agents. Producers in Andalucía continue to experiment with unfortified styles, with or without the influence of flor. On the Canary Islands, Palomino can yield white table wines of higher quality. Parellada: Though almost entirely confined to Catalonia, the vigorous, late-ripening Parellada is native to Aragon. It may be related to Albillo Real. Parellada is one of the three primary Cava varieties and is appreciated as a softening agent. Its more moderate acidity, as well as its apple flavors and delicate floral aromas, can add delicacy to the more muscular Xarel·lo and Macabeo. Parellada is also harvested for still wines intended for early consumption in several Catalan DOs, and small plantings are found in Mallorca, where it is permitted for still and sparkling wines. Verdejo: While Albariño carries broader international recognition, Verdejo is one of the most popular white varieties in Spain, with plantings increasing tremendously over recent decades. It is believed to be indigenous to Rueda, its most famous appellation, and has been shown to share a sibling relationship with Godello. Verdejo’s name comes from verde , referencing its green hue. Verdejo should not be mistaken for Verdelho, the noble Madeira variety. Verdejo yields small-to-medium clusters, and its berries are thin skinned. While it demonstrates resistance to drought, it is prone to powdery mildew. Its wines show a juicy mid-palate with flavors of ripe orchard fruits, complemented by an almond skin-like bitterness. Verdejo is often bottled on its own but can be blended with Sauvignon Blanc. Most Verdejo bottlings are made using stainless steel, selected yeast, and minimal time on lees, but some winemakers are incorporating new oak, skin contact, and more lees work to explore the grape’s range of expression. Verdejo is also vinified into sparkling wines and can still be found in its original incarnation as a fortified rancio -style wine. The variety was better associated with this historic product until more modern winemaking techniques introduced by Émile Peynaud gave way to a new dry table wine style that has become the preferred expression among consumers. Xarel·lo: Thought to be indigenous to Catalonia, Xarel·lo is most widely utilized as a key grape in the production of Cava. It is employed to add structure and increase aging capacity, as well as for its persistent acidity. With richer fruit flavors, Xarel·lo can add body to Cava’s mid-palate. Such attributes are also enjoyed in Xarel·lo’s still wines; for these, it is generally considered one of the most distinguished white varieties of Catalonia. With thick-skinned berries, Xarel·lo is relatively botrytis resistant but prone to coulure and mildew. Xarel·lo Vermell is a pigmented mutation cultivated in Alella. Other Varieties: Classic white varieties of other origins play a minor role in Spain, with Sauvignon Blanc among the most successful. It is planted in Castilla-La Mancha and Castilla y Léon, where it can be bottled monovarietally in Rueda or blended with Verdejo. Sauvignon Blanc is now authorized as a principle white grape in Rioja, as is Chardonnay. Somontano cultivates Chardonnay and Gewürztraminer. Both Muscat Blanc à Petit Grains , here called Moscatel de Grano Menudo, and Moscatel de Alejandría (Muscat of Alexandria) are grown in Spain. The latter produces the better-known wines, with exceptional sweet bottlings found in the Sherry region, particularly around Chipiona, and in Málaga. Red Grapes Bobal: Tied with Garnacha as Spain’s third most planted variety (behind Airén and Tempranillo), Bobal is slowly repairing a poor reputation of lower-quality wines. It is native to Utiel-Requena in Valencia, which leads in terms of top examples of the grape. Bobal is high yielding, has large clusters, and often ripens unevenly. It has long been consigned to cooperative and bulk wine production, especially for rosado , but at its best, particularly when harvested from old bush vines at higher-elevation sites, Bobal can offer deep wines with a firm tannic structure. Cariñena: Cariñena, or Carignan in France and elsewhere, is known as Carinyena or Mazuelo in various Spanish regions and also has the less-often used regional names of Mazuela, Crujillón, and Samsó. Widespread plantings across Europe suggest it is an ancient variety. Ironically, in the Aragon DO Cariñena, Garnacha is the primary grape, although Cariñena is planted there. Cariñena can be found in various pockets throughout Spain but has gained traction in Catalonia, including in Priorat, where it can offer serious monovarietal wines and contribute to blends. It serves as a minor blending variety in Rioja. Cariñena achieves high yields, elevated acidity, and elevated tannins. Accordingly, it has been used as a workhouse grape around the globe. Ripening late, Cariñena requires a warm climate. In cooler vintages or climates, it can struggle to ripen and result in overly acidic wines. Its best examples, harvested from old bush vines, show great depth and ability to age. Garnacha: While the variety might be more recognized as Grenache in Mediterranean France and the New World, it appears to be indigenous to Spain (likely Aragon or Catalonia), where it is known as Garnacha. Though Italian researchers have argued for Sardinia as its origin (there, it is known as Cannonau), Spain contains the greatest degree of genetic diversity for the grape, which typically connotes the true source. Debate is also given to Garnacha’s etymology, with some believing it is a derivation of Vernaccia, a family of Italian varieties, while others contest it comes from garnaxa , the Catalan word for a historic red gown worn by legal officials. Garnacha is the eighth most planted grape in the world. It is cultivated throughout Aragon and Catalonia, where it is called Garnatxa, and finds prestige in Priorat and Montsant, as well as such regions as Navarra, Galicia, and La Mancha. In Rioja, specifically Rioja Oriental, Garnacha is an important blending grape for Tempranillo, for which it supplies alcohol, body, and fruitiness. Across Spain, an abundance of old vine, head-trained material can be found. Garnacha requires a long growing season, budding early and ripening late. It is prone to a number of diseases, as well as millerandage, but shows good resistance to wood diseases—one factor accounting for the longevity of many of its vines. By the time Garnacha reaches phenological ripeness, it will potentially have accumulated a significant amount of sugar, leading to elevated alcohol levels, though often reduced acidity. In the cellar, Garnacha is susceptible to oxidation. Like Pinot Noir, Blanc, and Gris, Garnacha involves various color mutations (the red grape more precisely referred to as Garnacha Tinta), though technically all constitute a single variety. Garnacha Blanca (Grenache Blanc) is a significant contributor to Spanish whites and yields high-quality wines in Aragon and Catalonia. The pink-skinned variant, Garnacha Roja (Grenache Gris), is also grown, though it is less prevalent in Spain than in France. The red Garnacha Peluda (Garnatxa Peluda or Lladoner Pelut in Catalonia), another mutation of the same variety, features hairy undersides to its leaves and finds favor for its thicker skins and higher acidity as compared to Garnacha Tinta. As a monovarietal red table wine, Garnacha tends to show a low to moderate level of tannins, as well as an array of fruit characters that can vary from crunchy to jammy depending on ripeness. It is also blended with a range of partners, both in Spain and abroad. Garnacha carries a long history of quality fortified sweet wines, in Catalonia and across the border in Roussillon and southern France. It is a common choice for rosado production. Garnacha Tintorera: Garnacha Tintorera, also known as Alicante Bouschet, is the offspring of Garnacha and Petit Bouschet. It was first crossed by Henri Bouschet at Domaine de la Calmette, just north of Nîmes, between 1855 and 1865. Technically, plantings include two sibling varieties. Still grown in southern France, it has found tremendous success in Spain. Its most significant Spanish strongholds stretch from Valencia to Castilla-La Mancha to Galicia. Garnacha Tintorera is a teinturier variety, meaning both its skins and flesh are red. As a result, its wines can be deeply pigmented, to the point of inkiness, and very tannic. Its yields are high; the best examples result from severe crop management or older, less-productive vines. With an early budbreak, the grape is vulnerable to spring frosts and a variety of maladies throughout the growing season, in particular bacterial threats. Listán Negro: Though often mistakenly believed to be related to Listán Prieto (also known as País, Mission, and Criolla Chica) or to be a pigmented mutation of Listán Blanco, Listán Negro is not related to either, nor has a genetic relationship to any other variety been discovered. In contrast to both Listán Blanco and Prieto, Listán Negro is native to the Canary Islands, where it is the most planted red grape and produces its most noteworthy red wines. A highly productive variety, Listán Negro is vinified using a number of practices, including carbonic maceration and oak aging, and results in perfumed wines. Mencía: Mencía has attracted recent attention for its medium-bodied red wines. The grape likely originates in Bierzo, the appellation in northwestern Castilla y León where it continues to be cultivated. Mencía is successful in all of Galicia’s DO regions and particularly in Ribeira Sacra, where it grows on steeply terraced vineyards. In Portugal, it is known as Jaen. Mencía clusters are small, though the berries of average size. Finicky in the vineyard, Mencía faces challenges with wind, mildew, and botrytis. Its wines typically pair fresh, precise red fruit flavors with stonier, savory qualities. Although new oak is occasionally employed, several of Mencía’s most complex, longest-lived wines are aged in neutral barrels or other inert vessels. The most celebrated examples regularly come from century-old vineyards such as Las Lamas and Moncerbal in Bierzo and Pombeiras in Ribera Sacra. Old vine Monastrell in Alicante (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak) Monastrell: Monastrell is believed to be indigenous to the Valencian town Sagunto. Its historic Catalan name Morvedre gave way to its more recognized French moniker, Mourvèdre. The Spanish name, however, derives from monasteriellu , Latin for “small monastery.” Genetic studies have shown a potential sibling relationship to Graciano, also a blending grape in Rioja. In Spain, Monastrell plantings are most concentrated to the southeast, in Valencia, Murcia, and Castilla-La Mancha. It finds particular success in the appellations Jumilla and Alicante, where many old vine plantings can be found. Monastrell ripens quite late and features thick-skinned, small- to average-size berries, in compact bunches that are also small to average in size. While the grape resists botrytis, it is difficult to cultivate due to its need for heat later in the growing season and its susceptibility to drought. During vinification, Monastrell demonstrates strong reductive tendencies. When bottled alone, it can yield full-bodied, intense wines with elevated tannins, alcohol, ripe fruit flavors (both red and black), and, often, a spicy herbaceous character—one of its important contributions in blends. Monastrell is also used in Fondillón, the historic oxidative and off-dry late-harvest wine of Alicante. Tempranillo: Tempranillo is generally regarded as Spain’s signature grape and it is the country's most planted grape. Globally, Tempranillo is the fourth most planted variety among wine grapes, trailing only Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot among reds. It can be found across Spain under many aliases, but it is believed to reach the apex of its expression in Rioja and Ribera del Duero. Tempranillo Synonyms Cencibel (Valdepeñas) Tinto del País (Ribera del Duero) Tinta de Toro (Toro) Tinto Fino (Ribera del Duero) Tinto Roriz/Aragonez (Portugal) Ull de Llebre (Catalonia) Genetic profiling has suggested that Tempranillo shares a parent-offspring relationship with Albillo Mayor, a white variety cultivated in Ribera del Duero and sometimes blended with Tempranillo. It is believed to originate in either Rioja or Navarra. Tempranillo means “little early one,” likely a reference to its small berry size and its early budding and ripening. Across Spain, Tempranillo enjoys broad clonal diversity, with morphological differences adapted to specific locations. The variety is capable of average to higher yields but can be prone to various vine maladies, including Eutypa dieback and powdery mildew. Clusters are average to large in size, consisting of small, compact berries with thick skins. Tempranillo also has a white mutation, Tempranillo Blanco, which is authorized and harvested in Rioja. Depending on style, Tempranillo can produce a broad array of red to black fruit notes, though its more savory flavors, including leather, earth, and dried herbs, are most often identified. It is responsive to a variety of winemaking techniques, and top-flight examples might be aged in century-old or new American or European oak barrels, among other vessels. Simpler, unoaked examples are abundant as well, as are traditions of carbonic maceration. Tempranillo can be bottled monovarietally but is sometimes blended with various French and Spanish grapes. Other Varieties: A selection of non-native red grapes is also grown in Spain. Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Malbec are all blending partners for Tempranillo, most famously in Ribera del Duero. Cabernet can frequently be found in varietal bottlings as well. Spanish investment in Syrah grew exponentially in the 2000s, with most plantings concentrated in Castilla-La Mancha. Pinot Noir is poorly suited to Spain’s hotter climate, though some exists, especially for Cava production. Rosado Spain produces roughly 25% of rosé globally, ranking second behind France. It is also the world’s largest exporter of rosé, though more than 60% is sold in bulk. The tradition of Spanish rosado stretches back several centuries. The light-bodied red wines enjoyed by pilgrims traveling the Camino de Santiago during the Middle Ages were likely akin to what is considered a dark-hued rosado today. They’re often referred to as claretes , analogous to the clairets of France. Several DOs carry longstanding histories of rosado production, namely Cigales, Navarra, and Valdepeñas, where the wines were known as aloques . Garnacha is an important grape for rosado, though varieties vary throughout the country. Expressions of rosado in Spain, though diverse, show marked distinction from the Provençal examples that have popularized global rosé consumption in the 21 st century. The most traditional rosados are aged for long periods in American oak and are higher in alcohol and deeper in pigment than more contemporary bottlings. They might also employ the crianza, reserva , and gran reserva quality labels. These wines usually blend both red and white varieties and implement a period of skin maceration. Spanish cooperatives during the Franco regime transitioned to the saignée method, not necessarily with additional barrel age, for rosado production, while more recent examples have chased the Provençal style, with direct-to-press techniques and an aim for more lightly colored wines. Atlantic Coast Galicia Galicia juts out like a handle from the rest of Spain, occupying the country’s northwestern corner, just above Portugal. Its culture, like its wines, carries a strong regional identity, combining many Portuguese traditions with Celtic foundations derived from its first inhabitants. Celtic religions once largely coexisted with Catholicism, but today, Galicia might be best known as the end of the Camino de Santiago, a pilgrimage route to the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, where Saint James is said to be buried. Many of Galicia’s wines resemble those grown across the border, such as the Vinho Verdes of Portugal’s Minho region (also the name for the river separating the two countries). Galicia is often referred to as Green Spain for its vibrant landscape, a vast departure from the arid oranges and browns that define much of the rest of Iberia. Galicia's DOs (Click to enlarge and zoom in) Rías Baixas Many Galician wines have attracted recent attention, but Rías Baixas was the first to come to modern prominence. Its Albariño wines helped redefine the global perception of Spanish winemaking. While the country was primarily perceived as an incubator for big, oaked red wines, Rías Baixas delivered a snappy white, as refreshing as it could be serious. While Albariño is believed to be indigenous to the general area (Galicia or northern Portugal), quality winemaking in Rías Baixas was initiated by the Cistercian monks, arriving from Burgundy either during their pilgrimage to Santiago or for the wedding of Queen Urraca of León to Raymond of Burgundy. The many monasteries that were subsequently set up in the area were dissolved starting in the early 1800s, leading to the privatization of Rías Baixas’ vineyard area. Pazos , as local estates are called, were established, many giving name to the producers who occupy their structures today. Each pazo was outfitted with an hórreo , a granary hoisted above ground by stone pillars. Palacio de Fefiñanes was Rías Baixas’ first commercial winery, founded in 1904, though the palace itself dates to the 17 th century. The DO was not created until the 1980s, first called Denominación Específica Albariño and later Rías Baixas DO upon Spain’s admission into the European Union, as varietal appellation names were forbidden by EU law. In 1987, just 14 wineries existed in the DO. Since that time, the region has received global attention and grown tremendously—it is now home to more than 180 producers. Significant investment has come from other major players in Spanish wine, namely those growing reds in other key regions who seek a quality white for their portfolios. Rías Baixas takes its names from the “low estuaries” that flow through the region before eventually reaching the ocean. Lush and green, the area is very humid, with between 1,200 and 1,800 millimeters of precipitation annually. Disease pressure is lowered due to Albariño’s thick-skinned nature, and climate change has purportedly mitigated some of the appellation’s more extreme Atlantic influences in recent vintages. Much of the region is planted on decomposed granite, called xabre , with low water retention that serves the rainy environment well. The subzones of Rias Baixas (Click to enlarge and zoom in) A non-contiguous region, Rías Baixas is separated into five subzones: Val do Salnés, Ribeira do Ulla, Soutomaior, O Rosal, and Condado do Tea. Val do Salnés is the most historic as well as the largest, containing more than half of the region’s planted hectarage and the majority of its most heralded estates. It is the coldest and wettest area of the appellation, situated on the Atlantic coast north of Pontevedra, and yields wines often identified by a marked salinity. Ribeira do Ulla sits northeast, between Val do Salnés and Santiago de Compostela along the Ulla River. Though it occupies a large swath of land, this is the youngest subzone and only a small contributor to Rías Baixas’ total output. Some, however, posit its northerly positioning may prove advantageous with the progression of climate change. Soutomaior is smallest in both production and size, lying just beneath the Verdugo River near the beginning of the wide Ría de Vigo. O Rosal and Condado do Tea both border Portugal, separated by the Miño River and settling its northern banks. O Rosal reaches the Atlantic Ocean, while Condado do Tea goes further inland. O Rosal is regarded for a broader, richer style of Albariño. Condado do Tea is the warmest and driest subzone, as well as the largest contributor to red wine production (though still minimal). Rías Baixas, like much of Galicia, is a region of minifundios , small plots of vineyard, on average 0.6 hectares split into approximately four parcels, owned by independent growers. Largescale operations are challenging here, as stitching together substantial patches of land is difficult. Vines are historically trained to a parral , or “pergola,” system. Granite posts hold up the pergolas, and the overhead canopy provides grapes with shelter from the region’s marginal weather and the opportunity to cultivate other crops between vines. This training system also enables greater airflow to combat mildew and rot, encourages greater photosynthesis and ripening by maximizing leaf surface, and protects grapes from sunburn. Younger plantings, however, might be trellised instead. While Rías Baixas has seen a recent boom in development, several old vine Albariño parcels remain, some over 200 or 300 years in age and still in production. The parral system in Val do Salnés (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak) Albariño accounts for more than 96% of Rías Baixas’ total plantings, with Loureira, Treixadura, Caíño Blanco, Torrontés, and Godello also cultivated. A wine must be composed exclusively of Albariño to be varietally labeled. While blended white wines are authorized and demonstrate high quality, the marketing advantages of listing Albariño on labels has inhibited the growth of white blends. On its own, Albariño can produce varied wines. For an entry-level Albariño, Rías Baixas producers will typically employ exclusively stainless steel before bottling, usually the spring after harvest. These wines are crisp, fruity, and meant for early consumption. A step above will see a more textured Albariño with noted lees impact, from extended sur lie aging and possible bâtonnage . Top Albariños will likely come from older vines and experience lees aging. They may be barrel fermented or aged. These will be the most structured and longest lived Albariños. Some producers may also let their Albariño undergo full malolactic conversion. Rías Baixas wines can be labeled by subzone. Val do Salnés and Ribeira do Ulla wines must be composed of at minimum 70% Albariño, Loureira, Treixadura, and Caíño Blanco. Those labeled O Rosal must be at least 70% Albariño and Loureira, while Condado do Tea must contain a minimum 70% Albariño and Treixadura. An exceptionally small amount of sparkling and red wine is made from any combination of Caíño Tinto, Espadeiro, Loureira Tinta, Sousón, Mencía, and Brancellao. Vino Tostado Vino tostado is a historic style, highly sought after by the English until their defeat of the Spanish Armada and gaining traction once again in the 19 th century. Translating to “toasted wine” or “roasted wine,” vino tostado is a dried grape wine similar to Tuscan vin santo . Red or white grapes are left to dry for a minimum of three months following harvest in covered rooms with consistent ventilation to avoid rot. They must be dried to a minimum must weight of 350 grams per liter. Drying can be performed using various tactics, from hanging the clusters to resting them on shelves or in plastic bins. The wines are then fermented and aged in oak or cherry casks for at minimum six months, followed by a minimum three in bottle before release. Ribeiro Ribeiro’s reputation for quality wines dates back to Roman rule and was later continued by the Benedictine and Cistercian monks who tended to its vines. The region’s focal point is the town of Ribadavia, where the rivers Miño and Avia converge, and the Arnoia joins just south. Heavily fragmented vineyard parcels, rooted mostly in decomposed granite, are harvested in these three rivers’ valleys at various elevations. With high humidity and elevated levels of precipitation, Ribeiro is also dangerously susceptible to spring frost; it lost nearly a third of its crop in 2017. Ribeiro’s southwestern border connects to Rías Baixas’ Condado do Tea. Production in Ribeiro is almost entirely focused upon white wine, with 9 of 10 bottles being white. Though the region was largely replanted to Palomino in the years following the oidium and phylloxera crises, the best whites today come from various local grapes, most importantly the semi-aromatic Treixadura, but also Albariño, Loureiro, Godello, Caíño Blanco, Lado, and Torrontés (of no relation to the Argentine varieties), blended in various combinations. Most of the remaining output is dedicated to red wine from an array of native and Spanish varieties. A final single percent of Ribeiro’s wines is either sparkling or vino tostado . Ribeira Sacra Ribeira Sacra forms a crescent shape through the nexus of Galicia’s two major rivers, the Sil and the Miño. The region’s name translates to “sacred riverbanks,” an allusion to the many monasteries once housed here that established the region’s winegrowing traditions in the Middle Ages. The landscape is dramatic, with ancient terraces carved into the steeply descending hillside plantings, resulting in viticultural challenges on par with those of the Mosel, Douro, and Northern Rhône. A young appellation only officially recognized in 1996, Ribeira Sacra has also been responsible for much of Galicia’s recent attention, with producers such as Guímaro, Algueira, and Dominio do Bibei giving a face to the region’s red wine capabilities in addition to its long-admired whites. Ribeira Sacra is further divided into five subzones: Chantada, Ribeiras do Miño, Amandi, Ribeiras do Sil, and Quiroga-Bibei. Amandi, which sits at the appellation’s center on the steep northern slopes of the Sil, is most historic and most often viewed as highest in quality. Chantada is located on the Miño’s right bank, opposite Ribeiras do Miño. Ribeiras do Sil lies on the left bank of the Sil until just after its confluence with the Miño around the town of Los Peares. Quiroga-Bibei occupies the region’s eastern sector and is carved in half by the Sil. Vineyards along the Sil and near its lower sections tend to be grounded in granitic soils, while the Upper Sil has more slate. The Sil Valley is drier and slightly cooler than the Miño. The Amandi subzone in Ribeira Sacra (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak) Wines produced in Ribeira Sacra are predominately red, with Mencía as the most important grape, covering 90% of vineyards. Here, Mencía can achieve wines perceived as crunchier and lighter in body than those from Bierzo—but often just as complex. Many additional varieties are permitted and can yield exciting wines under the renewed enthusiasm of local producers. Bastardo, locally called Merenzao, has a few varietal examples, typically very floral. Sousón (Vinhão in Portugal) is more deeply pigmented and tannic, while Brancellao (Alvarelhão in Portugal) is more elegant. Caíño Tinto and Tempranillo are also recommended by the consejo , as are Galicia’s three great whites, Albariño, Godello, and Treixadura. The rare labeling term Summum identifies the use of at least 85% principal grapes for both whites and reds. Many are monovarietal, and there are no strict rules surrounding ripeness levels, oak aging, length of aging, or specific quality. Valdeorras Valdeorras , Galicia’s easternmost appellation, bridges Ribeira Sacra with Castilla y León’s Bierzo. While it concentrates its red production on Mencía like its neighbors, the region is most praised for its white wines made from Godello. Valdeorras’s name translates to “valley of Gigguri” a nod to the pre-latin tribe of the area. The Sil River flows through the appellation, but the region has a more continental climate than elsewhere in Galicia—less humid, and with drier, hotter summers. Valdeorras is composed of thousands of small vineyard plots, scattered at various elevations from high hillside plantings to lower parcels closer to the riverbanks. Yet it is home to relatively few wineries, which assemble fruit from the many growers operating here. Though various soils can be found in Valdeorras, the region is largely associated with slate, not only in terms of winegrowing but also for roof tiles, an important export. Godello produces Valdeorras’s most heralded wines, which for some critics can compete with Rías Baixas as Galicia’s finest whites. Often described as mineral , for lack of a better term, Godello wines can achieve marked concentration and complexity both with and without barrel fermentation and aging. Godello might be blended with Doña Blanca (called Dona Branca in Galicia) and Palomino or bottled monovarietally. Reds from Mencía are also produced, as are wines from other Galician and Spanish varieties. Only Mencía (min. 85%) and Godello (min. 100%) can be varietally labeled. In addition to white and red wines, sparkling wine based on Godello and vino tostado (from Godello or red varieties) are also permitted, though the latter style is less associated with Valdeorras than with Ribeiro. Monterrei Monterrei lies south of Ribeira Sacra, hugging the Portuguese border. Its river, the Támega, runs south toward the Douro (as the Duero is called once it enters Portugal). Like Valdeorras, the appellation experiences both Atlantic and Continental influences, resulting in hot, dry summers and cold winters. The region contains diverse soils, but the best soil for white wines is granitic sand, and clay and slate are preferable for reds. Despite its ancient tradition of viticulture (Galicia’s oldest winemaking evidence is found here), only a very small number of wineries operate within Monterrei today. However, recent investment in the area suggests future growth for the DO. Monterrei exclusively makes white and red wines, its whites produced from Dona Branca, Godello, and Treixadura, among other regional varieties, and its reds primarily from Mencía and Bastardo, with blending grapes. Cantabria & Asturias Cantabria and Asturias do not contain DO regions but both cultivate vines. In the southwestern corner of Asturias, Cangas VCIG (which has its own PDO under European law) borders Galicia and Castilla y León. Though it only has six wineries, the region was once more bountiful, before oidium, phylloxera, and 20 th -century challenges such as a burgeoning coal mining industry (with palates favoring more robust drinks) and catastrophic hailstorms in 1959. Whites are harvested from Albarín Blanco, Albillo, and Moscatel de Grano Menudo. Mencía is used for reds, as are the more obscure varieties Carrasquín, Verdejo Negro, and Albarín Negro. There are two VdlT regions in Cantabria. One is the Costa de Cantabria, which climbs from the Atlantic Coast to elevations of 600 meters but doesn’t include those municipalities covered in Liébana, a separate VdlT that borders Asturias. Costa de Cantabria permits Albariño, Chardonnay, Godello, Hondarrabi Zuri, Riesling, Gewürztraminer, and Treixadura for whites, while reds are made from Hondarrabi Beltza. Liébana veers more toward standard Spanish and international varieties, with Palomino, Godello, Chardonnay, Gewürztraminer, Mencía, Tempranillo, Garnacha, Graciano, Syrah, and Cabernet Sauvignon. Like neighboring Galicia and the Basque Country, both Cantabria and Asturias have vibrant cider cultures. Spanish sidra is often cited as more sour than other European examples, distinguished by flavor contributions of Brettanomyces, though varied styles exist. Basque Country Tucked into the western Pyrenees and Iberia’s northern Atlantic Coast, the Basque Country was first inhabited by the Vascones during the Stone Age and remained relatively separate from Roman, Visigoth, and Moorish forces as they dominated the peninsula. The Basque Country remained independent throughout the Spanish Civil War, until Franco, with Hitler’s aid, bombed Guernica in 1937. The Basques maintain a strong sense of cultural identity, and their language, Basque (Euskara), bears no relation to any other. The Basque Country (País Vasco in Spanish and Euskadi in Basque) also holds one of Spain’s most admired culinary heritages. Particularly revered for their seafood, the Basques have made gastronomic destinations out of Michelin-heavy San Sebastián (Donostia) and Bilbao, while also enjoying more casual traditions, namely pintxos , skewered Basque snacks similar to tapas. In addition to Rioja Alavesa DOCa, the Basque Country contains three DO regions that focus on Chacolí, here called Txakoli, all of them impacted by proximity to the Atlantic. The name translates to "farm wine," a reference to the home winemaking practices prevalent throughout the region’s history. Yet Txakoli, traditionally a fresh, sometimes spritzy white wine, has attracted more commercial interest in recent years. Hondarrabi Zuri (or Ondarrabi Zuri) dominates white plantings, though some have theorized that this name represents three different grape varieties. The DOs of Basque Country also employ various international white grapes for blending, including Folle Blanche, Petit Manseng, Gros Manseng, Riesling, Chardonnay, and Sauvignon Blanc, depending on the appellation. The indigenous red grape Hondarrabi Beltza (Ondarrabi Beltza, of no relation to Hondarrabi Zuri) is grown to a smaller extent, yielding fresh, light-bodied reds. Sparkling and rosado Txakoli also exist, though in the shadow of the region’s white wines. While all share commonalities, there are distinguishing traits to the three Txakoli DOs: Txakoli de Bizkaia (Bizkaiko Txakolina) , Txakoli de Getaria (Getariako Txakolina) , and Txakoli de Álava (Arabako Txakolina) . Getaria and Bizkaia are more humid, influenced heavily by the Bay of Biscay, requiring careful viticulture to avoid moisture-related disease and to achieve ripeness. Vineyards are planted on sandy, alluvial soils and lie at lower elevations, often close to sea level, though certain sites are planted on well-drained slopes. Getaria was the first established Txakoli DO and remains the most traditional. Bizkaia, centered to the west around Bilbao, has amassed a concentration of many of the Basque Country’s leading producers, benefiting from looser regulations and greater varietal diversity. Established in 2001, Txakoli de Álava is the newest and smallest appellation, its winegrowing area once nearing extinction despite historic significance. Further inland, the DO experiences less coastal influence and humidity pressure. Duero River Valley Castilla y León Castilla y León is still colloquially referred to as Old Castile, as it once comprised the heart of that powerful kingdom. While many of Castilla y León’s wine regions have ancient origins, most have only recently come to prominence as sources of fine wine. In fact, several appellations—Arlanza, Arribes, León, and Tierra del Vino de Zamora—only earned DO status in 2007. Castilla y León sits on the upper portion of the Meseta, a higher plateau than neighboring Castilla-La Mancha, from which it is separated by the mountains of the Sistema Central. Elevations are high (700 to 1,000 meters), and most regions are concentrated along the banks of the Duero River, before it crosses into Portugal. Much of Castilla y León is susceptible to a dramatic continental climate, matching scorching summers with frigid winters. Frost can be a challenge at both the beginning of the growing season and harvest, as can drought in the hotter months. The DOs of Castilla y León (Click to enlarge and zoom in) Bierzo Bierzo DO has little resemblance to the rest of Castilla y León. Lying just opposite Valdeorras on the Galician border, Bierzo might be considered a transitional appellation into Castilla y León’s more continental climate, and the wines have much more in common with its neighbors to the west. Romans first settled in the area to mine for gold, and with them began the region’s longstanding history of winemaking. Both Pliny the Elder and Greek historian-geographer Strabo document the ancient wines grown here. The region continued as an important source of wine through the Middle Ages for pilgrims making their way to Santiago, and the habitation of the Cistercian order helped advance viticulture. Mining continues in Bierzo, namely for coal and iron, though only recently has the region realized its capacity for excellence. The phylloxera crisis resulted in increased plantings of Palomino (here, as in many regions, innocuous in character), and cooperatives dominated for much of the 20 th century. The DO was officially established in 1989, largely due to the efforts of José Luis Prada, whose winery Prada a Tope was an early leader in the new quality wave. The movement gained traction in the 1990s with acclaimed winemaker Raúl Pérez, who later lent winery space to Álvaro Palacios (of Rioja and Priorat) and his nephew Ricardo Pérez Palacios for their first vintages of Descendientes de José Palacios. Today, Bierzo’s wines, primarily made from Mencía, help redefine the image of Spanish reds by providing a light-bodied foil to premium examples made from Tempranillo. Climatically, Bierzo experiences a degree of the humidity and rainfall from Green Spain, as well as the continental conditions of the Duero River Valley, but is more moderate. The Sierra de los Ancares shields much of the Atlantic’s effects, but cold springs can still lead to challenges with frost. Running through the region is the Sil River, as well as several tributaries. The landscape of Bierzo forms an amphitheater, stretching from around 450 to 800 meters in elevation and dividing the region into two general unofficial zones: the low-lying, flatter Bajo Bierzo at the base and the mountainside plantings of Alto Bierzo. Quality winegrowing is favored in the latter’s higher, sloped sites, often composed of quartz and slate. Vines in Bajo Bierzo are typically planted in deeper, clay-alluvial soils. Old vines can be found throughout the region, though are mostly owned in small plots, requiring producers to piece together sources from many growers. Bierzo announced its own village wine category in 2017 and created a full vineyard quality pyramid. Above the Vino de Villa (village wine) category, Vino de Paraje is seen as analogous to Burgundy’s lieux-dits , designated to specific parcels. Those parajes might further be deemed to produce either Vino de Viña Clasificada (essentially a classified cru wine) or Gran Vino de Viña Clasificada (or grand cru ). It is not yet clear exactly how these schemes will play out. Bierzo’s vineyard quality pyramid (Credit: Brandon Lee Wise) Mencía fills roughly three-quarters of Bierzo’s planted area and here, along with Ribeira Sacra, finds its highest expression. The variety, along with Garnacha Tintorera, Estaldiña, and Merenzao, must contribute a minimum 85% to Bierzo’s red wines. Mencía must also compose at least half of any rosado . White wines of quality are also bottled in Bierzo, most successfully from Godello and Doña Blanca, though Malvasía and Palomino are permitted, too. Rueda Further west along the river from Ribera del Duero, Rueda DO has witnessed one of Spain’s most significant success stories for white wine. Today, the region boasts the most consumed white in Spain, though that was certainly not always the case. The Moors incinerated the area that is today Rueda upon their retreat, leading to a long fallow period. Once fertility was restored, in the 11 th century, King Alfonso VI issued an edict incentivizing a return to that land. Eventually, the region came to specialize in oxidative white wines, and following the phylloxera crisis, much of the vineyard area was replanted to the vigorous Palomino, further likening Rueda’s wines to Sherry. By the 20 th century, Rueda’s dorado (literally “golden”) wines, fortified and sometimes flor-affected rancios aged in a solera system or demijohns, fell far out of fashion, and their lack of export market gave little hope for the region’s future. That changed in 1970, when Rioja bodega Marqués de Riscal and its director Francisco Hurtado de Amézaga y Dolagaray sought to add a white to its portfolio. Inexperienced and uninterested in the traditional white wines of Rioja, the estate enlisted Bordeaux professor and consultant Émile Peynaud to search for alternatives. Peynaud predicted the aptitude of Verdejo grown in Rueda for producing contemporary white wines of commercial appeal and also recommended the cultivation of Sauvignon Blanc. Peynaud’s instincts proved correct, bringing Rueda several decades of investment and expansion. Between 1996 and 2012 alone, vineyard hectarage grew nearly sixfold, and the proportion dedicated to Palomino dwindled, overtaken by more favorable varieties. Rueda’s vineyards, though mainly flat, benefit from elevations around 600 to 700 meters. The Duero just runs through the very north of the region, but its tributaries extend throughout Rueda. The soil has a high portion of limestone and is famously gravelly, allowing for good drainage. Rueda has the same extreme continental climate as its neighbors, often requiring irrigation. Old vine material is available, though a large portion of the new plantings is mechanically harvested. The flat landscape of Rueda (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak) Rueda’s wines are most often juicy, boisterous white Verdejos, bountiful in orchard fruit flavor and a refreshing stoniness. White wines are bottled as Rueda, and may also include a mention of one or more varieties. They must be composed of a minimum 75% principal varieties with producers typically leaning on Verdejo and Sauvignon Blanc, the latter capable of adding acidity and an herbaceous quality. Palomino, Viura, Chardonnay, and Viognier are also authorized for blending. Sparkling wines of various sweetness levels, each requiring different percentages of Verdejo, are produced, and those aged 36 months or longer sur lie can be titled gran añada . Though rare, a few dorado wines can be found, from producers eager to reclaim that part of the region’s heritage. Pálido references a heritage style of biologically aged and fortified Rueda wine, only recently recognized again by the consejo . The region’s red wines, first permitted in 2001, are vinified from Tempranillo, alongside the permitted Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, and Garnacha. Rosado wines can also be bottled. As of the 2019 vintage, two additional categories of Rueda have been created: Gran vino de Rueda must come from vines at least 30 years old and adhering to stricter yields; Vino de Pueblo is a new village wine classification, where 85% of grapes must be harvested for nearly 70 permitted municipalities. Ribera del Duero Much more emblematic of wines from Castilla y Léon is Ribera del Duero . Evidence of viticulture in Ribera del Duero dates back to the Roman period, though there is reason to believe that earlier Celtic settlers grew vines as well. Ancient Roman and medieval wineries and lagares can still be visited throughout the region. For much of its history, Ribera del Duero was a winegrowing area of little prestige. Monasteries would tend to grapes, and locals would cultivate small patches of vineyard for home winemaking—making rustic, light-hued claretes of little semblance to the wines the appellation is known for today. The first to recognize the potential of Ribera del Duero was Don Eloy Lecanda y Chaves, who founded in 1864 what would later be named Vega Sicilia, an estate many cite as the finest in Spain. In that year, he brought all the traditional red grapes of Bordeaux as well as Pinot Noir to be planted alongside Tempranillo. Carmenère and Pinot Noir are no longer cultivated at Vega Sicilia, though Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Malbec remain for various programs. Vega Sicilia did not achieve instant success, but under the stewardship of cellar master Domingo Garramiola Txomin, who conceived the winery’s flagship Unico, the estate began to demonstrate excellence. Tall oak fermenters at Vega Sicilia (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak) Still, Vega Sicilia remained an anomaly in what was an otherwise unremarkable region. Ribera del Duero did not enjoy the same bolster to its industry as Rioja did during the French phylloxera crisis. Once phylloxera reached Ribera del Duero, and following its recovery, only Vega Sicilia and the local cooperative (now the winery Protos) bottled wine until the Spanish Civil War. The number of cooperatives then exploded to more than 30 during the Franco regime. In 1972, Alejandro Fernández established Tinto Pesquera, where he helped return focus to Tempranillo and produced acclaimed monovarietal renditions. The region, however, wasn’t granted DO status until 1982. But beginning in that decade, Ribera del Duero began growing rapidly, expanding from 24 wineries in 1982 to more than 300 today. In addition to its growth in vineyard area and producers, the region gained global esteem, with projects like Peter Sisseck’s Pingus in 1995 solidifying a set of new top-shelf wines for Spain. Ribera del Duero’s borders span four provinces: Soria, Segovia, Burgos, and Valladolid (from east to west). The Duero River runs west through the center of the roughly 110-kilometer-long region. Soils are heterogeneous, with more than 30 types identified. More limestone can be found in the eastern reaches of the appellation, with a significant portion on the opposite side as well, but less in middle zones. Ribera del Duero generally grows warmer moving west, and the western portion also finds denser clay, while the rest of the region has sandy or silty-sandy earth. The elevation is more uniform, with vineyards planted between 700 and 1,000 meters above sea level, with an average of 800 to 850 meters. This amplifies the region’s diurnal swing, allowing grapes to preserve freshness and acidity through the hottest months. Ribera del Duero has one of the most extreme continental climates in Spain—its summers swelteringly hot, its winters icy cold. Grapegrowing can prove challenging, with the risk of frost both in spring and near harvest threatening grapes that demand a long growing season. Hail, too, is not uncommon. A small majority of Ribera del Duero is planted to bush vines, with trellising and mechanical harvesting more prevalent in flatter western areas. Tempranillo bush vine in Ribera del Duero (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak) Tempranillo covers approximately 95% of Ribera del Duero’s vineyards and locally is referred to as Tinto Fino or Tinta del País. Such names can also connote the genetic distinction between the selection of clones found here as compared to other parts of Spain. Following Vega Sicilia’s lead, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Malbec are also permitted and cultivated by many producers. Among additional Spanish red varieties, only Garnacha is authorized, though Bobal can still be found throughout the region. Albillo Mayor, genetically distinct from other Albillos, is the sole white grape permitted in Ribera del Duero. Only since 2019 has the consejo allowed white wine to carry the name Ribera del Duero. Previously, Albillo Mayor was only allowed in red wine blends, though many producers have long bottled Albillo Mayor wines. The grape is believed to share a parent-offspring relationship with Tempranillo (as well as with Doradilla, an esoteric grape from Málaga). In addition to the new white wines, rosado and clarete wines can be made employing a minimum 50% of authorized red varieties. Red wines must be composed of a minimum of 95% authorized red grapes, with a minimum of 75% devoted to Tempranillo. Albillo must comprise a minimum 75% of whites. Ribera del Duero has enacted strict minimum requirements for its aging designations. Most wines, however, don't carry these aging designations, and many producers have adjusted their style to be less informed by extended maturation in oak. Ribera del Duero often conjures comparisons to Rioja, as the two are the world’s most notable regions for Tempranillo. Organoleptically, Ribera del Duero tends to be considered darker fruited and more austerely tannic. This character is said to come not only from the land and the complementary Bordeaux varieties but also from the specific biotypes of Tinto Fino cultivated here. One exception might be near the province of Soria, where wines can often show a brighter, redder, and more acidic profile. Still, Ribera del Duero offers stylistic breadth, despite language often used to refer to “traditional” or “modern” winemaking . Both French and American oak have historically been used in the region, each long a part of Vega Sicilia’s formula, and many wines are amplified by a high dosage of new wood. More “modern” wineries might eschew the aging designations and veer toward monovarietal Tempranillo, but stereotyping proves difficult in this relatively young region. Other DOs Just north of Ribera del Duero, the Arlanza DO was only created in 2007, though its winemaking history originates with monastic traditions in the 12 th century, if not earlier. As with much of Spain, phylloxera devastated the region. Labor was lost in the 1950s as workers emigrated to larger industrial centers. The Arlanza River passes through the region of the same name, before joining the Arlanzón (which will later join the Pisuerga, and ultimately the Duero). Climatically, Arlanza shares the continental extremes of Ribera del Duero, and its soils are mostly sandy, with more of a clay structure near the center. White wines can be made from Albillo Mayor and Macabeo, while rosado and red wine must be composed of at least half Tempranillo. Other permitted red varieties include Garnacha, Mencía, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Petit Verdot. Further down the Pisuerga River, before it meets the Duero, is the Cigales DO . Cigales’s wine origins are believed to be just as old as Ribera del Duero’s, though historically it has been most associated with rosados and claretes . Vineyards are high in elevation, between 700 and 800 meters, planted to soils that often have significant limestone content. As with Châteauneuf-du-Pape and its galets roulés , large rounded stones dot the vineyards here, reflecting heat and benefiting ripening. A vast network of underground cellars sits beneath the region, and visitors can spot the cellars' luceras , tall air vents that help light the facilities below. Rosado remains an important product for Cigales, though the trend toward Provençal-style pale rosés has proven a challenge for these darker-hued pink wines, and some producers have moved toward lighter-colored wines. White, red, sparkling, and sweet wines are also permitted. Grapes include Verdejo, Sauvignon Blanc, Albillo Mayor, and Viura among whites, and for reds, Garnacha, Garnacha Gris, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, and, most importantly, Tempranillo. The large León DO , roughly halfway between Cigales and Bierzo, held 14,000 hectares of vineyard as recently as the mid-1980s, but just over 1,400 remain. The vineyards sit around 800 to 900 meters in elevation, planted on brownish alluvial terraces with limestone influence. León, known as Tierra de León until 2019, is most distinguished for its cultivation of the indigenous red Prieto Picudo, which makes up roughly 70% of vineyards. The variety, recognized by its oval-shaped berries, produces lighter-colored, aromatic red wines with high acidity. Mencía is also recommended and Garnacha and Tempranillo authorized. For white grapes, Verdejo, Albarín Blanco (distinct from Albariño and all Albillos), Godello, Malvasía Castellana (also known as Síria or Doña Blanca, unrelated to Dona Branca), and Palomino (though not in new plantings) are authorized. Red, white, and rosado wines are all produced. Along the Duero, Toro sits adjacent to Rueda, with a small section overlapping at the town of Villafranca de Duero. Toro’s reputation of quality winegrowing precedes that of Ribera del Duero, its wines exported to both the Americas following colonization and France during the phylloxera epidemic. Until the end of the 20 th century, much of Toro’s wine was also sent elsewhere in Spain to give muscle to cheaper blends. A pivot in quality occurred in the 1980s, reflected in investment from top Spanish estates, including Vega Sicilia with its project Pintia, and the emergence of new bodegas. Toro sits at around 620 to 840 meters above sea level, and its cold continental nights prove critical to preserving balance in the region’s ripe wines. Vines are usually bush-trained and widely spaced, in part due to the drought conditions common here. Soils are inconsistent, though brown limestone can frequently be found atop both sandy and clay structures. Tempranillo earns the local name Tinta de Toro, also a reference to the regional clonal types of the variety, which contribute to a full-throttle, rustic nature in the wines. Toro can be comparatively massive in flavor and alcohol when juxtaposed with Rioja or even Ribera del Duero, earning the moniker “bull’s blood” ( toro translates to “bull”). Reds must contain at least 75% Tempranillo or 85% Garnacha, with the balance of the blend coming from those two grapes. Rosado and white wine also come from Toro, the latter from Verdejo, Malvasía Castellana, Albillo Real, and/or Muscat à Petit Grains. As of 2024, the DO also allows for quality sparkling wines vinified as red, white, or rosé. Tierra del Vino de Zamora DO forms an L-shape around Toro, just touching Rueda at its eastern edge. The Duero flows through the northern sector of the appellation, and many other rivers traverse the region. As with the rest of the area, vineyards are planted high at an average of 750 meters above sea level, and soils are predominately alluvial. Tempranillo is the most planted grape variety and must constitute 75% of all red wines, 60% of rosados, and 30% of claretes . Cabernet Sauvignon and Garnacha are also grown, as are Malvasía Castellana, Verdejo, Moscatel de Grano Menudo, Albillo Mayor, Palomino, and Godello. Arribes DO follows the path of the Duero River along the northeastern Portuguese border. The appellation is partially opposite the Douro Superior subzone of the Douro, an area of increasing significance in both Port and dry wine production. Vineyards range in elevation between 550 and 820 meters, and the soils are a mixture of sandy quartz and granite, as well as slate. The star grapes are reds Bruñal and its progeny Juan García. Bruñal yields ample-bodied wines with intense berry flavors, while Juan García veers more herbal and aromatic. Tempranillo, Rufete, Garnacha, and Mencía are permitted as well, along with Malvasía Castellana (a minimum 60% required for white wines), Verdejo, Albillo Mayor, and Albillo Real. Red, white, and rosado are bottled. Ebro River Valley Rioja Winegrowing in Rioja is believed to predate the Roman conquest. The Celtiberians (Celtic tribes settled in Iberia) likely had already established a viticultural tradition, one that proved attractive to the newly arrived Romans who would bring their own knowledge and improve upon the local industry. Some even postulate that the Romans came to Rioja a century before reaching Bordeaux, and it is from Riojano cuttings that Bordeaux was first planted. The name, Rioja (or Rioxa, as it was originally written), didn’t appear until 1092. Many speculate that Rioja is a portmanteau of Río Oja, a river that joins with the Tirón and later the Ebro. Others believe it might come from the Basque erriotxa , “land of bread,” or arrioxa , “land of rocks.” Regardless, by the time the region’s name emerged, Rioja had gained monastic importance, allowing an ongoing commitment to its vineyards. Winemaking, however, remained crude during this early history, and for much of the second millennium, white wines were prized over the reds and more widely grown. A pivot toward Tempranillo and Cariñena (called Mazuelo here) began in the 18 th century, at the end of which growers established the Real Sociedad Económica de Cosecheros de Rioja in 1787, an association that allowed them to jointly market the region and seek other advancements. The disasters of oidium and phylloxera in France were the catalysts for change in Rioja. The devastation of French vineyards pushed its vignerons south, looking for sources of wine. Not only did the French bring barrels, their investment in the region also provided the financial capital for much-needed infrastructure. An inland area, Rioja had been quite inaccessible, isolated from larger economic centers by lack of major road access. In 1880, Rioja completed its railway, connecting Logroño to Haro and ultimately Bilbao, providing its wines a route out of the region and to France. Wineries were established around the train station in Haro. The town’s Barrio de la Estación (train station district) still serves as the brain center for the region, housing such centenary wineries as López de Heredia, Compañía Vinícola del Norte de España (CVNE), and La Rioja Alta. The wines, too, continued to modernize. The Spanish crown established Haro’s Estación Enológica in 1888, a wine research facility that continues in operation. In 1890, Haro became only the second electrified city in Spain, following Jerez. Yet Rioja’s reign was short lived. Bordeaux’s vineyards began to recover by the end of the century, replanted onto American rootstocks. Exports reached a record nine million liters in 1891, but just three years later receded to two million. And while it was better armed with the antidote, Rioja also suffered from phylloxera beginning in 1899, losing more than two-thirds of its vine area. The region had begun to experience fraud as well, prompting the application of wire cages (or mallas ) to bottles to guarantee authenticity. In 1925, Rioja established its consejo regulador, the first in Spain, to govern and protect the region’s wine industry. Subzones, cities, and key wineries in Rioja (Click to enlarge and zoom in) Following the hardships of the Civil War and World War II, Rioja formed a second consejo to more success than the first. The region recovered its markets during the 1950s and 1960s, and by the 1970s, France’s wines became prohibitively expensive for many. Rioja provided a popular alternative and one that was ready to drink upon release (after many years of cellaring at the winery), in contrast to many French counterparts. The latter half of the 20 th century would also bring about several new wine styles in Rioja. In the 1960s, Enrique Forner of Marqués de Cáceres had hired Émile Peynaud, who advocated for the use of new French oak in Rioja. Michel Rolland arrived in 1987, hired by Bodegas Palacio, where he created a new flagship, Cosme Palacio y Hermanos Reserva Especial, matured for a shorter duration in new French barrels. Several producers would go on to craft similar vinos de autor , wines more internationally styled to the palate of critics like Robert Parker. In short, the image of a “typical” Rioja diversified. Following Spain’s entrance into the European Union, Rioja was declared the country’s first DOCa region in 1991. While Rioja takes its name from La Rioja, the DOCa in fact traverses four autonomous communities: La Rioja, Basque Country, Navarra, and Castilla y Léon. (The inclusion of territory from Castilla y Léon results from the fact that two small areas within La Rioja belong to Castilla y Léon; a single estate sits in the DOCa.) Across its expanse, approximately 100 kilometers long and 40 wide, the appellation is rather heterogeneous. The Sierra de Cantabria range barricades the northern areas of Rioja from Atlantic winds, while the Ebro River splits the region. Vintages are often described as Atlantic or Mediterranean, the former years being cooler and wetter and the latter warmer and drier. The climate can vary dramatically across the region, with eastern areas experiencing more continental conditions with Mediterranean influences and the west a more maritime effect. In part based on these climatic differences, Rioja is divided into three subzones: Rioja Alta, Rioja Alavesa, and Rioja Oriental. Rioja Alta sits the furthest west, with its two production hubs, Haro and Logroño, nearly bookending the area. The largest subzone in terms of area planted (over 40% of Rioja’s vineyards, with more than 27,000 hectares), Rioja Alta is also home to many of Rioja’s most well-recognized names, including López de Heredia, Muga, CVNE, and La Rioja Alta S.A. The Oja and Najerilla Rivers, both tributaries of the Ebro, form valleys where many of Rioja Alta’s grapes are harvested. Vineyards in the Oja Valley feature a higher concentration of chalky, alluvial soils, while those further east in the Najerilla Valley lie on iron-rich clay. A non-contiguous subzone, Rioja Alavesa sandwiches a small section of Rioja Alta north of the Ebro River, surrounding the town of San Vicente de la Sonsierra. Rioja Alavesa is located entirely along the northern bank of the Ebro, as well as within Basque Country, and the subzones’ differences are as much cultural as they are geographical. Rioja Alavesa has more limestone in its soils and is also home to Rioja’s highest elevation vineyards on average, found near Labastida. The subzone relies most heavily on Tempranillo, with lower production of its blending partners. While bottling some of Rioja’s most expensive wines, Rioja Alavesa also has a tradition for carbonic-macerated Tempranillo that predates the introduction of Bordelais techniques. The most easterly subzone, Rioja Oriental, has long been associated with Garnacha, which achieves more consistent ripeness in its warmer climes. Both drier and hotter than Rioja Alta and Alavesa, Rioja Oriental, renamed from Rioja Baja in 2018, will typically be the first subzone to harvest grapes. Stretching into the autonomous community of Navarra, many of Rioja Oriental’s vineyards sit at higher elevations in the Yerga Mountains. Varietal breakdown in icon Rioja wines; click to enlarge and zoom in (Credit: Mike Ryan) Tempranillo is Rioja’s dominant grape variety, and here, along with Ribera del Duero, it accomplishes its most recognized expressions. While increasingly vinified into monovarietal wines, Tempranillo was traditionally blended with several other varieties. In 1973, Garnacha was more widely planted in Rioja than Tempranillo; the varieties covered 39% and 31% of the landscape, respectively. Producers in Rioja Alta will still source Garnacha—used to add alcohol, body, and fruitiness—from Rioja Oriental as a sort of insurance policy should Tempranillo not ripen correctly. Today, it is also admired for its contributions to quality, with several Garnacha-dominant Rioja wines being bottled. A grape that once neared extinction, Graciano has found champions in recent decades as well. It supplies acidity, tannin, and exotic spice flavors, and in a select few cellars, it is bottled on its own into characterful yet serious wines. Mazuelo (Cariñena) is similarly employed in small quantities for acid and tannin, while Maturana Tinta (Jura's Trousseau) is also allowed. Rioja might best be known for Tempranillo, but the appellation allows for other varietal red wines, as well as rosados , whites, and traditional method espumosos (which must be aged a minimum 15 months sur lie ). Viura (Macabeo) is most prevalent among white varieties and can achieve tremendous structure balanced by acidity. It is commonly blended with Malvasía for its floral aromas, and together these yield the great, traditional white Riojas, of which only a couple stewards remain. Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Verdejo, Garnacha Blanca, Maturana Blanca, Tempranillo Blanco, and Turruntés are also permitted. The wines of Rioja have long been typified by aging in American oak barrels, partly due to Spain’s longstanding trade ties with North America, but also because these could be sourced more cheaply than expensive French barrels. Several Rioja wineries, particularly those in Haro, house cooperages on-site to either fashion new barrels or to repair their ancient casks, often nearing a century in age. The wines tend to be distinguished less by the flavors of American oak than they are with the oxidative effects of long-term aging in barrel. According to Rioja regulations, barrels must hold approximately 225 liters, the same as Bordeaux barriques. Many producers today have shifted toward newer European oaks and blends of French and American oak. Rioja’s minimum requirements for its age-designated wines are stricter than those of general Spain. Top producers might far exceed these minimums, on occasion longer than an additional decade. Further, many producers, particularly those favoring new French oak, have abandoned the labeling of these aging terms outright, in favor of simple cosecha or genérico classification. This allows them the freedom to use larger wooden vessels, and occasionally amphorae, further expanding Rioja’s stylistic diversity. Rioja’s consejo regulador passed new regulations in 2017 allowing village names to appear on its bottles, a concept first pioneered in Spain by Priorat in 2009. Rioja features 144 different villages, but only the village of the vineyard and cellar can be written on the bottle, meaning that wineries cannot feature a full portfolio of different village wines unless they have production facilities in each. The consejo regulador also created a Viñedo Singular, or “single vineyard,” category for wines coming from hand-harvested individual sites where vines are at least 35 years old. These wines must achieve nearly 30% lower yields, with whites dropping from 63 to 45 hectoliters per hectare and reds moving from 45.5 to 32.5 hectoliters per hectare. They must also pass approval by the consejo tasting committee. Such efforts have been lauded by the global wine community, though many producers question if they go far enough to ensure quality. In 2017, the consejo authorized the production of Vino Espumoso de Calidad de Rioja, a new Rioja DOCa category for traditional method sparkling wines. The designation applies to both white wines and rosados , and grapes must be manually harvested. Those wines labeled crianza must age a minimum 15 months sur lie prior to disgorgement, reserva must age 24 months, and gran añada , 36 months. Dosage levels must be consistent with brut, extra brut , and brut nature styles. Yet even with the addition of this new category, there are still authorized villages that instead choose to produce Cava. As with Ribera del Duero, Rioja wines are often generalized as either “traditional” or “modern” in style. Wineries considered traditional will typically adhere to practices made popular in the late 19 th and early 20 th centuries, with a high concentration located in Haro’s Barrio de la Estación. Modernist-leaning wineries can be found throughout the Rioja region (including Haro). Yet the schism between traditional and modern wineries has grown more blurred in recent years, and certain wineries bottle both wines seen as traditional and others deemed modern. Practices often considered traditional include blending from multiple subregions (often dominated by Tempranillo from Rioja Alta), varietal blending, adherence to the aging classification system, open-top fermentation, and, most significantly, the reliance on older 225-liter American oak casks for long, semi-oxidative maturation. Modernist techniques might refer to monovarietal Tempranillo wines, single-subregion and single-vineyard wines, avoidance of the aging classification system, cold soaking, temperature-controlled fermentation in stainless steel, and shorter élevage in newer, often European oak vessels. Navarra Winegrowing in Navarra is first documented in Roman history, though its early inhabitants, the Vascones, also provided the area with cultural Basque influence. The region has a long tradition of bullfighting, and for nine days each July, in celebration of San Fermín, a daily encierro, or running of the bulls, takes place in Pamplona. Residents and tourists, dressed in white clothing and red scarves, sprint through the streets in front of the bulls to be fought that evening. Navarra existed as an independent kingdom until 1512, when it joined with King Ferdinand and his dominion. Its wines had already found commercial success, popular with annual pilgrims traveling to Santiago de Compostela. The region later gained an export market, both in France and the New World. It fell under French rule in 1791, in the early years of France’s long revolution, and French kings enjoyed the title of King of France and Navarre. Such a relationship proved beneficial upon the arrival of oidium and phylloxera in France, and like Rioja, Navarra flourished in the mid- to late 1800s when selling vast quantities of its wines across the Pyrenees. When phylloxera finally reached Navarra at the end of that century, its vineyards were decimated as well, falling to less than 2% of pre-phylloxera plantings in just a half decade. The 20 th century saw some recovery of Navarra’s vineyard area, though the World Wars and Civil War led to an association with cooperative and bulk wine production during the Franco era. Continued plantings of Tempranillo, an attempt to bank on Rioja’s success despite less suitable conditions, only resulted in less impressive wines and poor comparisons to its neighbor. The 1970s and ’80s observed heavy investment in French varieties, especially Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Chardonnay, often at the expense of old vine Garnacha—a decision many lament today. The shift pitted Navarra’s modern, internationally styled wines against New World countries working with the same varieties, and interest accelerated for the region. More recently, a young generation has begun to revive Navarra’s local varieties and styles. However, the international rosé boom of the 2000s in favor of pale Proven ç al styles has threatened consumer interest in Navarra’s long tradition of rosado , a deeply pigmented pink wine. With the exception of its small share of DOCa Rioja, Navarra only holds one appellation, DO Navarra . The large and heterogeneous DO is divided into five distinct zones: Baja Montaña, Tierra Estella, Valdizarbe, Ribera Alta, and Ribera Baja. Ribera Alta and Baja comprise nearly two-thirds of Navarra’s grapegrowing area. The region grows drier toward the south, while the Ebro River bisects Ribera Baja. In the northwestern corner of the appellation, the hilly Tierra Estella cultivates vines at elevations around 560 meters, as does the adjacent Valdizarbe subzone, which lies just beneath Pamplona. Baja Montaña, in the northeast, concentrates almost entirely on red wine production, with treasured old vine Garnacha vineyards. Navarra permits red, white, rosado, and sweet wine production. White wine constitutes the smallest percentage, vinified from Garnacha Blanca, Macabeo, and Malvasía, as well as Moscatel de Grano Menudo, Chardonnay, and Sauvignon Blanc. Moscatel de Grano Menudo is also utilized for sweet and fortified wines, notably from Ribera Baja. The appellation’s most distinct product is its deeply colored rosados , a centuries-old delicacy best fermented from Garnacha. The DO mandates that rosados are produced using the saignée method and forbids direct pressing, arguing that it reduces complexity. Serious red wines are also bottled in Navarra, also most successfully from old vine Garnacha, though Tempranillo, Cariñena, Graciano, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, and Pinot Noir are all authorized as well. While the rest of Navarra’s minimum aging requirements match those of Spain overall, its red crianzas must be aged for at least two years, with a minimum nine months in barrel. Aragon Aragon (in Spanish, Aragón) was first declared its own kingdom in 1035 and absorbed Navarra later that century. It ascended as a political powerhouse in 1469, upon the marriage of its Prince Ferdinand to Isabella of Castile. Aragon’s early political advantages helped establish export markets for its wines from Renaissance times. By the time phylloxera struck France, however, the area had not adapted to more contemporary styles, and the wines lost favor to those of nearby areas, namely Rioja and Navarra. During the 20 th century, the region experienced further decline in quality, as production was largely relegated to cooperatives. Recent years have brought new energy to Aragon, including revitalized attention to its old vine Garnacha. Four DOs are housed within Aragon: Calatayud, Cariñena, Campo de Borja, and Somontano. The first three are located south and west of Zaragoza, Aragon’s capital. Calatayud is largest, split by the Jalón River that flows north to meet the Ebro. The river does little to alleviate the region’s arid climate, but vineyards are usually planted at higher elevations, above 500 meters, on a variety of soils. Garnacha occupies nearly two-thirds of the vineyard area, followed by Tempranillo and Syrah. Numerous other French and Spanish red grapes are permitted, as are Macabeo, Malvasía, Garnacha Blanca, and international white varieties. While 92% of plantings are dedicated to red grapes, white, red, sparkling, semi-sparkling, sweet, and fortified wines are all permitted. Calatayud also necessitates a minimum 35 years for wines designated Viñas Viejas, or “old vines.” Those deemed Calatayud Superior must be composed of at least 85% Garnacha from vines that surpass 50 years in age. Garnacha harvest in Calatayud (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak) East of Calatayud, Cariñena’s landscape is divided by the Huerva River, which also joins the Ebro. This is perhaps Aragon’s most historic appellation, established in 1932, the first year of DOs, and with winegrowing standards enacted as early as 1696. It is also the namesake for Cariñena, and while that grape is still cultivated within its bounds, there is far more production of Garnacha (at 27%) and Tempranillo (at 22%). The rest of the vineyard area is dedicated to mostly typical white and red grapes, both Spanish and foreign. Red, white, rosado , sparkling, semi-sparkling, sweet, and fortified are permitted. Due west of Zaragoza, Campo de Borja shares its name with the Italian Borgias; Alfonso de Borgia, named pope in 1455, is the namesake for both. The appellation extends from southern Navarra, sitting in the Ebro River Valley, before scaling to the foothills of the Moncayo Massif. Garnacha reigns supreme, planted in approximately three-quarters of the vine space, as do cooperatives, nearly monopolizing all production. Tempranillo and Macabeo see sizeable cultivation, while a number of white and red accessory varieties are also allowed. The appellation has recently built a reputation for quality, good-value young reds. Rosado, white, sparkling, fortified Moscatel, and late-harvest wines can also be crafted. Somontano has the least in common with Aragon’s other DOs. Far removed in the north of the autonomous community, located between the Ebro River Valley and the Pyrenees, Somontano housed a cluster of monasteries in the Middle Ages, allowing winegrowing to prosper. Proximity to France offered preferential trade opportunities as well as stylistic influence. The appellation is less arid than the rest of Aragon, but well-drained soils help balance the increased rainfall. The youngest of Aragon’s DOs, Somontano is also the least bound to Garnacha, although the grape does grow here in both red and white forms. Instead, some of Somontano’s most successful wines come from Gewürztraminer, Riesling, and Chardonnay, as well as Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot. Several additional French and Spanish grapes are cultivated, including the local white Alcañón, and reds Parraleta (not to be confused with the white Parellada) and Moristel. The consejo allows white, red, sparkling, fortified, and sweet wines. Mediterranean Coast Catalonia The DOs of Catalonia (Click to enlarge and zoom in) Catalonia’s history has often diverged from that of the rest of Spain. Upon being relinquished from Moorish rule by Charlemagne, the region was joined to the Frankish Kingdom, and it still shares many similarities with neighboring Roussillon. In 1137, the Kingdom of Aragon was created as Catalonia was joined with Aragon through the marriage of Count Berenguer IV of Barcelona to Petronilla, future Queen of Aragon. (Spain's formation would come later, with the marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon.) Catalan separatist movements have continued throughout the centuries, the most recent uprising in 2017. The spirit of independence extends into many Catalan institutions. The local Catalan language is spoken by many in favor of Spanish, and several hallmarks of national culture are either not present or, as is the case with bullfighting, forbidden by law. With Barcelona as its capital, Catalonia is a popular tourist destination, with visitors flocking to Gaudí’s modernist architecture and the beaches of the Costa Brava and Costa Daurada. In addition to its local cuisine, Catalonia has been at the forefront of the global molecular gastronomy movement, with Michelin-starred restaurants such as El Celler de Can Roca and El Bulli (now closed) leading the charge. Such cultural distinctiveness extends to Catalonia’s winemaking traditions, which are often different from those of the rest of Spain and more influenced by France. Cava, Penedès, & Catalan Sparkling Wines Catalonia crafts a wide assortment of wines, but its most globally significant is Cava . Spain’s history of sparkling wine production began in 1851, when Antoni Galí Comas entered his bottle of sparkling to a competition in Madrid. Luis Justo I Villanueva, a laboratory director at Catalonia’s Agricultural Institute of Sant Isidre, taught the first generation of sparkling winemakers, three of whom entered a Barcelona wine competition in 1872. In that same year, Josep Raventós i Fatjó of Codorníu Raventós, upon returning from France, made the first traditional method sparkling wine using Macabeo, Xarel·lo, and Parellada, widely considered to be the forerunner of all Cava. He made his wine in Sant Sadurní d’Anoia, the town that continues to serve as the industrial center of Spain’s sparkling wine industry. Cava is Spain’s answer to Champagne and in its earlier iterations would even bear the name Champán or Xampany (in Catalan). Champaña briefly benefited from France’s phylloxera crisis, before the louse reached the young category’s soils in the 1880s. Much later, this terminology was forbidden on labels, at French insistence and as part of global efforts to recognize designations of origin. Instead, the wines were redubbed in 1970 as Cava, which simply translates to “cellar,” more specifically one below ground. As is true with the crayères beneath Reims, the Spanish recognized the advantages of an underground environment and its consistent temperatures for the maturation of sparkling wines experiencing extended lees contact. All Cava is made in the traditional method, and disgorgement is widely carried out via a gyropalette, or girasol . A mechanized riddling system that Catalonia was first to use in the 1970s, the gyropalette can perform remuage in as fast as three days, a task that would take hand-riddlers six weeks. To call Cava a Catalan wine requires some annotation, as the DO is administered at the Spanish, not Catalan, level. Approximately 95% of Cava originates within Catalonia, and roughly three-quarters of Catalonia’s Cava near Sant Sadurní d’Anoia, where many of the larger production houses—including the largest, Freixenet and Codorníu Raventós—can be found. The identity of Cava has been significantly shaped by such houses. Yet Cava can be vinified in various patches across Spain and in seven of its autonomous communities: Catalonia, Valencia, Aragon, Basque Country, La Rioja, Navarra, and Extremadura. The typical varietal composition of Cava might also change depending on region: Monastrell, for example, is used in Valencia, and Chardonnay and Pinot Noir have been widely adopted by many. The traditional Cava blend, however, is comprised of Macabeu (Macabeo), Xarel·lo, and Parellada. Macabeo is the most planted and typically serves as Cava’s foundation and its largest component, contributing fruity breadth and structure. Xarel·lo will further strengthen the wine, adding earthy flavors, broadening the mid-palate, and extending its aging potential. Parellada is used to soften a Cava with its more moderate acidity, favored for its floral finesse. Though styles of Cava will differ, the bubbles are generally considered angular and savory in character. Cava can sell at very low prices, though more premium examples are also available. All three of Cava’s classic grapes are white, and so most Cava is as well. However, some rosado (or rosat in Catalan) is produced employing the region’s red grapes, Garnacha Tinta, Monastrell, Pinot Noir, and Trepat, with these red grapes comprising a minimum of 25% of the blend. Rosado Cava can be produced through brief maceration of red skins, saignée , with a minimum requirement of 25% red grapes. Though the color spectrum varies, rosado Cava is often darker hued and more tannic in style than most rosé Champagne. Sweetness levels in Cava (Credit: Brandon Lee Wise) Basic Cava must age a minimum of nine months from the date of tirage until disgorgement, a requirement that echoes that of French Crémant sur lie aging. Reserva Cava extends that period to a minimum 18 months, while gran reserva requires at least 30 months of aging. As a result, autolytic character becomes more prevalent moving up Cava’s quality pyramid. In 2014, the consejo regulador introduced a new category, Cava de Paraje Calificado, with its first crop of wines arriving in 2017 on the market. Cava de Paraje must originate from a single parcel whose vines are at least 10 years old. Wines must be vintage dated, unacidified, and aged in bottle for a minimum 36 months before being disgorged. They must also adhere to stricter yields, hand-harvesting, and quality control. The Cava de Paraje category applies exclusively to brut , extra brut , and brut nature wines. Despite the addition of this higher-quality tier, Cava has long come under scrutiny for its largescale production. In 2013, a number of high-profile producers abandoned the Cava DO to bottle their wines under Penedès DO, where sparkling wine is now also permitted under the label Clàssic Penedès . This subclassification was authorized shortly after Raventós i Blanc departed in 2012, stating its intention to establish a DO (as yet unrealized) for the small Conca del Riu Anoia subzone of Penedès. An additional exodus of top wineries occurred in 2019 through the Corpinnat association, its name a portmanteau that roughly translates to “heart of Penedès.” This abandonment of the Cava label has meant the loss of nearly half of the existing Cavas de Paraje Calificado. Corpinnat wines adhere to more stringent regulations than those of Cava, vinified from hand-harvested, organically grown grapes, of which at least 90% are indigenous, within a delineated zone. Minimum bottle aging is 18 months prior to disgorgement. The center of Cava production lies within the Penedès DO , established in 1960. Its landscape is extraordinarily diverse in microclimates, yielding an equally varied portfolio of wines. The region can be divided into three narrower areas. Penedès Marítim, also referred to as Baix- (low) Penedès, rises from sea level to 250 meters. Monastrell, Garnacha, and Cariñena perform well, moderated by the proximity to the Mediterranean, while Macabeo, Xarel·lo, and Parellada will often produce simpler white wines. In the transitional sector of Penedès Central, or Mitja- (middle) Penedès, Cava’s trio of grapes, as well as Tempranillo and red Bordeaux varieties, are successful. Here, vineyards lie between 250 and 500 meters. The highest elevation plots are found in Penedès Superior, or Alt- (high) Penedès, between 500 and 850 meters as the vineyards ascend into the Montserrat mountain range. With increased precipitation and a more dramatic diurnal swing, Penedès Superior grows an assortment of cooler-climate international grapes, including Pinot Noir, Cabernet Franc, Chardonnay, Riesling, and Gewürztraminer. Also permitted are a number of other grape varieties, such as Chenin Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc, Garnacha Blanca, and Moscatel de Alejandría and de Grano Menudo—though examples are few. Many wine styles are produced: white, red, rosado , sparkling, semi-sparkling, late harvest, and fortified wines. Priorat Priorat , or the rarely seen Priorato in Spanish, derives its name from priory , a reference to the monastery founded there in the 12 th century. A Provençal Carthusian order migrated to the region, purportedly after word reached them of a young local shepherd’s vision of a ladder used by angels to ascend to heaven. The monks settled at the supposed site of the Scala Dei, or “Stairway of God,” and there made wine. Wine is still produced near the site of the original monastery, at Cellers de Scala Dei. The vineyards were purchased by four families in the 19 th century, a union that was known as the Societat Agrícola la Unió; the Codorníu Raventós group acquired a 25% share in 2000. Cellers de Scala Dei in Priorat (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak) The region at large has continually produced wine since the Middle Ages. Yet while approximately 10,000 hectares were harvested before phylloxera, only about 500 remained in use by the end of the 1970s. The region’s steep slopes demanded skilled and expensive labor, making revival appear unlikely. But a group of vintners committed to Priorat’s survival and optimistic about the region’s quality achieved just that. René Barbier (Clos Mogador) and his recruits Álvaro Palacios (Clos Dofí, now Finca Dofí), Daphne Glorian (Clos Erasmus), José Luis Pérez (Clos Martinet, now Mas Martinet), and Carlos Pastrana and Mariona Jarque (Clos de l’Obac) produced a set of red wines that were structured, modern, and ultimately unrecognizable from the more oxidatively oaked prestige bottlings typically identified with Spain. This group of five, who beginning in 1989 shared a facility in the town of Gratallops, worked to refurbish esteemed sites and very quickly received high marks from critics, placing Priorat back on the world map. After the 1991 vintage, the original Gratallops producers moved into separate facilities, and following their lead, Priorat received an influx of both local and foreign investment, with younger winemakers devoting themselves to the region. In 2000, the Catalan government upgraded Priorat to the status of Denominació d'Origen Qualificada. The Spanish government recognized the region in 2009, making it the country’s second DOQ or DOCa after Rioja, a title the two regions still exclusively share. Priorat’s reds firmly count among Spain’s most expensive, and bottlings such as Álvaro Palacios' L’Ermita can regularly fetch four digits. Even beyond its Carthusian monastic origins, Priorat has been influenced by French winemaking. The use of terminology such as clos serves as a clear nod to Burgundy (despite no analogous walls separating vineyard sites), and Palacios and Barbier, along with other pioneering winemakers, have long championed specificity of site as a key component to Priorat’s future. In 2009, the consejo introduced the Vi de Vila, or “village wine” category, comparable to the various villages in Burgundy whose names can be featured on labels. Currently, 12 villages are recognized: La Morera de Montsant, Gratallops, Bellmunt del Priorat, Escaladei, Porrera, Poboleda, La Vilella Baixa, La Vilella Alta, El Lloar, Masos del Terme de Falset, Solanes del Terme de El Molar, and Torroja del Priorat. Though the concept might be considered decidedly un-Spanish in philosophy ( assemblage across large swaths of land has been fundamental to many of Spain’s most successful regions), Bierzo, Rioja, and Rueda have all followed in Priorat’s path with their own village classifications. Priorat’s vineyards are planted on steep hillsides, carved with narrow terraces that typically fit only a row or two. The region is bordered to its northwest by the taller Serra de Montsant, protecting this inland Mediterranean area from fierce winds. The appellation experiences wide diurnal swings and low annual rainfall. The Siurana River cuts diagonally through the landscape before meeting the Ebro, though it mostly runs dry, as water is redirected to a nearby reservoir—to many growers’ dismay. Priorat’s distinctive llicorella soil, composed of schistose mica and quartzite, allows roots to stretch deep to find water, and its reflective black-red surface radiates heat back onto the vines, similar to the Mosel’s blue slate. Yields are very low, leading to incredibly concentrated wines. Priorat’s steep hillsides (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak) Garnacha (Garnatxa) arguably performs best in this part of Spain, and Cariñena (here Carinyena) also occupies significant hectarage. There are old vine examples of both grapes, and the two are often blended together, with Garnacha offering body, alcohol, and complexity and Cariñena amplifying brightness and acidity. Tempranillo, Syrah, and Bordeaux varieties, among others, are also permitted, though grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon are being regrafted to Garnacha. Vi de Vila wines must hold 60% Garnacha and Cariñena, or 50% if only one is included in the blend. In 2019, Priorat announced a new vineyard classification pyramid. This is in addition to the Vi de Finca scheme that already exists for Catalonia more broadly. Established in 2002, Vi de Finca recognizes specific growing zones and single vineyards. (Priorat's first two Vi de Finca wines were Clos Mogador and Vall Llach’s Mas de la Rosa.) Similar to Burgundy’s lieux-dits , Vi de Paratge refers to wines from 459 named delimited zones. Additional Vi de Vinya categories, yet to be enacted, refer primarily to age and will essentially replicate Burgundian premier cru and grand cru tiers. Vi de Vinya Classificada will recognize single vineyards with minimum 20-year-old vines, and Vi de Gran Vinya Classificada will identify minimum 35-year-old vines. Priorat has also defined the term velles vinyes , or “old vines,” to mean those planted before 1945 or vines at least 75 years of age. White wines of complexity can also be achieved in Priorat, particularly those grounded in Garnacha Blanca. Macabeo, Pedro Ximénez, and a variety of Spanish and French whites are also permitted. Rosado wines are also bottled, as are the typical fortified vi dolç natural (usually sweet reds with added grape spirit) , rancio , and mistela wines. Monstant Montsant DO forms a near-complete ring around Priorat. The region is frequently, if unfairly, acknowledged as a source for high-quality but cheaper wines made in the same style as those found to its interior. Montsant has seen investment from high-profile Priorat producers seeking land at reduced costs. But while Montsant can present value comparatively to Priorat, the region deserves recognition on its own merits. Formerly the Falset subzone of Tarragona, Montsant was awarded its separate appellation in 2001. It is shaped by a series of adjoining mountain ranges, with the one named Montsant at the north of the circle. The southwestern corridor descends nearly to the Ebro River Valley and enjoys the warmest temperatures of the region, with portions planted in the same llicorella soils as Priorat. The northern areas have cooler conditions, as well as more limestone, while vineyards in the south around Falset, the appellation’s main town, are sandier. Like Priorat, Montsant is largely identified for its Garnacha and Cariñena blends. Other Spanish and French red grapes are vinified, as are whites with increasing promise. Montsant bottles an array of fortified sweet wines, in both oxidative and reductive styles. Other DOs Tarragona lies south of Penedès, surrounding the ancient Roman port city of the same name. It is divided into the Camp de Tarragona and Comarca Ribera d’Ebre subzones. The Camp de Tarragona subzone sits along the Mediterranean, in the plains and at lower elevations. Ribera d’Ebre surrounds the Ebro River near its mouth. Here, there is more continental influence, and vineyards are planted at various elevations from the river’s banks to higher up the hillsides. Tarragona enjoys just as wide a set of grapes to work with as Penedès, and similarly is not associated with a single style or variety (though many grapes are shipped north to Sant Sadurní for Cava production). Additionally, Tarragona bottles a number of sweet wines. These include mistelas ; rancio -style wines; Moscatel de Tarragona, a fortified wine from Moscatel de Grano Menudo or de Alejandría; Garnatxa de Tarragona, a fortified Garnacha (white or red); and Vimblanc, a non-fortified wine made from overripe berries. North of Tarragona, though inland from Penedès, Conca de Barberà historically earned praise for the quality of its grapes destined for Cava. Today, roughly two-thirds of its plantings are white grapes—predominately Macabeo and Parellada, along with Chardonnay, among others. Likewise, among red varieties, there is a similar mix of Spanish and French, though pride is taken in the local Trepat, used for Cava, rosados , and lighter-bodied, slightly spicy reds. The region rests on mainly calcareous, alluvial soils alongside the Francolí River and its tributary, the Anguera, and is surrounded by a series of mountains. Red, white, rosado , and various sweet and sparkling styles are permitted. To Conca de Barberà’s northwest continues one section of the non-contiguous Costers del Segre DO , which is scattered across much of Catalonia’s central western reaches. It contains seven subzones: Urgell, Garrigues, Pallars Jussà, Raimat, Artesa de Segre, Segrià, and Vall del Riucorb. Raimat is most historic. In 1914, Manuel Raventós of Codorníu purchased a 2,245-hectare estate, what would become Raimat, and launched the region’s industry by way of advanced viticultural technologies that rehabilitated the landscape as well as identifying grapes best suited for quality winegrowing. Here, these were Tempranillo and international grapes, as opposed to those native to Catalonia. Raimat sits at the foot of the Pyrenees, not far from the Segre River, which feeds into the Ebro River to the south. Soils are generally sandy limestone, while elevations extend between 200 and 1,000 meters. Many grapes are authorized within Costers del Segre, made into all major styles. At Tarragona DO’s western boundary, along the Aragon border and nearly touching Valencia at Catalonia’s bottom corner, Terra Alta is an exciting area for Garnacha Blanca. Cooperatives still play an important role in the local industry, as do traditional styles of sweet and fortified wines, such as rancios and mistelas . But in recent years, there has been renewed interest in Terra Alta’s dry whites, some of exceptional quality, as well as Garnacha’s other shades. Terra Alta’s soils are rich in limestone and have good drainage; as the name suggests, elevations are relatively high, between 350 and 800 meters above sea level. Many varieties are allowed, as are essentially all wine styles. Just northeast of Barcelona on the coast, the small Alella DO , once a fairly established winegrowing region, has steadily succumbed to the encroachment of suburban development. Despite its size, the appellation contains diverse winegrowing conditions and can be considered in three subareas. From east to west, and ascending in elevation as the vineyards approach the Sierra de Montseny, they are comprised of a coastal sector, favored for Garnacha Blanca; a transitional zone, where Xarel·lo (known locally as Pansa Blanca), Garnacha, and Tempranillo perform well; and the schistose limestone-rich Vallés area, coolest of the three and revered for Xarel·lo as well as non-Spanish varieties. Historically, Alella was associated with a style of semi-sweet white wines, but today, while still a prominently white-wine appellation, its wines are most often fermented dry. The region is known for its sauló soils, a sandy granite topsoil. The vineyards of Pla de Bages DO , located northwest and further inland, are predominately alongside the Llobregat River and in the surrounding area. Experiencing a wider diurnal swing than regions closer to the coast, Pla de Bages is most known for Macabeo and Picapoll Blanco, often mistaken for but distinct from Piquepoul Blanc. Picapoll Blanco does, however, show close genetic ties to Clairette, another variety from southern France. Its wines are often soft, floral, and slightly herbal. Beyond these whites, a selection of additional foreign and local grapes (such as the red Sumoll) can also be grown for a wide variety of wine styles. Empordà DO occupies Catalonia’s northeast, flanked on one side by the Mediterranean and on another by the Pyrenees and the French border. The appellation is deeply impacted by the fierce and cold Tramontana wind coming from the Massif Central. Empordà is sliced into two non-contiguous halves: the windswept Alt Empordà, along the Albera and Rodes ranges, and Baix Empordà, along the coast, more tranquil, and denser with clay. Just opposite the DO is Roussillon, specifically the overlapping Banyuls and Collioure AOPs; Empordà shares much of its winemaking ethos with these regions. For one, vi de licor , from Garnacha (Blanca, Negra, or Roja) or Moscatel, resembles the vins doux naturels of Banyuls and Rivesaltes. Old vines, too, abound here, though the total vineyard area is less than one-tenth its pre-phylloxera size (roughly 2,000 hectares today). Among still wines, Cariñena (here Carinyena) and Garnacha can produce quality reds, as can Garnacha Blanca, Macabeo, and Cariñena Blanca (here Carinyena Blanca), among whites. Several additional varieties are permitted, as are most wine styles. The Catalunya DO (as Catalonia is spelled in Catalan) also serves as a catch-all region both for Catalan vineyards existing outside of established appellations and wines from existing DOs whose practices diverge from consejo requirements. The concept is similar to the Sicilia DOC in Italy but remained unique within Spain until the recent arrival of the Islas Canarias DO. Regulations in the Catalunya DO are rather loose, allowing for a wide array of Spanish and foreign grape varieties and a degree of experimentation. Red, white, rosado , fortified, and semi-sparkling wines are permitted, though fully espumoso wines are not. Several Cava producers use the Catalunya DO designation for their still wines. Valencia South of Catalonia is Valencia . Key elements of Spain’s gastronomic image derive from this region, with the famed paella originating here. Three DOs can be found within Valencia’s boundaries: Valencia, Alicante, and Utiel-Requena. Valencia The Valencia DO surrounds the city of the same name, the third largest city in Spain. The appellation can be further divided into four distinct subzones, forming the shape of a diamond. The northern tip, Alto Turia, cultivates predominately white varieties, namely Merseguera and Macabeo, at elevations between 700 and 1,100 meters. To the south, the Moscatel subregion takes its name from the family of grapes it utilizes for the production of sweet mistelas and fortified wines (Moscatel de Alejandría being the most significant). Merseguera and Macabeo similarly find success closer to the coast in the Valentino subzone, as do Sémillon, Chardonnay, Garnacha Tintorera, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Tempranillo. Clariano, the unattached most southerly winegrowing area, sees diverse styles and varieties. Garnacha Tintorera, Monastrell, and Tempranillo offer noteworthy wines, as can international grapes. Alicante Alicante is Valencia’s most southerly appellation. As in Andalucía, the Phoenicians likely introduced viticulture to Alicante sometime within the first millennium BCE. The region achieved commercial success shortly after the end of the Spanish Reconquista, with a 1510 decree by King Ferdinand forbidding the importation of other wines into the region. Such privileges for the local wine industry were not fully rescinded until 1834, and Alicante’s wines earned acclaim throughout the Renaissance era. Phylloxera came late to Valencia, allowing wine production to flourish in the latter half of the 19 th century. With France’s vineyards decimated, large quantities of Alicante wine were shipped north across the Pyrenees, and plantings grew to 93,000 hectares. Phylloxera eventually arrived in the early 20 th century, leaving Alicante little time to recover before Spain and Europe’s tumultuous decades. Today, there are just 10,000 planted hectares left. While the region spent much of the 1900s associated with the production of bulk wine, recent years have seen the rise of a new generation of winemakers that has redrawn attention to the area. Valencia's DOs (Click to enlarge and zoom in) Alicante faces a more arid, continental climate in its western winegrowing areas. Alicante has eight distinct subregions. Most wineries are concentrated in the inland subzone of Vinalopó, which is further divided into the Medio, Alto, and Baja areas. Vines grown closer to the coast, in the La Marina subzone north of the city of Alicante, face higher humidity. La Marina is divided into two more specific subregions, Alta and Baja. El Comtat and L’Alcoia are home to mountains that scale to elevations of over 1,500 meters, the highest in the province, though vineyards are planted in the valleys. Alicante is most often associated with full-bodied red wines made from Monastrell, accounting for roughly 75% of the vineyard area. The wide availability of old vine material allows for concentrated, deeply colored red wines with marked complexity when in the right hands. The region does, however, yield a variety of other wines. Red wines vinified from Garnacha, Garnacha Tintorera, and Tempranillo can all be found, as can examples from mainstream international varieties. Alicante also produces white wines from Airén, Moscatel de Alejandría, Macabeo, and the local grape Merseguera, among others. Beyond table wines, the coastal sector of La Marina specializes in sweet Moscatel wines. The region’s most unique wine is Fondillón, which France’s King Louis XIV is said to have requested, soaked into cakes, on his deathbed. Its production declined drastically upon the arrival of phylloxera in France, when large quantities of red wine were demanded from Alicante, leaving the long-aged Fondillón a less viable product. Today, only a handful of producers continue the tradition, centered around the town of Monóvar at the most inland area of the DO. Monastrell grapes for Fondillón are harvested in early to mid-November, by which point the berries will naturally experience significant dehydration (although no botrytis or additional post-harvest drying will inform the wine’s character). Fermentation naturally halts off-dry, with roughly 20 to 50 grams per liter of residual sugar. Similar to Sherry production, but without fortification, the wines will eventually enter a modified solera system in large oak barrels, wherein wines are fractionally blended and bottled over time but lack an orderly criadera system. With barrel age, Fondillón develops a distinctive rancio character due to the long wood maturation. The wines are bottled with a minimum a­verage age of 10 years (the name Fondillón likely originates with al fondo, or “at the bottom,” a reference to drawing out the wines at the end of this fractional blending system). Yet bodegas might keep wines much longer, with the historic producer Primitivo Quiles maintaining a solera founded in the late 19 th century. Fondillón demonstrates a marked Oloroso-like character, although with faint sweetness and without the heft of fortification. Utiel-Requena At approximately 72%, Bobal dominates plantings in Utiel-Requena , a DO adjacent to the northern subzones of Valencia DO and the Castilla-La Mancha border. With plentiful old vineyards (the average age being 40 years), Bobal can produce full-bodied red wines with a rustic, earthy tannic structure complemented by a bright acidity. The DO is split between the towns of Utiel and Requena. Requena produces the higher volume of wine and also contains a portion of the Cava DO. In addition to Bobal, Garnacha and Tempranillo are grown, as are several international varieties. Murcia Small in comparison to its neighbors Valencia, Castilla-La Mancha, and Andalucía, Murcia can be seen as a transitional autonomous community between the Catalan-influenced Mediterranean Coast and Southern Spain. Murcia has long enjoyed a rich agricultural heritage. The Moors, who settled there in the ninth century, grew not only grapes for table and raisin consumption but also a variety of fruits, vegetables, and rice. A strong fruit industry continues in the area today, and almonds, olives, and flowers are also important crops. There are three DOs within Murcia’s boundaries: Yecla, Jumilla, and Bullas. Yecla and Jumilla are adjacent to Alicante’s western edge and share similar winegrowing cultures. Yecla , named for the city at its center, is the smaller of the two. Vines are planted at relatively high elevation, between 400 and 800 meters above sea level, and the loamy, well-drained soil sits atop limestone bedrock. As with the general area, red wine is the major focus and Monastrell the most prominent grape. Regulations additionally permit Garnacha, Garnacha Tintorera, Tempranillo, and a selection of international varieties, in addition to Macabeo, Airén, and Merseguera, among others. White wine, rosado , sparkling, and fortified sweet wines are also allowed. Jumilla surrounds Yecla to the west, with similar elevations, 400 to 800 meters, albeit sandier soils above limestone. Phylloxera didn’t infect Jumilla until extremely late, arriving in the late 1980s and decimating the local industry to one-third its previous vineyard size. The consejo regulador, along with a few ambitious producers, saw replanting as an opportunity to modernize the appellation, too long associated with bulk and cooperative wine production. Vines were replaced with material uninfected by virus, and new technologies were installed. Winemakers also enacted strategies such as carbonic maceration, earlier harvests, and longer bottle aging to craft more contemporary wines. Monastrell is by far Jumilla’s most important grape, and varietally labeled reds and rosados are permitted when Monastrell comprises a minimum 85%. Monastrell is the sole grape used to make the appellation’s vinos de licor . Jumilla also authorizes numerous other red and white grape varieties, both Spanish and international, to make red, white, and rosado wines, as well as sweet wines of all three shades. The youngest of Murcia’s DOs, Bullas is also principally known for Monastrell. The appellation is divided into three subzones—northeast, central, and western—that decrease in elevation, 600 to 900 meters, moving east. Plantings are most heavily concentrated in the higher vineyards in Bullas’s western sector, and wines grown here are generally of better quality. While once associated with cheaper rosados , Bullas has set an example for other Monastrell appellations of how to create more acid-driven, fresh red wines. Monastrell must still compose at least 60% of Bullas’s rosado and red wines, though Tempranillo, Garnacha, Syrah, and Bordeaux varieties are also permitted. Macabeo is the only recommended white grape, but others are authorized. Sparkling and fortified sweet wines are also produced. Central Plateau Madrid Madrid gives its name not only to the autonomous community that surrounds the nation’s capital, but also to the area’s sole DO, Vinos de Madrid . Vines can be found as close as 11 kilometers to the city proper, and the appellation has skyrocketed in quality, quantity, and global recognition in recent years. Madrid’s documented viticultural history begins in the 1200s, and within two centuries, its wines had become well regarded. The phylloxera crisis arrived around the onset of World War I. Just as Madrid’s vineyards began to recover, focus shifted under Franco’s regime toward grapes that would provide quantity and high alcohol, namely Garnacha and Airén, over quality and over grapes more historically associated with the area. The Vinos de Madrid DO was officially established in 1990, and since that time, innovative producers have shifted the region’s reputation. Vinos de Madrid is comprised of four subzones: Arganda, Navalcarnero, San Martín de Valdeiglesias, and El Molar. Arganda is the largest in terms of both size and plantings, with just over 50% of the region’s vineyards and 60% of total production. Here, Tempranillo is suggested over Garnacha. The subzone lies southeast of the city, and its landscape features varied soils and a few coveted limestone plateaus. To the southwest, Navalcarnero is flat and loamy, while further west, San Martín is more granitic. San Martín is protected from cold northern winds by the Sierra de Gredos range and has a less arid climate and more verdant landscape than the rest of the appellation. El Molar is the newest subzone, designated in 2019. While Garnacha’s origins in Madrid may not have focused on quality, today the appellation yields some of Spain’s most exciting examples. The Albillos y Garnachas de Gredos association imposes stricter standards than appellation regulations, and its members have become leaders for the variety, and for the white Albillo Real, in the area. Among reds, Tempranillo, Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Syrah are also cultivated; Malvar, Airén, Viura, Torrontés, Parellada, and Moscatel de Grano Menudo are other whites. White, red, rosado , and sparkling wines are all produced, as are sobremadre wines—a traditional style for both red and effectively orange wines, where skin contact is permitted without racking for up to 180 days. Castilla-La Mancha Castilla-La Mancha takes its name from manxa , an epithet given to its land by the Moors, meaning “parched earth.” It’s an appropriate descriptor for the region’s dramatic continental climate, as summers can reach excruciatingly high temperatures, with an extreme lack of rainfall. Winters, in contrast, can be freezing. As a result, disease pressure is very low. Castilla-La Mancha’s vines sit atop the Meseta Central. Cervantes set Spain’s most canonical literary masterwork Don Quixote in this region, and the novel’s fabled windmills still dot the landscape. In addition to abundant viticulture, sheep farming is the largest industry in Castilla-La Mancha, with Manchego cheese an important product. Though Castilla-La Mancha’s wines have only recently earned praise for their rising quality, the autonomous community has long been a considerable contributor to Spain’s wine production. Nine DO appellations are located here: La Mancha, Almansa, Ribera del Júcar, Campo de Calatrava, Manchuela, Méntrida, Mondéjar, Uclés, and Valdepeñas. La Mancha DO is one of the largest continuous winegrowing areas in the world, with more than 160,000 hectares under vine. A large portion of its wine, however, is ultimately distilled into spirits for either brandy or use as fortifying agents. Over the course of the past half-century, several efforts have been made to further partition the vast La Mancha DO. It was, in fact, once larger; Almansa, Méntrida, and Ribera del Júcar are all carved from territory formerly belonging to the appellation. Vines are mostly head trained and planted in the traditional system called marco real , where each vine is spaced 2.5 meters from the next to reduce competition for water. La Mancha has achieved commercial success through its supply of affordable, consistent, basic-quality wines. Airén is its most prevalent white, and while not the most complex grape, it can be fashioned into enjoyable, fruity wines meant for immediate consumption. Tempranillo, here called Cencibel, is most important among reds and will be vinified into supermarket wines without the influence of oak, as well as more serious examples. A laundry list of permitted varieties, both foreign and Spanish, can also be used to make DO wine in every style. Ribera del Júcar was created from land at La Mancha’s eastern edge in the early 21 st century, decades after Méntrida and Almansa were established. It experiences more Mediterranean influence than its western neighbor and approximately 20% higher rainfall. Tempranillo makes the appellation’s most notable wines, though Syrah and Bordeaux grapes are also permitted for reds and rosados . Only Sauvignon Blanc and Moscatel de Grano Menudo are utilized for white wine production. To the east, on the opposite side of the Júcar River, Manchuela also borders Utiel-Requena, with which it shares Bobal as a dominant variety. Sitting between the Júcar and Cabriel river valleys, Manchuela has a more Mediterranean climate, with greater humidity and rain than both La Mancha and Ribera del Júcar. While Bobal dominates vineyard plantings at more than two-thirds, Macabeo can also yield quality whites, while a collection of additional grapes is permitted for white, red, rosado , and sparkling wines. Further east, Almansa similarly offers a middle ground between the Meseta and the Levant. Almansa is semi-arid, with limestone soils, and spans a series of hills at an average of 700 meters elevation. Its primary variety is Monastrell, followed by Garnacha Tintorera. Tempranillo and Cabernet Sauvignon are also grown, among others, and production is heavily weighted toward red wine over white and rosado . Tucked within a southern enclave of La Mancha DO, Valdepeñas achieved explosive growth in the 1800s due to the construction of a railway linking the region to Madrid and the French phylloxera crisis. During recovery from phylloxera, which reached Valdepeñas in the early 20 th century, winegrowers placed a heavy emphasis on Airén due to its productivity. But the region is best associated with its easy-drinking Tempranillo-based wines. Historically, the variety was vinified into aloques or claretes, light-bodied reds in line with traditional clairet from Bordeaux, and frequently blended with both white and red varieties. Today, more robust Tempranillo takes precedence, though white, rosado , and sparkling wines are also bottled and a number of French and Spanish grapes harvested. The region itself occupies a plain and its surrounding mountains, with the finest grapes said to derive from the Los Llanos (literally “the flats”) western sector, or in the north on the sloped plantings of Las Aberturas (meaning “the passes”). To La Mancha DO’s northwest, Méntrida has long suffered a poor reputation for its bulk Garnacha. However, there are promising wines now emerging from the region, particularly from the area near the Gredos range, to the northwest. The appellation, dominated by sandy granitic soils, experiences extreme continental conditions, though the Gredos Mountains will guard from colder winds. While Garnacha remains the face of the region, Tempranillo and international varieties are also permitted for both red and rosado wines, and as of 2000, several white grapes are approved. Established in 2005, the Uclés DO sits within a crevice of La Mancha DO’s northern edge. The region is separated in half by the Sierra de Altomira range, with the western sector, which surpasses 1,000 meters, higher in elevation than the east. Tempranillo is most important to production, though Bordeaux varieties have also found success. Garnacha, Syrah, and staple white varieties are grown as well, collectively allowing for white, red, rosado , and sparkling production. With the Tagus River flowing through, Mondéjar rests between Uclés to its south and Vinos de Madrid to its west, though it has never achieved the prestige of the latter. Like Uclés, Mondéjar is most associated with Tempranillo, but Malvar, Macabeo, Sauvignon Blanc, and Torrontés have yielded successful whites. A handful of additional varieties, including Cabernet Sauvignon, are permitted for white, red, and rosado wines. Extremadura As its name implies, Extremadura is a place of extremes—a hard, punishing climate with resilient inhabitants, including the conquistadors who sailed to the New World. Also facing economic challenges, it is less famous for winegrowing than the other autonomous communities. It does, however, boast a rich agricultural heritage. Much land is also dedicated to sheep grazing, as well as black-legged pigs, whose jamón serrano is one of Spain’s gastronomic treasures. The area is also home to most of Spain’s cork production. The name Extremadura translates to “extreme limit of the land beyond the Duero,” and the region sits south of the Duero’s greater river valley. The Guadiana River cuts through Extremadura and gives its name to the sole DO, Ribera del Guadiana. To the west lies Portugal’s Alentejo, another important hub for cork production. Ribera del Guadiana DO comprises six former Vino de la Tierra winegrowing areas, now subzones united and elevated under a single umbrella appellation. Tierra de Barros is located in the middle of the region, south of the Guadiana, and is the largest subzone with approximately four-fifths of all vineyard space. It has dry conditions and sits at high elevations—though not as high as Montánchez and Cañamero, the most elevated subzones and the only two north of the river. The Ribera Baja and Ribera Alta subzones line the appellation south of the Guadiana to the west and east, respectively, while Matanegra sits furthest south. Red, white, and rosado wines are all crafted in Ribera del Guadiana. The appellation grows classic Spanish varieties, such as Macabeo, Verdejo, Parellada, Tempranillo, Bobal, Garnacha, Monastrell, and Alicante, as well as Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Syrah, Cabernet Sauvignon, and other French staples. Several indigenous grapes grow within the DO, including whites Alarije, Eva, and Montúa, among Portuguese and other more regional varieties. Ribera del Guadiana permits a diversity of wines and styles, but an Extremadura Vino de la Tierra designation allows for more experimental practices. Beyond commercial wine, Extremadura has long been a source of base wines to be distilled into brandy. Andalucía Andalucía Iberia’s winegrowing origins lie in Andalucía , with the arrival of the Phoenicians and the founding of Gadir (today Cádiz) in 1100 BCE. The wines were already celebrated in ancient times, as was the region’s distinctive albariza (chalk soil). Due to Islamic conquest in 711 CE, Andalucía demonstrates Spain’s Moorish influence at its most opulent, visible today in the grandiose architecture of Seville, Córdoba, and Granada. After the Reconquista, it was also here that Spain revitalized its wine industry, as the sack from Jerez and Málaga reached global markets. The distinctive fortified wine styles of the Jerez triangle still dominate Andalucía, despite their dramatic fall from popularity in the late 20 th century. (This guide will not cover Sherry and Montilla-Moriles, extensive topics on their own.) Andalucía (often Anglicized to Andalusia) occupies the bottom tip of the Iberian Peninsula, the southern extreme of Western Europe. It is only separated from Morocco by the Strait of Gibraltar (though technically Gibraltar itself is a British overseas territory). Andalucía finds a variety of climatic influences, merging the Mediterranean’s warmth with the colder winds from the Atlantic. Moving inland, Andalucía transitions to more continental conditions, especially as it scales in elevation to its various mountainous zones. Condado de Huelva Beyond Jerez-Xérès-Sherry and Montilla-Moriles , Andalucía has four additional DO regions. Condado de Huelva DO sits just northwest of the Jerez triangle along the Atlantic coastline. Its history is intertwined with that of Sherry, and wines from the two regions were frequently blended together in the soleras of Jerez before appellation boundaries were drawn and the practice forbidden. Yet Condado de Huelva profited from the global demand for sack in the 16 th and 17 th centuries. Even earlier, Christopher Columbus is said to have stocked his ships with Condado wines before setting sail for the Americas. More recent times, however, have brought little attention to Condado de Huelva, and any decline that devastates Sherry is only amplified in this region that lacks name recognition and healthy export markets. The name condado translates to “county,” and the wines here come from the municipality of Huelva. Vineyards are hardly above sea level and mostly planted on sand and clay, though the best grapes are harvested from the albariza soils so prized for Sherry. The traditional wines resemble Sherry as well. There are two major styles of Condado: pálido and viejo. Condado Pálido (or “pale”) is the lighter of the two, aged biologically under flor like a Fino Sherry, and similarly fortified to approximately 15.5% alcohol. Condado Viejo (or “old”) is the more distinctive. Fortified between 17 and 22% alcohol, the wines are aged oxidatively and better resemble Oloroso Sherry at their finest. Sweetened versions, such as “cream” and “medium,” analogous to those in Jerez are also bottled. These styles, too, are aged in American oak butts (up to 650 liters in capacity) for at least two years, though the best far exceed the required minimum. Palomino is cultivated for Condado de Huelva, as are Moscatel de Alejandría and Pedro Ximénez. But the most prominent grape for generoso wines is the local Zalema, a white variety that, like Palomino, is rather neutral when vinified as an unfortified wine. Condado de Huelva nonetheless has proceeded to experiment with dry table winemaking. Both white and red wines are permitted, and among them, international varieties such as Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, Syrah, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, and Merlot are authorized, as is Tempranillo. Málaga & Sierras de Málaga On the opposite side of the Strait of Gibraltar, Málaga DO , a non-contiguous appellation, stands between the Mediterranean and Montilla-Moriles. Málaga DO is designated for sweet wines, while Sierras de Málaga DO refers to dry table white, rosado , and red wines made in the same area. Málaga’s fortified wines once competed with those of Jerez in terms of prestige—prized during the Renaissance era as Málaga sack. The region benefited from declining Sherry sales in the 18 th century, at which time Málaga’s greatest wines were called mountain , named for the terrain surrounding the town of Cuevas de San Marcos, from which the most pedigreed wines were born. Phylloxera first reached Spain by way of Málaga in 1876. The damage was catastrophic, wiping out nearly all of the region’s vineyard area. By the time Málaga established its DO in 1933, many of its export markets had been lost, including the once-important Russia. Málaga has yet to recover its former glory, especially as resorts and development prevail, but a handful of stalwart producers and new arrivals maintain its traditions. Málaga’s bodegas are concentrated in the city itself, which is nestled right against the beach. The vineyards, however, can be divided into several subareas. Closest to the city proper is Montes de Málaga, while the vines surrounding Estepona, a seaside town closer to Gibraltar than to Málaga, are predominately Moscatel in the Manilva subzone. Axarquía, a coastal sector between Málaga and the town of Nerja reaching inland toward Granada, also dedicates itself to Moscatel. The so-called mountain vineyards, including those of Cuevas de San Marcos, lie north of the city, a subzone simply called Norte, and have more limestone. This area is best known for the cultivation of Pedro Ximénez, unsurprising given the proximity to Montilla. Finally, north of Estepona, Serranía de Ronda is the primary source for Sierras de Málaga DO wines, dry wines of less than 12 grams per liter residual sugar aged for a minimum of two years (six months in oak). These vineyards sit at the highest elevations, at 750 meters above sea level. Soils throughout the region are diverse, though Norte has more limestone content and Axarquía gravelly chalk. The climate, too, shifts from Mediterranean nearer the water to continental at higher sites, where there is a wider diurnal shift. Many varieties thrive in Málaga. Its most traditional sweet wines are harvested from Pedro Ximénez, but both Moscatel de Alejandría and Moscatel Morisco (Moscatel de Grano Menudo) can produce high-quality wines as well. For example, Telmo Rodríguez and US importer Jorge Ordóñez, in a collaboration with Austrian sweet wine producer Kracher, bottle Málaga wines from Moscatel de Alejandría. Rare local varieties Lairén, Doradilla, and the sole red Romé are also permitted. Sierras de Málaga DO adds a number of major French and Spanish grapes to the mix, including Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Macabeo, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, and Tempranillo. While Sierras de Málaga yields a dynamic portfolio of red, white, and rosado styles, traditional Málaga DO wines are more complicated. The most famous sweet wines are made via the soleo process from sun-dried grapes, with clusters left to raisinate outdoors on grass mats, or espartos . These highly concentrated wines can either be unfortified, as is the case with vino de uvas pasificadas dulce , or fortified, as with vino de licor, made in both dry and sweet styles. Of the sweet vinos de licor , those made with sun-dried grapes can be labeled vino tierno , while those fortified before fermentation ( mistelas ) from fresh grapes can be called vino maestro and those from partially fermented fresh grapes, vino dulce natural . The latter should not be confused with vino naturalmente dulce , which comes from overripe Pedro Ximénez or the Moscatels and is unfortified. More broadly, late harvest wine, vino de uvas sobremaduradas , can also be made from overripe grapes left to dehydrate on the vine. Dry white wines can also be produced under the Málaga DO, so long as they are comprised of 70% Pedro Ximénez, Moscatel de Alejandría, or Moscatel de Grano Menudo. For vinos de licor , Málaga DO has a set of additional aging designations. All wines must spend a minimum six months in cask unless labeled pálido ( a separate style from that of the same name for Condado de Huelva with no aging requirement) ; noble must be aged two to three years; añejo , three to five years; and transañejo, five years or longer. The wines will grow more oxidative in barrel, but a full solera system is only in place for the oldest of Málaga wines. A variety of additional terms for sugar level and color indications are given to sweetened or blended Málaga wines, such as those that see the addition of arrope , syrupy boiled-down must; pantomima , further concentrated arrope ; and vino borracho , or “drunk wine,” a fortifying agent consisting of both wine and spirit. Granada Granada was promoted from VCIG to DO in 2021. The delimited area encompasses the entire province of Granada, which is located just east of Málàga. Granada produces white, rosé, and red wines, and may be still or sparkling, and dry or sweet. A single subregion, Contraviesa-Alpujarra, is located along the Mediterranean Coast. Sparkling wine from the subregion must include at least 70% of the white grape Vijiriego. Solera system (Credit: Brandon Lee Wise) The Islands Balearic Islands The Balearics (or Baleares) are a group of islands forming an archipelago off the coast of Valencia in the western Mediterranean Sea. The four primary islands, from west to east, are Ibiza, Formentera, Mallorca, and Menorca. Culturally, the Balearic Islands most identify with Catalonia, and they speak a Balearic dialect of Catalan that originated in Empordà. Historically, however, the Kingdom of Mallorca (often Anglicized as Majorca) paid fealty to the Kingdom of Aragon, despite a brief period of independence at its inception during the Reconquista, at which time it was tied to Montpellier and Roussillon. While larger Vino de la Tierra zones grow grapes across the islands, DO production is limited to Mallorca. Two appellations exist there, Binissalem and Pla i Llevant. Both enjoy a Mediterranean climate, though with generally cooler summers than mainland Spain. Binissalem was the first DO to be established, in 1991, and houses the oldest winery on the island, Hereus de Ribas, founded in 1711. Mallorca, at that time, had already cemented a reputation of quality wine for those traveling through but struggled to find an export market. Binissalem’s vineyards are confined to the center of the island, northeast of the capital, Palma de Mallorca. The Serra de Tramuntana range shields Binissalem’s vines from cold northerly winds. Red, white, rosado , and sparkling wines are made from a series of classic Spanish and international varieties. Most prized, however, are the indigenous red Manto Negro and white Moll (also called Prensal Blanc) and, to a lesser extent, red grapes Gorgollosa and Callet. Manto Negro must constitute at least 30% of a red wine’s blend. Its wines are often low in pigment and high in alcohol, inviting the addition of more structured varieties. White wines must be comprised of a minimum 50% Moll or 50% Moscatel (either de Grano Menudo or de Alejandría). Moll’s naturally low acidity similarly mandates the contributions of other grapes. Pla i Llevant covers a larger area, roughly the entire southeastern half of Mallorca, though plantings are fewer. The landscape is rather flat ( pla translates to “plain”), and elevations hardly rise above sea level. In comparison to Binissalem, Pla i Llevant’s soils are more fertile and its vines more exposed to wind and frost damage. French grapes, such as Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Chardonnay, dominate the appellation, though Moll, Manto Negro, Callet, and the red native Fogoneu are also authorized. Like Binissalem, Pla i Llevant can produce red, white, rosado , and sparkling wines, as well as sweet fortifieds. While challenging to find outside the area, Mallorcan wine can command relatively high prices in its local market. Canary Islands Both physically and stylistically, the Canary Islands are an outlier in the tradition of Spanish wine . Though politically European, the Canary Islands are much closer to Northern Africa, just 100 kilometers west of Morocco. They’re also due south of Madeira, making the Canaries one of the most southerly major winegrowing region in the Northern Hemisphere. European discovery of the Canaries can be documented from the second century CE, when, according to legend, Romans found packs of wild dogs inhabiting the island of Fuerteventura. Accordingly, one translation of Islas Canarias is “islands of dogs.” Visitors occasionally passed through the archipelago in the following millennium, but it wasn’t until 1402 that French explorer Jean de Béthencourt claimed the area for Castile. The conquest over the Canaries’ native people, the Guanches, lasted until 1496, and winegrowing here began around this time. The Canary Islands provided a valuable stopping point during the triangular trade, en route from Western Africa or Europe to the American colonies or elsewhere. Ships passing through were stocked with sweet wine styles that were able to withstand long sea travel. Canary sack, as the British called the islands’ fortified Malvasía, achieved popularity, particularly in Northern Europe. DOs of the Canary Islands (Click to enlarge and zoom in) Traversing the 28 th parallel, the Canary Islands fall just outside the range considered optimal for quality viticulture, making elevation an important asset (some vineyards are as high as 1,500 meters). Such positioning also allows for less seasonal variation, as well as narrower oscillation in daylight hours throughout the year. As the islands were created by a series of volcanoes, several still active, much of the area is covered in volcanic-derived soils. Mostly, these are very fertile, leading to many additional crops and a lush topography. Seven major islands comprise the Canary Islands, each carrying its own DO or DOs, with the exception of Fuerteventura. The overarching Islas Canarias DO spreads across the autonomous community. On the Canary Islands, Listán Blanco (Palomino) achieves unfortified, fresh wines of complexity—rare for the grape on the Spanish mainland. Its history in the Canaries began in the late 1400s and, unsurprisingly, it was first recommended for the production of sack, to be made in the image of Sherry. Today, it is the Canary Islands’ most planted variety and yields semi-aromatic dry whites of medium body, with a subtle nutty, savory profile. Marmajuelo, also called Bermejuela, is likely native to the region and offers richer, more tropical-leaning whites. Several grapes called Malvasía have found their way to the Canaries. The one simply referred to as Malvasía is identical to Malvasia di Lipari, named after the Sicilian islands, where it is also cultivated. The grape also served as the original “Malmsey” of Madeira, though it is nearly extinct there in favor of Malvasia Branca de São Jorge. It is similarly revered for sweet wines in the Canary Islands, as well as dry styles, and favored for its exuberant fragrance and stone fruit and citrus aromas. A pink-skinned mutation of Malvasía, Malvasía Rosada, is also grown across the Canaries. In addition, Malvasía Volcánica (or Malvasía de Lanzarote) is an autochthonous cross of Malvasia di Lipari and Marmajuelo. It’s less floral than its parent Malvasia di Lipari. Other Canary white varieties include Moscatel de Alejandría, Albillo Real, Gual (Madeira’s Bual), Verdello (Madeira’s Verdelho), Forastera Blanca, and Vijariego Blanco (called Diego on Lanzarote), a high-acid grape first introduced around the 15 th or 16 th century and used for both still and sparkling wines. Listán Negro is native to the Canary Islands and covers the most vineyard area of all reds. It is unrelated to Listán Prieto, a highly vigorous variety that also grows in the Canaries, arriving from the Spanish mainland later than it did in the Americas. Listán Prieto produces wines that are often rather humble and rustic. Negramoll, native to Andalucía, is the same as Madeira’s Tinta Negra. Its wines are light, fruity, aromatic, and slightly herbal. The Canaries also cultivate the red varieties Bastardo (Trousseau, and also called Tintilla on the Canary Islands), Baboso Negro (the same as Bruñal in Arribes and Alfrocheiro in Portugal), Vijariego Negro (Sumoll), and Castella Negra. The Canary Islands yield a diversity of wine styles, including red, white, and rosé table wines, as well as sparkling. Due to the area’s long tradition of sweet winemaking, with wines vinified from sun-dried grapes and bottled in both fortified and unfortified expressions, most Canary DOs permit the majority of these options, although some regional specialties are noted. Tenerife The largest of the Canary Islands is Tenerife, which rests in the middle of the archipelago. Mount Teide stands at the island’s center, an active volcano and Spain’s tallest peak at 3,718 meters. Teide and its foothills have proven critical to Tenerife’s quality winegrowing, allowing for high-elevation, slope-side plantings at cooler sites. Wind patterns usually blow from north to south, creating a sort of rain shadow effect on the island. Teide traps the humid air on the north side of the island, leaving hotter, more arid conditions to the south. Rather than owning large swaths of land, most wineries source from numerous small family growers, whose tiny plots, called suertes , were historically cultivated for home winemaking and today risk abandonment from less-invested younger generations. Tenerife is also the only Canary Island to hold multiple DOs. It has five: Tacoronte-Acentejo, Valle de la Orotava, and Ycoden-Daute-Isora in the north, and Abona and Valle de Güímar in the south. Tacoronte-Acentejo DO is Tenerife’s oldest and largest DO, occupying the northeastern stretch of the island. Vines are cultivated up to 1,000 meters, with the layer of reddish, loamy topsoil thinning with increased elevation and exposing more of the volcanic subsoil. Reds are heavily favored, with particular attention to Listán Negro and Negramoll, among other staples. To the southwest, Valle de la Orotava DO ’s vineyards rise between 200 and 800 meters. Here, vines are historically trained in the dramatic trenzado or cordón system. The method involves braiding vines for several meters—often more than 10—and raising the cordons at regular intervals with small sticks so that grape clusters don’t touch the earth. Several of these vines exceed one or two centuries in age. During dormancy, the braided vines can be moved to the side to allow for additional crops. Most planted in Valle de la Orotava are Listán Blanco and Listán Negro; here, soils have higher proportions of clay. The Ycoden-Daute-Isora DO also gives preference to Listán Blanco, which covers approximately 70% of the DO. Elevations can reach 1,000 meters, though the appellation is overall hotter, wetter, and sandier, especially vineyards near the coast. The Valle de Güímar DO , which follows the coastline south of Tacoronte-Acentejo, experiences much drier conditions than vineyards on the opposite side of Teide. Elevation proves vital for quality viticulture, with the top sites ranging between 800 and 1,400 meters. White wine dominates, with Listán Blanco as the most planted variety. The Abona DO creates a u -shape on the southern half of Tenerife. Europe’s highest vineyards are here, scaling beyond 1,600 meters. White wine and Listán Blanco are again most important, though Listán Negro enjoys significant plantings as well. Lanzarote The furthest east of the Canary Islands, Lanzarote is also perhaps the most distinctive. The entire landscape is blanketed in striking black volcanic topsoil, or ceniza , a sandy substance derived from the ash and lava of a six-year eruption from the 1730s. The catastrophic event marks the commencement of Lanzarote’s viticultural heritage; previously, its topography largely resembled the rest of the Canaries and yielded other crops—grapes not among them. Today, however, the island is inhospitable to almost all plants other than grapes, save a few pockets where fig or palm trees might be grown. There are over 30 active volcanoes. Winegrowers have developed creative practices for cultivating grapes on Lanzarote’s otherwise barren grounds. Vines are rooted in hoyos , pits deep enough to penetrate a layer of subsoil that can carry sufficient moisture for the plants. The hoyos are quite wide, measuring as large as 10 meters in diameter to 5 meters in depth, and each hoyo houses just one or two vines. The shallow basins also help shelter the vines from fiercely hot and humid winds from the west that would shrivel their berries and coat them in the ash. To amplify protection, each hoyo is outlined by a semi-circular cairn. Younger vineyards might opt instead for the linear zanjas , a series of trenches similarly protected by rows of stone mounds. Lanzarote’s surreal vineyard is frequently likened to a moonscape. A hoyo in Lanzarote (Photo credit: Kelli White) The Timanfaya National Park occupies the center west of Lanzarote, while its winegrowing area can be divided into three subzones. La Geria is furthest south, bordering Masdache, which is split between Tinajo and Masdache proper. Ye-Lajares is unconnected to the other winegrowing areas at the far north of the island. Hoyos are most often found in La Geria, which also sees the widest spacing and lowest densities. Zanjas can be observed in the other zones. Lanzarote is known for its historic sweet wines, both fortified and unfortified, but it also produces a full palette of Canary grapes as dry wines, most notably from Listán Blanco, Malvasía, Listán Negro (Negro Común), and Negramoll. Other DOs El Hierro DO is the westernmost of the Canary Islands. Its landscape emerges as the above-surface fragment of a much larger subaquatic volcanic rim. Unsurprisingly, soils are volcanic of various consistencies. Vineyards are carved into terraces, reaching up to 700 meters in elevation. Historically, El Hierro’s sweet wines were celebrated during the Renaissance era, its first vines purportedly planted by Englishman John Hill in 1526. Today, the island still enjoys an important export market in Central and South America, particularly Venezuela. Of its many grapes, Listán Blanco, both red and white Verijadiego, Listán Negro, and Baboso Negro are most important. To El Hierro’s north is the La Palma DO , referred to as La Isla Bonita or “the beautiful island” due to its lush topography. Vines are said to have been first planted in 1505; today, La Palma’s other major crop is bananas. Many producers will not accept grapes grown at banana farms, as the banana palms cause nearby vines to suffer and yield poor fruit. The island is still actively volcanic, with its last major eruption in 2021. Three subzones comprise La Palma. Fuencaliente, in the south and center east, is home to some of the island’s best whites, especially Malvasía Volcánica. Hoyo de Mazo in the center west is better known for reds, and Norte de la Palma is located in the north. Vineyards here can reach as high as 1,100 meters. La Palma’s most distinctive product is vino de tea , a rancio style in any hue aged in 500-liter pine casks. Botrytized wines are also bottled on La Palma, and the island’s most widely planted grapes are Listán Blanco and Negramoll, among whites and reds, respectively. Other varieties, beyond the local specialty Malvasía, include Sabro, a grape used for sweet wines and believed to be harvested nowhere else in the world. La Gomera DO follows to La Palma’s east. The mountainous landscape, with plunging cliffs and deep ravines, renders viticulture challenging, and the island’s output remains small. It is best recognized for Forastera Blanca, La Gomera’s most cultivated grape variety and an indigenous specialty (unrelated to what is called Forastera in Italy’s Campania). Listán Blanco, Marmajuelo, Listán Negro, Tintilla, Tempranillo, and Negramoll are also well represented, along with many other varieties grown in limited quantities. Gran Canaria DO was established in 2005, after absorbing the former DO Monte Lentiscal, which existed only for a handful of years around the town of Santa Brígada. As in Tenerife, a central volcano effectively divides the island in two, with poorer-quality wines coming from the hotter southern half and better examples coming from the more northern vineyards, particularly at higher elevations. As with each of the islands, myriad styles and varieties abound on Gran Canaria. Among reds, Listán Negro, here called Negro Común, remains the dominant variety, where it is used to make what is locally called tinto del monte, or “mountain wine.” Negramoll, Tintilla, and Malvasía Rosada also see significant plantings. Listán Blanco is the most important of white varieties, with contributions from Malvasía, Moscatel de Alejandría, Albillo, Marmajuelo, and Vijariego. Gran Canaria is also recognized for its sweet and often fortified wines, predominately from Malvasía and Moscatel. Bibliography Barnes, Amanda. “Corpinnat—an Emerging Category of Spanish Sparkling Wine.” SevenFifty Daily . March 1, 2019. https://daily.sevenfifty.com/corpinnat-an-emerging-category-of-spanish-sparkling-wine . Barquín, Jesús, et al. The Finest Wines of Rioja and Northwest Spain: A Regional Guide to the Best Producers and Their Wines . Oakland: University of California Press, 2015. Brook, Stephen. “Priorat.” Decanter . May 30, 2007. https://www.decanter.com/features/priorat-247387 . Cervera, Amaya. “Bierzo approves a Burgundy-inspired classification.” Spanish Wine Lover . July 10, 2017. https://www.spanishwinelover.com/learn-259-bierzo-approves-a-burgundy-inspired-classification . Evans, Sarah Jane. The Wines of Northern Spain: From Galicia to the Pyrenees and Rioja to the Basque Country . Oxford: Infinite Ideas, 2018. Fabiano, Ana. The Wine Region of Rioja . New York: Sterling Epicure, 2012. Foods and Wines from Spain . Accessed May 18, 2020. https://www.foodswinesfromspain.com/spanishfoodwine/foot/site-map/index.html . Gabay, Elizabeth. Rosé: Understanding the pink wine revolution . Oxford: Infinite Ideas, 2018. Hudin, Miquel. “Priorat’s new structure.” Meininger’s Wine Business International . May 22, 2017. https://www.wine-business-international.com/wine/general/priorats-new-structure . Hudin, Miquel. “The release of the ‘Paratge’. DOQ Priorat’s newest step up the Burgundian pyramid.” Hudin.com . May 13, 2019. https://www.hudin.com/the-release-of-the-paratge-doq-priorats-newest-step-up-the-burgundian-pyramid . Hudin, Miquel. “Velles Vinyes: DOQ Priorat releases the most stringent ‘old vines’ definition in Spain & maybe the world.” Hudin.com . May 30, 2019. https://www.hudin.com/velles-vinyes-doq-priorat-releases-the-most-stringent-old-vines-definition-in-spain-maybe-the-world . Hudin, Miquel. “What the new DO Rueda classifications mean.” Hudin,com . December 12, 2019. https://www.hudin.com/what-the-new-do-rueda-classifications-mean . Jefford, Andrew. “Jefford on Monday: Montsant – silence and beyond.” Decanter . December 11, 2017. https://www.decanter.com/wine-news/opinion/jefford-on-monday/montsant-wines-profile-spain-381352 . Jefford, Andrew. “Jefford on Monday: The white question.” Decanter . November 20, 2017. https://www.decanter.com/wine-news/opinion/jefford-on-monday/priorat-white-wines-380008 . Jefford, Andrew. “Jefford on Monday: ‘Wind, stone . . .’” Decanter . March 12, 2018. https://www.decanter.com/wine-news/opinion/jefford-on-monday/emporda-wine-catalonia-385922-385922 . Jeffs, Julian. The Wines of Spain . London: Mitchell Beazley, 2006. Johnson, Hugh and Jancis Robinson, eds. The World Atlas of Wine . 8th ed. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2019. Liem, Peter, and Jesús Barquín. Sherry, Manzanilla & Montilla: A Guide to the Traditional Wines of Andalucía . New York: Manutius, 2012. Lukacs, Paul. Inventing Wine: A New History of One of the World’s Most Ancient Pleasures . New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2012. McGovern, Patrick E. Ancient Wine: The Search for the Origins of Viniculture . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2003. Phillips, Jr., William D., and Carla Rahn Phillips. A Concise History of Spain . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Radford, John. The New Spain: A Complete Guide to Contemporary Spanish Wine . 2nd ed. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2006. Robinson, Jancis. “Castilla-La Mancha.” Jancis Robinson . Accessed May 18, 2020. https://www.jancisrobinson.com/learn/wine-regions/spain/castilla-la-mancha . Robinson, Jancis, ed. The Oxford Companion to Wine . 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. Robinson, Jancis, Julia Harding, and José Vouillamoz. Wine Grapes . New York: Harper Collins, 2012. “2019 Statistical Report on World Vitiviniculture.” International Organisation of Vine and Wine . 2019. http://www.oiv.int/public/medias/6782/oiv-2019-statistical-report-on-world-vitiviniculture.pdf . White, Kelli. “Considering the Canaries.” GuildSomm . February 15, 2018. https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/kelli-white/posts/canary-islands . White, Kelli. “Forgotten Spain: Valencia.” GuildSomm . October 19, 2017. https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/kelli-white/posts/forgotten-spain-valencia . White, Kelli. “The Devastator: Phylloxera Vastatrix & The Remaking of the World of Wine.” GuildSomm . December 29, 2017. https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/kelli-white/posts/phylloxera-vastatrix . Wiatrak, Bryce. “Tempranillo Wars: Rethinking the Traditional-Modern Schism in Rioja & Ribera del Duero.” GuildSomm . May 11, 2018. https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/bryce-wiatrak/posts/tempranillo-wars . Yoshida, David. “Rías Baixas and Ribeira Sacra.” Lecture. GuildSomm Masterclass Series. May 2019. Special thanks to Sarah Jane Evans and Miquel Hudin for their help in reviewing this guide. Compiled by Bryce Wiatrak MW (June 2020) Edited by Stacy LadenburgerPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/research/expert_guides/w/expert-guides/2449/austriaTue, 20 Oct 2026 22:42:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:1a80cf9c-460c-48f7-95ab-e47f007e082eSandra BanContents History of Austria Austrian Wine in Context Land & Climate Austrian Wine Law The Grapes of Austria Lower Austria Vienna Burgenland Styria Bergland Bibliography Austria is small, with barely 0.5% of its land covered in grapevines, but the country has contributed significant innovation and creativity to the wine world, from viticulture to stemware. In its more recent history, Austria’s industry was marked by the 1985 “antifreeze” scandal. Though the practice of sweetening wines with diethylene glycol, or DEG, hardly represented the majority of Austrian winemakers, all were implicated. Impressively, the industry banded together over the following years and developed stricter regulations and practices. Today, Austria has not only redeemed its reputation, but its wine industry is recognized for a proportionately high level of quality and rigorous standards. Pioneers from the last century have paved the way for today’s set of bright winemakers, many of whom are bringing excitement and originality to lesser-touted pockets throughout the country. History of Austria Cultivation of Vines Geographically central, Austria has been a thoroughfare for many civilizations throughout history. The Hallstatt culture of the Late Bronze Age through the early Iron Age (1200–500 BCE), among the earliest of Celtic peoples, was first to significantly settle this area, landing just southeast of what is today Salzburg. Salt mines in the region allowed this group to prosper, producing over a ton of salt per day and supplying over half of Europe. Artifacts discovered here, such as bronze ornaments and sword handles made of African ivory, suggest significant wealth. As the tribe grew and became more sophisticated, a wine culture developed. Art and other remnants dated between 600 and 400 BCE signal more frequent wine consumption and a stratification of society, as the Hallstatt tribes were dominated by the fiercer La Tène Celts. The first record of wild vines seems to be in the form of a funerary object that was buried at a gravesite around 1600 BCE in Lower Austria. However, the oldest evidence of cultivated vines dates back to approximately 900 BCE. Two small grapevine seeds were discovered in a storage pit covered with cereal grain in Stillfried, northeast of Vienna on the border of modern-day Slovakia. Palaeobotanic analyses of plant fossils indicated these vines were imported, likely via horse trades, and then propagated through scions or layering. Between 900 and 600 BCE, there was clear growth in grapegrowing culture throughout what is now considered Lower Austria, Burgenland, and neighboring Slovakia and Hungary. Romans were responsible for significantly expanding viticulture from 15 BCE though the fifth century CE. At the turn of the millennium, a surplus of Italian vines was planted in response to the Mount Vesuvius devastation in 79 CE. Emperor Domitian ordered half of the vines outside of Italy to be pulled and prohibited new vineyards. This interrupted Austria’s winemaking industry for nearly 200 years, until Emperor Probus lifted this edict, enabling viticulture to resume its expansion throughout the Roman Empire. Middle Ages By the end of the fifth century, the Western Roman Empire had fallen. Austria entered a quiet period in 488 CE, after the Romans abandoned the vineyards. During the Age of Migration, the German, Hunnic, Bavarian, and Slavic tribes moved through this territory. Monasteries were built, and the Bavarians established their prominence (500–900 CE). In an effort to unite all Germanic peoples into one Christian kingdom, Charlemagne, King of the Franks, defeated Bavarian Duke Tassilo III in 788, eliminating Bavarian influence for the next 100 years. He then initiated a long series of battles, overtook nearly all of Bohemia, and finally defeated the Avars in order to capture the territory that is today Austria in 803. Charlemagne played a profound role in reinvigorating Austria’s wine industry. His Capitulare de villis vel curtis imperii , among the first of Europe’s official wine law documents, spelled out requirements for better grapegrowing and winemaking techniques. Grape selection was taken more seriously. Varieties were considered in two categories: the more superior Fränkisch varieties, and those of lower quality, known as Heunisch, a derogatory term directed toward the Huns. Control returned to the Bavarians in 976 under the House of Babenberg, which expanded the territory as well as its influence and power over the next centuries. The Babenbergs elevated themselves to the status of duchy by the middle of the 12 th century. During this time, many monasteries populated Krems, Vienna, Styria, and Burgenland. Krems, then the largest town in Wachau, was home to 16 monasteries by the end of the 12 th century. The Cistercians had a tremendous impact on wine quality, bringing grapegrowing and winemaking knowledge from Burgundy. Habsburg Era Shortly after the death of the last ruling Babenberg male, Count Rudolf IV of the House of Habsburg was crowned the Roman-German King and relocated to Vienna, where the Habsburg monarchy would govern until the end of World War I. The Habsburgs’ skillful business and marital tactics allowed for the acquisition of many territories, including Burgundy in 1477, when Mary of Valois, Duchess of Burgundy, married Maximilian I, Archduke of Austria and Holy Roman Emperor, strengthening ties to this important wine region. Wine became increasingly central to Austrian culture throughout the Late Middle Ages. In addition to its crucial sacramental role, it was consumed as an alternative to unclean water. Wine was nearly always diluted, and spices and honey were sometimes added for sweetness. More controls were set to limit and even prohibit foreign wine imports in the 13 th century, and wine became a key export product. In 1340, a law passed that banned all Hungarian wine from entering the country, and by the 16 th century, over 150,000 hectares of vines covered the land. In Burgenland, the free city of Rust was also gaining popularity among royals both near and afar for its distinctive Ruster Ausbruch, a sweet botrytized dessert wine that was made in a style similar to Tokaji. By the early modern period, fortunes began to turn for Austria’s wine industry. From 1587 onward, a series of unfavorable climate conditions and poor harvests resulted in less wine. Export bans were legally enforced in an effort to secure Austria’s domestic product, and as a result, trade markets collapsed. Wine prices began to rise, not only in response to factors of supply and demand but also as a result of higher taxes. A tax particular to wine, beer, and mead, introduced as the Ungeld in 1359 under Duke Rudolf IV, ramped up considerably around 1556 and then again in 1568 to pay preparatory military debts. High taxes were noted as a major factor for the decline of viticulture in the 17 th century, as the majority of the population turned to more economical choices like beer. Rising taxes would persist through the 19 th century. In 1829, the General Consumption Tax rose to 42.2% on all wine and beer products, and in 1883, the land tax was set at 22.7% of gross yields for vineyards, only to be lowered after the devastation of phylloxera. The Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) left villages in ruins. Despite bans to expand vines, grapegrowers worked hard to rebuild and cultivate new vineyards. At the end of the 17 th century, 90% of vineyards were in the hands of peasants. They often rotated grain with grapes, which yielded about the same price at this time when factoring in labor costs. The Weinviertel was the site of a great deal of development during this period, with Grüner Veltliner beginning to demonstrate success. By 1830, the region was home to 67% of the country’s vineyards. The 18 th century finally brought some hope, as both the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution ushered in new ways of thinking along with more mechanized techniques, which would transform the bottom line for growers. Archduke John of Austria was an important figure for agriculture in this era, particularly for Styria, which had fallen behind the advances of its neighbors in Lower Austria and Burgenland. He took varietal and site selection seriously, leading several experiments to determine what would deliver the best quality, with Sauvignon Blanc among his findings. Agricultural societies were popping up throughout the region, modernizing farming and increasing productivity. As years passed and the Industrial Revolution advanced, the growing wine industry’s central concern became getting more wine in less time with lower costs. Greater research and experimentation took place, and more mechanized equipment was introduced. The Klosterneuburg monastery established a wine college in 1860 that continues to serve as a principal enology school today. The final chapter for the Habsburgs involved their union with Hungary through the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. The Hapsburgs and Hungarians shared military and conducted foreign affairs as one, but they operated separate local governments. Together, they were among the most powerful forces in Europe at the time. Vineyards overlapped, which would become a matter to settle upon the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire after World War I. Fall of the Habsburgs, World Wars, & Aftermath Upon the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914, Austria-Hungary moved on the Serbians in a battle that would initiate the Great War. Four years and nearly 40 million casualties later, the Habsburg monarchy was defeated, and the Republic of German-Austria was established on November 12, 1918. Vineyards were hardly a focus when drawing the new borders. South Tyrol was annexed to Italy as Alto Adige; 30,000 hectares within Styria fell to the SHS-State (the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes); and Lower Austria lost some of its northern territory to Czechoslovakia. What Austria did inherit were the great vineyards of Burgenland, two nurseries (with 89 varieties), and Rust, which was home to a viticultural school and growing vineyard area. Yet perhaps more significant than physical boundaries, the ideological Iron Curtain was gaining momentum. On March 12, 1938, German soldiers annexed Austria for the Third Reich. Austria’s wine industry was a source of much conflict during this time. An effort to Aryanise was underway. Jews were required to register assets, and vineyards were extorted for abominably depressed prices, from which the state officials and non-Jewish farmers benefited. The Third Reich had an idealized image of the German farm: not too small as to be unsustainable, but not too large as to counter its biased image of Jewish business. The Reich Hereditary Farm Act of 1938 mandated a vineyard size of 7.5 to 125 hectares—nearly impossible for most farmers, as it was common to hold only a few hectares or less. This led to unprecedented restructuring, mergers, and the influx of cooperatives, which grew to 48 by 1938 (3,438 members) and 71 by 1943 (8,958 members). This was perfect for the National Socialists (Nazis), who wanted to control the wine sector’s production and the race of its participants. Scholar Ernst Langthaler points out that the Reichsnährstand, which oversaw all agricultural production and distribution, attempted to justify this, explaining, “Some provisions may mean that personal rights of disposal are restricted. However, viewed from the higher vantage point of the national economy, these are just as necessary as promoting the well-being of the individual.” The Third Reich also shifted the focus at the well-reputed Klosterneuburg by establishing the Higher School and Experimentation Station of Viticulture and Fruit Production on its grounds. The new institution brought in students mainly from abroad to learn the “correct” way of growing, with limited approved varieties (15 white and 4 red). Efficiency was considered paramount, and the more industrial farming techniques that were emphasized gave larger cooperative wineries an advantage over smaller farmers who had trouble keeping up with the material and labor required for these new approaches. Dr. Fritz Zweigelt, for all that he would contribute to Austria’s wine industry, remains a controversial figure for his questionable alliance with the Nazis during their regime, which resulted in trial for treason after the war. Vines trained in Lenz Moser’s Hochkultur system (Photo credit: MW Andreas Wickhoff) The end of World War II cracked open new opportunities for Austrian farmers. Lenz Moser, born into a family of winemakers, would come to play a primary role in the improvement of Austrian viticulture, particularly for his introduction of high-stake training. Moser believed that it wasn’t really until the Reich had come to an end that winegrowing in Austria experienced a revolution. Throughout the 1920s, he identified the need for vineyards to adapt to the mechanizations available, not the other way around. He envisioned wider rows at three to four meters apart, lower density planting, and higher training on wires to replace low-grounded stake training. He established his first experimental vineyard in 1924, implementing this Hochkultur, or “high culture,” training method with vines on wires at 1.25 meters. The coldest winters in over a century took place in 1928 and 1929. Of the 35 grape varieties Moser had planted, 20 froze, with exceptions including Welschriesling, Riesling, and Grüner Veltliner. Over the years, it would be Grüner Veltliner and Zweigelt that Moser would encourage most for Hochkultur training, and today, these are the most planted white and red varieties. Though it took time for growers to convert to Hochkultur training, it became the norm in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1959, 77% of vineyards were still on the old stake system, but by 1980, this had dropped to under 1%. As hectarage under vine expanded from 42,000 in 1970 to over 56,000 by 1983, all vineyards were established with Moser’s high training. Though this is his greatest legacy, Moser was also fascinated by vineyard botany and established some of the first studies in cover crop recommendations in the 1950s. The 1985 Scandal Following World War II, the use of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides had been growing. Machines were doing much of the work in the vineyards, in part due to Moser’s vine training methods. Production boomed. Meanwhile, Germans vacationed in Burgenland and raved about the region’s sweet Prädikat wines. Demand for this style soared through the 1960s and 1970s. In 1970, a new tax policy no longer mandated cellar inspections, and counterfeit operation developed unchecked. A study commission by the local Institute of Agricultural Economics vastly underestimated consumption, encouraging overproduction and causing grape prices to plummet. Demand for sweet wine, however, wasn’t impacted. Rather, it increased dramatically, and as pressure to produce more for export grew, quality was compromised. From 1970 to 1983, vineyard area climbed from 43,000 to 56,000 hectares. A string of poor vintages in the late 1970s and early 1980s added anxiety to the equation, as winemakers sought to correct underripe, thin wines with something that could go undetected and also contribute body and texture to their wines. They identified diethylene glycol, or DEG, which easily mixes with liquids like alcohol and water and is a component in brake fluid, lubricants, skin care products, and, most famously, antifreeze. DEG has a sweet taste, adding to and obscuring sugar additions, and was hard to detect—mainly because no one thought to test for it. On January 28, 1985, investigators confirmed the presence of DEG in Austrian wines. The news broke on April 23, 1985, and export markets dried up almost immediately. This was particularly significant for Germans, who had previously accounted for nearly 90% of Burgenland’s exports. The supposed ringleader chemist, Otto Nadrasky, admitted that this practice began in 1978. He and chemists at other laboratories had determined the amount of DEG that could be added at safe levels—and it is true that no one was harmed, let alone killed, by consuming these beverages. A lethal dose of DEG is thought to be about 40 grams per liter, and most wines saw only a fraction of a gram to a few grams per liter. Winemakers sought, unsuccessfully, to justify their methods by explaining that a person would almost certainly die of alcohol poisoning before DEG. Though the scandal involved sweet wine and primarily incriminated just a few large producers, all of Austria suffered, and it would take 15 years for its exports to rebound. Despite the adverse economic implications that followed, this scandal provided the industry with an opportunity for change. Winemakers quickly set out to improve their image by establishing some of the strictest regulations in Europe through the Austrian Wine Act of 1986. New requirements included cellar inspections, detailed recordings of quantities from vineyard to bottle, yield restrictions for higher-quality fruit, and the establishment of the Austrian Wine Marketing Board (AWMB). Meanwhile, a marketing effort worked to restore the nation’s reputation. Winemakers, including key players Alois Kracher and Willi Opitz, tirelessly showed their wines during this time to convince consumers of their quality. EU Accession & Today Before Austria could join the EU, a number of reforms needed to take place. In the early 1990s, the Ministry of Agriculture hired an outside business consultancy to evaluate Austria’s wine industry and identify areas for improvement. A thorough assessment pointed to structural shortcomings, inadequate marketing, and financial concerns around tax structure and overall industry resources. Austria responded with continued efforts from a recently established wine consultancy network, outlets for grape surplus, and abolishing taxes for non-sparkling wine. Joining the EU had many benefits for Austria’s wine industry. Integration was relatively smooth, as Austria’s wine law was not too dissimilar from that of the EU. Exports were simplified, monetary assistance became available for bulk shipping outside the country, programs were established to improve grapegrowing and winemaking methods, and financial incentives encouraged organic viticulture. Today, the central government and local federal states help pay insurance premiums for unseen vineyard challenges. Austrian Wine in Context Austria produced 2.75 million hectoliters of wine in 2018, a mere 1% of global production, placing it 17 th in the world for overall volume. Still, over 90% of wine in 2018 was classified as Qualitätswein or Prädikatswein, reflecting Austria’s ongoing focus on quality. In 2015, vines covered over 45,000 hectares of land, a 22% decrease since 1987, when there was an extreme surplus. White grapes reign supreme, with over 67% of the plantings, despite a slight surge of reds in the early 2000s. In 1987, there were 45,380 growers, averaging 1.28 hectares per producer, which has dropped to about 14,111 growers today, with about 3.22 hectares per grower. Though this indicates growth in the larger wineries and consolidation, Austria still boasts many small, boutique wineries. Austrian wine holds 90% of the domestic market share, up 6% since 2003. The average bottle price is €5.21, increased from €4.28 in 2012. In Austria, over half of the local wine is sold on-premise and at trade events, while 39% is consumed at home. Supermarkets have become important partners for the industry, and less wine is being purchased directly from wineries. The remaining Austrian wine consumed within the country is attributed to tourists. Though small compared to other wine regions, Austria enjoys a successful and growing export market. Its wines are exported to 102 countries, nearly double the number served in 2009, in part thanks to the AWMB’s strategy to create more resilience to fluctuations from individual markets. In 2019, Austrian winemakers exported a record-breaking 640,000 hectoliters of wine (about 7.1 million cases), a huge comeback after losing four-fifths of their export market after the 1985 scandal. Germans still claim about half of this, but considerable growth comes from the United States, in part due to importers like Terry Theise and Circo Vino, who have championed these wines. In 2000, about 145,000 hectoliters were bottled for export; 214,000 hectoliters went out in bulk. By 2018, this situation dramatically reversed: 460,000 hectoliters were bottled, and the remaining 60,000 hectoliters were sold in bulk. Land & Climate The Land Austria is a landlocked country nestled in the heart of south-central Europe—an ideal situation for trade throughout history. It shares borders with seven other countries: Switzerland (and Liechtenstein) on its western edge, the Czech Republic to the north, Slovakia to the northeast, Hungary to the east, and Slovenia to the south. Germany and Italy, to its north and south, respectively, pinch Austria where it narrows most. At its widest, the country measures only 275 kilometers from north to south; most of Austria fits between the 47 th and 48 th parallels. Austria contains nine federal states. Together, Lower Austria (Niederösterreich in German), Burgenland, and Vienna (Wien) compose one large winemaking region known as Weinland. A second region, Steirerland, includes the federal state of Styria (Steiermark). Weinland and Steirerland collectively contain 17 of Austria’s 18 winemaking regions. The final growing area is Bergland, which comprises vineyards found in the five remaining federal states: Carinthia (Kärnten), Upper Austria (Oberösterreich), Tyrol (Tirol), Vorarlberg, and Salzburg. While these states don’t have any DACs, they have a long winemaking tradition and are beginning to experience a kind of renaissance. Austria’s nine federal states Mountains dominate nearly two-thirds of Austria’s landscape. Extending from the west, the Alps continue eastward and fade into the Pannonian Plain. Here, they descend into eastern Austria to surface again as the Carpathian Mountain Range, hugging Hungary’s eastern border and forming a crescent shape through Slovakia, Czech Republic, Poland, Ukraine, and finally Romania. The northern massif hills of the Bohemian Forest form a natural border with the Czech Republic and contain the oldest rock formations in Austria, dating back over 500 million years. Together, these geological features are responsible for some of the most diverse soils in all of Central Europe. Granite and sedimentary silty windblown loess characterize the soils of Lower Austria that are most often discussed, but millennia of tectonic and glacial activity produced a complex range of types and sizes, including schistose paragneiss, amphibolite, and granulite soils. Many of Burgenland’s soils are informed by Danubian deposits of calcareous sandy gravels. There are also pockets of silty loam and non-calcareous clays throughout Central Burgenland, while Leithaberg is home to a unique limestone composed of sea fossils as well as schist and gneiss. The Styria Basin forms the patchwork of soils in the south, influenced by several distinct mountain ranges. It includes silt, marl, sand, gravel, sandstone, conglomerates, gneiss, amphibolite, and limestone, with a small amount of volcanic basalts. Crystalline gneiss (left) and volcanic soils (Photo credit: AWMB) Though Austria borders no oceans, water plays an important role. The Danube is the second longest river in Europe, running for nearly 3,000 kilometers. Beginning at the confluence of the Brigach and Breg Rivers in Germany’s Black Forest, it moves southeast through 10 countries, including the upper northeast quarter of Austria, eventually draining into the Black Sea. The Danube has been economically important for Austria as a key European trade route; it is also a crucial moderating influence in an otherwise severely continental climate. Its impact is reflected in comparison of the lush, concentrated wines of the eastern Wachau, where the Danube begins flowing east through the Lower Austrian wine regions, to the acidic, laser-focused, and chiseled wines from Spitz in western Wachau. Lake Constance sits on the German-Swiss border in the west, and Lake Neusiedl ( Neusiedlersee) borders Hungary in the east. The latter is key to Burgenland’s sweet dessert wines. A shallow, marsh-like lake, Neusiedl and several dozen surrounding small lakes raise the overall humidity of Burgenland, allowing grape bunches to achieve noble botrytis during the warm, misty autumn mornings. The Climate Austria’s winegrowing regions generally experience a continental climate, with warm-to-hot summers and cold winters. On average, winters tend to get as cold as -10 to -12 degrees Celsius (10 to 14 degrees Fahrenheit), with summers as warm as 32 to 34 degrees Celsius (89 to 93 degrees Fahrenheit). Supporting the country’s focus on white grapes, most of the grapegrowing regions experience over 2,000 hours of sunshine; the Danubian region in Lower Austria has just over 1,800 on average. Climatic influences in Austria (Credit: AWMB) Lower Austria, the Pannonian Plain, and Styria, however, don’t neatly fit into these generalizations, as they are further impacted by various mesoclimates. In addition to the Danube River’s warming effect on its nearby wine regions, Lower Austria experiences considerable shifts in temperature during the growing season. This is particularly true near harvest, when warm winds come in from the Pannonian Plain in the east across Wagram, settling into the valleys by day, followed by cooler winds from the northern forests at night. These shifts yield fresh yet opulent wine styles. Burgenland is significantly affected by the warm Pannonian climate. The growing season can get quite hot, allowing for robust red wines. Uniquely, Styria has a Mediterranean influence from the Adriatic in the south, causing longer, warmer days than experienced by its northern counterparts. The nights, though, feel more alpine and cool in the steeply planted vineyards. Lower Austria is the driest region, with roughly 450 to 550 millimeters of rainfall per year. Irrigation is necessary most years to consistently maintain high quality. Further east, in Vienna, the average is closer to 700 millimeters annually, while Burgenland has about 600 millimeters and Styria nearly 900. Bergland, which comprises the western regions of the Alps, experiences an Atlantic influence, with twice as much rain as in Lower Austria. Though production is minuscule, a handful of Bergland’s regions have warm pockets that allow for grapegrowing. Austrian Wine Law Glossary of Terms alte reben = old vines blau = blue cross = a variety formed by crossing two grapes of the same species grau = grey grosslage = large collective vineyard site hauersekt = grower’s sparkling wine hybrid = a variety formed by crossing two grapes of different species ried = single vineyard Sekt = sparkling wine sturm = partially fermented grape must sud = south traubenmost = grape must vulkan = volcano weiss = white Guidelines for quality winemaking in Austria stretch as far back as the Romans, but it was not until 1907 that formalized wine law was put into place, largely to prevent the creation of artificial wine in the period following the devastation of phylloxera. Other laws were established in the 20 th century, such as one in 1936 under the First Republic forbidding new vineyards and hybrid vines. But it wasn’t until 1985, when the DEG scandal produced a watershed moment for the Austrian winemaking industry, that more stringent measures were codified. Until this point, Austrians had adopted a German classification based largely on must levels. This is still seen today, particularly with the Prädikatswein classification from Spätlese to Trockenbeerenauslese, where the Klosterneuburg Must Weight Scale (KMW) is a measurement of 1 gram of sugar per 100 grams of grape must (1 degree KMW is approximately 5 degrees Oechsle). However, in response to the scandal and a global shift in preference toward drier styles, regions began to focus more on dry white and red wines that valued origin over sweetness levels. Regional associations started to form and work closely with the newly established AWMB (Austrian Wine Marketing Board) to bring Austrian wine back to the forefront. Accession into the EU in 1995 ensured EU wine law adoption as a starting point, but the goal was a quality-focused, appellation-based system unique to Austria. By 2001, an amendment was proposed to establish regionally typical wines under a system called Districtus Austriae Controllatus (DAC) that was much like the French Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée (AOC) system. It was approved in 2002, with Weinviertel named the first DAC region in 2003. Austria has 18 DACs, with 15 throughout Weinland, and 3 in Steirerland . Austrian wine law identifies three levels of quality: Wein, Landwein, and Qualitätswein. In 2018, Wein and Landwein only accounted for about 6.5% of Austria’s overall production. In line with EU regulations, Wein is without a geographical indication, replacing the former use of Tafelwein. Wein is divided into two categories: Wein, which can include grapes from anywhere in the EU, and Österreich (the German name for Austria, also labeled as österreichischer Wein), which must be sourced from Austria only. Wein may state vintage and variety if the wine adheres to national yield levels and includes grapes that are not associated with a DAC but do fall into the greater permissible Qualitätswein varieties. Landwein is equivalent to the EU’s Protected Geographical Indication (PGI). These wines must be produced from grape varieties that are approved for Qualitätswein, and 100% of the grapes must come solely from one of the three winegrowing areas: Weinland, Steirerland, or Bergland. These wines must exhibit traits that are representative of the area. The "banderole" symbol (Credit: AWMB) Qualitätswein, which makes up 84% of production, corresponds with the EU’s Protected Designation of Origin (PDO). To qualify, grapes must be harvested in a single winegrowing region and produced in a facility within or bordering that region. There are 42 approved varieties, and wines must show typicity of region, meet the minimum must weight requirement of 15 degrees KMW, adhere to maximum yields of 75 hectoliters per hectare, and have a minimum 9% ABV (5% for Prädikatswein). Qualitätswein must be inspected and approved by a government tasting official and given a Federal Inspection Number. This number, along with the banderole capsule, verifies strict measures of quality. There are four overarching designations that can be labeled as Qualitätswein: Kabinett, DAC wines, Prädikatswein (which has its own style categories), and Sekt Austria g.U. All build upon the basic rules laid out for Qualitätswein. For example, a Kabinett wine can be labeled as such if it has not been chaptalized, achieves a must weight of 17 degrees KMW or above, has a potential alcohol maximum of 13%, and unfermented sugars do not exceed nine grams per liter of residual sugar. DACs must adhere to the rules established by the protected region, which typically reflect stricter guidelines for viticulture, accepted grapes, winemaking, and labels. The DAC system was meant to simplify the consumer’s understanding of a region by limiting grapes and styles to those that epitomize the location and reinforce its character. The two most significant styles are klassik and reserve . The former is an unofficial term that refers to dry, unchaptalized, medium-bodied styles that are often crisp, fruity, unoaked, and moderate in alcohol. Conversely, the latter is an official term given to fuller styles; it requires higher must weight and minimum alcohol (13%). DAC Reserve wines often exhibit more extract on the palate and frequently experience oak aging. Prädikatswein is a category of Qualitätswein defined by must weight at harvest and has the most overlap with its German heritage. (However, unlike in Germany, Kabinett does not qualify as Prädikatswein in Austria but instead as Qualitätswein.) Final sweetness can only be achieved through an interrupted fermentation; chaptalization and the addition of unfermented grape must are forbidden. A certificate, or mostwägerbescheiningung , is required to verify the grapes’ quality. For Spätlese and Auslese, wines cannot be submitted to the tasting commission until January 1 following harvest. For all other styles (Beerenauslese, Eiswein, Strohwein, Schilfwein, and Trockenbeerenauslese), wines can be submitted beginning April 1 after harvest. Austrian Sekt Austrian sparkling wine can be traced back to 1842, when Robert Alwin Schlumberger came to Vienna after working as Ruinart’s cellar master and head of production. His expertise at one of the finest Champagne houses of the era gave him confidence in Austria’s potential—and particularly in Vöslau, just south of Vienna. In chalky white soils that reminded him of France, he began to plant vines in 1844. By 1859, the first Austrian sparkling wine brand was born. Called Goldeck, it was named after the Goldeggen Vineyard and remains one of the largest sparkling wine brands in Austria, today owned by the Schlumberger Wine and Sekt Company. Other formative figures behind the rise of sparkling wine production in Austria were Johann Kattus, who launched the Hochriegl brand in 1890, and Karl Inführ, who introduced the Charmat method in 1949. Only a handful of large companies were permitted to manufacture base wines and set the price for sparkling wine. By 1976, the argument over estate production of sparkling wine became a great debate, headed largely by grower and vintner Gerald Malat in Krems, who felt wineries should be allowed to use their own grapes for base wine . Permission was granted, and sparkling wine producers rose in number. Use of the term hauersekt , meaning “grower’s sparkling wine,” on the label indicates that a wine was made with fruit that was estate grown and produced. In 2013, the Austrian Sekt Committee formed to enhance the image of Sekt and work for more organization to differentiate high-quality sparkling. It proposed a plan that, with the assistance of other groups such as the Austrian Wine Marketing Board, was approved by the National Committee in 2015 and made law in 2016. Under this law, Austrian Sekt could apply for PDO g.U. designation. In 2022, three distinct Sekt Austria PDOs representing different quality levels were established: Sekt Austria g.U., Sekt Austria Reserve g.U., and Sekt Austria Grosse Reserve g.U. Austrian Sekt quality and sweetness requirements All PDO wines must be made from the permitted varieties for Qualitätswein and pass a sensory panel test that indicates they are free of defect. Sekt Austria PDO wines are derived from grapes that come from one federal state but can be vinified anywhere in Austria. Grapes for Sekt Austria Reserve wines must be grown and pressed in a single Austrian federal state (commune may appear on the label, but no vineyard designation is permitted). Sekt Austria Grosse Reserve grapes must be harvested and pressed within one municipality (if registered, a single vineyard is permitted on the label). Austrian Sekt No PDO Produced from the 40 grape varieties permissible for Qualitätswein “Austrian Sekt” allowed on label if grapes or base wine comes from Austria “Produced in Austria” allowed on label if production takes place in Austria Sekt Austria PDO g.U. All dosage levels, styles, and colors permitted Only traditional or tank method Minimum nine months on the lees for traditional method or six months for tank method Grapes must be harvested within a single state Sekt Austria Reserve PDO g.U. Hand-harvested and whole-cluster pressed Grapes must be grown and pressed within a single state that must appear on the label Only traditional method Minimum 18 months on the lees Maximum Press Yield of 60% Village source may be stated on the label Maximum dosage 12 g/l Sekt Austria Grosse Reserve PDO g.U. Hand-harvested and whole-cluster pressed Grapes must be grown and pressed within a single village that must appear on the label Same methods, dosage levels permitted as for Reserve Minimum 36 months on the lees Vineyard source allowed on the label Maximum Press Yield of 50% Sparkling wine represents about 5% of Austria’s production. Grüner Veltliner and Welschriesling are the preferred varieties, but Riesling, Chardonnay, and Pinot Noir are also utilized. Nearly 75% of the fruit is grown in Lower Austria, particularly the northern part of the Weinviertel, and Vienna, with just under 20% from Burgenland. Over half of production takes place in Vienna. Though many winemakers have small sparkling wine projects, about 25 wineries form the core of this industry. Major producers include Hugl Weine, Weingut Steininger, Weingut Bründlmayer, Weingut Schloss Gobelsburg, and Weingut Stift Klosterneuburg (the abbey’s estate production). Domestic Sekt generates €55 million in value for Austria, employing 1,300 workers, sustaining 114 businesses, and sourcing grapes from 3,000 vintners. The Grapes of Austria Through Europe’s long history of grapegrowing, superior varieties (known as Fränkisch) emerged, as well as those valued for their fertility and high yields but not their quality (Heunisch). Crossings took advantage of the traits of both groups, resulting in widely appreciated international grapes like Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and Riesling. Monks introduced these varieties to Austria, and indigenous grapes were also produced from such crossings, including Grüner Veltliner, Blaufränkisch, and St. Laurent. The historic practice of growing and pressing numerous grapes together in Gemischter Satz (mixed set) field blends undoubtedly contributed to Austria’s many crossings. As a result of phylloxera as well as powdery and downy mildew, cross-cultivation of vines also became a widely adopted and prioritized science in the early 20 th century, leading to new varieties like Zweigelt and Blauburger. Gemischter Satz Historically, Gemischter Satz, meaning “mixed set,” was a field blend. Grapes of all kinds were co-planted, harvested at the same time, and pressed together. It was thought to be a wise insurance plan should poor flowering, frost, or other harvest challenges negatively impact certain varieties. Though rudimentary, it was also a way to achieve balance by blending underripe, just ripe, and overripe grapes—a tactic many winemakers practice intentionally now. This approach led to the development of many autochthonous varieties, as indigenous grapes spontaneously mutated and crossed with other varieties in the vineyard. But by the 20 th century, upon replanting after phylloxera, varietal plantings became the standard. Today, it is rare to find true, diverse field blend vineyards. Where they do surface, just a handful of select varieties are typically represented. For DAC status, the grapes must be grown within a contiguous vineyard site, with each variety confined to its own area. Nevertheless, Gemischter Satz is regaining importance throughout Lower Austria and was recently acknowledged as a permitted style for regional Wachau DAC wines. White Grapes Grüner Veltliner: Grüner Veltliner is the most widely planted variety in Austria, accounting for nearly a third of vineyards. Though documentation traces its existence to the 18 th century, it was not until 1855 that Grüner Veltliner was first recorded by name, and it didn’t become popular until the 1960s and 1970s, when Moser introduced the Hochkultur training system. Trained high, Grüner Veltliner provided ample yields during an era when output was crucial. Like many of Austria’s varieties, Grüner Veltliner is indigenous to the country. It is not, however, related to the Veltliner family, as the name might imply. As it looks nearly identical to Blauer Veltliner, it was only with the advent of DNA diagnostics that it became clear the two are not related. Traminer (Savagnin) is one of Grüner Veltliner’s parents, and the other is likely St. Georgen, from Eisenstadt in Burgenland. A thirsty grape, Grüner Veltliner finds nourishment in the deep, water-retaining loess soils of Lower Austria, where almost 90% is planted, and in some parts of Burgenland. It is a mid-ripening variety that wouldn’t fare well much further north. In Lower Austria, it benefits from the moderating influence of the Danube, which draws in heat from the Pannonian Plain. Grüner Veltliner’s small greenish-yellow berries, for which it was named, offer flavors that range from citrus and stone fruit to more exotic spicy notes. Rotundone, referred to locally as pfefferl , is the distinctive white pepper aroma associated with this grape. Due to its thick skins, winemakers must be careful not to over-extract in order to avoid producing overly spicy or phenolic wines. Depending on where it is grown and how it is handled in the winery, Grüner Veltliner offers varied expressions. Even as a dry wine, Grüner Veltliner can range from more whimsical, light styles of Weinviertel to intense, phenolic examples from top rieden, or single vineyards, in Wachau. Both stainless steel and neutral barrels are employed for fermentation and aging. Grüner Veltliner rarely goes through malolactic fermentation but does have an affinity for lees aging to achieve more texture. Thanks to its loose bunches, Grüner Veltliner can be ideal for Eiswein production in Burgenland as well. 14,548 hectares in 2022 47.8% of white varieties planted (32.5% overall) Welschriesling: Welschriesling can be found in warm, nutrient-rich sites throughout Austria and offers a variety of styles. In the Weinviertel, Welschriesling delivers neutral base wines for the production of Sekt; in Burgenland, it is used for some of the most reputable dessert styles. In Styria, Welschriesling is the favorite for casual dry wines at the local taverns. A late-budding, late-ripening variety, Welschriesling can withstand cold temperatures. It is generally a very vigorous grape, but results prove intriguing when yields are controlled. At their simplest, Welschriesling wines are dry and unoaked, with spritely acid, green apple flavors, and diminished length. With extended ripening and in the right conditions for botrytis development, Welschriesling can display intense tropical fruit and honeyed organoleptic notes. 3,883 acres in 2022 9.4% of white varieties planted (6.4% overall) Riesling (Weisser Riesling, Rheinriesling): While it only comprises a small portion of Austria’s vineyards, Riesling is undoubtedly one of the country’s highest-quality performers. Riesling has an ancient past, mentioned in numerous historic texts under a wide variety of synonyms. It is part of a larger family of grapes that has a parent-offspring relationship with Gouais Blanc (Gamay and Chardonnay are among its relations). Most Riesling is planted throughout Lower Austria. While there are some noteworthy vineyards in the Weinviertel, the most consistently complex expressions come from the north bank of the Danube, home to steep, south-facing slopes with deep primary granite soils that facilitate warmth for this later-ripening, cold hardy variety. The best Austrian Rieslings are often dry, higher in alcohol, textured, broad, and even spicy, with a petrichor note. Vinification and aging tend to take place in stainless steel and/or neutral barrels. These wines can be almost creamy but with electric acidity. Examples from regions like the Wachau can sometimes be confused for Grüner Veltliner. 2,040 hectares in 2022 6.7% of white varieties planted (4.6% overall) Weissburgunder (Klevner, Pinot Blanc): Weissburgunder, a Pinot Noir mutation, is part of the prolific Gouais Blanc family and was misidentified as its genetic relative Chardonnay until 1868. Early to bud and ripen, Weissburgunder is cold hardy but needs optimal conditions—warm soil, ample nutrients, and lower disease pressure—to achieve high quality. It is often used as a blending partner. Alone, Weissburgunder can take on very fleshy, full-bodied expressions that have an almond-like finish with diminished acidity, which is sometimes related to vinification in small barriques and undergoing malolactic fermentation. 1,872 hectares in 2022 6.1% of white varieties planted (4.2% overall) Müller-Thurgau: Müller-Thurgau was created by Hermann Müller in 1882 at the Geisenheim Research Institute in the Rheingau. His original intent was to cross Riesling with Sylvaner for the latter’s early-ripening tendencies. Recent DNA studies have revealed, however, that Müller-Thurgau has no relation to Sylvaner. Rather, it is a cross between Riesling and Chasselas de Courtillier (Madeleine Royale). Associated with mass production due to its yields, which can be as high as 150 hectoliters per hectare, Müller-Thurgau was a very important grape after World War II, reaching its apex in the 1970s. In recent decades, though, it has lost ground. With rather soft wood, it is less hardy through winter, and its early ripening has become a disadvantage for growers in light of climate change. Further, it has a propensity to disease, including Roter Brenner and peronospora. Nearly two-thirds of Austria’s Müller-Thurgau comes from Lower Austria, and while some later-harvest Prädikat examples can offer high-quality dessert styles, these tend to have softer acidity and lower alcohol, with very little character and complexity overall. 1,272 hectares in 2022 4.2% of white varieties planted (2.9% overall) Chardonnay (Morillon): Chardonnay , also the offspring of Gouais Blanc and Pinot Noir, can be found throughout Austria, though it arguably finds its most compelling expressions in Styria, where it is known as Morillon. A diverse array of soils exists in Styria, including limestone, with which Chardonnay has proven success. In the same way, the limestone hills of Leithaberg in Burgenland produce more intense, Burgundian expressions. Early to bud and ripen, Chardonnay is easy to grow, despite its susceptibility to botrytis bunch rot and powdery mildew. Managed yields and careful winemaking allow this grape to achieve greater heights. Styles in Austria range from fruity, unoaked international expressions that forgo malolactic fermentation to more serious, barrel-aged renditions that display almost Meursault-like creaminess and decadence on the palate. Chardonnay is also used in TBA blends, such as Weinlaubenhof Kracher’s #6 Grande Cuvée Nouvelle Vague. 1,934 hectares in 2022 6.3% of white varieties planted (4.2% overall) Sauvignon Blanc: Sauvignon Blanc was introduced to Austria in the late 19 th century, then known as Muscat-Sylvaner. It was finally promoted as Sauvignon Blanc in the 1980s, which helped raise its profile in the global marketplace. Sauvignon Blanc is likely a crossing of Traminer and Chenin Blanc, and thus of some relation to Grüner Veltliner. Though it is found throughout Austria, Styria is its most celebrated region, where it is the most planted variety. Here, leading wineries have experimented with style and sites in search of a unique expression. Sauvignon Blanc can be quite vigorous, showing its signature herbaceous methoxypyrazine character if care is not taken to manage the canopy. It is a mid-ripening variety with small, compact bunches that are susceptible to botrytis bunch rot, peronospora, and powdery mildew, demanding vigilance in the vineyard if striving for excellence. Two styles have emerged in the past 30 years: klassik and lagen . Unoaked, zippy klassik versions are grassy and youthful, with a mouthwatering acidity. Lagen (site-specific) wines are more ageworthy and often experience barrel aging as well as partial or full malolactic fermentation. Lagen wines offer more texture and nuanced aromatics. 1,170 hectares in 2022 5.5% of white varieties planted (3.8% overall) Other Varieties: Additional white grapes in Austria include Rotgipfler, Sämling 88 (Scheurebe), Neuburger, Traminer, and Muskateller (Gelber Muskateller, Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains). 3,637 hectares in 2022 12% of white varieties planted (8.3% overall) Red Grapes Zweigelt: Zweigelt is a crossing of Blaufränkisch and St. Laurent produced by Fritz Zweigelt at the research center at Klosterneuburg in 1922 and originally called Rotburger. Planted throughout Austria, it is largely found in Lower Austria, where it has gained popularity for its adaptability to Moser’s high training. By the 1980s, Zweigelt was the most common red in Austria. It yields well, withstands many common disease pressures, and presents bright fruit. Even simple, unoaked klassik styles are charming. Informed by red fruit characteristics, these wines can achieve more complex expressions in lower-yield examples, where some darker black cherry notes can develop and compliment oak-derived spice on the finish. The greatest risks with Zweigelt are excessive yields and berry shrivel or wilting ( traubenwelke ), which can be avoided through extensive leaf pulling for vine balance and overall vine nutrition. 6,129 hectares in 2022 46.1% of red varieties planted (13.7% overall) Blaufränkisch: An autochthonous variety, Blaufränkisch is a crossing of Gouais Blanc with Zimmettraube. While its exact origins are still unclear, it appeared under this name at a grape exposition in Vienna in 1862. Fränkisch is a term for high-quality grapes that dates back to the Middle Ages, implying that this grape has possibly existed much longer than that. Early to bud and late to ripen, Blaufränkisch needs warm sites and soils to reach its fullest potential. It thrives in Burgenland, the warmest region in Austria, where all but 150 hectares are planted. Blaufränkisch varies in its expressions, as Burgenland offers a plethora of mesoclimates and soils. Some of the most complex, site-specific examples arguably come from the limestone and schist hills of the Leithaberg DAC. In more recent years, the Eisenberg DAC has been offering equally impressive examples, where leaner, mineral-driven expressions are attributed to the iron-rich soils. Still, in Mittelburgenland DAC, producers such as Velich, Weninger, and Moric have shown that their Blaufränkisch can rival the best in the market. The simplest klassik styles of Blaufränkisch show bright blue fruit and moderate tannins with refreshing acid. More complex reserve renditions often see barrel aging (from neutral to some new) and can demonstrate concentrated black fruit, notes of cassis and licorice, and prolonged spice on the finish. 2,597 hectares in 2022 19.5% of red varieties planted (5.8% overall) Blauer Portugieser: It has long been believed that Blauer Portugieser came to Austria from Portugal. Not all scholars support this, however, even with clear documentation of Baron von Fries, an Austrian ambassador, bringing it from Porto to Bad Vöslau in 1772. This disagreement is in part because DNA identification seems to trace Blauer Portugieser to a crossing of Sylvaner and the Friulian Sbulzina, derived from an even older grape, Blauer Gänsfüsser, which has Austrian origins. Wine Grapes , for example, asserts that Blauer Portugieser is actually of Austrian origin and that its genetic twin Português Azul might actually be a translation of Blauer Portugieser—not the other way around as many texts indicate. Nearly all Blauer Portugieser can be found in Lower Austria, with the vast majority in the Weinviertel. As with many varieties once valued for their high yields, Blauer Portugieser is quickly declining in plantings and overall importance. While low yields can bring more concentration and appeal, most examples are grown in volume and yield lighter-colored reds that are low in acidity and personality. 483 hectares in 2022 3.7% of red grape varieties planted (1.1% overall) Blauburger: Blauburger is a crossing of Blauer Portugieser and Blaufränkisch created in 1923 by Fritz Zweigelt, who was seeking an early- to mid-ripening red variety that could fare well in areas better suited to white grapes. It is seldom seen alone, as it offers little in the way of acid or tannin. Rather, it is valued for its deep color as a blending grape. Most Blauburger is found in the Weinviertel, with a few plantings speckled throughout Lower Austria and a small amount in Burgenland. 459 hectares in 2022 3.3%% of red varieties planted (1% overall) St. Laurent (Sankt Laurent): St. Laurent currently has no verifiable parents, though it seems that one has genetic proximity to the Pinot family. St. Laurent was reintroduced to Austria in the 19 th century by the Baumann brothers, who ran a tree nursery in Bollwiller. A finicky grape, it is rarely a first choice for growers. Susceptible to early-season flower drop and coulure as well as botrytis bunch rot and downy mildew, it must be grown in dry, warm regions with good drainage. If soils are extremely nutrient rich, excessive vigor focuses too much energy into the shoots. St. Laurent does well, however, in the free-draining warm soils of the Thermenregion, and Northern Burgenland is another haven. St. Laurent’s naturally high pH levels can also be an issue for winemakers, who must take precautions to avoid undesirable Brettanomyces. Despite this, St. Laurent retains acidity even after malolactic fermentation and has moderate sugars and alcohol. It has great potential for quality and has been compared to red Burgundy for its elegance, red fruit profile, and tertiary woodsy traits. 596 hectares in 2022 4.3% of red varieties planted (1.3% overall) Other Varieties: Austria’s other red grapes include Merlot, Blauburgunder, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Blauer Wildbacher. 3,061 hectares in 2022 23% of red varieties planted (7% overall) Lower Austria Lower Austria ( Niederösterreich) , Austria’s largest federal state, is in the northeast portion of the country. It is home to over 28,000 hectares of vines and responsible for over half of Austria’s total wine production. There are eight distinct regions: Wachau, Kremstal, Kamptal, Wagram, Weinviertel, Thermenregion, Traisental, and Carnuntum. All are recognized DACs. Within this large state, there are three climatic areas. One is centered in the north around Weinviertel, a region vast enough at 100 kilometers across that it could be further broken down into a range of microclimates. A distinct climate also defines the regions west of Vienna along the Danube (Wachau, Kremstal, Kamptal, Traisental, and Wagram), which are greatly influenced by the river as well as the cool winds from the northern forests and the warm Pannonian Plain to the east. The final climatic area is southeast of Vienna (Carnuntum and Thermenregion), a territory more directly impacted by heat from the plain. Austria’s wine regions (Credit: AWMB) It is difficult to generalize the complex soils of Lower Austria. Broadly speaking, there are two types: loess and granite. Deep, chalky masses of wind-swept calcareous-dolomitic loess make up over half of the vineyards in Lower Austria. These mineral-laden soils, blown in from the Alps, provide ample water retention, which is crucial for Grüner Veltliner. Granite deposits, dating back to the Neogene period (23 million to 2.6 million years ago), come from the Molasse Basin and consist of thin soils over primary rock (called urgestein and derived from the Bohemian Massif). Granite is found in the higher vineyards along the Danube—a prime area for the region’s best Riesling. A third kind of soil is created from weathered metamorphic rocks, such as slate, schistic paragneiss, and amphibolite. Grüner Veltliner makes up nearly half of plantings in Lower Austria. Still, many other grapes are grown here, most significantly in terms of hectarage Zweigelt (12.5%), Riesling (6.1%), Welschriesling (4.7%), and Müller-Thurgau (4.4%). There are also various local varieties such as Blauburger, Blauer Portugieser, Scheurebe, and Rotgipfler, as well as a number of French grapes including Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Weissburgunder, and Pinot Noir. Wachau For many, it is the Wachau's prominent producers and iconic vineyards that come to mind at mention of Austrian wine. The overall quality of these wines is unparalleled, setting the bar for what Grüner Veltliner and Riesling can achieve. This westernmost region of Lower Austria has long enjoyed accolades for its wine, with recognition for its distinctive qualities as early as 830 CE, when it began its golden age under Carolingian rule. Archaeological evidence traces the origins of Austrian winemaking to the Wachau. Monks fastidiously documented observations about the region’s soils, mesoclimates, and grapes. When secularization took place in 1790, vineyards were turned over to private landowners, and holdings became more fragmented over time. Because the small parcels were difficult to monetize, in the 1930s, Coop Dürnstein (now Domäne Wachau) was formed. This cooperative has remained central to the region and now claims a third of its vineyard land and over 250 of its growers. Only in more recent years have grapes replaced orchard fruit as the primary crop, as prices for the latter plummeted in the 1950s. The Wachau extends for roughly 32 kilometers between the Benedictine monasteries of Melk and Göttweig in Krems. Its viticultural area is smaller, stretching about 20 kilometers from the western village of Spitz to Mautern in the east. The region’s boundaries have shifted significantly over time. For centuries , the Wachau referred only to the area from Spitz to Weissenkirchen; Dürnstein, Loiben, and Mautern were added later. Even into the 1960s, there was little delineation of Danubian winegrowing regions in general. Many were centered around towns and named accordingly. This became problematic from a marketing standpoint, and heated debates rose about how to divide. Some went so far as to argue for splitting the Wachau into two regions, using the Danube as the partition between north and south, with all winemaking villages to the north referred to as Wachau. Others, like Franz Hirtzberger Sr., reasoned that neighboring vineyards in Stein, Krems, and Senftenberg should be included as part of the Wachau for their environmental similarities. This suggestion caused much discontent among vignerons in the rest of Kremstal as well as Kamptal and Traisental, eventually leading to the boundaries as they are today. Wachau is a relatively recent addition to the DAC system. As with other DACs that joined since 2018, the Wachau introduced a three-tier hierarchical system for its wines. All grapes, regardless of level, must be hand-harvested. At the base of the system are regional wines called Gebietsweine. These are the most inclusive, allowing 17 grapes including Gemischter Satz blends; they can be presented as monovarietal wines or blends and often represent a youthful, crisp style. The mid-tier, called Ortswein, must be produced in a recognized village (there are 23), with a more focused selection of permissible grapes including Grüner Veltliner, Riesling, Pinot Gris, Weissburgunder, Neuburger, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Muskateller, and Traminer. The top wines are known as Riedenwein, or single-vineyard wines, and can only be made from Grüner Veltliner and Riesling grown in 1 of 157 exceptional named vineyards. Though more complex and sometimes reflective of botrytis character, Ortswein and Riedenwein are not to have any noticeable aromatic oak influence. Wachau producers may also still adhere to the rules set by the Vinea Wachau, a regional protection association formed in 1983, and classify their wines using the stylistic categories of Steinfeder, Federspiel, and Smaragd in addition to, or instead of, applying DAC on the label. Where Vinea Wachau necessarily implies dry styles, with specific minimum alcohol and must weight parameters, DAC is less defined. With so many permitted varieties, there is potential for confusion with DAC labeling, making a strong case for Vinea Wachau’s relevance despite this new schematic. Vinea Wachau The Vinea Wachau Nobilis Districtus was formed in 1983 by four producers: primarily Wilhelm Schwengler (then general manager for Coop Dürnstein) and Josepf Jamek, with the support of Franz Hirtzberger and Franz Prager. This association had a commitment to “quality, origin, and purity.” First and foremost, member wineries were to produce and sell wines exclusively from the Wachau, an effort to protect the region and counter the practices of other wineries, like the nearby Dinstlgut Loiben Coop, that were bottling wine with grapes from elsewhere (often the Weinviertel). The group also offered means of communicating ripeness levels more clearly on labels. Three categories were created and trademarked in 1984 to replace the German system in place at the time and classify Vinea Wachau wines according to weight and natural alcohol level achieved. The lightest style is Steinfeder, named for the long wispy grasses that can be found near vineyards. Typically fermented in stainless steel, Steinfeder wines are fruity and youthful, with a maximum of 11.5% alcohol and must weight of at least 15 degrees KMW. Federspiel, a name that references bait used to lure falcons to the falconer’s glove, replaced Kabinett wines. These wines have more pronounced varietal character yet still possess a youthful, fruit-driven style, as they too are commonly fermented in stainless steel. Federspiel requires alcohol levels between 11.5 and 12.5% and a minimum must weight of 17 degrees KMW. The final category, known as Smaragd and named for the sun-bathing lizards often found on stones throughout the region, was not introduced until 1986 and replaced dry wines of Spätlese ripeness. These wines come from the warmest and, arguably, best sites and tend to be long lived, powerful, and concentrated. Grapes for Smaragd are last to be harvested and may show signs of botrytis, with more honeyed and mushroom-like aromas, also resulting in a deeper golden hue in the glass. While the wines must reach a minimum of 12.5% ABV (with a minimum must weight of 18.2 degrees KMW), many can achieve over 14% alcohol in warm years. Vinea Wachau currently has about 200 members, controlling roughly 90% of production in the Wachau. Their driving principles are reflected in the Codex Vinea Wachau, though today the group focuses on advocating for its farming values rather than its prohibitions. Some of these tenets include hand-harvesting, using only natural sugars for fermentation, and refraining from artificial concentration techniques, additions, and fractionation methods. The Wachau has roughly 1,350 hectares—only 3% of Austria’s vineyard land—planted across its 20-kilometer length. Over 600 producers grow grapes in the quaint villages of Spitz, Joching, Weissenkirchen, Dürnstein, and Loiben on the north bank of the Danube, and the town of Mautern on the south. Grüner Veltliner claims just over half of plantings with nearly 800 hectares; Riesling accounts for about 200. Most of Austria’s other grapes can be found here as well, but in tiny amounts—often less than one hectare. Vineyards are generally planted on the north side of the bank, as there are less-optimal expositions and access to sunlight on the south side, with the exception of a few notable sites. Unique parcels are carefully outlined, with over 150 rieden and more than 900 unofficial subzones. The Wachau is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Nearly three million square meters of hand-built granite walls mark steeply terraced vineyards, primarily on the northern bank, facing south. Despite the financial burden of maintaining these walls, their effect is both aesthetic and functional—they help preserve the humus that sits atop the bedrock, hold in heat and moisture, and contribute to vineyards’ individual microclimates and sense of terroir. Wachau’s stone walls (Photo credit: Vinea Wachau) One of the driest of the Danubian regions, the Wachau often receives under 500 millimeters of rain annually. It is also more affected than other regions in Lower Austria by the pre-Alpine Atlantic winds from the west. Still, warmth from the Pannonian Plain stretches as far as the eastern section of the Wachau, with a particularly notable impact in Loiben. Cool, northern winds are essential at night to help wines develop tension despite a long ripening season, high sugar development, and elevated potential alcohol. The Wachau is considerably hillier than neighboring Danubian regions. This provides a range of exposures and elevation differentials, resulting in myriad mesoclimates despite the relatively small growing area. Slopes in the Wachau rise as high as 600 meters, though many of the best are around 400 meters, with an average 30-degree gradient (some vineyards in Spitz are as steep as 70 degrees). This makes the Wachau a poor subject for Lenz Moser’s training system, as mechanized farming is nearly impossible. For every 150 meters or so in elevation gain, another degree (Celsius) drops for average yearly temperature, making conditions close to the river remarkably different from those toward the top. Volcanic soils, which inform much of the Wachau’s geology, have a propensity to drain quickly and hold heat. Historically, these factors, combined with an already dry climate in the peak of summer, would stunt the vine’s growth, leading to less-ripe expressions in the warmest vintages. Irrigation was authorized in 1983 and, though strictly regulated, is common in warmer years. As a result, quality has improved dramatically. Cellar techniques are varied in the Wachau. Most winemakers destem their fruit and use a pneumatic press upon reception. Temperature-controlled fermentations in stainless steel are popular, but some prefer the texture achieved with ambient yeasts, no temperature control, and neutral barrels, including Weingut Emmerich Knoll. Nearby forests supply the wood for locally crafted Stockinger barrels, a favorite in the Wachau. Some producers employ a little skin contact, others opt for extended lees aging, and various vessels can be used for fermentation and aging. Most winemakers actively avoid malolactic fermentation. Botrytis is infrequent and seldom welcome, leading to severe sorting when present. New oak is rarely used, nor is it allowed for those who are seeking to achieve wine of Ortswein, Riedenwein, or Vinea Wachau status. Spitz, the village furthest west, sits at the base of the well-known Tausendeimerberg Vineyard, which yields delicate, easy-drinking wines. Just below, the steeply terraced rieden of Singerriedel and Hochrain contain sandier loam over gneiss, and both are excellent sites for Riesling. Further west, in the tributary valley of Spitzer Graben, some of the most celebrated rieden sit within high-reaching hillsides with notable amounts of slate and schist. This valley funnels air from the Weinviertel through to the Danube. Set apart from the river, it is the coolest region and experiences the latest harvest, sometimes extending into December. Even then, fruit expression is more austere than in other regions in the Wachau. Rieslings can be exceptional, with tension and a leaner frame, particularly those coming from the southwest-facing, slate-driven sites of Bruck (which sits at 500 meters), Schön, and Kalkofen. Donabaum, Högl, Veyder-Malberg, and Muthenthaler are the major players here. The areas of Joching and Wösendorf have deeper paragneiss soils, and both begin to catch the loess sediments blowing in from the Alps. Ried Hochrain is one example. Downriver, Weissenkirchen yields wines with a more balanced expression overall—more generous in fruit on the palate than those from the west but a bit more focused than some of the opulent styles from further east. Rieden Achleiten and Klaus to its north are two of the most well-known sites. The west-facing Achleiten extends from about 200 to 400 meters, and soils go from mica schist to Gföhl gneiss, which characterizes Klaus soils as well. Prager and Rudi Pichler offer bottlings from Achleiten, and the site’s Grüner Veltliner and Riesling are known to carry a kind of petrichor minerality referred to locally as stinkerl . Moving further east, in Dürnstein, wines offer more weight on the palate. Ried Kellerberg, home to one of the oldest parcels (Schmidl’s Küss den Pfennig), is among the most revered sites, with sandy loess soils over crystalline gneiss and slate. Across the river in Rossatz to the south, weightier styles are typical. Rieden of Wachau; click to enlarge and zoom in (Credit: Vinea Wachau) As the Danube dips south then north again, a sheltered swell in between defines the Schütt, one of the first named vineyards (1379), shared by Dürnstein and Loiben. This site is largely noted for its deep loess soils, and although it is lower in elevation, a small crevasse allows cool air to enter in the evenings. Some of the most powerful wines come from Loibenberg, a huge south-facing hill to the north of the village that offers a wide range of expressions, as the soils, elevation, and producers vary. Knoll, Dömaine Wachau, and Alzinger are among those making wine from this heralded site. Furthest east and slightly south, on the other side of the river, Mautern is quite flat, with sandy and gravely soils. It is thought that this is where viticulture began for Austria in the ried Im Weingebirge, documented back to 470 CE. It is also home to the country’s oldest winery, Nikolaihof, owned by the Saahs family since 1894 and famous for its biodynamic practices. Vom Stein, a parcel in the ried Silberbichl, holds some of the oldest vines in the Wachau. Kremstal In the heart of the Danube River Valley, Kremstal is a bit more exposed and open to the Pannonian Plain’s warm air current, though more protected than the Wachau from cooler northerly winds. Riper styles come from this region, which is also capable of producing full-bodied reds. With around 500 millimeters annually, Kremstal receives more rainfall than the Wachau; in the stretch that leads to Senftenberg in the Krems River Valley, it can be as high as 720 millimeters. This, along with less wind, means that botrytis is more common as well. Kremstal can be divided into three distinct areas: the region around and north of Krems, villages to the east and northeast en route to Kamptal, and those south of the Danube that border Traisental. Krems is an old town that serves as the cultural center of Lower Austria. It retains a medieval character, with narrow windy roads and old churches. Krems is home to many museums, such as the Kunstmeile Krems Stein, and three universities, including Wein und Obstbauschule, an important enology school second only to Bundesamt für Wein- und Obstbau in Klosterneuburg. Also near Krems is the Göttweig Abbey, built in 1072, which reflects viticulture’s monastic origins here. Harvest at Salomon Undhof in the 1960s (Photo credit: Weingut Salomon Undhof) Centered around the twin towns of Stein and Krems, the vineyards have the same primary soils and high terraces as the Wachau. Grüner Veltliner and Riesling are again the focus, but the wines have a softness compared to their neighbors from the west, with exotic spice and a ripe, yellow-fruited character. A handful of producers still grow vines on the borders of Wachau and Kremstal. One example is the Pfaffenberg Vineyard. Salomon Undhof, a highly respected family estate since 1792, is one of the holders of this parcel and also farms two other acclaimed sites in Stein: Hund and Kögl (known for its pure glimmerschiefer , or “mica slate,” soils). Traveling north along the Krems River, bluff-like mounds of loess buffer a seven-mile stretch of windy roads on the way to Senftenberg. Here, Nigl and Proidl work well-known sites including Hochäcker and Pellingen. To the east and northeast are the winemaking communities of Strazing, Rohrendorf, and Gedersdorf. Deep swaths of water-retaining loess make this area ideal for Grüner Veltliner, which accounts for 55% of Kremstal’s land under vine. The warmer, flatter vineyards to the south, from the village of Furth to the edges of Traisental, offer a mixture of water-retentive gravels, sand, and loess, allowing a wide variety of grapes to thrive. Zweigelt accounts for even more hectarage than Riesling in Kremstal, with 12.9% to Riesling’s 10.5%. Malat is among the more reputable producers in the area. The Kremstal DAC, achieved in 2007, allows only wines made from Grüner Veltliner and Riesling. Basic Kremstal DAC with no vineyard mention must have a minimum of 12% alcohol and show no oak influence or botrytis; these wines are occasionally referred to informally as klassik . With mention of a vineyard, Kremstal DAC must meet 12.5% alcohol. Reserve DAC wines must have 13% minimum alcohol, cannot exceed nine grams per liter of residual sugar, and allow oak and botrytis character. Any wines that fall outside these requirements are labeled Niederösterreich. The terms klassik and reserve are no longer used widely. Most of the well-known growers have abandoned them altogether (particularly klassik ) in preference for distinctions outlined by the Österreichische Traditionsweingüter, an association that identifies distinctive sites and quality levels throughout participating regions in Lower Austria. Wines can be labeled Gebietswein (regional wine), Ortswein (village wine) and Lagenwein (single vineyard), much like labeling in the DACs established after 2018. Kamptal Many believe that the wines of Kamptal rival those of the Wachau. Kamptal is home to some of the most revered Riesling sites in Austria and also offers world-class Grüner Veltliner, a wide range of complex reds, and premium Sekt. Despite its relatively small size, Kamptal follows only Weinviertel and Neusiedlersee in production volume. Much of the viticultural activity is centered around Langenlois, though the neighboring towns of Zöbing, Gobelsburg, Kammern, and Lengenfeld are significant as well. Harvest at Heiligenstein Brundylmayer (Photo credit: Andreas Wickhoff, Weingut Bründlmayer) While Kamptal shares many of the geological and climatic aspects of Kremstal, it differs in a few important ways. For one, it is less humid and, as a result, doesn’t experience as much botrytis. (When it does, some producers experiment with sweet wines that can have racier acidity than those from Burgenland.) Kamptal is also slightly cooler at night, influenced less by the Danube and more by the Kamp tributary, which passes through its center, as well as the cool nightly winds coming in from the Waldviertel (Forest Quarter) to the west. The region is slightly warmer than the Wachau, particularly in the east near Kammern, and some Reserve offerings can achieve higher alcohol levels and denser styles. Overall, however, the wines offer more freshness than those from the Wachau or Kremstal. The Kamp River created a gorge-like valley within the Bohemian Massif, which largely defines Kamptal. While there is more loess, unique rock formations and conglomerate soils typify some of Kamptal’s higher-reaching sites, which near 350 meters. In the warmer, lower-elevation sites, gravels, sands, and clays are more common—an ideal combination for red grapes. In Langenlois specifically, Gföhl gneiss and slate are overlaid with sand, clay, and cambisol (brown earth at an early stage of soil formation); throughout the Kamptal Valley, gravel deposits make for crystalline formations in the hillsides, with more loams and clays in the lowlands. Österreichische Traditionsweingüter In 1992, a handful of producers throughout Kamptal and Kremstal formed Österreichische Traditionsweingüter ( Ö TW), an association dedicated to identifying vineyard sites for their quality and distinctiveness, much like Germany’s VDP system. Factors such as soil structure, precipitation, wind patterns, mesoclimate, and elevation are considered. The inaugural 2010 classification revealed 53 named Ö TW erste lage , or first growth sites; as of 2025, there are 120. As with DAC wines, only the authorized grapes may be used, and the wines must be dry. Since its formation, the organization has grown and now includes the Wagram, Wien, Carnuntum, Thermenregion, and Traisental. These regions base theirs on a three-tier pyramid, where basic regional wines, or Gebietswein, are at the bottom (for example, Kamptal); followed by village wines, or Ortswein (Langenlois); and single-vineyard wines, or Riedenwein, at the top (Heiligenstein). Ö TW members can utilize the erste lage logo on the label for bottles classified as Riedenwein. The grosse lage designation (approved but not yet utilized) will define iconic single vineyards. As of 2023, there are 90 ÖTW member wineries. The three-tiered pyramid of ÖTW One of the most remarkable and treasured geologic formations in Kamptal, and home to an important vineyard, is the Heiligenstein. Located near the village of Zöbing, this massive rock is composed of 270 million-year-old Permian desert sandstone—a type of sandstone with volcanic conglomerates not found in any other vineyard in the country. It is regarded as one of the most special vineyards for Riesling in Austria. Rising 345 meters in elevation, its terraced, 36-hectare vineyard faces south and west. Among the producers with vines here are Bründlmayer, Schloss Gobelsburg, and Hirsch. There are many famed rieden throughout Kamptal, including Gaisberg, Loiserberg (a cooler, elevated vineyard at over 400 meters in altitude), and Lamm, an excellent site for Grüner Veltliner. Some of these rieden are further recognized as Österreichische Traditionsweingüter-designated erste lage sites. Kamptal became a DAC in 2008. Basic DAC wines must have a minimum of 11.5% alcohol by volume. Wines may only come from Grüner Veltliner, Riesling, Chardonnay, Weissburgunder, or Grauburgundergrapes. While these two varieties reflect 60% of the hectarage (Grüner claiming most of this at 50%), there is still a substantial amount of wine in Kamptal bottled as Niederösterreich, though some of this percentage is presumably Niederösterreich g.U. Sekt. Traisental The sizeable Traisental region has relatively little area—only 815 hectares—under vine. It is peppered with historic villages that harbor heurigen , local taverns that traditionally serve fresh, recently released young wines from nearby growers. It is also home to St. Pölten, the capital of Lower Austria, in the south. One of the few regions growing in size, it serves as a hub for eager young vignerons to explore new grapes and styles—though the DAC, achieved in 2006, only allows for Grüner Veltliner and Riesling. Neumeyer, a prominent grower in Traisental, was a key figure in advocating for this region’s recognition as distinct from the umbrella Donauland designation it was under until 1995. Traisental is tucked within the Mostviertel region south of the Danube and Kremstal, separated from the Wachau by the Dunkelsteinerwald, an extension of the Bohemian Massif, in the west. The vines are mostly clustered in the north, closer to the Danube but primarily alongside the left bank of the Traisen River, where active limestone and conglomerate soils are unique to this region. Terraced vineyards sit on east-facing slopes that reach as high as 400 meters in elevation, offering cooler conditions. Loess with conglomerate soils dominates Traisental, particularly on the right bank, and Grüner Veltliner is the leading grape with 475 hectares under vine. Grüner Veltliner from Traisental balances decadence and spice with distinctive structure and verve on the palate. The region receives more rain than its neighbors but benefits from a constant breeze that comes in from the forest. Vines are often trained high to avoid rot and counter frost. Reichersdorf and Inzersdorf are important winemaking villages. Wagram The vineyards of Wagram (Photo credit: ÖTW) Wagram sits on the eastern edge of the Danubian regions, nearest to Vienna. Until 2007, it was known as Donauland and included Traisental; since then, each has gained its own boundaries. Wagram extends on both sides of the Danube. The vast majority of grapegrowing occurs on the north shore, and quite far from the river itself. Here, a ridge about 40 meters high lines the northern end of a grand plateau that was an ancient shoreline nearly 150 million years ago, when much of Central Europe was beneath the Paratethys Sea. The Ice Age brought layers of cakey loess, a significant component of the soils today, extending as deep as 20 meters atop primordial sea fossils. With steady southern exposure, Grüner Veltliner thrives, often yielding full-bodied, spicy wines with an identifiable creamy texture. Roter Veltliner and ageworthy Eiswein from Grossriedenthal are standouts as well. Other noteworthy villages include Feuersbrunn, Fels, and Kirchberg. There are a few hundred hectares planted to the south, including around the 900-year-old Klosterneuburg Monastery, just outside of Vienna. The monastery’s wine institute, established in 1860, was formative for most of Austria’s leading winemakers in the late 19 th and much of the 20 th century. Vines are planted on mixed soils that include flysch rocks, a kind of layered shale embedded with greywacke-sandstone. Wagram has long resided in the shadow of its more prominent western neighbors, but, much like Traisental, it is beginning to receive more respect for its rise in quality and overall value. Wagram was elevated to DAC status in 2022. A handful of dedicated and curious vignerons have reenergized the region in recent decades. Anton Bauer is experimenting with concrete eggs for his old vine Weissburgunder, Ecker-Eckhof ages reserve wines in acacia barrels, and Josef Fritz has made a name for his Roter Veltliners, the best from 60-year-old vineyards and aged in large casks. Trials with extended lees aging are also common, including with Bernhard Ott, who is among the most revered winemakers and a pioneer of biodynamic practices in Wagram. Weinviertel The Weinviertel offers open spaces, generous hilltop vistas, and quaint villages. In terms of winemaking, however, it was historically considered the land of bulk production and mediocre quality. Throughout recent centuries, this was an agricultural community that primarily focused on polyculture, with grapes one of many crops and the Gemischter Satz blend a utilitarian product. But by the mid-1980s, the Weinviertel, like so many regions throughout Austria, was rethinking quality, identity, and reputation. Led by individuals like Roman Pfaffl, a younger generation began to see the potential of the Weinviertel, which is home to more than 4,500 hectares of vines over 30 years of age. A commitment to quality was made more official when the Weinviertel became the first wine region to apply for and receive DAC status in 2002. That same year, 15 wineries formed the Premium Weingüter Weinviertel, an association dedicated to lifting the region’s reputation across several grapes and styles. Today, Grüner Veltliner comprises nearly half of the vines in the Weinviertel, and it is the only variety that qualifies for DAC consideration—despite ongoing debate. The Weinviertel; click to enlarge and zoom in (Credit: AWMB) The Weinviertel extends 80 kilometers east to west and claims nearly half of the vines planted in all of Lower Austria. It is bordered by the Danube River to the south, the Czech Republic to the north, and Slovakia to the east. The region’s western frontier sees some of the primary granitic soils of its more prestigious neighbors, allowing for more structured Riesling. In and around the northwest area of the Pulkau Valley, there are some notable red winemaking villages, such as Haugsdorf and Jetzelsdorf; red wine is also produced further east in the warm town of Mailberg. Grüner Veltliner and Weissburgunder are successful in the loess-and-granite soils around Röschitz. To the south, Hohenwarth, on the Wagram border, has chalkier soils. Here, exceptional whites from Grüner Veltliner, Weissburgunder, and Roter Veltliner have been celebrated since the 1960s for their intensity and complexity. The eastern half of the Weinviertel can be roughly divided into north and south in considering its wines. The northern stretches, centered around Poysdorf and Falkenstein, experience more wind and produce fresh, vibrant whites as well as fine examples of Sekt . Further south and closer to Vienna, the Pannonian Plain dictates warmer, softer expressions. The stretch from Korneuburg to Wolkersdorf, otherwise referred to as the flysch zone, yields very powerful, spicy styles of Grüner and Weissburgunder. Carnuntum Throughout much of the late 18 th century and into the 19 th , Carnuntum enjoyed a quiet but respectable grapegrowing tradition. Yet its position on the borderlands of Slovakia and then Hungary’s Burgenland made it a popular crossroads for troops. By the end of World War II, Carnuntum had diminished in reputation. In response, a cooperative was established in the east, near Prellenkirchen, to process many of the region’s grapes. It wasn’t until the 1990s that Carnuntum’s potential, especially for red grapes, would be acknowledged again. In 1992, 25 producers formed the Rubin Carnuntum Wine Producers association and spelled out standards for high-quality Zweigelt—a grape that still dominates today, at over a quarter of the region’s vines. The Rubin designation falls within but goes beyond DAC regulations (received in 2019), mandating 100% Zweigelt, a minimum must weight of 18 degrees KMW (about 12.5% alcohol by volume), and a minimum of six months in wood. This group still exists and today has about 40 members. Carnuntum is the only region in Lower Austria where red grapes lead, at nearly 55%, with Zweigelt and Blaufränkisch on top. But the region grows nearly all of Austria’s grapes, including impressive examples from French varieties like Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot. If bottled monovarietally, DAC white wines must be 100% Chardonnay, Grüner Veltliner, or Weissburgunder; in a blend, two-thirds of these varieties must be present, along with other Qualitätswein grapes. Primary red varieties for DAC wines are Zweigelt and Blaufränkisch, and the same rules apply for red blends. There are three regions that can be considered in Carnuntum: the Leitha Mountains, Arbesthal Hills, and Hundsheimer Mountains. Some of the freshest wines come from the Leitha Mountains, where limestone-accented vineyards are protected by forests from the warm winds coming up from the Pannonian Plain. The isolated and steep sandy hillsides of Stixneusiedl are the source of much of the activity in the region. Most production comes from the Arbesthal Hills, roughly in the heart of the region around the villages of Göttlesbrunn and Höflein, where Gerhard Markowitsch, Walter Glatzer, and the Artner family have been pioneers. Warm, western-facing vineyards on deep, loamy soils and gravel are foundational for the area’s red wines, the best coming from hilltop sites cooled by winds from the Danube that offset the warmth from the south. In the east, particularly around Prellenkirchen and Spitzerberg, there is a renewed sense of enthusiasm, with leaders like Muhr-van der Niepoort and Johannes Trapl offering prime examples of elegant Blaufränkisch. Thermenregion Thermenregion has enjoyed a long winemaking tradition, but the Cistercian monks are primarily responsible for establishing its reputation in the Middle Ages. In the 15 th century, sweet styles from the village of Gumpoldskirchen grew in popularity, going on to rival those of Rust and Tokaj through the 19 th century. Thermenregion is widely recognized for its many heurigen, which attract the Viennese and tourists but have made it difficult for the region to progress in terms of quality. The tide is starting to turn, however, and Thermenregion is attracting accolades for its aspirational wines and inspiring excitement among young winemakers. In 2023, the region was granted the DAC designation. The DAC features a three-tiered system of Gebietswein, Ortswein, and Riedenwein. At the Gebietswein level, producers are allowed to feature Rotgipfler, Zierfandler, Pinot Blanc, Pinot Gris, Chardonnay, Neuburger, Pinot Noir, St. Laurent, Blauer Portugieser, and Zweigelt as blends, monovarietal wines, or Gemischter Satz. At the Ortswein or village level, producers can use Gebietswein varieties except for Blauer Portugieser as blends or varietal bottlings hailing from the villages of Gumpoldskirchen, Wiener Neustadt, Perchtodsdorf, Bad Vöslau, and Tattendorf. Also at the Ortswein level, producers are permitted to make sweet wines from Auslese to Trockenbeerenauslese. Lastly at the Riedenwein (single-vineyard) level, the DAC focuses on Rotgipfler, Zierfandler, Pinot Blanc, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and St. Laurent. The first wines within the structure will be released in 2024. Heurigen The heuriger is an Austrian institution, thought to date back to Charlemagne’s days, but it was only legalized in 1784, when Emperor Joseph II defined it as “an inn which the proprietor can only serve wine and food of his own production,” according to Stephen Brooks. Heurige, meaning “this year,” refers to young wines. Heurigen —the establishments— offer up wines from the current vintage, or occasionally the last ( alten ), alongside local cuisine such as traditional huerigenplatte (cheese and charcuterie), schinkenfleckerl (pasta and ham casserole), or fleischlaberl (burgers) in a modest, communal setting. While there are heurigen across Austria, a rich tradition is particularly evident in Vienna, Traisental, and Styria. It was not always customary to serve food; often, visitors would bring their own to enjoy with the wine. Yet by the late 1970s, heurigen began to offer a simple menu of cold dishes. This is still the most traditional setup, though some have procured licenses to offer warm food and others are essentially modified restaurants serving a range of wines—defeating the original intent. The authentic experience still exists, even if it is harder to find. Historically, heurigen kept inconsistent hours throughout the day and year, indicating that they were open with a pine branch or gathering of fir branches above the doorway. This is one reason why heurigen are also known as buschenschänke ( buschen means “bunches”), a more common name throughout Burgenland and Styria. As Thermenregion sits over a fault line, bubbling hot springs can be found around the villages of Baden and Bad Vöslau. The region can be divided into two growing areas, with Baden as the dividing line between north and south. There are over 42 different winegrowing areas, though the greatest activity is centered around Gumpoldskirchen to the north and Tattendorf in the south. On the easternmost stretches of the Alps in the north, the vineyards of the Anninger Hills reach as high as 450 meters, clinging to marine limestone fossils over 19 million years old atop brown loamy soils. These well-protected hills face east and south, receiving ample sunshine and producing the best wines mid-slope. The northern wineries are prized for their Rotgipfler and Zierfandler. Both grapes have an affinity for desirable botrytis and can achieve high levels of sugar and extract, but where Rotgipfler has an expansive palate and dense, tropical fruit, Zierfandler tends toward more balance, with pointed acidity and focused yellow fruit. It is not uncommon for dry versions, such as those from Johanneshof Reinisch, to experience some skin contact and extended aging in neutral wood. Though it appears flat as compared to the north, southern Thermenregion sits upon a plateau of gravelly, alluvial material, fully open to Pannonian warmth. Though less celebrated than the Anninger Hills, the southerly vineyards are nonetheless finding renewed attention for their Pinot Noir and St. Laurent. The best reserve reds tend to see new oak aging regimens. In 2003, a group of eight wineries established the Burgundermacher association—less a rule making establishment and more an outlet to exchange ideas and methods for achieving higher quality with Weissburgunder, Pinot Noir, and St. Laurent. Vienna No capital city is so intimate with wine as Vienna. . . . Vineyards still hold their ground right up to the tramlines within the heart of the residential districts and surge up the side of the surrounding hills in the Vienna woods. – "The World Atlas of Wine" Winemaking within the city walls of Vienna (Wien in German) predates the Romans. Yet after the Turkish siege in 1683, grapegrowing was pushed beyond the walls and toward city limits—a fortunate shift, as the soils and climate there would prove to be more suitable for viticulture. Following a period of diminished sales after the city’s reorganization, Emperor Joseph II reinvigorated the local heurigen tradition, encouraging wineries to open up their doors. Wien is now recognized for its active, if not sometimes overly touristy, heurigen culture. While some winemaking occurs south of the city in the warm areas of Mauer and Oberlaa, most of Vienna’s grapegrowing is to the north, on both sides of the Danube. The river is a critical moderating feature for vineyards subject to extreme frost in the spring and persistent heat from the Pannonian-Hungarian Plain in the summer. Wine from the Danube’s left bank is largely from the Bisamberg, a hill reaching about 350 meters in elevation and composed of well-drained flysch soils. This hill supplies winemakers in the surrounding villages of Jedlersdorf, Strebersdorf, and Stammersdorf with both white and red grapes. Across the river, fossil-laden limestone characterizes the soils in the 19 th district and on the Nussberg hill, widely considered the most prominent area for quality grapegrowing. Nussberg accounts for about 200 hectares with south and southeast exposure, ranging from 175 to 360 meters in elevation. The best rieden are found mid-slope and include prized erste lagen such as Ulm, Rosengartel , and Preussen. Old Gemischter Satz sites are among the most sought-after vineyards in Vienna. Other noteworthy villages in the 19 th are Nussdorf, Grinzing, Neustift am Walde, and Heiligenstadt. In 2006, a group of six winemakers from across Vienna came together to form WienWein, with a mission to raise quality standards and showcase the region’s potential. Their effort culminated in obtaining DAC status in 2013, with a sole focus on Gemischter Satz. Fritz Wieninger has long been recognized for his transformative role in Vienna and was one of the first to demonstrate the potential for Gemischter Satz. Viennese crop reports document a three-fold rise in the category between 2009 and 2016, from 53 to 179 hectares. Wiener Gemischter Satz DAC requires a minimum of three white varieties; no single grape can exceed 50% of the blend, nor can one grape represent less than 10% if only three varieties are used. Those without a vineyard designation must be under 12.5% alcohol and made in the trocken style. Those with a stated ried on the label must be above 12.5% and are not required to be trocken . Burgenland Records suggest that there were vineyards around the town of Illmitz in the 16 th century, and Donnerskirchen alleges that it produced a Trockenbeerenauslese style in 1526. Yet the citizens of Hungarian Burgenland (with the exception of Sopron) only joined the Austrian Republic in 1921, and the area’s wine industry didn’t truly develop until after the Russians ceased their occupation in 1956. Today, Burgenland is an agricultural state with an ideal climate for growing a wide array of crops. It is an extension of the Pannonian Plain and thus the hottest region in Austria. The land is highly fragmented and the villages less populated than those in Lower Austria. Burgenland was the greatest beneficiary of grants when Austria joined the EU in 1995, which allowed for capital improvements and a subsequent rise in wine quality. Though its GDP per capita is still the lowest compared to other federal states, Burgenland has been on a healthy rebound since the late 1990s. Burgenland’s defining geographic feature, at 36 kilometers in length, is Lake Neusiedl, which could more appropriately be called a grand marsh, as its average height rarely exceeds one meter. Lake Neusiedl has even dried up completely, though not since 1866. The lake extends across the border into Hungary, which holds about one-quarter of its area. It is a protected natural preserve and a sanctuary for birds and other wildlife. The water has been monitored and managed since the middle of the last century. Lake Neusiedl is a moderating influence and acts as a heat reservoir in the summer, reaching as high as 30 degrees Celsius. It contributes to the misty mornings responsible for some of the country’s most sought-after botrytized Beerenauslese, Ausbruch, and Trockenbeerenauslese wines from Rust and Seewinkel, two historic villages across from one another at the narrowing of the lake. Burgenland is home to six DACs: Neusiedlersee, Leithaberg, Mittelburgenland, Eisenberg, Rosalia, and most recently, Ruster Ausbruch. The sunny, warm climate allows a greater range of grapes than in any other winegrowing region in Austria. White grapes represent an important portion of plantings, particularly for historic dessert styles from Welschriesling, Muskateller, Muscat Ottonel, Grüner Veltliner, and Chardonnay. Red grapes, however, surpassed white in 2009 and now constitute over 55% of the vineyard area, thriving in the limestone, clay, and schistose soils. Blaufränkisch and Zweigelt compose nearly three-quarters of red varieties. The best examples come from Gols, Leithaberg, and Eisenberg, though leading producers in Mittelburgenland are also rising to the fore. Neusiedlersee Upon the eastern shores of Lake Neusiedl, vineyards stretch from the northern towns of Neusiedl and Gols down to the dessert wine-focused villages of Illmitz and Apetlon in the Seewinkel sector. Together, this vast and varied region is referred to as Neusiedlersee , which became a recognized DAC in 2011 for its boisterous Zweigelt-based reds. Its coveted dessert wines are what originally drove the industry, and the DAC was expanded in 2020 to permit these styles. Neusiedlersee is the largest of Burgenland’s six regions and also its warmest, sitting east of both the lake and the Alps and collecting unobstructed heat from the Hungarian plains. In Neusiedlersee, dry wines are generally grown to the north and sweet wines to the south. North of the lake is the village of Neusiedl, where soils are accented with limestone and schist, carried over from the Leitha Mountains to the west. More typically, though, gravels, sand, and clay dominate, including in the band of villages that begins just southeast of Neusiedl and includes Weiden, Gols, Mönchhof, and Halbturn. Gols is home to the most significant rieden . The appellation mandates that DAC red wine is Zweigelt-based, while DAC Reserve wine must contain at least 60% of the grape. Zweigelt leads plantings with nearly a quarter of the hectarage. Blaufränkisch, St. Laurent, and Pinot Noir are represented as well, and Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Syrah collectively make up just over 5% of planted hectarage. Winemakers may also choose to use the Pannobile classification on a label if they follow specific guidelines laid out by the Pannobile association, formed by producers in 1994. There are currently nine members, including Judith Beck, Paul Achs, Gerhard Pittnaur, and Claus Preisinger. Together, they identified the best sites and varieties and shared ideas in an effort to produce more distinctive wines. To qualify, a red wine must incorporate Zweigelt, Blaufränkisch, or St. Laurent; for whites, Chardonnay, Grauburgunder, Weissburgunder, and Neuburger are the only grapes allowed. This opens up quality-focused credentials for wines that fall outside of DAC requirements. The warm gravel soils of Seewinkel in the south are home to dry reds and whites, but the unique geography of this area makes it ideal for late-harvest botrytized styles as well as Schilfwein and Strohwein . In addition to Lake Neusiedl, 47 surrounding lakes (called zicklacken ) to the east heat up throughout the summer and contribute to the climate. These bodies of water lose nearly 40% of their volume to evaporation and increase the overall humidity. Come autumn, when cool nighttime air passes over the warm water, evaporation becomes fog, which settles over the vineyards. Dry, sunny days break up the fog and allow for noble rot to develop. This consistent weather pattern makes this pocket of Europe one of the most reliable for creating ageworthy Beerenauslese and Trockenbeerenauslese wines. Welschriesling is among the most revered varieties for this style and accordingly leads white grapes in overall hectarage planted in Neusiedlersee (11%). But many others have been successful as well, such as Weissburgunder, Chardonnay, Grüner Veltliner, Muscat Ottonel, Muskateller, Sauvignon Blanc, and Sämling 88 (Scheurebe). Grapes within the Seewinkel sector are not affected by as much diurnal fluctuation in temperature as those across the lake in Rust, leading to softer acidity overall. Alois Kracher was among the great advocates and influencers for Illmitz. Despite his family’s winemaking roots, he started his career as a pharmacist, then joined the family business in 1986, eager to right the world’s image of Austrian sweet wines after the 1985 scandal. His mentors included Pierre Meslier, then head winemaker at Château d’Yquem, and Egon Müller in the Mosel. His son, Gerhard, has carried the torch since his death in 2007. Seewinkel also had a number of key winemakers whose work in the early ’90s was essential for the industry. Willi Opitz pioneered the Schilfwein , or “ reed wine,” technique in Austria, wherein dessert grapes that don’t appear destined for great botrytis are dried on reed mats for six to eight weeks after harvesting from the vine. Hans Tschida, who got his start in 1993, is known for his powerful yet balanced BAs and TBAs of Chardonnay, Welschriesling, and Scheurebe, but he also produces a unique Zweigelt Schilfwein in addition to Grüner Veltliner Eiswein , a style this area can achieve in most years. Leithaberg Leithaberg served as the border dividing Austro-Hungary from the rest of Austria until the end of World War I. Situated on the western side of Lake Neusiedl, it experiences very different growing conditions from those across the water. Though still influenced by the lake and benefiting from its warm winds during ripening, Leithaberg’s vineyards begin about 15 kilometers away from the shore and are more stylistically impacted by the Leitha Mountains, which rise nearly 500 meters, separating the winegrowing area from Carnuntum and Thermenregion. Many of the vineyards are scattered upon south- and east-facing slopes in the foothills of the Leitha Mountains, though some are closer to the lake, where flatter lands are more suited to whites and dessert wines. The Pannonian Plain still heavily influences Leithaberg and enables a long, warm growing season. The elevation, however, allows for cooler nights and results in red wines that are more acid driven than those from Gols. Soils in lower areas are composed of sand, loam, and black earth, while in vineyards higher upon the slopes, soils contain more mica-schist, gneiss, and a crustaceous limestone referred to as leithakalk . The region receives more rainfall than Neusiedlersee, though there is less botrytis development as vineyards gain elevation. These higher-elevation areas, particularly surrounding Grosshöflein, produce some of the best reds in all of Burgenland. The Leithaberg DAC was introduced in 2010 and includes reds starting from the 2008 vintage and whites from the 2009 vintage. Red wines must contain a minimum of 85% Blaufränkisch, which can only be balanced with the addition of Pinot Noir, Zweigelt, or St. Laurent. Red wines are fermented dry (no more than 2.5 grams per liter of residual sugar). White wines must be composed of Chardonnay, Grüner Veltliner, Neuburger, and/or Weissburgunder. All wines must achieve a minimum 12.5% alcohol. Rust Bordering Hungary and within Leithaberg is “the free city of Rust,” the smallest administrative city in Austria, with less than 2,000 people. In 1681, citizens of Rust bought their independence by paying 60,000 golden coins and 500 barrels of their widely coveted sweet botrytis wine to the Habsburg family and Emperor Leopold I. Rust is home to one of continental Europe’s most important wine schools, the Austrian Wine Academy, established in 1991. Nearly 450 hectares are planted to a wide variety of grapes producing all styles, though sweet botrytis-driven wines are the most revered. A tectonic break resulted in different parent material for the soils here, which are predominantly quartz-rich sandy gravels. Ever self-regulating, this region opted out of Leithaberg’s DAC classification, and the region’s famed Ruster Ausbruch style earned DAC status in 2020. Rust’s Ruster Ausbruch wines first gained momentum in the 16 th and 17 th century. Mary, Queen of Hungary, allowed an r to be branded on the barrels as early as 1524 to differentiate these wines from those of other regions. Gustav Feiler of Feiler-Artinger is said to have recovered this historic style in 1953. Prior to the 1990s, Ruster Ausbruch was made with higher alcohol, lower residual sugar (around 90 grams per liter), and more oxidative character from extended barrel aging. Today, it can be difficult to differentiate from the cleaner, purer styles associated with Seewinkel, as many winemakers are producing BA and TBA styles using more reductive methods to preserve fruit character. Still, highly revered winemakers like Heidi Schröck claim that there is a distinct difference, as Ruster Ausbruch tends to be less tropical and more saline in character. Schröck is among the 10 producers in the Cercle Ruster Ausbruch, an organization established in 1991 by growers seeking to preserve and promote a more traditional style. Ernst Triebaumer is another prominent member. Rosalia The quiet region of Rosalia sits in the Alpine foothills of the Rosalia Range, along the state lines of Lower Austria and Burgenland. It is between Leithaberg to the north and Mittelburgenland to the south. The Wulka River flows to Lake Neusiedl and is responsible for the fluvial-rich deposits of brown earth and sandy loam that sit on top of loess in much of this region. These fertile soils, accented with limestone and clay, yield hearty, structured reds and are ideal for Blaufränkisch, which claims over half of all plantings. Prior to becoming a DAC in 2018, Rosalia was a grosslage . It is still a small community of less than a dozen winemakers. Many of its vineyards surround the central political district of Mattersburg, and some of the finest are in the northerly village Pöttelsdorf. DAC and DAC Reserve red wines are produced from Blaufränkisch or Zweigelt and must reach minimums of 12% and 13% ABV, respectively; red wines must not exceed four grams per liter residual sugar and are not to be blended. Rosalia was also the first region to legally protect rosé, which can be composed of any permitted Qualitätswein red variety (alone or as a blend) and must be vinified dry. A winemaker may indicate a ried on the label for Reserve reds and rosés. Mittelburgenland Mittelburgenland lies just south of Neusiedlersee in the heart of Burgenland, surrounded by the Sopron Mountains to the north, the Bucklige Welt hills to the west, and the Kőszeg Mountains to the south. Cradled in a kind of amphitheater, Mittelburgenland is protected from wind, enjoys over 300 days of sunshine, and collects heat from the plains to the east. It has an ideal climate for Blaufränkisch, which accounts for over half of vineyard plantings and has been important here since the late 1970s—some even call the region Blaufränkischland . Blaufränkisch is also the cornerstone and sole grape permitted for the three-tiered DAC, initiated with the 2005 vintage. A wine may qualify for Mittelburgenland DAC, Mittelburgenland DAC with stated ried , or Mittelburgenland Reserve. Mittelburgenland Reserve wines should carry a noticeable mark of new oak, where the others do not. New oak dominates the more aspirational wines of this region. Significant grapegrowing areas and rieden in Mittelburgenland can be found in four primary municipalities: Deutschkreutz, Neckenmarkt, and Horitschon in the north, and Lutzmannsburg to the south. Lake Neusiedl maintains some influence over wineries in the north, pushing warm winds from the water, especially in the autumn. Overall, though, this region is quite dry and hot throughout the summer. Soils are primarily rich clay and loam, though higher-elevation vineyards in Horitschon see some limestone and even traces of iron, and Neckenmarkt contains red slate. Lutzmannsburg has more sandy loam. Diversity of elevation, soils, and aspect contribute to a wide range of expressions and quality throughout Mittelburgenland. Some of the most celebrated rieden are Hochäcker in Horitschon, Hochberg in Neckenmarkt, and Goldberg in Deutschkreutz. Albert Gesellmann and Hans Igler were key figures in establishing this region. In more recent decades, single-vineyard expressions have become increasingly important, and winemakers like Franz Weninger, Paul Kerschbaum (and his son Michael), and Roland Velich of Moric have established a sense of seriousness for wines from this region. Eisenberg Prior to its entry into the DAC system in 2008, few people were familiar with wines from Eisenberg, and it was referred to simply as Südburgenland. Though the DAC raised awareness for a few particular wineries, the reality is that grapegrowing is not a primary pursuit for most producers in Eisenberg, and the vast majority of the wine is still sold in local heurigen . Eisenberg is considerably different than the rest of Burgenland, as it is not affected by the moderating influence of Lake Neusiedl, nor direct Pannonian heat. It does, however, experience a slight Mediterranean influence from the south and receives more rainfall (750 millimeters annually) than any other region in Burgenland. Slightly cooler temperatures make for wines with notable acidity; growers need to take care not to harvest too early, as overly elevated acidity can cause problems in the winery and lack appeal for consumers. The village of Rechnitz in the north produces satisfactory whites, largely from Welschriesling. Furthest south, Heiligenbrunn is known for the local specialty Uhudler, a foxy-scented, non-vinifera, hybrid rosé that authorities are attempting to phase out by 2030 but is still undeniably popular. Yet the region’s most significant winegrowing area, for which the DAC was named, sits on the Eisenberg hill and in the neighboring village of Deutsch Schützen. Eisenberg, meaning “ iron mountain,” served as an iron ore mine in Roman times. It rises to about 400 meters in elevation, and its south-facing slopes are rich with iron and schist. At the base of the hill, in Deutsch Schützen, soils are more clay loam. Blaufränkisch is the primary grape grown in this area and Eisenberg’s most planted variety at over 35% of total hectarage. The DAC also allows for Welschriesling at the Ortswein and Riedenwein level. Many attribute a distinctive earthiness and minerality to the Blaufränkisch grown here. The Eisenberg DAC only allows Blaufränkisch in two styles: Eisenberg DAC and Reserve. The former is a fresh, fruit-forward style, with a minimum of 12% alcohol and no signs of oak. Here, Reserve indicates longer time on the vine, with a minimum of 13% alcohol and perceptible oak influence. Of Eisenberg’s producers, Weingut Krutzler and Weingut Wachter-Wiesler stand out as leaders. Styria The rolling hills, panoramic alpine vistas, and lush forests of Styria (Steiermark) reflect stereotypical perceptions of Austria, but the region is actually quite distinct from the majority of the country’s winegrowing regions further north. Tucked into the southeastern corner of Austria, the federal state of Styria is second only to Lower Austria in terms of size, but just 0.2% of its land mass is under vine, representing 10% of the country’s vineyards. However, hectarage has increased by 78% since 2000. Styria (Photo credit: Shutterstock) In the early 1800s, Archduke John disgraced his family by marrying a commoner and was banished to Styria. He introduced Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay (known as Morillon in Styria), among other grapes, which have become key to showcasing the region’s quality potential. John also established a viticulture school and nurseries, helping the region recover from its decline after the wars of the 16 th and 17 th centuries. Under the Habsburg dynasty, Styria was nearly twice its current size and included Slovenia, with over 27,000 vineyard hectares at its height. But following phylloxera and World War I, Yugoslavia claimed what is today Slovenia as one of its provinces, leaving Styria with about 8,000 hectares. Styria’s wine industry was rather quiet throughout the 20 th century, but a select few, including the Sattler, Tement, Polz, and Sabathi families, worked to revive the region. In 2008, they established the Steirische Terroir- und Klassikweingüter (STK) group. STK is dedicated to exploring the individuality of Styria’s higher and steeper vineyard sites, which produce the highest-quality wines, with single vineyard distinction ( lagen ). There are currently 12 estate members. Like similar organizations that formed prior to DAC introduction, STK relies on a hierarchy that identifies Erste STK Ried ( premier cru ) and Grosse STK Ried ( grand cru ) vineyard sites. Minimum vine ages, maximum yields, and aging requirements are compulsory. In 2018, Styria’s three winegrowing regions, Südsteiermark, Vulkanland Styria, and Weststeiermark, entered the DAC system. They were the first to initiate the three-tier hierarchical system that has since been the direction for DAC classification. The most general tier is Gebietswein (regional), followed by Ortswein (village, or a cluster of villages indicated by a hyphen on the label), and Riedenwein (single vineyard). All wines must come from hand-harvested grapes from eight permitted varieties (Welschriesling, Weissburgunder, Morillon, Grauburgunder, Riesling, Muskateller, Sauvignon Blanc, and Traminer). Blauer Wildbacher for Schilcher wine is allowed only in Weststeiermark. All wines must be vinified dry (with a maximum of four grams per liter of residual sugar), with the exception of Riesling, Traminer, and Muskateller under certain conditions for sweet styles and when clearly communicated on the label. A range of styles is produced in Styria. Klassik wines are youthful and often fermented in stainless steel, with minimal lees influence and blocked malolactic fermentation. Conversely, lagen wines are characteristically more complex and full bodied, experiencing barrel age (new or neutral wood of varying sizes), skin contact, extended lees aging, and/or malolactic fermentation. There is also a budding community of young natural wine producers who call themselves the Schmecke das Leben group and are experimenting with ambient ferments, orange wine styles, and minimal to no additions throughout the winemaking process. Styria is considered continental, but unlike regions to the north, the climate is much more variable and influenced by wind patterns from all directions. The Adriatic sends its warmth from the south, intersecting with cooler Alpine winds from the north; warm Pannonian currents from the east collide with Koralpe Mountain airstreams from the west. Styria has very hot summers, while winters can reach low temperatures, threatening younger vines. It also receives the most rain, sometimes as much as 1,000 millimeters in a year. Frost, hail, and mildew pressure are key challenges. Most vineyards are between 300 and 600 meters in elevation and set upon severely graded inclines—ideal for ripening but further compounding complications for growers, as manual pruning, canopy management, and harvesting are compulsory for most. The Eastern Alpine Unit largely informs the remarkable diversity of soils here, which change from one vineyard to the next. Sand, gravel, limestone, slate, marl, and volcanic basalt are the primary soils. Sauvignon Blanc is now the region's most-planted grape, growing from 177 to 948 hectares between 2005 and 2023. Welschriesing, the previously most planted grape, is now the second most planted at 753 ha. The third most planted variety, Weissburgunder, is also prominent. Morillon wasn’t even mentioned in older reports but now composes 325 hectares. Plantings of Grüner Veltliner are miniscule, and very little red wine is made, though Zweigelt and a few others are planted. The most important red grape is Blauer Wildbacher, which is used for the protected Schilcher rosés of Weststeiermark. Südsteiermark Südsteiermark is the smallest growing region in Styria but contains over half of its vines and some of its most esteemed rieden . The area’s Sauvignon Blanc can rival examples from the Loire Valley, and Chardonnay can achieve Burgundian parallels. Most production takes place in the southeastern territory, which stretches for about 40 kilometers alongside the Slovenian border in the DAC-recognized villages of Gamlitz, Ehrenhausen, Eichberg, and Leutschach. All of Styria’s soils are represented, varying from one village to the next. There is more sand and quartz in Gamlitz, fossilized limestone and clay in Ehrenhausen, conglomerate gravel pebbles in Eichberg, and a calcareous marl locally referred to as opok in Leutschach, the southernmost municipality. Further north across the dividing Sulm River is the reputable Kitzeck im Sausal region, where foliated slate and schist account for over 85% of soils. In Kitzeck, Riesling is exemplary; this is also home to the highest (650 meters) and steepest vineyards in Styria. After establishing his estate in 1979, Manfred Tement was among the first to champion Sauvignon Blanc, which now leads in Südsteiermark. His most well-known holdings are from the Zieregg and Grassnitzberg rieden . He was also a pioneer for barrique aging, a trend that continued well into the early 2000s, when large neutral casks became popular for even top single-vineyard wines. Other forerunners for the region include Willi Sattler, who was among the first to bottle and promote high-quality dry wine in the 1970s, when many were still blending in Muskateller to sweeten their offerings. Obegg, Hochgrassnizberg, and Sernau are other important rieden to know. Vulkanland Vulkanland , known as Südoststeiermark until 2016, sits in eastern Styria, bordering Burgenland’s Eisenberg. It benefits from Mediterranean warmth and humidity from the south and dry, hot winds from the Pannonian Plain, making it the warmest of Styria’s regions. The wines that result are a little more weighty and ripen slightly sooner than those from the west. Impressive diurnal variations help maintain fresh acidity in the wines. “Volcano land,” as the name translates, contains several extinct volcanos, which have given the region basalt soils, accented with patches of loam, sand, and clay. Eight villages are acknowledged for DAC Ortswein, but most winemaking activity occurs in Sankt Anna am Aigen, Straden, and Klöch. Kapfenstein is another important village in terms of quality. Vulkanland is a hub for Welschriesling as well as Weissburgunder. Klöch is the most renowned village and particularly valued for its Traminer, which can be made in off-dry and dessert styles as well. Basalt dominates the west side of Klöch and tuff the east. Due to their high iron content, the soils of Klöch can appear red in color and gather significant heat, making the wines particularly powerful. Weststeiermark Weststeiermark sits in the Alpine foothills of the Koralpe Mountains. It is the smallest region in Styria in terms of hectarage. Over 65% of plantings are dedicated to Blauer Wildbacher for Weststeiermark’s highly acidic Schilcher rosés. Documented back to the 16 th century, this regional specialty gets its name from schillern , referencing its ability to appear almost iridescent. Schilcher is most often a still wine, but it can also be lightly or fully sparkling. Crystalline gneiss, slate, and schist prevail in Weststeiermark. The steep vineyards are widely dispersed, though the best are grown between 420 to 600 meters to avoid frosts. There are four municipalities for DAC Ortswein classification: Eibiswald, Deutschlandsberg, Stainz, and Ligist. No STK wines are produced here. Bergland Bergland consists of five winegrowing regions located on the western side of the country: Carinthia (or Kärnten, with 170 hectares), Upper Austria (or Oberösterreich, with 45 hectares), Salzburg (7 hectares), Tyrol (or Tirol, with 5 hectares), and Vorarlberg (10 hectares). Many of these areas historically enjoyed a prosperous wine industry, but shifts in climate and economy, phylloxera, and the rise of breweries changed their fortunes in more recent years. In 1999, there were only 21 hectares in Bergland. But today, this area is experiencing a kind of renaissance. A range of grapes, especially white varieties, are represented, and wines made from the 40 approved varieties may qualify as landwein when Bergland is given for the region of origin. Note: Data for the grape overview was taken from the AWMB statistical survey conducted by the Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment, and Water Management (BMLFUW) and combined with primary data to account for federal states of Bergland that were not represented in the BMLFUW survey. For regional overviews, 2017 data reported by the individual federal states of Lower Austria, Burgenland, Vienna, and Styria provides more detailed information concerning specific grapes under vine in those regions. Bibliography Apple Jr., R. W. “Austrian Wines Have a Voice, and It’s Excited.” New York Times . July 19, 2006. https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/19/dining/19thei.html . Association of the Lake Regions . Accessed June 25, 2020. http://interlaker.org/en/services/vengriya/noyzidler-ze/ . Austrian Embassy . Accessed June 22, 2020. https://www.austria.org . Austrian Wine . Accessed June 22, 2020. https://www.austrianwine.com/ . Blom, Philipp. The Wines of Austria . London: Octopus Publishing Group, 2006. Brook, Stephen. The Wines of Austria . Oxford: Infinite Ideas, 2016. Cercle Ruster Ausbruch . Accessed May 15, 2020. http://www.rusterausbruch.at . Clarke, Oz. Oz Clarke’s New Wine Atlas: Wines and Wine Regions of the World . San Diego: Harcourt, 2002. Gasser, Deta, et al. “Geology of Styria: An overview.” Mitteilungen des naturwissenschaftlichen Vereines für Steiermark 139 (October 2009). https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/MittNatVerSt_139_0005-0036.pdf . Johnson, Hugh and Jancis Robinson, eds. The World Atlas of Wine . 8th ed. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2019. Kathawala, Valerie. “Ten Reasons Domäne Wachau is Austria’s ‘Nummer Eins.” Grape Collective . November 19, 2019. https://grapecollective.com/articles/ten-reasons-domne-wachau-is-austrias-nummer-eins . Klinger, Willi, Karl Vocelka, and Michaela Vocelka, eds. Wine in Austria: The History . Vienna: Brandstätter Verlag, 2019. Krebiehl, Anne. “Red Vines Rising: Austria’s fresh and versatile red wines are ready for prime time.” Wine Enthusiast . June 2018. https://www.austrianwine.com/fileadmin/user_upload/PDF/US_Wine_Enthusiast__Juni_2018_Anne_Krebiehl.pdf . Leithaberg DAC . Accessed May 22, 2020. https://www.leithaberg.at/en/ . Österreichische Traditionsweingüter 1ÖT Erste Lagen . Accessed May 10, 2020. https://www.traditionsweingueter.at . Robinson, Jancis, ed. The Oxford Companion to Wine . 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. Robinson, Jancis, Julia Harding, and José Vouillamoz. Wine Grapes . New York: Harper Collins, 2012. Die Rubin Carnuntum Weingüter . Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.carnuntum.com/en/ . Schwab, Phillipe. “Salt of the Alps: ancient Austrian mine holds Bronze Age secrets.” Phys.org . August 24, 2018. https://phys.org/news/2018-08-salt-alps-ancient-austrian-bronze.html . Siegert, Alice. “Scandal uncorked wine tainted with antifreeze chemical send Austria, West Germany reeling.” Chicago Tribune. July 31, 1985. https://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/fl-xpm-1985-07-31-8501310848-story.html . Tagliabue, John. “Scandal Over Poisoned Wine Embitters Village in Austria.” New York Times . August 2, 1985. https://www.nytimes.com/1985/08/02/world/scandal-over-poisoned-wine-embitters-village-in-austria.html . Turner, Barry, ed. The Statesman’s Yearbook 2007: The Politics, Cultures, and Economies of the World . London: Macmillan, 2006. “WKO Statistik.” Wirtschaftskammer Österreich . Accessed June 1, 2020. http://wko.at/statistik/bundesland/basisdaten.pdf . Zecevic, Aleks. “Exploring Styria: Austria’s Hidden Gem.” Wine Spectator. October 16, 2019. https://www.winespectator.com/articles/exploring-the-wines-of-styria-austria-s-hidden-gem . Special thanks to Andreas Wickhoff MW and Dr. Bertold Salomon for their help in reviewing this guide. Compiled by MW Ashley Hausman (August 2020) Edited by Stacy LadenburgerPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/research/expert_guides/w/expert-guides/2551/loire-valleyThu, 15 Oct 2026 18:31:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:f8f47b07-8807-43cf-8f35-726d267b11a9Stacy LadenburgerContents History Loire Valley Wine Law The Market Land and Climate The Grapes of the Loire Valley Pays Nantais Anjou-Saumur Touraine Central Vineyards Central France Bibliography The Loire Valley is the third largest wine region in France, yet it is also one of the country’s least well known. It follows the broad sweep of the Loire River for nearly 1,000 kilometers, from the mountains of the Massif Central in the center of France to the wild Atlantic coast in the northwest. The Loire and its tributaries are home to more than 50 appellations. Most are populated by small family winegrowers, many of whom have been farming the same land for centuries. More famous for its châteaux than its wine, the Loire is a region of evident history, but it is a region of experimentation and discovery as well, where respect for the past and a spirit of innovation exist side by side. History The Roman officer and historian Pliny the Elder completed his Natural History in 77 CE, reflecting the world he knew in the first century, including its vineyards and wines. In this text, he mentioned that vines were growing on the banks of the Loire, evidence that this region has a vinous history spanning at least two millennia. But it was not until the sixth century that Grégoire, the bishop of Tours, made the first reference to the vineyards in the local region of Touraine, which today includes Chinon and Vouvray. He also confirm ed that vineyards were growing in the Sancerre area, writing, “In the year 582, a late frost scorched the vines.” The church was a driving force in the development of the Loire’s vineyards and wine production, as it was in other parts of France and Europe, until the French Revolution. The Loire River and its tributaries have long provided a route to market for the region’s wines. On the western coast, close to the mouth of the river, Nantes has been an important trading hub for centuries. There is even a theory that in the 19 th century, the local white wine, now known as Muscadet, acquired its name from Dutch traders looking for a neutral, high-acid white wine that they could add to the botanical noix de muscade (nutmeg) prior to distillation. In the 15 th century, the Loire, rather than Paris, was the location of the French royal court. While the monarchs shifted back to Paris in the middle of the 16 th century, the Loire continued to be the summer getaway of the nobility and the wealthy, hence the region’s abundance of ornate châteaux and a love of Loire wine among the aristocracy. Charles VII (1403–1461) was one of the kings who set up court in the Loire Valley. During the Hundred Years’ War, Joan of Arc famously went to see him in Chinon to ask for an army before defeating the king of England during the siege of Orlé ans. Vines and a castle in Chinon (Credit: Stevens Frémont, InterLoire) There were other prominent Loire residents who brought fame to the local wines, including Franç ois Rabelais. Born in Chinon in the late 15 th century, he was most famous for his satirical work Gargantua and Panta gruel , although he also had a stint as both a religious man and a doctor. Some of his wine-related commentary includes the advice that Sauvignon Blanc is good for constipation and the saying “Always drink, never die.” Around the same time that Rabelais was upsetting the establishment with his scathing and comedic writing, the artist Leonardo da Vinci made the Loire his home. In 1516, at age 64, he crossed the Alps on a mule after being invited by François I to be his royal painter. In his luggage were several paintings, including the Mona Lisa. He died in the Loire in 1519 and is buried in the town of Amboise, in the Touraine region. Touraine was one of the main areas to benefit from the 1577 law by the Parlement de Paris that prohibited Parisians from purchasing wines made within a 20-league (around 88-kilometer) radius of the capital, but over the centuries the Parisian market didn’t want to pay a high price for quality. As Xavier de Planhol explains in An Historical Geography of France , this eventually led to a deterioration in the quality of wines produced in areas that were easily reached by river or the canal from Paris. “By the beginning of the seventeenth century, Orléans wine was already banned from the royal table and it lost the last shreds of its reputation over the decades that followed.” The increasing urbanization of the French population called for everyday, low-priced wines. As the railways developed in the 19 th century, the regions that had benefited from their waterway connections with Paris became pitted against the low-cost wine producers of the south. It was around this time that phylloxera arrived in the Loire. It is estimated that when the louse was first identified, in 1877, half the population in the Loire depended in some form on the vine for income. At first, the local phylloxera committees were adamant that they wouldn’t use American rootstocks and would instead inject the soil with carbon disul f ide , but it soon became clear that grafting was necessary. The replanting that followed marked a change in the flavors of the Loire: Sancerre switched from Pinot Noir to Sauvignon Blanc, while Cabernet Franc and Chenin Blanc gained popularity in Anjou-Saumur. During World War II, the Loire Valley’s wine regions were occupied by the Germans. Saumur was a center of resistance: weapons and documents were hidden in casks that crossed the line between free and occupied France, which was situated south of the river. But many men in the region became prisoners of war, including Gaston Huet, who returned to his native Vouvray having lost one-third of his body weight. Vineyards fell into disrepair, with no one to work in them, and without fungicides or pesticides to control the spread of disease. Following the war, many young people left the countryside to work in cities, while those who stayed began bottling their own wines or organized themselves into cooperatives and started selling their wines in the bistros of Paris. Vines were part of farmers’ income, not their sole income, until the 1960s and 1970s, when goats, cattle, and crops started giving way to vines—and a greater focus on quality winemaking. The 1980s brought major advances in the cellar, with better presses, stainless steel, and temperature control making their debut. Today, the Loire Valley’s wine industry is focused on improving the quality of the raw material: the grapes. There’s also increasing concern regarding the effects of climate change, whether frost, drought, or unpredictable weather events. This is paired with a greener approach; about 30% of Loire Valley vineyards are now either sustainably or organically farmed. Loire Valley Wine Law Loire Valley wines are subject to the Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée (AOC) system, initially established throughout France in the 1930s in response to the chaos that ensued after the phylloxera crisis, which largely destroyed the country’s vineyards. This loss of crops led to a surge in fraudulent practices, and soon the market was awash with low-quality wine produced to fulfill demand. In the absence of legal regulations, grapes and wines were routinely blended, often from different origins both within and outside France, and adulterated in numerous ways to stretch volumes further. The appellation system was an effective means of regulating production and ensuring that wines from a particular origin conformed to certain expected criteria. Many of the best-known Loire appellations were defined in 1936, in the earliest days of AOC regulation, including Muscadet, Vouvray, Bourgueil, Chinon, and Saumur. Today, 78% of the Loire Valley’s production is designated AOC and there are 53 separate AOCs. Some winemakers choose to operate outside the system, producing wines that can carry only the basic country designation of Vin de France (VdF). As is the case in other countries with similarly restrictive regulations, most of these wines are of basic quality, but some are of the highest quality, made by producers who wish to make the wines they want to make, even if they do not meet the requirements for appellation status. Wines without geographical indication account for 12% of total Loire production. 2020 figures from the Loire Valley Wines Economic Report 2021 Between AOC and VdF lies a third quality designation: Indication Géographique Protégée (IGP). IGPs are subject to similar but less strict regulations compared with AOCs. They usually cover a wider area than the AOCs, and there is typically greater flexibility on yield levels and the grape varieties that can be grown. The Loire has five IGPs for wine (and one for apple brandy), of which the most important by far is Val de Loire. This covers 4,600 hectares spread over a vast growing area that encompasses 13 different administrative departments and dozens of grape varieties. Reds, whites, and rosés are made under the Val de Loire banner, and almost all are single-variety wines. Permitted yields are 90 hectoliters per hectare, and the wines are light and early drinking in style. Nearly 300,000 hectoliters are made annually under this IGP, which accounts for 9% of all the Loire’s production. The Loire’s other IGPs are Côtes de la Charité, Coteaux de Tannay, Coteaux du Cher et de l’Arnon, and Puy de Dôme. Collectively, they account for a mere 0.2% of the region’s total production. A final style worth noting is vin gris . This term, though not legally regulated, refers to very pale rosé wines. In Coteaux du Vendômois AOC, these wines are based on minimal skin contact with Pineau D'Aunis. In Reuilly AOC, vins gris experience a short maceration with Pinot Gris' pink skins. The Market The Loire Valley is the third largest winegrowing area in France by hectarage, after Bordeaux and the Rhône. It is not easy to visit the Loire Valley in one trip—the drive from Muscadet to Sancerre takes more than four hours. Getting to know its growers takes time, too. There are 3,600 growers cultivating 56,900 hectares of vines, an area larger than the entire Austrian or New Zealand vineyard. Sales figures for 2020 show that close to three-quarters of all Loire wine, equivalent to 210 million bottles, is sold in France. Within France, supermarkets are the most important outlet for Loire Valley wines, particularly those in a low-price, négociant-dominant market, such as Muscadet and the rosé categories Rosé de Loire and Cabernet d’Anjou. For those appellations held in higher esteem, such as the sweet grand cru– designated wines of Quarts de Chaume or the steely dry whites of Savennières, the independent retail sector and on-trade are the key markets. The Loire Valley wine association reports that 26% of all wines, equivalent to 70 million bottles, were shipped overseas in 2020. The five most important export markets (both by value and volume) for the Loire Valley’s wine producers are, in order of sales, the US, the UK, Germany, Belgium, and Canada. Region-wide figures, however, hide the huge variability from one appellation to another. For example, exports account for 62% of Sancerre sales and 64% of Crémant de Loire, which has enjoyed a strong period of growth as part of a wider thirst for French crémant styles both at home and abroad. In the UK, for example, sales increased fivefold from 2012 to 2020. But just 4% of all Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil and 14% of Menetou-Salon went overseas. 2020 figures from the Loire Valley Wines Economic Report 2021 White wines take the lead in export markets, accounting for 57% of all wine shipped by volume. Reds and rosé represent 23%, and sparkling 20%. Sancerre is by far the most successful appellation internationally, particularly when it comes to value, while Muscadet, Vouvray, and the Touraine appellation (thanks to Sauvignon Blanc) have healthy volume sales, although value lags. The cost of a vineyard in each of the appellations reflects the market’s appetite for its wines. For example, the average price of a hectare of vineyard land is €7,000 in Muscadet, €26,000 in Vouvray, and €210,000 in Sancerre, according to figures from SAFER, the French rural land agency. This has implications for young winemakers wishing to start a business. In Sancerre, it is difficult to begin unless you are a member of a winegrowing family or a large wine business. The Anjou area, where a hectare costs around €18,000, has become a hotbed of talent and innovation. Here, many are making minimal-intervention wines and trialing unusual blends. Land and Climate The Land The Loire Valley is the most sprawling of French wine regions, perhaps unsurprising since it follows the flow of the country’s longest river. The geology of the vineyards is highly diverse and often immediately visible. The soil is considered a crucial part of the identity of each place and the starting point for defining an appellation. Visit any Loire winegrower and they will most likely talk about what is under the ground before anything else. Savennières Roche aux Moines (Credit: Savennières) The oldest rocks in the Loire Valley—and in all of France—are found in the far west. This is the Armorican Massif (Massif Armoricain), which covers all of northwestern France. It is the remains of the giant Hercynian range of mountains from the Precambrian era. Looking at the landscape today, it is hard to believe that mountains were once here, as the land is low-lying, with only gentle slopes. But 600 million years of weathering have resulted in soils of enormous complexity. These old rocks form the basis of the soils of Muscadet and other appellations of the Nantais region and the western half of Anjou, including Savennières. This area is known as the Anjou Noir (or Black Anjou) because of the dark soils that characterize the Armorican Massif. Granite, gneiss, multicolored schist, slate, and pudding stones are found here. The dividing line between the Anjou Noir and the Anjou Blanc runs from north to south, starting southeast of Angers. The Anjou Blanc (White Anjou) marks the beginning of the Paris Basin, a low-lying area in northern France that was covered by the sea during the Cretaceous and Jurassic periods (67 to 195 million years ago). The more recent, shallow seas that receded to leave soils based on soft, chalky Cretaceous limestone are easily visible today in the houses, castles, and cellars of the lower Loire. These are the soils of eastern Anjou and Touraine. Further eastward, the Paris Basin continues to be the bedrock of the vineyards of the Central Vineyards, around Sancerre. The seas were deeper here, however, and these older soils (from the Jurassic period) are frequently characterized by the presence of tiny fossils. The Kimmeridgian clays found in Sancerre continue to the vineyards of Chablis. A fault runs through the town of Sancerre, adding complexity to the range of soils and defining the appellations of the Central Vineyards. These include islands of flint, for example around Saint-Andelain in Pouilly-Fumé. The divide between the Armorican Massif and Paris Basin (Credit: InterLoire) To the south, back toward the source of the Loire River, the vineyards of the Auvergne have younger soils based on the decomposed volcanoes of the Massif Central. Schists and granite predominate, and Gamay is the red grape that thrives, as it does on the granite soils of Beaujolais. The Climate The vineyards of the Loire cover an area that extends more than 800 kilometers across France, but the climate of the region is dictated primarily by its northern latitude. The great majority of the vineyards lie on the 47 th parallel; only the Alsace and Champagne wine regions are further north in France. The growing environment for red wines is marginal, and even for whites it is far from reliable. But beyond the simple commonality of latitude, there is considerable climatic variation both between and within the different appellations, which explains the enormous diversity of grapes and styles produced in the Loire Valley. The Role of Altitude Altitude rarely has a significant impact on the climate of the vineyards of the Loire. Most are at or close to sea level. In Muscadet, the viewpoint of Butte de la Roche gives an extensive 360-degree view across the vineyards at less than 50 meters above sea level. Elsewhere, most vineyards are below 100 meters in altitude. There are a few exceptions, however. In Sancerre, the famed slopes of Les Monts Damnés vineyard rise to 436 meters, and many of the vines in the appellation grow between 250 and 350 meters above sea level. Another outlier is the upper Loire, where the vineyards are situated in the Massif Central. These appellations are several hundred kilometers south of the Central Vineyards region, geographically detached from the main vineyard area. Here, the latitude is more like that of southern Burgundy, but the climate is influenced by the altitude of the vines, which are situated between 200 and 600 meters above sea level. The climate is semicontinental, with cold winters and hot summers, and little precipitation. A major climatic influence is the foehn, a warm wind that descends from the mountains to the vineyards. The overall climate is maritime for the Nantais region, where the Muscadet vineyards lie, becoming more temperate-oceanic in the adjoining Anjou region immediately east. Further eastward, the Atlantic influence diminishes from Saumur toward the warmer red-wine heartland of Touraine, the vineyards of Chinon and Bourgueil. Further east from there, the climate becomes more continental in the premier Sauvignon Blanc growing areas in the Central Vineyards, where there are wider temperature variations between summer and winter. This is also the case for the vineyards of the upper Loire, situated south of the Central Vineyards. Frost is a regular hazard in this part of the world, and crop losses in recent years—notably 2021, but also 2019, 2017, and 2016—have been dramatic. Beyond frosts, there are multiple other risks to the health and quality of the harvest that are climate related, including hail, autumn rain, and the constant threat of mildew during the growing season. Throughout the appellations of the Loire, vintage variation is significant from year to year, which is one reason for the strength of the Loire sparkling wine industry, second in volume only to Champagne in France. When the weather is challenging during the growing season, it has always been useful to be able to fall back on fizz to make the best of grapes that achieve less than ideal ripeness (in Vouvray, for example). Likewise, in semisweet Anjou rosé, sugar can compensate for underripe fruit. No Loire vine is far from a river, and these rivers play a key role in determining the temperature, humidity, and airflow of the growing environment. Many of the best vineyards are on south-facing slopes next to a river—if not the Loire itself, then one of its many tributaries: the Maine, Sèvre, Vienne, Indre, Allier, Loir, Layon, Thouet, or Cher. The great sweet wines of Vouvray and Quarts de Chaume are only possible thanks to the vineyards’ proximity to the Loire and Layon Rivers, which create the autumn mists necessary for the development of botrytis in favorable years. Climate Change Temperatures have measurably increased in the Loire Valley since the 1940s. According to the Huglin index, the climate in the Loire Valley cities of Nantes, Angers, Tours, and Bourges moved from cold to temperate during the 60-year period to 2010. The average temperature over this period increased by 1.35 degrees Celsius, and an ongoing study notes that average Loire temperatures have increased by 3 degrees Celsius in the last 30 years. There have also been rises in the minimum temperature (1.4 degrees Celsius) and the maximum (1.3 degrees Celsius) over this period. Researchers have observed that the regions east of Saumur experienced higher rises in maximum temperatures because of the decreasing oceanic influence. The Atlantic serves to lower maximum temperatures in the Nantais region thanks to the presence of cloud cover, which mitigates very high temperatures but correspondingly raises minimum temperatures at night, because the continued presence of cloud is more likely to prevent heat escaping at night. Climate change has had several consequences, both positive and negative. The Loire was historically a region where grapes often failed to achieve full ripeness. Warmer temperatures and increased levels of photosynthesis have yielded better-quality wines, especially the reds. Today, there are far fewer examples of green and leafy Cabernet Franc; Pinot Noir wines have acquired a sensual richness; Gamay wines are plump and juicy. For whites, too, more reliable ripening has been welcome. The negative effect of higher temperatures is the risk that the wines are unbalanced. Grapes show higher levels of sugar—and therefore alcohol—and lower acidity. The typical profile of the wines has undoubtedly changed. That this is related to climate change is highly probable. But changes in viticultural practices have also allowed grapegrowers to achieve higher levels of ripeness in their fruit through bunch thinning and leaf removal, methods that have benefits for plant health as well. Viticulture has become more challenging with a changing climate. With higher temperatures early in the season, the vine’s growing cycle has shifted, so budbreak is earlier. As a result, when the spring frosts strike—as they have always done, to a greater or lesser extent—the vine is far more advanced than it would have been in years past and the losses more consequent. The annual fight against frost is a major concern. When frost is forecast, candles are used in the vineyards at night, although some ecologically minded growers are increasingly reluctant to resort to this practice. Using water-spraying at night is an effective solution, but few can access the quantity of water required. Frost fans are often employed as well. The surest solution seems to be using heated electric wires positioned along the training wires in the canopy, but this requires substantial investment. Most growers are seeking adaptations to their working practices, principally by pruning later, pruning longer, pruning twice, or any combination of these. Such adaptations are expensive and time consuming but appear to mitigate losses, at least in part. At the other end of the scale, heat and drought associated with climate change are problematic, especially in a region where irrigation is forbidden under AOC legislation. At temperatures much over 30 degrees Celsius, photosynthesis decreases, and eventually the vine shuts down and blocks maturation of the grapes. In 2022, early season drought and heat in May were followed by a heat wave and further drought in July, a situation that had never been seen before. The Grapes of the Loire Valley White Grapes Sauvignon Blanc: The Loire Valley is likely the birthplace of Sauvignon Blanc , and it contains around one-third of France’s Sauvignon Blanc vineyard area. The grape’s home is in the eastern part of the Touraine region and further east in the Central Vineyards, an area that includes Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé and sits around 450 kilometers from the Atlantic coast. Figures from the Loire Valley Wines Economic Report 2021 Sauvignon Blanc was first mentioned in 1534 by François Rabelais in Gargantua and Pantagruel , where he referred to the grape as Fiers. It wasn’t until almost 200 years later that Sauvignon Blanc’s existence in Bordeaux, the country’s other main Sauvignon Blanc–producing area, was recorded. Around that time, in 1783, Sauvignon Blanc was also mentioned in Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé, but it didn’t become the grape of choice until after phylloxera. Sauvignon Blanc is a fertile variety that can produce large quantities of fruit as well as large canopies. As a result, low vigor soils or low vigor rootstocks, or both, are recommended. Most Sauvignon Blanc growers in the Loire battle powdery mildew each year, and this is becoming a greater issue with increasingly warm, humid weather. Sauvignon Blanc’s naturally small-berried, tightly packed bunches make it susceptible to botrytis, and wood diseases including E utypa dieback and esca are also common challenges. The Loire Valley typically yields more restrained examples of Sauvignon Blanc compared with those of New Zealand. The two regions show some similarities in terms of growing season temperatures and annual rainfall. But the sunlight is more intense and there are more sunshine hours in New Zealand compared with the Loire. Henri Bourgeois has properties in both Marlborough and Sancerre and has found that the intensity of light in New Zealand means that extra leaf protection is crucial. The greater sunlight and higher ultraviolet light exposure may play a part in the exuberance of Sauvignon Blanc in New Zealand, while in the Loire the aromas are less overt and less tropical, often including gooseberry, elderflower, nettle, and citrus flavors. In warmer seasons, however, such as 2018, 2019, and 2020, ripeness levels were unprecedented, with ripe orchard fruit, lower acids, and high alcohol commonly found in the wines. The classic Loire Sauvignon Blanc style is dry, unoaked, and fresh. Grapes are often machine harvested and fermented relatively cool in stainless steel tanks to preserve aromatic freshness. Malolactic fermentation is typically blocked, and a short period on lees ensues before bottling. But there are many prestige and single-vineyard cuv é es that are hand-picked, whole-bunch pressed, and fermented wild in barrel (typically used barrels of varying sizes). Experimentation has also increased, with a range of fermentation vessels and different techniques (such as brief skin contact, extended lees aging, and lees stirring) used. 10,094 hectares in 2020 Chenin: Dry vs. Sweet There is a growing preference for drier styles of still Chenin Blanc. Because of climate change, producers can make wines with riper phenolics and lower acidity levels that don’t need residual sugar as a counterpoint. But there is a concern that consumer demand for dry styles is prompting producers to make dry wines even when they would be better balanced with residual sugar. The preference for drier styles is also affecting the demi-sec category, with residual sugar levels edging lower, while the sec tendre category offers an option between sec and demi-sec. In the historic and prestigious sweet wine appellations of the Loire, several producers have shifted from producing sweet wines because of financial pressure and are now making dry wines in the appellation of Quarts de Chaume. These wines cannot be labeled with the appellation name, however, as it is a designation for sweet wine only; instead they must be labeled as Anjou AOC Blanc or Vin de France. Chenin Blanc: The Loire Valley produces 93% of France’s Chenin Blanc . The grape plays a key role in Anjou-Saumur, where its best-known incarnation is in the small but significant appellation of Savennières, and in the eastern slice of the Touraine region, where the Vouvray and Montlouis-sur-Loire appellations champion this versatile variety. It seems that Chenin Blanc is a Loire native, tracing its roots back at least 1,000 years, when it was referred to as Plant d’Anjou. In the early 16 th century, an abbot and his finance minister brother-in-law, Thomas Bohier, undertook trials with different varieties from around France on the grounds of the Montchenin monastery, south of Tours. The grape now known as Chenin Blanc flourished, perhaps taking its name from the monastery—but there are various theories on the development of the name. There remain around 60 synonyms for Chenin Blanc, with Pineau d’Anjou and Pineau de la Loire the most common in the Loire Valley. The local historian Henri Galinié discovered that Plant d’Anjou and Pineau de la Loire were the most used names until the 1800s, although the peasant growers were commonly using Chenin in the fields. With the standardization of the modern French language followed by the development of the field of ampelography in the early 19 th century, there was a need to remove the confusion between Pineau and Pinot. In an 1875 dictionary, Chenin Blanc appeared as a synonym for Pineau and eventually became the more common name. Chenin Blanc is not easy to grow. It is an early budding variety, and milder winters are leading to an earlier budbreak. This, in combination with more frequent and harder frosts, puts the vine at risk in early spring. Late pruning and investment in frost protection have become common across the valley. Chenin Blanc is a vigorous variety, and growers who wish to produce quality wine must manage crop loads through removing unwanted shoots and crop thinning, which also help promote aeration in the battle against powdery mildew and bunch rot. While Chenin Blanc is a mid-ripener, traditionally maturing in early to mid-October, the harvests are coming earlier. Highly sensitive to botrytis, it is the variety behind the famed sweet wines of Quarts de Chaume and Bonnezeaux within the Coteaux du Layon. Used for sparkling styles as well as dry, demi-sec, and fully botrytized wines, Chenin Blanc is one of the finest, most versatile grapes. Depending on the season or the demands of the market, producers may opt to make dry or sweet styles—or, in some cases, different sweetness levels from the same vineyard, undertaking multiple tries (passes), to obtain the ripeness they desire. Typically, a cooler season lends itself to sparkling and taut, dry styles. Riper seasons with dry autumns allow fully mature, dry expressions and sweeter styles to be produced. 9,540 hectares in 2020 Melon B: Melon B is inextricably associated with Muscadet and is planted almost exclusively in the Nantais region. It is often referred to as Melon de Bourgogne because it originated in Burgundy, although it was rejected by its homeland many years ago. The variety has been planted in the Nantais since the 1600s, but for centuries it lived in the shadow of Folle Blanche because of the latter’s prolific production destined for eau-de-vie. Melon B was always recognized as a superior variety for making wine, however, and it is now the dominant variety. It is well-suited to this cool region because it can withstand low winter temperatures. The Melon B planted in the Nantais accounts for 99.9% of all the plantings of the variety in France. The great majority of this is planted in the Muscadet appellation, where it constitutes the largest concentration of a single variety anywhere in the Loire Valley. Basic wines made from Melon B are typically pale, light in alcohol, unoaked, neutral in flavor, and a good match for the local oysters. To give the wines more aroma and body (and often a slight spritz of carbon dioxide), the traditional practice of aging on lees until the spring following the harvest is widespread in the Muscadet region. Many producers are now taking this practice further, identifying the best sites and limiting yields to create a system of cru wines. With limited yields and extended lees aging, Melon B wines can become serious contenders for some of the best white wines from the Loire. A smaller amount of Melon B (around 18%) is blended with other varieties or made into still or sparkling wines under the Vin de France label. 8,327 hectares in 2020 Chardonnay: For a grape variety that is so ubiquitous, Chardonnay is a minor player in the Loire and rarely seen bottled as a varietal wine. Less important quantitatively and qualitatively than Chenin Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc, or Melon B, it is more often used as blending material to soften the sometimes hard edges of the more acidic Melon B or Chenin Blanc, usually for more basic wines. It also has appeal in sparkling blends with Chenin Blanc. The only place where Chardonnay takes a lead role is in the whites of the Auvergne, which must be 100% Chardonnay. It is also found in blends in the wines of Saint-Pourçain. It is the sixth most planted grape variety in the Loire. 2,902 hectares in 2020 Other White Grapes Folle Blanche: Folle Blanche, also known as Gros Plant, is a highly productive and highly acidic variety from southwestern France, traditionally used for making Cognac. This most likely explains its strong historic presence in the Nantais region, where it was grown specifically for brandy production for Dutch merchants in the 17 th century. Today, it has its own dedicated appellation for wine, Gros Plant du Pays Nantais, but the volume produced is a fraction of that of Muscadet. The vine buds early, making it susceptible to frost in this cool region. Perhaps more valued for its productivity than its quality, there are nevertheless some appealing, crisp examples to be found, usually from top producers of Muscadet. Like Muscadet, Folle Blanche’s neutral, refreshing qualities make it a popular and inexpensive choice in local seafood restaurants. Romorantin: A peculiarity of the Loire Valley, the Romorantin variety, a cross of Pinot and Gouais Blanc, is synonymous with Cour-Cheverny AOC, an appellation of 11 villages in the Loire-et-Cher department south and east of the city of Blois. The vineyard area is a tiny 50 hectares, devoted exclusively to the grape, which takes its name from the village of Romorantin. François I once resided here, and legend has it that he was the first person to order Romorantin plants from their native Burgundy, in 1519. Romorantin produces small, flavorful berries that are difficult to ripen—its major drawback. It is harvested relatively late, making very fresh, typically dry whites with notable intensity and length. Chasselas: Chasselas is an ancient variety of uncertain origins, best known in its adopted home of Switzerland. In the Loire Valley, it has its own appellation, Pouilly-sur-Loire, a mere 30 hectares sandwiched between the two Sauvignon Blanc titans of Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé. Though the region is not particularly well known, there is a long history of producing Chasselas here, and it achieved appellation status the same year as Pouilly-Fumé, in 1937. Chasselas wines are rather quieter than those from the more assertive Sauvignon Blanc. Fresh, floral, and crisp, they are easy-drinking wines generally intended for early consumption. Pinot Gris: Pinot Gris appears in interesting guises at opposite ends of the river. In the Coteaux d’Ancenis appellation, east of Nantes, it is made into a locally appreciated semisweet wine under the synonym Malvoisie. In the Central Vineyards region, south of Sancerre, the winemakers of Reuilly transform it into a vin gris , a pale and dry rosé, by using its pink skins for color. Each less than 1% of total vineyard area in 2020 Red Grapes Cabernet Franc: The most planted variety in the Loire, Cabernet Franc represents one-quarter of the Valley’s vineyard area. Rabelais was the first to mention the red grape in the Loire, in 1534, under the name of Breton. He wrote that it was not grown in Brittany, as the name suggests, but in the village of Beaumont-en-Véron, which is a very short drive from the town of Chinon and continues to be a source of excellent wines. While there is no definitive proof that this wine was Cabernet Franc, the odds are good. It’s possible that the variety came to the Loire via Brittany, hence the name Breton. Alternately, it is noted in Wine Grapes that “in 1631, Cardinal de Richelieu sent out thousands of vines of the best Bordeaux variety to his steward, Abbé Breton, who planted them in Chinon and Bourgueil. The vine was later named Plant de l’Abbé Breton, and then simply Breton.” DNA testing, however, has shown that Cabernet Franc may have its roots not in France but in the Basque country, as it is related to Hondarribi Beltza, with some similar characteristics in the glass. Cabernet Franc at Charles Joguet in Chinon (Credit: Domaine Charles Joguet) Cabernet Franc is known for its red fruit flavors and floral notes, and as the understanding of the variety progressed in the first two decades of this century, there was a growing realization that new oak is not necessarily the best partner for this fragrant variety. In terms of structure, it is typically light to medium in body, and it is less tannic than Cabernet Sauvignon, retaining a bright acidity that can imbue the best examples with the ability to age for several decades. Cabernet Franc is not used solely for red wine; it is also widely used in the rosés of Anjou and is permitted in Crémant de Loire. The variety is at home in the Saumur region as well as the western half of Touraine, particularly the appellations of Chinon, Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil, and Bourgueil. There are also plantings on the schist soils of Anjou, where it can be blended with Cabernet Sauvignon. It may also be found in a blend with Côt (Malbec) or Gamay in Touraine. Cabernet Franc has suffered from a reputation for failing to ripen properly, resulting in high methoxypyrazine levels, overtly peppery characters, and astringency. But the arrival of a generation of well-trained and well-traveled winemakers, as well as the region-wide Project Cabernet Franc in the early 2000s, prompted a new approach. Producers were encouraged to pick later to improve ripeness, decrease their fermentation temperatures to preserve the wine’s fragrance, and employ oxygen for tannin management and to minimize the variety’s reductive tendencies. They were also encouraged to use less oak, taking inspiration from Burgundy rather than pursuing a Bordeaux style of Cabernet Franc. Nature has also improved the ripeness levels of Cabernet Franc. Warmer growing seasons and better vineyard management have diminished the green-edged tannins that characterized Cabernet Franc wines of the past. In some warm vintages, however, sugar ripeness occurs before phenolic ripeness and winemakers must be careful not to overextract. 15,950 hectares in 2020 Gamay: Gamay is grown across the Loire Valley and is the second most planted black variety, albeit a long way behind Cabernet Franc. An excellent blending partner, it can also produce compelling varietal wines when carefully grown in the right place. Commonly paired with Pinot Noir (either through choice or necessity), Gamay is also one of several varieties from which growers can choose for blending into Rosé d’Anjou, Saumur Fines Bulles, or Anjou Mousseux. It is not authorized for inclusion in Crémant de Loire. In the Fiefs Vendéens and Coteaux Giennois, Gamay is blended with Pinot Noir, while the reds and rosés of the small Châteaumeillant appellation are blends that involve Gamay to a greater or lesser degree, along with Pinot Noir and Pinot Gris. On its own, Gamay is used to make pale, delicate wines in the Coteaux d’Ancenis appellation, sometimes with a small amount of Cabernet Franc. In Anjou and Touraine, too, some Gamay is vinified alone to make Anjou or Touraine Gamay, light and early-drinking styles that are sometimes labeled as primeur . The appellations of the upper Loire are where Gamay really shines, especially when grown on volcanic, granite-based soils. In Saint-Pourçain, rosés are 100% Gamay, while reds are blends with Pinot Noir. In the Côtes d’Auvergne, Gamay and Pinot Noir combine to produce easy-drinking reds and rosés. The Loire’s most exciting Gamay wines come from the appellations where the variety is the only one permitted for reds and rosés: the Côte Roannaise and Côtes du Forez. Here, the grape can produce juicy, silky, red-fruited wines that in good years combine more southerly generosity of fruit with Loire elegance and sense of place. 4,197 hectares in 2020 Pinot Noir: It might be better known as the grape of Burgundy, but Pinot Noir has a long history in the Loire’s Central Vineyards, dating to at least the 14 th century. Pinot Noir now represents around 15% of production in the area. The variety is also found further west in the Touraine region, and as far as the Atlantic coastline as a permitted grape within the Fiefs Vendéens appellation. Additionally, it can be used to produce Rosé de Loire, Crémant de Loire sparkling wine (as part of a blend), and rosé and red wines under IGP Val de Loire. Pinot Noir is vulnerable to spring frosts because of its propensity to bud early, and it is susceptible to both oidium and powdery mildew. While it was once made into crisp reds suited to by-the-glass sales in brasseries, the effects of climate change have created warmer conditions that allow it to ripen more reliably. Because a wide range of styles is produced, generalizations about Loire Pinot Noir are difficult. From oaked to unoaked, destemmed to whole cluster, there are about as many different approaches to making Pinot Noir as there are clones. 2,227 hectares in 2020 Other Red Grapes Grolleau: Unique to the Loire Valley, Grolleau is the region’s fourth most planted black grape. Valued historically for its very high productivity, Grolleau has fallen in popularity in recent years as focus has shifted to quality over quantity. There are some interesting examples of varietal red Grolleau to be found, but for the most part it remains a major source of productive income in the form of lightly fruity, off-dry Rosé d’Anjou, where it is an important part of the blend. It can also be used as a blending component in sparkling wines. Grolleau plantings cover around 2,000 hectares. Pineau d ’ Aunis: Pineau d’Aunis is an unusual and ancient variety, unrelated to the Pinot family and, unlike several other grapes in the Loire Valley named Pineau, not a synonym for anything else. It is planted almost exclusively in the lesser-known Touraine vineyards of the river Loir (a tributary of the Loire), although it is occasionally featured in blends elsewhere. Susceptible to chlorosis and botrytis bunch rot, it is a difficult grape to grow, and careful management of yields is essential to maintaining quality. Usually vinified red, it produces wines that appear very pale but deliver an altogether more characterful mouthful. Good Pineau d’Aunis is aromatically enticing, with surprisingly robust tannins and peppery spice. The major appellations for Pineau d’Aunis are Coteaux du Vendômois and Coteaux du Loir, where the grape is used to produce red and rosé wines. C ôt: An old variety hailing from southwestern France, Côt is a synonym for Malbec . A cross of Magdeleine Noire des Charentes and Prunelard, the variety has significant clonal variation, and wine style is greatly affected by climate. The Côt wines of the Loire bear little resemblance to the rich and densely fruited Malbecs of Argentina—although both expressions have a distinctive, deep purple color. Côt is a vigorous grape and ripens around two weeks earlier than Cabernet Franc, making it an attractive option in areas where ripening is less than certain. Plantings are concentrated in Touraine, where it appears as a varietal wine or blended with Cabernet Franc or Gamay. Stylistically, Loire wines made from Côt are light and early drinking, falling between Gamay and Cabernet Franc in terms of structure and style. Each less than 1% of total vineyard area in 2020 Pays Nantais Muscadet is the most important wine of the Pays Nantais, or Nantais, region, and the Muscadet appellation is the largest in the Loire Valley. It covers an area of 6,863 hectares, low hills carpeted with vines around the city of Nantes. Muscadet is one of the Loire’s best-known wines and one of the easiest to understand. These white wines are light, still, and dry, and almost all are made from a single grape variety, Melon B. Muscadet’s Melon B is more consistent than its versatile Anjou neighbor, Chenin Blanc, but this makes it a surer buy from a consumer’s perspective: the style of wine in a bottle marked Muscadet will never diverge very far from what is expected. Click to enlarge and zoom in The history of Muscadet wine is not particularly illustrious. For centuries, Melon B was undervalued commercially, since the always productive Folle Blanche was so much more lucrative for use in brandy production. Melon B rose to prominence only as the brandy trade diminished and interest in wine developed. It finally became established when French vineyards were replanted at the start of the 20 th century, following the crisis of phylloxera. Similarly neutral in style to Folle Blanche, Melon B has always been recognized as a finer wine grape, with more mellow acidity and softer fruit. Yet for most of its history, wine from Melon B has been considered an inexpensive drink for local consumption. Even today, most Muscadet doesn’t travel far. Muscadet enjoyed a brief period of revived fortunes when it became a popular mainstay at the cheap end of wine lists around the UK in the 1980s and 1990s. At this time, more than 13,000 hectares of Melon B were planted, and négociants were producing large volumes of Muscadet wine. The British thirst for cheap Muscadet had led to increased plantings, higher yields, and a corresponding drop in the quality of the wine produced. At the same time, Muscadet was competing for attention in the UK with new and exciting, exuberantly flavored offerings from the New World. Muscadet fell in popularity, and a succession of poor vintages in the early 1990s further diminished demand. Vineyards were abandoned, and the area under vine has been slowly declining ever since. While some regions of the Loire have been net beneficiaries of climate change, Muscadet has suffered particularly badly from the vagaries of the climate. Viticulture in the region is increasingly precarious because of spring frosts, which are much more damaging when the vine has started its growing season early, as is increasingly the case. In 2021, average crop loss was a staggering 80% following 11 nights of subzero temperatures in April. Even so, there is a real cause for optimism in Muscadet: the wines themselves. In a world where it is difficult to find wines that are under 13% alcohol, Muscadet, which typically is 12%, is a notable exception. Exuberance is easy to find, but subtlety is much rarer, and this is where Muscadet excels. For those seeking a wine that will provide an elegant, crisp partner to lighter foods, and that won’t be too expensive or too high in alcohol, Muscadet delivers, and today there are many serious producers of the style. Aging Sur Lie Lees aging is one of the major winemaking practices distinguishing different producers and styles of Muscadet today. Winemakers who stir lees frequently and age their wines for several years will have richer, creamier, fatter styles than those who leave their wines to age untouched but protected by the reductive effect of the lees, often in the underground glass-lined vats traditional to the region. The effect of the lees will also depend on the aging vessel chosen. The old-style vats keep the aging wine in an inert environment and at a constant, cool underground temperature, but modern winemakers use all types of vessels, including oak, concrete eggs, and amphorae. Lees comprise mainly dead yeast cells from the wine’s fermentation. When lees are left in contact with wine for an extended period, they begin to break down, or autolyze, imparting flavor, aroma, and texture to the wine, as well as a mild spritz of carbon dioxide. As Muscadet does not have a strong personality of its own, lees aging can add interest and complexity. The longer a wine is left on its lees, and the more the lees are moved around, the greater their influence on the final wine’s style. Most Muscadet is aged on its lees for a short time after vinification, which gave the grower the right to add the words sur lie to the label. Traditionally, this was not a separate appellation but an addition to it. The rules state that for a wine to be labeled sur lie , it must spend no more than one winter on lees and may not be bottled before March 1 of the year following fermentation, which equates to between 5 and 14 months of aging. In 2020, Muscadet AOP removed the rights to this verbiage. Muscadet The broad, generic Muscadet AOC covers a wide swath of land running from east of the town of Ancenis all the way to the coast beyond Nantes in the southwest, a planted area that totals 6,863 hectares. This encompasses all the land in the other Muscadet appellations (outlined below), plus 1,647 hectares of land entitled only to Muscadet AOC. The generic appellation differs from the other three in terms of the laws regarding its production. Base yields are considerably higher, at 70 hectoliters per hectare compared with 55 for the others, so any of the other appellations may default to the generic appellation if yields are above 55 hectoliters per hectare. There is no right to the sur lie indication (see sidebar) after the 2020 vintage. Instead, the wines may be labeled as primeur to distinguish them as bottled in their youthful state. It is also the only appellation to have the right to include a variety other than Melon B: up to 10% Chardonnay may be added to basic Muscadet wines. The appellation was granted AOC status in 1937. Muscadet Sèvre-et-Maine One of the first AOCs granted, in 1936, the Muscadet Sèvre-et-Maine appellation is centered around the Sèvre Nantaise and Maine tributaries of the Loire. It remains the heart of all Muscadet production today, accounting for more than 70% of plantings across 4,912 hectares. The vines grow in a concentrated area just south of the city of Nantes. The soils of Muscadet comprise a highly complex and varied mixture of igneous and metamorphic rocks, including gneiss, granite, gabbro, amphibolite, mica schist, and many others. Recognizing the variations in wines produced on certain different soil types, producers applied for cru status for wines from these distinctive origins. The first crus —Clisson, Gorges, and Le Pallet—were approved by the Institut national de l’origine et de la qualité (INAO) in 2011. A further four—Goulaine, Château Thébaud, Monnières-Saint-Fiacre, and Mouzillon-Tillières—were granted cru status in 2019. The crus are not appellations in themselves but dé nominations gé ographiques c ompl é mentaires , a term describing a supplementary geographical addition that can appear on labels as an add-on to an existing appellation under certain specified conditions. Cru wines are subject to lower yields—45 rather than 55 hectoliters per hectare—and the fruit of very young vines cannot be used (although the minimum age is only six years). The grapes must come from specific identified sites and have higher ripeness (potential alcohol). The wines must be matured for a lengthy period on lees before release to qualify for the additional mention of cru . The Wines must be aged on their fine lees until at least October 1 of the second year following the harvest. These wines are often of excellent quality, with the extended lees aging bringing rich texture, increased depth, and savory, autolysis-derived flavors. In bottle, they can age for decades and represent some of the best value wines in the Loire Valley. Muscadet Coteaux de la Loire The Muscadet Coteaux de la Loire AOC was granted in 1936. It covers an area almost identical to the Coteaux d’Ancenis appellation (discussed below), on hillsides running along either side of the Loire from Nantes eastward to beyond Ancenis. The planted area is 100 hectares. Muscadet Côtes de Grandlieu Muscadet Côtes de Grandlieu AOC , which received appellation status in 1994, is centered around the lake of Grandlieu, south of Nantes and west of the bulk of plantings in Sèvre-et-Maine AOC. It includes 204 planted hectares. Muscadet Coteaux de la Loire (Credit: Philippe Caharel, InterLoire) Coteaux d’Ancenis Between Nantes and Angers, the 150-hectare Coteaux d’Ancenis AOC is situated on slopes set back on either side of the Loire. Its boundaries are almost identical to those of the Muscadet appellation of Muscadet Coteaux de la Loire, and it is centered around the riverside town of Ancenis. Vineyards are scattered over a broad area where crops and cattle populate the flatter land, and vines grow at 20 to 80 meters above the river. Two-thirds of the appellation focuses on semisweet Pinot Gris, locally known as Malvoisie, with 20 to 40 grams per liter of residual sugar. Most is consumed within the region. Reds and rosés are typically 100% Gamay but may contain a small proportion of Cabernet Franc. These are light, dry, and refreshing wines that reflect the cool and mild oceanic climate. Gros Plant du Pays Nantais Extending west from Ancenis all the way to the coast is the 570-hectare Gros Plant du Pays Nantais AOC , a former Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure (VDQS) whites-only denomination for dry wines from the Folle Blanche (meaning “crazy white”) grape, less evocatively known as Gros Plant (meaning “big plant”). Both names could be reflective of the grape’s productive nature: since its 2011 AOC status, the appellation’s permitted base yield is a hefty 75 hectoliters per hectare. The wines are mild in aroma and flavor, and they are characterized by their uniformly high acidity. Gros Plant may be aged on lees for a few months in a similar fashion to Muscadet sur lie . Most wines are 100% Folle Blanche but may include up to 10% Colombard. Fiefs Vendéens The most oceanic of the Loire’s vineyards is the coastal Fiefs Vendéens AOC , an area of around 350 hectares, where 15 vignerons farm five discrete parcels of vines south of the city of Nantes. The name of each subzone forms part of the appellation: Brem, Mareuil, Chantonnay, Pissotte, or Vix. Because of the complex nature of the soils—as in Muscadet, they are derived from the Armorican Massif—each subzone has its own set of rules regarding permitted varieties and the proportions that must make up each wine. All wines must be blends. Reds and rosés, produced in similar quantities, account for more than 80% of the appellation’s wines. Rosés are blends of Pinot Noir and Gamay; reds are from Pinot Noir or Cabernet Franc blended with Négrette, the variety native to southwestern France that also has historic associations here. Whites are blends of a majority of Chenin Blanc with Chardonnay. The requirement that all wines must be blended has encouraged some growers to produce wine outside the appellation. Anjou-Saumur The Anjou-Saumur region is the Loire Valley’s largest for both production and area under vine. Its 15,463 planted hectares cover varied terroir. Nearly every style of wine can be found in Anjou, and from a surprisingly small selection of varieties. The ever-versatile Chenin Blanc dominates for white and sparkling wines, while Cabernet Franc is the primary grape for reds and rosés. Supporting varieties include Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Grolleau, and Pineau d’Aunis. Click to enlarge and zoom in Most of the vineyards lie on the left (south) bank of the Loire, between the towns of Angers and Saumur. Following a north-south line slightly west of Angers, the old rocks of the Armorican Massif give way to the younger, Jurassic rocks of the Paris Basin, which continues eastward throughout Touraine. Locally, a distinction is made between the Anjou Noir and the Anjou Blanc, reflecting the visible difference between the darker, black rocks of volcanic origin and the pale, chalky limestone. There are many individual mesoclimates in Anjou-Saumur, but overall the area has the highest cumulative temperatures and lowest rainfall of all the growing regions of the Loire. Although the area is situated east of the Nantais region, its proximity to the coast (the most easterly vineyards are less than two hours from the Atlantic) allows for an oceanic influence on its climate, especially for the more westerly vineyards. Further inland, the locals’ term for the climate—and often the overall natural milieu—is la douceur angevine , which loosely translates as “mild and comfortable Anjou,” although significant spring frosts have impacted recent vintages. The Loire and several other rivers contribute to the climate and styles of wine, notably the Layon and Aubance tributaries, which are responsible for creating conditions favorable to making the sweet wines of Anjou. A wide range of appellations is covered by the Anjou-Saumur umbrella. There is an equally wide range of quality levels, from small-scale, hand-crafted wines of international renown to large-scale, inexpensive offerings that are commercially successful in France but rarely seen elsewhere. The most important production of the region is rosé, which falls more into the second category. The rosés of Anjou are the reason that the Loire is the second highest rosé-producing region in the country, behind Provence. But in contrast with Provence’s runaway international success, consumption of Loire rosé is largely domestic. Cabernet d’Anjou and Rosé d’Anjou The rosé-focused Cabernet d’Anjou AOC accounts for 45% of the Anjou-Saumur region’s volume and Rosé d’Anjou AOC a further 17%. The two appellations cover more than 15% of all the hectarage of the entire Loire Valley. Grapes for these wines can be grown anywhere in the 128 communes that compose the Anjou appellation. Cabernet d’Anjou plantings are of Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet Franc, and any combination or single-varietal expression of the grapes can be used to make this semisweet rosé. Nearly 6,500 hectares are planted for this purpose alone. The wines must contain a minimum of 10 grams per liter of residual sugar, but there is no upper limit, and they are typically sweeter than this. Permitted yields are on the high side for an AOC, at 60 hectoliters per hectare, but this is still lower than the sister rosé appellation Rosé d’Anjou, where 65 hectoliters per hectare is the basic level. A variety of grapes can be used for Rosé d’Anjou, including Grolleau, Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pineau d’Aunis, Gamay, and Côt. Similar in style to Cabernet d’Anjou but typically less sweet, Rosé d’Anjou wines must have a minimum residual sugar content of seven grams per liter. Although its production levels are considerably lower than those of Cabernet d’Anjou, the gentle, off-dry Rosé d’Anjou is a more successful style outside France: it is the most exported of the Anjou appellations, with 37% of production destined for consumption in more than 100 countries. Rosé de Loire An additional category of rosé wine covers approximately 730 hectares spread across the Anjou-Saumur and Touraine regions. Rosé de Loire is made from the same range of grapes as Cabernet d’Anjou and Rosé d’Anjou, but it is always dry, with a maximum permitted residual sugar of three grams per liter. There is no requirement to state the sweetness level on any of these wines. Anjou In addition to rosé, the generic appellation of Anjou covers red, white, and sparkling wines from grapes grown in the same large area as those destined for rosé. Anjou was once a prosperous wine region whose renown was built around sweet white wines made from Chenin Blanc. In 1881, 45,000 hectares of vines were planted, but plantings fell to 10,000 by 1893, following the phylloxera crisis. New plantings in the early 20 th century focused on Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon, from which light reds known as rouget were made, but red production didn’t become the mainstay of the appellation until the 1960s. Today, around 60% of the generic Anjou appellation’s production is Anjou Rouge, made from Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pineau d’Aunis, and Grolleau. Wines labeled Anjou Gamay must be 100% from the variety. While these wines are undoubtedly deeper in color than the rouget styles, they are intended for consumption within a couple of years. Click to enlarge and zoom in Chenin Blanc is the principal variety for the white wines of Anjou, which must comprise 80% or more of the variety, with an option to add Chardonnay or Sauvignon Blanc. Despite the fall in popularity of whites from Anjou, they still account for around 30% of production. At the high end, they are currently undergoing a renaissance, and consumers are increasingly seeking them out. One of the reasons for this is that several new, quality-focused producers have purchased vineyard land in appellations authorized for sweet wines only, such as Coteaux du Layon or Quarts de Chaume. Any dry white produced from these sites has the right only to the Anjou appellation, and the wines, made from 100% Chenin Blanc, are produced at yields well below the requirements for the generic appellation. A small quantity of Anjou Mousseux, accounting for only around 10% of the Anjou appellation’s production, is made from the same range of grapes (with no more than 20% Chardonnay). These bottled-fermented sparkling white or rosé wines spend at least nine months on lees before disgorgement. Anjou Brissac and Anjou-Villages Anjou Brissac and Anjou-Villages are relatively recent additions to the Anjou AOCs. Both are appellations for red wines only, made from Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon. Anjou-Villages, an AOC since 1987, recognizes the better sites within the Anjou AOC. These sites typically have the best exposure and are earliest to ripen. Yields for Anjou-Villages are lower than those for Anjou Rouge, at 55 hectoliters per hectare, and the wines are similar in style to Anjou Rouge. Anjou Brissac, a 1998 appellation, is centered around the Aubance River area just south of Angers. It covers the same 120-hectare area as the sweet wine appellation Coteaux de l’Aubance. The rainfall here is particularly low compared with that of the surrounding area, with slightly higher elevations to the west offering protection from oceanic humidity. The vines of Anjou Brissac receive 100 millimeters less rain than the rest of the Maine-et-Loire department during the growing season, and average temperatures are higher by 1 degree Celsius. The wines of Anjou Brissac are subject to lower yields, at 50 hectoliters per hectare, and have more depth of flavor than most of the region’s reds. Coteaux du Layon Though the fortunes of Anjou-Saumur have changed over time, sweet wines made from Chenin Blanc continue to be produced in the region. The growing conditions along the Layon River, a small tributary that flows northwest through the region, joining the Loire River south of Angers, are especially favorable for production of these wines. The grapes achieve high levels of ripeness, growing on well-exposed, sunny slopes close to the river. Rainfall is low, and temperatures are so warm in places that the native vegetation is Mediterranean. The river can also help foster the perfect conditions for botrytis, which typically occurs several times a decade. Changes in taste are partly responsible for the decline in the fortunes of the sweet wines of Anjou, but, equally, increased mechanization, chaptalization, and chemical inputs in the vineyards have played a part. By the middle of the 20 th century, many of the best hillside sites around the Layon had been abandoned, considered too difficult to farm mechanically. The ability to add sugar to make wine sweet, rather than having to rely on good weather in challenging vineyards, made it possible for winegrowers to create acceptable, if not great, sweet wines from lesser, easier sites—a situation replicated in other parts of the country. The reputation of the sweet wines of the Layon declined alongside interest in drinking them. Only a very small number of producers continued to make high-quality wines. Since the mid-1980s, however, there has been a renewed energy from young producers snapping up languishing vineyards and reviving the tradition of high-end wines in the historic sites of the Layon. Recognizing that nature rarely delivers ideal conditions for making sweet wines, they have been focusing on producing dry wines as well. While raising the quality level of sweet Chenin Blanc wines, they are simultaneously creating awareness of the excellent dry wines that these vineyards can produce. Anjou-Saumur produces more sweet wine from Chenin Blanc than any other region, with eight separate appellations for sweet wine, all of which are 100% Chenin Blanc. Most of this production centers around the Layon River. The basic appellation, Coteaux du Layon AOC , covers 13 communes on both sides of the river, totaling 1,640 hectares. The appellation is solely for wines with at least 34 grams per liter of residual sugar, and permitted yields are 35 hectoliters per hectare. Coteaux du Layon Villages covers 180 hectares within the wider Coteaux du Layon appellation. Six villages—Beaulieu-sur-Layon, Faye-d’Anjou, Rablay-sur-Layon, Rochefort-sur-Loire, Saint-Aubin-de-Luigné, and Saint-Lambert-du-Lattay—can add their names to the basic appellation. To do so, yields must be slightly lower, at 30 hectoliters per hectare, and 51 grams per liter of residual sugar is required. Coteaux du Layon Premier Cru Chaume is a superior 70-hectare appellation within the commune of Rochefort-sur-Loire, where Chenin Blanc achieves higher ripeness levels. These wines will likely be sweeter than the minimum required residual sugar level of 80 grams per liter, because the sugar level at harvest needs to be higher than that of the other two appellations. The grapes in the Coteaux du Layon appellations must be harvested by hand, but chaptalization is permitted in all of them except Premier Cru Chaume. Quarts de Chaume The most prestigious of Anjou’s sweet wine appellations, and arguably the whole Loire Valley, is Quarts de Chaume Grand Cru . This is the only grand cru appellation in the Loire Valley for any style of wine. Its merit in attaining this title was hotly debated, resulting in two successful legal challenges against it, but the coveted grand cru status was finally awarded in 2011. The argument against Quarts de Chaume as a grand cru centered on the possibility that consumers would confuse the appellation with the existing Coteaux du Layon Premier Cru Chaume for reasons including the identical style of the wine, the proximity of the two vineyards (they are next to each other), and the very similar name. But it is hard to argue that the final decision was a bad one. The hill of Chaume is an exceptional site. The highest point for miles around (though it rises only 100 meters above sea level), this 40-hectare appellation sits on a bed of complex soils that include Broverian schists and pudding sandstones. The vines grow on a thin layer of clay between 25 and 75 meters above sea level, on steep, south-facing slopes overlooking the Layon River. The hill here, sheltered from north winds, follows a curve in the river, making it ideally situated for the production of sweet wines. In good years, autumnal morning mists rise uninterrupted from the river to encourage the development of botrytis in the ripe grapes. The yield requirement for Quarts de Chaume Grand Cru is 20 hl/ha, slightly lower to that of Coteaux du Layon Premier Cru Chaume, at 25 hectoliters per hectare. Minimum sweetness is similar, with Quarts de Chaume at 85 grams per liter and Coteaux du Layon Premier Cru Chaume at 80. The wines of Quarts de Chaume Grand Cru are likely to be a good deal sweeter than this, however, since the minimum required level of sugar in the Quarts de Chaume grapes at harvest is 298 grams per liter, equivalent to 18% potential ABV. In the best years, these world-renowned wines demonstrate that perfect and rare combination of site, grape variety, and human expertise, creating wines with remarkable balance and freshness that can age for decades. Bonnezeaux A little further back along the Layon toward Saumur lies Bonnezeaux AOC , another small quality appellation for sweet Chenin Blanc in the commune of Thouarcé. The appellation is just 80 hectares, with three south-facing slopes on the right (north) bank of the Layon. Yields are 25 hectoliters per hectare. Unlike Quarts de Chaume Grand Cru, but as in the greater part of the Coteaux du Layon legislation, the wines may be chaptalized. The minimum residual sugar level is 51 grams per liter, which is sweeter than basic Coteaux du Layon but below the higher-level Layon appellations. Often, the sweetness level is far higher than the minimum requirement, however, and the best of these wines can age very well. Coteaux de l’Aubance The Aubance River flows parallel to the Layon, joining the Loire slightly upstream. The Coteaux de l’Aubance AOC covers a 220-hectare area on both sides of the river. The proximity of the river supports the development of botrytis in good years. The wines, similar in style to those of Coteaux du Layon, follow very similar requirements in terms of yields (35 hectoliters per hectare) and minimum sugar levels in the finished wine (34 grams per liter). Like Coteaux du Layon wines, the best of these are good-value, medium-sweet wines. Popular locally, they are often drunk à l ’ ap é ritif and usually enjoyed in their youth. Coteaux de Saumur The last of the Anjou sweet wine appellations based on Chenin Blanc is Coteaux de Saumur . Grapes for these wines can grow over a large area of the chalky soils south of Saumur, but a mere 10 hectares are planted. The wines are fresh and medium sweet, showing the influence of the limestone soils rather than the schist-based soils of the Layon and Aubance. Yields are 35 hectoliters per hectare and grapes must be hand-picked. No chaptalization is permitted, and the final wines must have a residual sugar level of at least 34 grams per liter. Savennières Old vines in Savennières (Credit: Savennières) Savennières is a charming, tiny village situated 15 kilometers southwest of Angers. The appellation is also small, with only 150 hectares planted, all to Chenin Blanc, covering three adjoining communes on the north bank of the Loire. Though it was difficult to clear and cultivate the land, this is a natural and privileged site for vine growing. The south- and southeast-facing slopes have excellent sun exposure and ventilation from the river breezes. The number of sunshine hours is high, and rainfall is relatively low. The soils are very shallow, and the vines are never far from the rocks below. These include a wide variety of schists and volcanic rock; there are also patches of windblown sand and clay. This is Anjou Noir terrain. Yields are naturally low, and the combination of terroir and grape yields austere wines with intense texture and minerality. In more recent years, winemakers have shifted toward earlier-drinking styles, with little obvious oak use. There is also a general move to earlier picking, thus the botrytis that was a common feature of wines from Savennières in years past is avoided. The 40 or so producers within the appellation are focused on quality. All the grapes are hand-picked, and 75% of the vignerons work organically. Savennières wines attract the highest Chenin Blanc prices of all Loire Valley wines. In 2001, the vineyard was classified as a UNESCO World Heritage site in recognition of its long history of winegrowing and the perfect adaptation of vine to site through the skill of generations of wine growers. The INAO has called the vineyard a symbol of la douceur a ngevine . While Savennières AOC focuses on dry wines, demi-sec and sweet wines are also permitted. In fact, when the appellation was granted, in 1952, it was recognized principally as a vineyard for the production of wines containing residual sugar. While regulations for other appellations in the region have changed to allow production of only sweet or only dry wines, the producers of Savennières have retained the right to both. Clearly, though, it is the dry wines of Savennières that have made it a famous source of quality Chenin Blanc today, along with the tiny twin jewels of Savennières Roche aux Moines (33 hectares) and Coulée de Serrant (7 hectares), each of which is a separate appellation island within Savennières. The Savennières appellation lies across a series of coulé es (valleys), among them Coulée de Serrant . This appellation straddles both sides of the valley and adjoins Savennières Roche aux Moines to the south. These two appellations have excellent exposure and particularly thin soils, and permitted yields are even lower, at 30 hectoliters per hectare for Coulée de Serrant and 35 for Roche aux Moines. The latter is a rocky outcrop of the Armorican Massif, where vines grow on south- and southwest-facing slopes overlooking the Loire. Winegrowing was recorded here as early as the 12 th century, when monks from the order of Saint-Nicolas d’Angers planted a south-facing slope overlooking the Loire that became known as La Roche aux Moines. A priory that was home to Benedictine nuns in the same period was also surrounded by vines. Coulée de Serrant can trace its origins back to 1130, when vines were planted by Cistercian monks. Arguably, there is more that unites these tiny appellations, both in terms of history and site, than divides them, and differences in style are a reflection more of the philosophy of the winemaker than of the site. Coulée de Serrant is a monopole vineyard, owned by the biodynamic zealot Nicolas Joly, who makes a very ripe style of wine, often with botrytis and residual sugar. Savennières Roche aux Moines is divided among a handful of growers, and the wines tend to reflect an earlier-picked style. Saumur The vineyards of Saumur AOC are in the extreme southwest of the Paris Basin, planted on the chalky limestone soils characteristic of the Anjou Blanc. This 2,000-hectare area forms the eastern and southern part of the Anjou-Saumur region, which joins Touraine to the east. All the Saumur vineyards are situated south of the Loire River. The climate is broadly oceanic but warmer and drier than that of the vineyards to the west. Styles of Saumur wine include reds and rosés made predominantly from Cabernet Franc, whites from Chenin Blanc, and sparkling wines, which account for more than 60% of production. Still wines were traditionally usually white, but today reds and whites each account for close to 20% of Saumur production, with a small amount of dry rosé making up the balance. Saumur Blanc still wines are dry and made from 100% Chenin Blanc. Generally easier drinking than the fuller-bodied, savory Chenin Blanc wines of the Anjou Noir appellations, they offer elegant balance and fine, linear acidity. There are some exceptional wines from single vineyards such as Brézé. Saumur red wines must be at least 70% Cabernet Franc, with the option to add Cabernet Sauvignon and Pineau d’Aunis. These wines are light and supple, intended for early consumption and often served slightly cool. Cellar dug from tuffeau (Credit: Domaine Charles Joguet) Saumur Mousseux, also known as Fines Bulles, is made using the traditional, bottle-fermented method and must be aged for at least nine months on lees, although more-complex examples are aged for years. Whites are at least 60% Chenin Blanc and rosés 60% Cabernet Franc; the wide range of other varieties used includes Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pineau d’Aunis, Gamay, Grolleau Gris, Grolleau Noir, and Pinot Noir. Saumur benefits from the presence of extensive cellars dug from soft tuffeau limestone, used to build the houses and châteaux of the area. The cellars, which often extend hundreds of meters underground, are ideal for aging wines at a constant temperature. These fresh and early-drinking sparklers are reliable in quality, especially from the larger producers whose cellars line the river close to the town of Saumur. Centered around the town of Saumur are many of the producers of Crémant de Loire , the broader appellation for high-quality sparkling wine that covers 2,800 hectares across a wide range of growing conditions in the Anjou-Saumur and Touraine regions. In recent years, there has been a surge in the growth of these wines, as they offer a good-value alternative to pricier bottle-fermented sparkling options. Crémant de Loire is found in blanc and rosé styles, and the permitted varieties are plentiful: Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, and Orbois are the white varieties; reds include Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Grolleau Noir, Grolleau Gris, Pineau d’Aunis, and Pinot Noir. The regulations for bottle aging are the same as those for Saumur Mousseux, with a minimum of nine months on lees following a second fermentation in bottle. Permitted yields are slightly higher for Crémant de Loire (74 hectoliters per hectare) than for Saumur Mousseux (67 hectoliters per hectare), and a key difference in production is that grapes destined for crémant must be harvested by hand. Saumur Puy-Notre-Dame The geographic designation of Saumur Puy-Notre-Dame was added to Saumur AOC in 2009. It is a superior designation for a 60-hectare area centered around the small town of Le Puy-Notre-Dame, the highest point in the region, some 20 kilometers south of Saumur. These wines have higher concentration: at harvest, the grapes must have potential alcohol levels of 12%, higher than Saumur Rouge’s 10.5%. Yields are also lower (50 hectoliters per hectare versus 57 for Saumur), and the wines cannot be chaptalized. The vines are planted at around 80 meters above sea level. Composed of at least 85% Cabernet Franc, with the balance coming from Cabernet Sauvignon, these wines are deeply colored and more structured than those of Saumur. Saumur-Champigny The jewel in the Saumur crown is Saumur-Champigny AOC . This 1,600-hectare region covers nine adjoining villages on a plateau above the town of Saumur. The name derives from the Latin campus ignis (field of fire), perhaps a reference to the high temperatures in this protected location, which is bordered to the south by the forest of Fontevraud, and to the east and west by the rivers Loire and Thouet. The soil is clay and tuffeau limestone, which both provides drainage and retains moisture, creating ideal conditions for the vines to thrive. Cabernet Franc must account for at least 85% of a Saumur-Champigny wine, but this figure is almost always 100%. These wines are among the most highly regarded in the Loire Valley; the best show the elegance, freshness, fragrance, and finesse that Loire Cabernet Franc can achieve. Highly approachable when young, the wines have generous fruit and supple tannins. The finest, such as the wines of Clos Rougeard, will improve for a decade or more. Haut-Poitou The small region of Haut-Poitou , granted appellation status in 2011, covers an area of 110 hectares south of the town of Chinon. The altitude is relatively high, at up to 150 meters above sea level. Wines may be red, white, or rosé. More than 80% of production consists of whites from primarily Sauvignon Blanc, with an allowance of up to 40% Sauvignon Gris. Reds are 60% Cabernet Franc, which may be blended with Gamay, Pinot Noir, and Merlot. A small amount of rosé is made from Cabernet Franc, Pinot Noir, and Gamay. Haut-Poitou wines are fruit-driven and intended for early consumption largely within France. Touraine The Touraine wine region and catchall Touraine appellation begin a few miles east of the city of Saumur and continue eastward along the Loire until slightly beyond the town of Blois. The majority of the appellation’s 4,450 hectares of vineyard lie between the Loire and Cher rivers, which meet slightly west of the city of Tours. It is a vast area, comprising 143 wine villages. Touraine sits in the Paris Basin, where the diverse soils include tuffeau , sand, clay, and flint, and alluvial terraces also have deposits of gravel. The climate varies, becoming increasingly continental toward the east, with decreasing rainfall (650 millimeters annually in the west of the region versus 550 millimeters in the east). Within the Touraine region, there are many individual appellations that have been successful within and beyond France’s borders, particularly Vouvray, Chinon, Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil, and Bourgueil. There are several lesser-known areas that intrigue wine lovers, including the Cour-Cheverny appellation. The main grape varieties of Anjou-Saumur—Chenin Blanc and Cabernet Franc—are also grown in Touraine, particularly in the western half. But the primary white grape planted in the Touraine appellation is Sauvignon Blanc, at 43% of plantings (Chenin Blanc accounts for just 7%). The dominance of Sauvignon Blanc is largely a reflection of market demand; growers have planted it to replace less successful varieties. Gamay is the most planted red variety with 21% of vineyard area, followed by Cabernet Franc with 10% and Côt with 8%. While varietal wines dominate in Pays Nantais, Anjou-Saumur, and the Central Vineyards, blends are more common in the Touraine region, particularly red and rosé blends. Here, Cabernet Franc is joined by Côt, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir, and Gamay. Click to enlarge and zoom in Viticulture in Touraine began in the first century CE with the introduction of the vine by the Romans. Wine was first consumed locally, then boosted by the arrival of the royal court and the 1577 law banning the sale of wine made within the Paris region. Notable wine villages today, including Vouvray and Chinon, were largely unknown until the 17 th and 18 th centuries. Over time, demand grew for wines that could be transported along the many waterways to the country’s capital. By the mid-19 th century, it was calculated that two-thirds of Touraine’s wine production was drunk outside the region. Despite the positive reputation of Vouvray, Touraine reds were primarily seen as a good blending partner because of their deep color rather than their intrinsic qualities. Internationally, Touraine AOC is viewed as a source of good-value white wines compared with Sancerre or Pouilly-Fumé. In an effort to improve Touraine's reputation, five small denominations have emerged within the AOC, collectively accounting for just 7% of Touraine’s production. Touraine Oisly is a small, 12-producer appellation focused solely on lees-aged Sauvignon Blanc grown on sand and clay, with rounded styles most typical. The largest of the five denominations is Touraine Chenonceaux, whose white wines, made exclusively from Sauvignon Blanc, are produced on well-draining slopes along the Cher River. Yields for Chenonceaux are stricter than those for Touraine AOC (60 hectoliters per hectare versus 65). The wines must be approved by a tasting panel. Gentle, fruity red blends, which must be between 65% and 80% Côt with a minimum 10% Cabernet Franc, are also permitted under Touraine Chenonceaux. In Touraine-Amboise, Touraine-Azay-le-Rideau, and Touraine-Mesland, Chenin Blanc is the dominant white grape. In Touraine-Mesland, Chenin Blanc can be blended with a small amount of Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay. There are less than a dozen producers in this small appellation, and very little wine is exported. The soils are flinty sands. A small amount of rosé and red is made using Gamay and Cabernet Franc. Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil and Bourgueil Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil and Bourgueil are contiguous AOCs on the north bank of the Loire River. Both allow red and rosé styles, with Cabernet Franc dominating the final wines, though rosé accounts for only a small percentage of production. Both also require the same maximum yield (55 hectoliters per hectare). Many local producers have vineyards in both appellations and suggest that the creation of two appellations was driven more by politics than terroir. Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil (1,069 hectares), which is centered on the village of the same name, is slightly smaller than Bourgueil (1,220 hectares), to the east, which comprises six villages, including Bourgueil itself. The river is south of both appellations’ vineyards, and they are protected from cold northerly winds by a forested hilltop. The finest, most ageworthy wines are made from the vineyards that slope upward toward this forest on tuffeau -clay soils. At the bottom of this hillside, there is a large terrace dominated by well-drained sandy-gravel soils, which yields lighter-bodied, earlier-drinking wine styles in both appellations. Most of Saint-Nicolas’s vineyards and just half of Bourgueil’s sit on this alluvial terrace. The rest of Bourgueil’s vineyards are on the chalky-clay soils of the hillsides, contributing to this appellation’s greater reputation for rich yet elegant styles that can be drunk at two years, with some examples drinking well beyond two decades. Saint-Nicolas also has around 100 hectares of vineyard near the river on silty-gravel soils, further contributing to the region’s production of easy-drinking, fruity wines. A Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil and a Bourgueil grown on the same sandy-gravel terrace, however, are difficult to differentiate in a blind tasting. It is easier to distinguish two Bourgueil wines sourced from different soil types. Viticultural challenges in this area include frost, particularly on the flatter terraces; the slopes are less affected. Since the early 1990s, the producers of Saint-Nicolas have been working collectively to minimize frost damage, purchasing frost fans and installing sprinkler systems. Following a severe frost in 2016, the project was enlarged. At a cost of €2 million, an area of about 420 hectares, or two-fifths of the appellation, now relies on the appellation-financed frost protection systems. In the summer months, drought has been increasingly common, and those on the well-draining alluvial terraces suffer most. Irrigation is not permitted per EU rules. On the chalky-clay slopes, the vines are better able to withstand dry spells, but erosion can be a problem, particularly with storms and erratic weather conditions caused by climate change. Cover crops are often planted between the rows to reduce damage. The cooler nature of the clay-chalk soils generally means the picking begins later in these areas than in the vineyards of sandy-gravel soils, which heat up quickly. In the winery, grapes tend to be vinified according to soil. The sandy-gravel soils typically yield lighter, fruity styles; to emphasize these qualities, winemakers will ferment the grapes at cooler temperatures and extract gently to make an easy-drinking, light-in-tannin wine with little oak influence. Fermentation temperatures are likely to be a couple of degrees higher for the grapes sourced from the clay-chalk hillside, with longer maceration times and maturation in oak barrel. Chinon Chinon , located south of the Loire River, is the Loire Valley’s largest red-producing appellation. Uniquely, Chinon also allows for white and rosé wine production. The region began exporting wine via the port of Nantes in the 18 th century, and that early wine was most likely white, as demanded by Dutch traders. Today, Chinon continues to produce white wines from Chenin Blanc, but there are only 74 hectares planted, equivalent to just 3% of production. The vineyards of Chinon now cover 2,397 hectares of land, but when the region attained AOC status, in 1937, there were just 550 hectares of vines. At that time and into the next decade, it was still rebuilding its vineyards after phylloxera, Prussian occupation (1870–1871), and German occupation during World War II, and growing crops for food was more important than making wine. Today, two in five wine producers also grow other crops. From the confluence of the Vienne and Loire Rivers, Chinon’s vineyards extend southeast for more than 25 kilometers, encompassing 26 villages, from Savigny-en-Véron in the west to Crouzilles in the east, with the picturesque town of Chinon at the center. Vineyards sit on both sides of the Vienne, most on the north bank, where plantings reach an altitude of about 100 meters. There are many different exposures, including some north-facing vineyards on the south bank of the Vienne. View of Chinon from Clos du Chêne Vert (Credit: Domaine Charles Joguet) While as many as 50 different soil types were identified in a 1978 university thesis by Jacky Dupont, Chinon is best understood by its three main soils. First, alluvial terraces made of sand, silt, and river gravels can be found on lower, flatter lands close to the river, as well as in the wedge of the appellation where the Loire and Vienne meet, in western Chinon. Known as the Véron peninsula, this area has highly sandy soils that are free draining and warm up quickly, making vines in this part of the appellation early to bud and early to ripen. The second soil is tuffeau mixed with clay, found on the coteaux (hillsides), where the vineyards rise upward, away from the river and the valley floor. Here, the limestone is yellow, unlike the white chalks of Saumur. The coteaux run almost continuously from Chinon to Avon-les-Roches, nearly 20 kilometers. This is where many of the appellation’s most prized vineyards, such as Le Clos de l’Olive, Le Chêne Vert, and La Croix Boissée, are located. If there were grand cru vineyards in Chinon, the vast majority would be at these sites, which produce the most elegant, densely concentrated, chalky-textured, and ageworthy Cabernet Franc. Chinon’s third terroir is generally found at the top of the hillsides, where sand and clay mix with flint; it is also found on the hillocks, known as puys, found in the Véron peninsula. These soils, while not considered as prestigious as the clay-limestone of the coteaux , also yield high-quality wines. The climate in Chinon is influenced by nearby bodies of water: the Atlantic Ocean and the confluence of the Vienne and Loire Rivers. It is mild, with a warm summer, a high number of sunshine hours, and relatively low rainfall. Climate change is bringing challenges, however, with drought occurring more often. A lack of water particularly affects vines on the free-draining sandy-gravel soils, where moisture is not readily retained. Spring frosts and hail have wiped out some growers’ crops entirely in recent years. As a result, the maximum yield of 55 hectoliters per hectare is rarely reached. There is a focus on quality, and 45% of the vineyard area is either organic or in conversion, according to the appellation. As in Bourgueil, the wines of Chinon are generally vinified by terroir. The grapes picked from the sandy-gravel soils are suited to making fresh, fruity, unoaked wines. They are often machine harvested, fermented in inert vessels, macerated for a brief period, and bottled relatively early for consumption in the short term (two to five years). Meanwhile, the finest fruit sourced from the clay-limestone coteaux is hand-picked, gently extracted, treated to a long maceration, and fermented and aged in some oak, with a proportion of new wood. Around half of the producers use up to 25% new wood, and just 5% use a high proportion (75% to 100%). These wines are seriously concentrated, offering fragrant red and black fruit (depending on the vintage), an elegant mouthfeel, and a fine line of tension. Cabernet Franc is prone to reduction, and producers can manage this tendency by using regular racking to introduce oxygen to avoid off-flavors. Most Chinon producers make a rosé, a practice that has increased in recent years because of market demand. Only a small number of producers make their rosé from direct pressing exclusively; more often, winemakers employ the saigné e method or a combination of techniques. The color of the resulting wines is often salmon pink, with red fruit, floral, and citrus notes combining to make a refreshing style. The relatively obscure Chenin Blanc from Chinon is made in a variety of different styles, generally yielding wines with subtle orchard fruit, supple texture, and refreshing acidity. Vouvray Winemaking in the famed appellation of Vouvray , situated on the outskirts of Tours, is thought to have begun in the fourth century, though the wines didn’t enjoy export success until much later. In the 17 th century, the Dutch started to export Vouvray, which became more popular as new transport links—first the canals, then the railways—opened new markets. By the mid-19 th century, Vouvray was the shining star of the Touraine wine region, gaining international recognition. Yet in 1848, a study showed that most of its wines were still considered fairly ordinary: 7% of the vineyards were classified as first class, 7% as second class, and the rest (86%) as “very ordinary.” While many winegrowers replanted with hybrids after the arrival of phylloxera, in 1882, Chenin Blanc was most successful. In the early 20 th century, wine adulteration was widespread. In the absence of appellation laws, still white wines from the Loire were transported to Reims and Épernay, where they were made into sparkling wines and labeled as Champagne. There were also unscrupulous dealers in the Loire who were mislabeling their poor-quality whites as Vouvray, which by this time had developed a good reputation. In 1923, locals threatened to take an entire village of producers to court for misusing the Vouvray name. The appellation system aimed to remedy the issues of wine fraud, and in 1936 Vouvray became a white wine appellation based on Chenin Blanc (with the little-known Orbois contributing a maximum of 5% to the blend). Tuffeau limestone is the basis of Vouvray. Some vineyards sit almost directly on the limestone, but most have a topsoil of clay or flint, or both, in varying proportions. The slopes are referred to as premi è res c ô tes, where the topsoil is clay-flint, a soil known locally as perruches . Grapes grown here are used for the best wines, which are the most delicate and fine—although it’s difficult for an outsider to pinpoint where the c ô tes begin and end. On the rolling plateau, the deeper, clay-rich topsoils create a cooler, damper environment, and thus the grapes take longer to ripen and may not attain the same level of ripeness as those on the c ô tes . As a result, many of the grapes grown on the plateau are destined for base wines for sparkling Vouvray, which requires a potential alcohol of just 9.5% compared with 11% for still wine. The premi è res c ô tes receive better sun exposure, and the topsoil is thinner, allowing the vines to reach the limestone more easily. There are many shades of Vouvray, from sparkling to still, dry to botrytized, and everything in between. And within each category, there are many nuances. For example, very dry styles (less than two grams of residual sugar per liter) are very much in vogue. Dry styles are more popular than sweeter styles, but they can be lean and flinty or richly ripe and oaked, depending on the site, the season, and the producer. Sparkling wines also vary, from high-yielding, machine-harvested, traditional method fizz destined for supermarkets to hand-picked, small-batch, ancestral method cuv é es . Although 60% of Vouvray production is sparkling wine, it is rarely seen in export markets: 9 out of 10 bottles of sparkling Vouvray are consumed in France, while 2 out of 3 bottles of still Vouvray are shipped overseas. Traditionally, Vouvray producers attempted to make all styles, from dry to sweet, in the same year and sometimes from the same vines, achieved by making several passes through the vineyard during the harvest period. This was not possible, however, when the grapes did not ripen enough to make sweet styles, and thus these wines were highly prized in part for their rarity. But climate change has made it possible to achieve higher levels of ripeness more consistently and produce sweet wines annually. Improved ripeness levels and lower acidity levels also make the production of balanced dry whites much easier; there is no need for sugar to hide very high levels of acidity or harsh phenolics. In some warmer years, like 2018 and 2020, grape sugars can rise quickly, creating wines that have potential alcohol levels above 14% or even 14.5%, which are more suited to demi-sec styles than unbalanced, high-alcohol, sec styles. The cool 2021 season also produced many dry Vouvray wines that would have benefited from more residual sugar to counter their bracing acidity. The maximum permitted residual sugar for a Vouvray sec is 8 grams per liter (the level can be adjusted depending on the acidity content). Some producers claim that only dry Vouvray can provide a true expression of site; others fiercely disagree, claiming that there are no other places in the world that can make demi-sec or moelleux Chenin Blanc with such harmony and finesse. Falling between sec and demi-sec styles is sec tendre, an unofficial but widely used term for wines with a subtle sweetness that rounds out the midpalate and contributes texture. Montlouis-sur-Loire The Montlouis-sur-Loire AOC sits on the south side of the Loire River, opposite Vouvray on the north bank. It is a much smaller appellation, with just 442 hectares of vines compared with Vouvray’s 2,234 hectares. Its size is limited by the Cher River to the south, sandwiching the vineyard between two rivers. Vines have been grown here since the fifth century CE, but the wines were long sold under the name Vouvray. Like Vouvray, Montlouis-sur-Loire is an appellation for white wine only, making both still and sparkling Chenin Blanc. In addition to traditional method sparkling wines, the appellation includes a pétillant category, for delicately sparkling wines (1.5 to 2 bars), and since 2020 the cahier des charges has incorporated pétillant naturel. Vin Mousseux á Fermentation Unique, produced from just one fermentation, must spend a minimum of nine months on lees and must be disgorged, which is not always the case with pét-nat. In the Montlouis vineyards, the planting density is very similar to that of Vouvray, while the yields (52 hectoliters per hectare for still, 65 hectoliters per hectare for sparkling) are identical. Montlouis also produces the full range of styles, from dry to sweet. The vineyards of Montlouis, however, either sit on a plateau or face the Cher rather than the Loire, and the topsoils are mainly a blend of clay and flint. The bedrock is yellow limestone from the Turonian era. Montlouis has a high percentage of young producers because of the lower cost of land compared with that of Vouvray. Almost half the producers farm organically and hand-harvest. Some producers have vineyards in Vouvray, but, as the law states that Vouvray must be vinified in Vouvray, those with cellars only in Montlouis must label their wines as Vin de France. Cheverny The Cheverny appellation was created in 1993, but the area has long made wine: there are records of vineyards dating back to the Middle Ages, and Cheverny’s viticultural importance increased following the 1577 law forbidding the sale of wine made in the region around Paris. It now covers 650 hectares south and east of the city of Blois. Cheverny wines are always blends: the whites are made predominantly from Sauvignon Blanc, with Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, or Orbois. For the reds, Pinot Noir must account for 60% to 85% of a blend, with Gamay or, occasionally, Cabernet Franc or Côt included. The vineyards grow on alluvial soils. The white wines tend to be aromatic, fresh, and round, while the reds are typically fresh, fruity, and easy to drink. Cour-Cheverny The unique 50-hectare Cour-Cheverny appellation produces white wine from Romorantin. Grown here on alluvial soils of sand with either clay or gravel, Romorantin vines produce small berries and are relatively productive. The variety is high in acidity and can often be surprisingly full in body. The wines are typically dry, but late-harvest sweet wines are occasionally produced. Some of the best wines are made from old, ungrafted vines. Jasnières Jasnières is a small (70-hectare) appellation exclusively for Chenin Blanc, located 50 kilometers north of Tours on the Loir River. In this cool enclave, the grapes can ripen only because of their favorable position on southeast-facing slopes above the river. A forest to the north protects the vines from cold winds. Jasnières has a reputation for very steely, firm wines that can take years—even decades—to evolve. Climate change, however, may increase fruit maturity, helping make the wines more accessible in their youth. When conditions permit, botrytized wines can be made. Coteaux du Vendômois Sitting along the banks of the Loir River, the 120-hectare Coteaux du Vendômois AOC is named after the town of Vendôme. Chenin Blanc is the white variety of choice, with up to 20% Chardonnay permitted, but the most distinctive aspect of this appellation is its use of Pineau d’Aunis to make both its reds and vins gris . The variety typically yields pale-hued wines that are light, vivacious, and peppery. Central Vineyards Sancerre The likely birthplace of Sauvignon Blanc, Sancerre yields wines that provide the benchmark for the variety around the world. A two-hour drive south of Paris, Sancerre is a bucolic hilltop town, voted France’s favorite village in 2021. The appellation radiates outward from Sancerre and comprises 16 villages and hamlets, covering just shy of 3,000 hectares on the west (left) bank of the Loire River. Click to enlarge and zoom in It is thought that vines were first planted in the area around the second century CE in the neighboring village of Saint-Satur, then known as Gordona. Vines were again recorded by Grégoire of Tours in 582. Sancerre wines likely became more famous when Etienne I (1133–1190), the Count of Sancerre, also held the role of France’s grand bouteiller (grand butler), whose duties included sourcing the royal wine supply. Sauvignon Blanc, then referred to as Sauvignon Fumé, was first recorded as growing in Sancerre and Pouilly in 1783, and the area became known for its fine white wines, particularly those from the village of Chavignol. Following phylloxera, large swaths of the vineyard area were replanted with Chasselas, a lucrative table grape that was much desired in Paris, as well as Gamay. But Chasselas was not considered a quality wine grape, and farmers started experimenting with Sauvignon Blanc. In 1936, the Sancerre appellation was created exclusively for Sauvignon Blanc wines, and in 1959 red and rosé wines made solely from Pinot Noir were incorporated into the appellation. Today, Sancerre is an export-focused appellation. In 2020, exports totaled 82,147 hectoliters, worth €84.36 million. This is equivalent to €10.27 per liter, while Loire whites sold for, on average, €6.95 per liter. The premium on Sancerre is linked to supply and demand as well as the elevated price of land. The appellation of Sancerre rises from the river valley, culminating in La Cuesta, the town’s highest point, at 356 meters altitude. The appellation’s main divide runs through the hillside village from which it takes its name. The Sancerre and Thauvenay fault lines run north-south, with the land on the eastern side of the faults cascading toward the river. Here, flinty clay is the main soil type. West of both the town of Sancerre and these fault lines, the vineyards mainly sit at elevations between 200 and 300 meters and are planted on a rolling landscape. There are many different exposures, from north to south and east to west. The hills reveal layers of sedimentary rock, which have shifted and eroded over hundreds of millions of years. But the bedrock is generally Jurassic limestone, whether Kimmeridgian, Portlandian, or even Oxfordian. There are three main soil types in Sancerre. Terres blanches, named for the white appearance of the soils in the summer sunshine, are Kimmeridgian marls, which consist of clay and limestone. The word c aillottes (or griottes ) refers to limestone pebbles of differing sizes. The third soil, silex , is rich in flint and found mostly on the eastern slopes of Sancerre. T erres blanches are relatively cool, and grapes take longer to ripen on these soils than on caillottes . Sancerre grown on Kimmeridgian marls tends to be more complex and fuller bodied, while caillottes typically produce more open, fruity wines. Silex generally yields powerful, firm, and even lightly bitter styles. It is common for producers to blend grapes from different sites to create their main white Sancerre cuv é es . Michel Redde’s Barre à Mine vineyard in Pouilly-Fumé with a view toward the hilltop town of Sancerre (Credit: Rebecca Gibb) Since the 1990s, there has also been a rise in single-vineyard cuv é es and terroir cuv é es , which seek to express one of more than 400 lieux-dits or a specific soil type. It is increasingly common to find a vineyard name—for example, Le Chêne Marchand or Les Monts Damnés—on a Sancerre label. The name of a soil, such as terres blanches , might also appear. While it is doubtful that Sancerre drinkers are as interested in terroir as Burgundy lovers, Catherine Petrie’s Master of Wine research paper noted that both single-vineyard and terroir wines attracted a significant premium compared with a domaine’s classic, typically larger-volume white Sancerre. In his book Les t erroirs s ancerrois , Thibaut Boulay, a Sancerre vigneron and professor of history at Tours University, provides evidence that the term climat was recorded in Sancerre several centuries before the Burgundians documented it. Sancerre’s production is overwhelmingly focused on white wine, which accounts for 85% of the appellation’s production. Red wine represents around 10% of Sancerre’s production, with rosé accounting for 5%. Yet Pinot Noir has a long history in Sancerre. According to John the Magnificent (1340–1416), the duke of Auvergne and Berry, which included Sancerre, the area’s Pinot Noir wines were “the best in the kingdom.” They were also a favorite of Louis XVI (1754–1793). In 1816, the Paris wine merchant André Jullien published Topographie de tous les vignobles connus, arguably the first modern wine guide, and noted that Sancerre “is surrounded by vineyards that produce [red] wines with good color, moderate alcohol and a good taste.” Pinot Noir was the main variety and remained dominant until phylloxera wiped out the vineyards. White varieties were favored during the replanting phase, and in 1936 Sauvignon Blanc became the sole grape of the Sancerre appellation. Red and rosé wines made from Pinot Noir joined the appellation 23 years later. Fruit and freshness are key components in red Sancerre, but the range of styles is diverse. Although red Sancerre was once seen as a lowly brasserie wine, there are now fine, ageworthy examples. Pinot Noir vineyards are planted on both sides of Sancerre’s fault lines, making both limestone- and flint-based expressions, as well as on different exposures with varying clones. In the winery, there are myriad choices that can be made to yield a desired style. Winemakers often amend their approaches depending on the season’s fruit. It is clear that climate change has contributed to increasingly ripe, red styles that have the structure for oak maturation, while greater fruit maturity also enables a higher percentage of whole clusters to be used, if desired. There is a trend toward less extraction across the whole Loire Valley, producing less tannic, drying styles. Rosé Sancerre must be dry and produced solely from Pinot Noir, and the wines are generally a pale salmon hue. The saigné e method is used most often, although Alphonse Mellot’s Vingt Mille Pieds Sous Sancerre is a serious rosé, made from vines planted at the incredibly high density of 20,000 vines per hectare. Pouilly-Fumé The Pouilly-Fumé AOC is located at the midpoint of the Loire River. Sitting on the eastern (right) bank of the river, opposite Sancerre, this smaller appellation (1,333 hectares) is less prestigious than Sancerre and lacks some of its romantic allure. Today, Pouilly-Fumé focuses exclusively on still, dry white wines produced from Sauvignon Blanc, but it is believed that grapes have been grown here since at least the fifth century CE. According to the appellation’s cahier de s charges, the vineyard area boomed under the stewardship of Benedictine monks, and the opening of the Briare Canal in 1642 connected the thirsty Parisian market to Pouilly-Fumé’s winemakers. When the railway arrived in the mid-19 th century, travel time to Paris was significantly reduced, and there was great demand for table grapes, which led to widespread planting of Chasselas. Following the devastation of phylloxera, Sauvignon Blanc became the area’s signature variety, frequently blended with Chasselas. While plantings of Chasselas remain, the variety has its own appellation: Pouilly-sur-Loire. Typically, Chasselas ripens 7 to 10 days before Sauvignon Blanc. There are seven villages within Pouilly-Fumé’s borders, including Pouilly and the highest point, Saint-Andelain, which is home to its most famous producer, Domaine Didier Dagueneau (although its wines have been labeled as Vin de France since the 2017 vintage). The name Pouilly-Fumé results from Sauvignon Blanc’s historic local name, Blanc Fumé de Pouilly, literally, “smoked white of Pouilly.” The name was given not because of the wine’s flavor but because the berries developed a harmless, smoke-colored bloom at maturity. Pouilly-Fumé runs for about 20 kilometers along the river and has a variety of soils. Around the village of Saint-Andelain, home to Dagueneau’s famed Silex cuv é e , the soil composition is predominantly flint-clay. Around the unassuming village of Pouilly-sur-Loire, clay-limestone Kimmeridgian marls peppered with oyster shells are common. In these cooler soils, grapes ripen later and yield rounded, fuller-bodied wines that are typically longer lived. The vineyards in the northeast of the appellation are more likely to be planted on the limestone pebbles known as caillottes and make earlier-drinking, fruiter wines, as in Sancerre. In general, Pouilly-Fumé producers start harvest a few days after Sancerre. Many Pouilly-Fumé producers own or rent vineyards in Sancerre. It is no easy task to distinguish one appellation from the other, even for locals. Two wines grown on flint, in Pouilly and in Sancerre, may have more in common than two Sancerre wines tasted side by side. Pouilly-sur-Loire There are just 30 hectares of Chasselas planted in Pouilly-sur-Loire AOC , and the grape is used to make nonaromatic, dry white wines. Chasselas is an early ripening, vigorous variety and was favored in the past for its reliable and abundant crops. It was used as a table grape for the Parisian food market and was highly profitable in the late 1800s. According to Jacky Rigaux’s Pouilly-Fum é: Jewel of the Loire Valley (2009) , 3,000 metric tonnes of grapes were shipped from the station of Pouilly in 1865 alone. But after the railway’s extension to warm southern France, Paris no longer wanted Pouilly’s grapes, and the region returned to wine production. There are no producers specializing in the wines of Pouilly-sur-Loire, though a few fine Pouilly-Fumé producers, such as Michel Redde and Jonathan Pabiot, focus on making Chasselas wines of concentration and character through low yields and careful attention in the vineyard. Other Regions Surrounding the Loire’s twin star appellations of Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé are a further five AOC regions and two IGPs, which can provide good-value alternatives to the wines of their more renowned neighbors, often in a similar style. While Sauvignon Blanc is by far the most planted grape, red and rosé still wines are also made. These regions are small; all together, they account for only 25% of the production of the Central Vineyards area, while Pouilly-Fumé is at 25% and Sancerre at 50%. Lacking the international cachet of Sancerre or Pouilly-Fumé, relatively few of these wines are exported. Menetou-Salon The Mentetou-Salon vineyard area forms a continuation of that of Sancerre, spreading southwest, away from the Loire, toward the city of Bourges. The most significant of the satellite appellations, it covers 627 hectares across 10 villages. Vines grow on Portlandian and Kimmeridgian limestone soils, and production mirrors Sancerre in style. Sauvignon Blanc and Pinot Noir are the only permitted varieties for whites, reds, and rosés, and whites dominate. The vineyards around the charming village of Morogues, in the heart of the appellation, are densely planted on gently rolling hills interspersed with trees and hedges, and there is visible biodiversity. Menetou-Salon has more organic vineyards than any other appellation in the Central Vineyards. The hills are somewhat lower than those of Sancerre, so vines suffer less stress and grapes typically ripen a week earlier. Menetou-Salon wines are less austere than those grown closer to the Loire River, but they can be equally long lived. Quincy Southwest of Bourges, the vineyards of Quincy and Reuilly are clustered around two Loire tributaries. The Quincy vineyard is 332 hectares and entirely devoted to Sauvignon Blanc. The vines grow almost wholly on the left bank of the Cher, on an ancient terrace of sand-based soils with gravel, clay, and silt. The climate is cool, humid, and prone to frost, but crop losses from frosts these days are minimal, thanks to the farsighted co-operative investment of the vignerons of Quincy, who purchased 66 wind machines back in 2000. Because the appellation’s vineyards are so concentrated, nearly all are covered by the fans, a boon to Quincy growers in years like 2021, when the whole of France suffered enormous losses from frost. Quincy wines are popular in France, and with good reason. They are assertive and fruity, with a zesty freshness. Reuilly The 289-hectare appellation of Reuilly sits just southwest of Quincy, in the valley of the Arnon River. The landscape here is different from that of surrounding areas, with scattered parcels of vines far outnumbered by fields of cereal crops, and with sweeping vistas punctuated by wind turbines. The land is lower, and this, combined with hot, dry summers, leads to earlier harvests than in Quincy. Around half of the production is Sauvignon Blanc, and the warmer conditions produce rounder, softer whites than those of Quincy. Reuilly was granted appellation status for reds and rosés in 1961. Today, the region produces some light red wines from Pinot Noir and, perhaps most notably, pale, aromatic rosés ( vins gris ) from Pinot Gris, a rare variety in the Loire Valley. Coteaux du Giennois The Coteaux du Giennois extends across a narrow, 50-kilometer strip on the right bank of the Loire, but vines cover less than 200 hectares of this area. Named after the city of Gien to the north, the vineyards are concentrated mostly in the far south, close to the Pouilly-Fumé appellation. A relatively recent appellation, Coteaux du Giennois graduated from VDQS to AOC in 1998. Vines are planted on south- and southwest-facing flint and limestone hills, some facing Sancerre across the river. The climate is a little cooler than that of Sancerre, more like neighboring Pouilly-Fumé. Whites from Sauvignon Blanc account for 70% of production, offering early-drinking, fresh wines with varietal typicity. Reds and rosés can be light and elegant, made from blends of Pinot Noir and Gamay. Côtes de la Charité The Central Vineyards region has two small IGPs, both formerly classified as Vin de Pays and both on the right bank of the Loire. Côtes de la Charité IGP covers 50 hectares south of Pouilly, in a largely wooded area on calcareous clay soils. Slightly more white wine than red is produced, from Chardonnay and Pinot Gris. Pinot Noir is grown for reds, and a little rosé is also made. Coteaux de Tannay Coteaux de Tannay is an IGP of just 25 hectares east of the main Coteaux du Giennois vineyard area. A range of grapes are grown on calcareous soils. White wines dominate, made from Chardonnay, Pinot Blanc, Melon B, Pinot Gris, and Auxerrois. Reds, based on Pinot Noir and Gamay, account for 25% of production. A small amount of rosé is also made. Orléans Created in 2006, Orléans AOC includes vineyards on both banks of the Loire around the city of Orléans and is distinctive for its use of Pinot Meunier. This 60-hectare appellation makes red, white, and rosé styles, predominantly on sandy-gravel soils south of the river, with a small portion on the chalky north bank. In both the rosé and red wines, Pinot Meunier must compose a majority of the blend. The whites, which are generally early drinking, are Chardonnay dominant, with a small amount of Pinot Gris permitted. Orléans-Cléry The 20-hectare red wine appellation Orléans-Cléry sits southwest of the city of Orléans on the right bank of the Loire. Produced solely from Cabernet Franc on sandy-gravel terraces, the wines are light in body and gently spiced. Central France Most wine maps of the Loire Valley show a vineyard that starts in the middle of France, at Sancerre. But by the time the Loire River has reached this point, it has already flowed halfway along its course. The Loire’s source is in the Massif Central, a volcanic region far from the tourist hordes and fairy-tale castles of Touraine and Anjou. Geographically closer to Burgundy than most of the other Loire vineyards (on a clear day the vineyards of the Mâconnais are visible from the Côte Roannaise), the upper Loire focuses on a set of grape varieties also influenced by Burgundy: Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and Gamay. Even so, the winemakers consider themselves firmly part of the Loire. These far-flung pockets of vines may be hidden away, but they are arguably some of the most dynamic appellations in the Loire Valley, a region usually known more for its storied traditions than its novelty value. This area is comparatively very recently established, with the Loire Volcanique growers’ association formed in late 2019 and the oldest appellation dating to 1994, and the winemakers are driven by youthful enthusiasm. Even the soils are young here, at not even a million years old. Four appellations make up the Central France region: Saint-Pourçain, Côtes d’Auvergne, Côtes du Forez, and Côte Roannaise. There are two IGP denominations as well, IGP d’Urfé and IGP Puy de Dôme. Saint-Pourçain The Saint-Pourçain vineyards extend across 600 hectares in a rural and picturesque region of small fields, hedgerows, wildflowers, and Charolais cows, all centered around the town of Saint-Pourçain-sur-Sioule. Formerly a VDQS, it was granted appellation status in 2009. The vines grow in an area that is 30 kilometers from north to south, just west of the Allier, a Loire tributary. Soils are sandy, with islands of granite, and a band of clay-limestone runs down the center of the appellation. Wines of all colors are made here. Rosés are 100% Gamay, while reds must be blends of Pinot Noir and Gamay. Whites are from Chardonnay and Tressallier (also known as Sacy), a variety grown almost nowhere else and of which the locals are particularly proud. The requirement to blend it with Chardonnay has led some of the more independently minded growers to make 100% Tressallier as Vin de France. This unique, appealing wine sells quickly, with no apparent need of an appellation to endorse it. Côtes d’Auvergne An hour’s drive south of Saint-Pourçain is Côtes d’Auvergne , an appellation granted in 2010. Located mostly south of the industrial city of Clermont-Ferrand, it was an important winegrowing area encompassing thousands of hectares in the years before phylloxera. Now, it is just 350 hectares. The soil is volcanic here: the conic remnants of the Puy mountain chain loom all around. In some of the best vineyards, such as Corent, which is itself an old volcano, vines grow directly on volcanic ash deposits. Corent is one of the five crus of the appellation and is authorized only for production of rosé. The other four—Boudes, Madargue, Chanturgue, and Châteaugay—are authorized solely for red. All reds and rosés of the Côtes d’Auvergne are made from Gamay, possibly with a minority percentage of Pinot Noir; whites must be 100% Chardonnay. The wines are generally light and refreshing in style, with the fruit grown at altitudes of 350 to 550 meters above sea level. Côtes du Forez East of the Côtes d’Auvergne and across the Forez mountains are the remaining two vineyards of the upper Loire. Both are a short distance from the Loire, which flows north and is situated east of the vineyards. The more southerly of the two appellations is Côtes du Forez , an AOC of 150 hectares, granted in 2000. The appellation is for reds and rosés only, from 100% Gamay. Some producers grow varieties as varied as Roussanne, Viognier, Pinot Noir, Riesling, and Syrah, bottled under the IGP d’Urfé label. There are also red wines made from Gamaret, a Swiss-derived cross between Gamay and Reichensteiner that is usefully less susceptible to rot than Gamay. Côte Roannaise North of Côtes du Forez is the 215-hectare Côte Roannaise , a growing area with a 25-kilometer stretch of east-facing vineyards in the foothills of the Madeleine mountains, 400 to 500 meters above sea level. An AOC since 1994, this is Gamay country. The appellation is for reds and rosés only, made exclusively from Gamay. Like its sister appellation to the south, it is also home to a wide range of grapes made into IGP d’Urfé wines. The preferred clone is Gamay Saint-Romain, which has a conveniently upright growth habit and smaller berries than the Gamay of nearby Beaujolais, as well as a distinctly peppery quality. Producers here are using it to make serious and attention-worthy wines. Bibliography Asselin, Christian, Loïc Bienassis, Marie-Luce Demonet, François de Izarra, Alain Lecomte, Jean-Max Manceau, Laurence Peydro, Olivier Poussier, Muriel Roudaut, and Marie-Ève Scheffer. Chinon: Voyage au pays de Rabelais . Encyclopédies du Voyage. Gallimard, 2017. Boulay, Thibaut. Les t erroirs s ancerrois: Un héritage géologique, c ulturel e t i mmatériel . Loubatières, 2020. Brouard, Emmanuel. La Loire e t s es v ins: Deux m ille a ns d’ histoire(s) e t d e c ommerce . Flammarion, 2021. “Changement climatique à l'échelle de 2 vignobles en Val de Loire.” Accessed July 22, 2022. https://www.techniloire.com/fiche-technique/changement-climatique-lechelle-de-2-vignobles-en-val-de-loire . Chrétien, Philippe. “Adaptations viticoles et oenologiques aux conséquences du changement climatique en Val de Loire” (working paper, ADACLIM, 2019). https://techniloire.com/sites/default/files/mini_fiche_action_2020-21.doc.pdf . Frankel, Charles. Land and Wine: The French Terroir . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014. Friedrich, Jacqueline. Earthly Delights from the Garden of France: Wines of the Loire. Vol . 1 of The Kingdom of Sauvignon Blanc: Sancerre, Pouilly-Fumé and the Sauvignon Satellites . Paris: published by the author, 2011. Jullien, André . Togographie de tous les vignobles connus . . . suivie d ’une classification générale des vins . Paris: Mme Huzard and L. Colas, 1816. https://wellcomecollection.org/works/yqjenk6g . “Le prix des terres .” Accessed August 31, 2022. https://www.le-prix-des-terres.fr/carte/vigne/ . Leturcq, Samuel , and Lammoglia, Adrien. “La viticulture en Touraine (Moyen Âge –XXe siècle) : Dynamiques spatiales et commerciales du vignoble. ” Histoire et sociétés rurales 49 (2018): 31 –75 . https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01965661 . Loire Valley Wines . https://www.vinsvaldeloire.fr/en . Loire Valley Wines Economic Report 2021 . Accessed August 7, 2022. https://loirevalleywine.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/vins-val-de-loire-chiffres-cles-eco-2021-EN.pdf . Neethling, Etienne, Gerard Barbeau, Herve Quenol , and Cyril Bonnefoy. “Évolution du climat et de la composition des raisins des principaux cépages cultivés dans le Val de Loire.” Climatologie 8 (2011 ): 79 –92. https://doi.org/10.4267/climatologie.323 . Rigaux, Jacky. Pouilly-Fum é: Jewel of the Loire Valley . Terres en Vues , 2009. Robinson, Jancis, Julia Harding, and Jos é Vouillamoz. Wine Grapes: A Complete Guide to 1,368 Vine Varieties, Including Their Origins and Flavours . New York: Ecco/HarperCollins, 2012. Sorcelle, Laurent . Sancerre: Terre et vins d’ enchant ement . Editions l’Arcande, 2013 . Wilson, James E. Terroir: The Role of Geology, Climate, and Culture in the Making of French Wines . Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1999. Compiled by MW Rebecca Gibb and MW Beverley Blanning (November 2022) Edited by Stacy Ladenburger and Sandra BanPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/research/expert_guides/w/expert-guides/2430/south-africaSat, 26 Sep 2026 20:15:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:974943c3-7239-439d-bc77-a0e8feafc1ffJonathan Eichholz“It is worth stressing the point: the reentry of South Africa into the world since the early 1990s has meant a growth in international sophistication for its wine. At its best, that has meant not the imposition of a bland ‘international style,’ but the emergence of the local story, better told.” – Tim James, "Wines of the New South Africa" Contents A Brief Introduction History of South Africa Climate & Geography The Grapes of South Africa South African Wine Law Regions of South Africa Bibliography A Brief Introduction Few countries have had as fraught a wine-producing history as South Africa. Things got off to a running start with Constantia, the sweet wine that became the darling of royals and intellectuals for much of the 18 th and 19 th centuries. But waves of economic and social calamity saw much of that early promise squandered, and the 20th century was, generally speaking, a dim time. Chronic overproduction led to the domination of co-ops, and one in particular, the KWV (Ko-operatieve Wijnbouwers Vereniging van Zuid-Afrika in Afrikaans, or Cooperative Winemakers Union of South Africa), grew to monopolize the industry. Due to its close political ties, the KWV’s reign became especially potent during the apartheid years, a period when embargos from much of the rest of the world left the wine industry to flounder in isolation. Things turned around rapidly after apartheid ended in the early 1990s—but the seeds of change had already started rooting. In the 1960s and ’70s, an increasing number of private estates had begun attracting attention with their high-quality wines, and this movement gained momentum across the 1980s. These producers and winemakers fought against the complacent establishment and lobbied for things like access to better vine material and the right to develop new viticultural areas. As a result, by the time of the first non-racial democratic election in 1994, the KWV had already softened many of its more draconian positions. Since that time, quality has skyrocketed, new producers are making some truly thrilling wines, and the fine wine-drinking world is waking up to the treasures of South Africa. Yet the industry has many issues left to resolve. Bulk wine still dominates, which drags down the national reputation. Because of this, profitability is a huge problem for both producers and grapegrowers, who struggle to command sustainable sums for their products. Racial inequity continues to cause strife, and political and economic instability has resulted in a fair amount of market insecurity. Yet an increasing number of social and economic programs are being put in place to correct for past ills, and the high quality and often undeniable individuality of contemporary wines are attracting new markets and demographics, many of whom lack the biases of previous generations and are happy to pay a premium for South African wine. This is good news for the industry as a whole, but especially for the country’s top tier of producers, whose efforts deserve a place among the world’s most celebrated wines. History of South Africa Base Camp to Phylloxera: 1652–1902 Europeans first settled in South Africa in 1652, when the Dutch government sent a group of less than 100 men to establish an outpost. This small encampment, located roughly halfway between the Netherlands and India, was intended as a refilling station, a place for Dutch East India Company ships to dock and replenish their supplies. At this point, the Dutch controlled the most formidable of the European merchant fleets, which made them very wealthy and very powerful. They were also very thirsty. And so, concurrent to their makeover of marshy Bordeaux, they planted the first vines in South Africa. The original cuttings were requested by Commander Jan van Riebeeck, who oversaw the first crush in 1659. From his experience as a ship surgeon, he felt that wine would benefit the sailors’ health. The vines were a mix of white varieties, presaging South Africa’s long allegiance to white wine. This original vineyard, located along the coast, was eventually judged to be poorly situated, and the vines were moved to a more favorable location, which today is under pavement as a suburb of Cape Town. Pronunciation Guide Aai = I Hoek = hook V = F G = H Example: Vergelegen = Fer-HELL-eh-hen Over time, the settlement grew to become a proper colony, which displaced the native tribes of the Khoikhoi and San. As the Dutch population swelled, so did South Africa’s vineyard, and wine grapes were soon grown throughout Stellenbosch and Paarl. The work on these vineyards and farms was mostly executed by slaves and free burghers—former employees of the Dutch East India Company that were moved to South Africa to work as laborers in exchange for land. By many accounts, the first South African wines were something of a disappointment. Though the parched sailors were undoubtedly grateful, early attempts to export back to Europe were met with disapproval, and in 1688, South Africa was asked to send no more wine. But two events would happen shortly after to turn the country’s vinous reputation around. In 1679, Commander Simon van der Stel arrived in South Africa. He was appointed the area’s first governor in 1691. Because of his high station, he was granted favorable lands. Among them was a property he would grow to become Constantia. Here, he developed the Cape’s largest vineyard, and the sweet wine produced there became known as the “governor’s wine.” It eventually took on the name of the estate, and Constantia developed into an international sensation—a legacy that is still going strong more than 300 years later. The second important development was the arrival of the French. In the late 1680s and early 1690s, Huguenots, a religious group of French protestants fleeing Catholic persecution, landed in South Africa. Most settled in a picturesque nook between the Stellenbosch and Paarl regions. This area became known as Franschhoek, or “French Quarter,” in honor of its new inhabitants. Though this French influx was long believed to have injected the wine scene with some much-needed expertise, South African wine writer and expert Tim James believes that this influence has been overstated. The wine industry grew steadily during the 1700s, with the most important products being dessert and fortified wines such as Constantia, Cape Madeira, Cape Port, Steen, and Hanepoot. Brandy grew to become an important export as well, and as it was generally distilled from white wine, plantings of white grapes—especially Semillon (here spelled without the accent, and historically called Greengrape)—swelled. As the close of the 18 th century approached, the political landscape changed dramatically, which had massive repercussions for the wine industry. In 1795, the British invaded and occupied South Africa. Though from 1803 to 1806 the Dutch managed to wrest it back, the Cape colony was officially ceded to Britain in 1814. The Dutch, meanwhile, retreated to their other strongholds in the north and east of the Cape area. Vineyard development spiked with the arrival of the British, an investment that was rewarded in 1813 when they lowered import tariffs on South African wine. This, in turn, encouraged even more planting, and land under vine tripled between 1795 and 1825. The vast majority of viticulture was confined to Stellenbosch, Paarl, and the area immediately surrounding Cape Town. Interior regions such as Robertson and the Swartland wouldn’t be planted until the 1870s, as the railway system extended inland. Glossary of Terms berg = mountain braai = BBQ dorp = village dry land farming = dry-farming groot = big klein = little kloof = valley/canyon rivier = river toren = tower The South African wine industry’s fortunes changed again in 1825, as Britain began moving away from preferential tariffs. There was an immediate negative impact on export volume and value, as well as a national grape glut. This was financially problematic for many farmers, who took another economic hit in 1834 when the British abolished slavery, doing away with their free labor. The handful of decades that followed were relatively bleak for the wine industry. In 1861, Britain signed a treaty reducing tariffs on French wine, driving further decline in South African exports. With the exception of Constantia, which had by this time been subdivided into a handful of independent estates, wine quality was routinely condemned, and a growing percentage of the grape harvest was sent to distillers each year to be processed as brandy. Despite these hardships, area under vine continued to grow, and another glut seemed on the horizon until phylloxera was discovered in South Africa in 1886. Even though the Europeans had already solved for the bug by grafting onto American rootstocks, much damage was done. Over a quarter of South Africa’s vineyard land was destroyed, and widespread replanting was delayed by rootstock shortages. To add insult to injury, the phylloxera epidemic was immediately followed by the Boer War, a struggle between the Dutch- and British-held South African colonies, which raged from 1899 until British victory in 1902. One result of the fighting was a unification of the various South African colonies into one nation; the other result was an economic depression. Depression & KWV Stronghold Years: 1905–1950s In response to the depression and yet another grape glut, the South African government ordered an inquiry into the status of its wine-producing regions in 1905. The investigating commission’s report recommended the establishment of cooperatives, and nine were founded the following year. This is a common strategy employed by wine regions around the world during times of economic hardship—cooperatives streamline production, centralize resources, and provide stable income for farmers. When several of the original cooperatives failed only a few years after launching, Charles Kohler came forward with a bold idea. He believed that regional cooperatives weren’t sufficient—only total centralization would fix South Africa’s stuttering wine industry. In 1918, he established the KWV, which became a mutual cooperative society in 1923. Aside from a handful of holdouts in Constantia and Stellenbosch, nearly all of South Africa’s “wine farmers” signed up to become part of the KWV. The original deal was that the KWV would not sell wine directly to consumers, so long as the merchants only bought their wine from the KWV. In addition, the KWV would effectively monopolize the export market, which, despite the tariffs, was still dominated by Britain. This arrangement stood for a number of years, but over time, the KWV was granted regulatory powers over the industry, much to the chagrin of the merchants. The KWV produced very little wine itself—its role was more to oversee the contracts between the growers and the co-ops—and one of its first acts was to establish minimum mandatory pricing for grapes. This was obviously beneficial to the farmers, but the unforeseen and perhaps inevitable outcome was overcropping and overproduction. In response, the KWV set production maximums and agreed to purchase surplus for distillation. Later, it required that each vineyard have a government-issued quota in order to operate. These quotas were given to operating wine farms between 1960 and 1970, and very few others were issued thereafter. By favoring existing farms, the KWV effectively forbid the development of new wine regions, freezing South Africa’s viticulture into its mid-1900s configuration, which, with the exception of Stellenbosch and Constantia, had become centered around the hotter interior regions where high yields and reliable ripening came easily. With a veritable army of growers in its ranks, the KWV was extremely influential, but its power grew along with the shifting political tides. In large part because all of the wine farms were owned by white Afrikaners , the KWV leadership had close ties to the National Party, which came to power in 1948 and formalized apartheid. The wine industry stagnated during the KWV years. Not only could new wine regions not be developed, but there was virtually no research or improvement in viticulture and enology (though they did make some technical advances in the pursuit of higher yields, such as studying the role of yeast available nitrogen, or YAN). Virus was rampant in the vineyards, high-yielding clones were given preference, and importing new clones or varieties was such a bureaucratic nightmare that it was effectively impossible. Aside from the introduction of cold fermentation in the 1950s, which allowed for the production of crisp white wines for the first time, cellar technology fell well behind the rest of the world. In fact, so much wine and fruit were sent to the distillers each year that the KWV became the world’s largest seller of brandy for a considerable stretch of time. Quality Revolution to Political Revolution: 1960s­–Early 1990s During apartheid, many countries turned against South Africa. International sanctions began in the 1960s, and the early loss of the Canadian and Scandinavian markets was a blow to South Africa’s wine industry. Though it became increasingly difficult to export, certain markets remained open, at least for a while. In fact, South Africa’s appellation system, the Wine of Origin scheme, was introduced in 1973 specifically to complement EU (then EEC) wine laws and ease trade. Despite its deepening isolation, the South African wine industry started to evolve in a positive direction in the 1960s and ’70s. A small group of quality-minded private producers began to set up shop independent of the KWV. At first, they were confined to the established premium regions of Paarl, Stellenbosch, and Constantia, but their influence began to spread slowly outward. Among the practices they inspired were a more careful approach to cellar hygiene, the use of French oak barrels, and a closer look at international varieties. Notably, the first Cape Bordeaux blend (Hofmeyr) debuted in 1979. Even so, that same year, 60% of the national grape harvest went toward brandy production. A handful of these independent producers began to openly rebel against the KWV. One of the biggest complaints during the KWV years was the lack of quality plant material, both in terms of clones and varieties. Due to cumbersome bureaucracy and strict quarantine laws, it could take several years to a decade to import new stock. More than one producer resorted to smuggling. Bringing in illegal “suitcase clones” is difficult in most countries, but it was measurably harder in South Africa given the rigorous account-keeping of the KWV. When Auxerrois—a grape that had never been cultivated by any South African nursery—was discovered in some vineyards, government officials realized what was afoot. In 1986, they launched an inquiry into the smuggling activities of Danie de Wet, Peter Finlayson, and others. Desperate for quality Chardonnay, these winemakers had inadvertently included some Auxerrois cuttings in their illicit haul. The happy if surprising result of the investigation was that the KWV began to relax its quarantine laws. It was also in 1986 that the Vine Improvement Association was founded to address issues around quality plant material, and this organization remains a leader in plant certification for vine propagation. In a similar vein, Timothy Hamilton Russell acted against the KWV by developing two vineyards in the cool coastal region of Hemel-en-Aarde in the late 1970s. The vineyard that contained his Pinot Noir had no quota, which made its very existence illegal, but the wines it produced were of high quality and attracted considerable attention. KWV officials once forced him to dump 5,000 liters of the wine down the drain but later capitulated to public pressure and decreed that unused quotas could be purchased or transferred to other farms. But while this opened the door to the development of small or independent producers, the KWV maintained a stranglehold on distribution networks, which made it difficult for such operations to sell their wine. Other key developments in the 1980s foreshadowed even greater change. In 1980, the now-essential Platter’s South African Wine Guide was launched. A yearly publication that rates wines and discusses trends and vintage characteristics, the Platter’s Guide provided a much-needed critical perspective and celebrated the producers who were eschewing quantity for quality. Those same producers decided to band together, share information, and provide support, establishing the Cape Winemakers Guild in 1982. What started as an elite club has become a veritable force, with over 45 members in its ranks as of 2020. The KWV’s grip on the South African wine industry had relaxed during the 1970s and ’80s, and it let go altogether in the 1990s. In 1992, the quota system was eliminated, which allowed for both the expansion of existing areas and the development of the cooler coastal regions. Two years later, the KWV also abolished the minimum pricing system. That same year, 1994, South Africa held its first non-racial democratic election. This marked the end of apartheid, which completely transformed the nation’s social and political landscape. It also opened up South Africa to the rest of the world. Life After Apartheid: 1994 & Onward Being able to participate freely in the international market led to rapid modernization in the South African wine industry. As Peter de Wet from Excelsior explains, because of South Africa’s long seclusion, “Styles didn’t evolve. We missed the global 1980s movement where the red wine plantings surged and people went to drier wines. It was only in the 1990s when we started exporting again, and first, we had to figure out what the world was drinking. We didn’t know because we were so isolated. We were an island economy; we drank what we produced.” Per Tim James, the first few years following the end of apartheid weren’t necessarily easy for the industry. Some quality issues, specifically over-acidification and over-oaking, persisted. Nonetheless, producers seemed to collectively rush through this awkward adolescent phase rather rapidly. The bigger challenges, James asserts, were the acquisition of clean vine material and the planting of the right variety in the right place. These are points where South Africa has made great strides, though virus is still a major issue. During the 2000s, a new generation of winemakers invigorated by international experience in both the Old and New Worlds emerged. Some are working to introduce new wines, varieties, and styles to South Africa, while others are focusing on revitalizing the traditions of their homeland. And while there has been a great deal of investment in new winegrowing regions such as the Hemel-en-Aarde, established areas such as Stellenbosch have also experienced impressive growth and refinement. Even the hotter inland areas that were historically associated with bulk wine have seen an uptick in small producers focused on quality. Perhaps the best example of this is the Swartland, whose “revolution” of quality has been one of the more widely covered trends in South African wine. Social Initiatives in South Africa Since apartheid, there has been a concerted effort within South Africa to right the wrongs of the past and give more land and leadership to those communities harmed by apartheid-era policies. Today, both privately and publicly funded programs such as those described below are seeking environmental and social betterment for the country. Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment (B-BBEE): B-BBEE evaluates how companies create opportunities and advancement for people from previously disadvantaged groups through training, management opportunities, ownership, living conditions, and more. Wine & Agricultural Ethical Trade Association (WIETA): WIETA is becoming the lynchpin in ensuring proper working conditions, compensation, and treatment of workers. Fair Trade: South Africa produces 65% of the world’s fair-trade wines, which represents 5% of the country’s wine production. Black-Owned Brands: Various programs are working to raise the number of black-owned brands. Examples include initiatives to reform the high capital costs involved with entering the wine industry and government land grants. Trained winemakers of color are capturing an increasing share in the premium space with their own brand offerings. Cape Winemakers Guild Protégé Programme: Skills transfer programs such as this one aim to move people from previously disadvantaged groups into better paid, skilled positions and then into management and ownership roles. Contemporary Market Landscape “Why don’t more people realise what’s going on in South Africa? I’m not talking about those who couldn’t point to it on a map of the world, but about interested consumers who routinely spend £20 or $30 on French, Italian or American wines but wouldn’t dream of drinking a Cape wine at the same price, which will almost certainly deliver superior value for money? . . . If we are looking for an answer, then it is surely related to image. South Africa occupies the bargain shelf or basement in many markets—only Spain has a lower bulk price and its vineyard area is nearly ten times larger than the Cape’s—and provides more than acceptable drinking at cheap prices. That is its strength as well as its weakness.” – Tim Atkin, “2017 South Africa Special Report” Though quality has risen dramatically since the early 1990s, the South African wine industry still faces many challenges. Domestically, per capita consumption has remained consistently low (in 2018, wine was only 7.47 liters to beer’s 55.46 liters). Exports have taken up the slack, however, soaring from 6.2% in 1993 to 51% in 2018. Even so, profitability is an issue. According to VinPro, a nonprofit advisory agency for the South African wine industry, in 2016, only 15% of South Africa’s winegrowers were profitable, 49% enjoyed low profits, 6% broke even, and 30% reported losses. Because of this, vine uprooting has surpassed planting every year for more than a decade. And while certainly some of those vineyards were poorly situated or planted to ill-suited varieties, great vineyards have been lost as well. Example of a large winery (Photo credit: Kelli White) Part of the problem lies with bulk wine. In 2018, over 50% of South Africa’s national production was exported as bulk—much of it destined for the bottom shelf of Europe’s supermarkets—and Vinpro reports that 14% of the white bulk wine was sold for less than the price of water. There are still about 50 cooperatives operating in South Africa (known locally as “producer cellars”), but though bulk wine is still a massive part of the picture, the focus is shifting to private producers. Yet growers in more premium regions such as Stellenbosch and Swartland aren’t necessarily better off. Even though they farm for lower yields and better quality, the grape prices aren’t reliably higher. In 1993, the year before apartheid’s end, South Africa could only count 170 private producers; by 2018, there were 468. This seems like a massive improvement—and it is—but the figures are misleading. First of all, the number of private producers is actually down from its peak of 524 in 2009, and second, cooperatives are not the only ones who produce bulk wine. Some of the country’s biggest wineries are technically considered private. Even the KWV lobbied to become a private company in 1997, a request the government only granted after forcing it to set up a trust of 477 million Rand for various wine industry purposes. And Distell, which functions as a kind of négociant, currently accounts for around 30% of South Africa’s total still and sparkling production. Most of the private wine cellars are located in the more premium regions such as Stellenbosch (168) and Paarl (109), with the next most populated areas being the Cape South Coast (55), Robertson (37), and the Swartland (28). By contrast, most of the cooperatives are located in the hotter interior, specifically Breedekloof (11), Robertson (9), and Worcester (8). But the growers far outnumber the producers. According to SAWIS, in 2018, there were 2,873 grapegrowers (down from 3,029 the year before). Taken together, they farm approximately 93,000 hectares of wine grapes, which makes South Africa the 15th most widely planted nation in the world. With around 825 million liters of resulting wine, the country ranks ninth in global production. Climate & Geography South Africa is one of the most geologically distinct wine regions in the world. Located at the southernmost tip of the African continent, the major winegrowing areas bracket the conjunction point of two oceans: the Atlantic and the Indian. These massive bodies of water have a profound influence on the vineyards, especially the Atlantic, with its frigid Benguela Current that swirls up from Antarctica. Cool, moist ocean breezes bathe the coastal vines, slowing the growing season. During the spring and summer, the occasionally fierce Cape Doctor wind blows in from the southeast. At its most intense, it can damage vines by breaking canes and interfering with fruit set. But its presence is typically benevolent, helping to stave off disease and pests in the vineyards. South Africa is also unique from a geographic perspective. A braid of mountains traces the coastline, forming an L-shape. These mountains carve the country into climatic zones. The coastal side of the ranges can be rather cool and rainy, the areas furthest inland are notably hot and dry, and in between, a series of valleys forms a temperate middle ground. Vineyard elevations range from 50 to 600 meters. The overall classification of the South African climate is Mediterranean, with long, dry summers and rain generally confined to the winter months. Access to water is an increasing threat. A severe water shortage in 2017 and 2018 led Cape Town to plan for “Day Zero,” referring to the possibility of major dams falling below 13.5% capacity. This was narrowly avoided through significant water restrictions and summer rains in 2018. Yet water remains a major concern. Mean February temperatures in South Africa; click to enlarge and zoom in (Courtesy of VinPro) Unlike many of the world’s wine regions, South Africa’s soils are relatively simple and very old. The country has been geologically stable for millennia—no glacial or volcanic activity and very few earthquakes. Most of the mountains are made of granite capped by sandstone, and these bedrocks have decomposed to form the basis of South Africa’s soils. Quartz is scattered throughout nearly all of the major winegrowing regions, and pockets of slate and shale can also be found. The Grapes of South Africa Due to the major roles played by brandy and dessert wine throughout its history, South Africa has long been dominated by white grapes. Semillon took the early lead. According to research done by Tim James, the grape enjoyed a near monopoly in South African vineyards during the 1800s. The phylloxera replant that came at the end of the century provided an opportunity to diversify, and a 1909 census saw its dominion knocked back to 40%. For the most part, it was other white varieties—specifically Palomino, Chenin Blanc, and Muscat—that rose to fill the void. The dominant red of South Africa’s past was Cinsaut, the local spelling of Cinsault and historically known as Hermitage. The high-yielding grape was introduced to the country in the 1880s, and by 1909, it was the third most widely planted variety. Today, only isolated patches can be found, and its role as the national red variety has been usurped by Pinotage, which was created in 1925. Similarly, Chenin Blanc (locally known as Steen) grew to supplant Semillon and today is the most widely planted variety in the country, though its area under vine is in constant decline. The Old Vine Project & Disappearing Vineyards For a variety of reasons—political turmoil, an unstable economy, the descending value of wine grapes coupled with rising farming costs—South Africa’s vineyards have been shrinking. Even as recently as 2018, over twice as many vines were pulled out as planted. This is an alarming enough statistic on its own, but a closer look at the data shows that it is historical varieties such as Chenin Blanc, and especially the old vines, that are being sacrificed for more contemporary grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon Blanc. In 2018, 3,858 hectares of vines were pulled out, by far the majority of which were Chenin Blanc (806 hectares) and Colombard (790 hectares). That same year, just over 1,500 hectares of new vines went in the ground—mostly Sauvignon Blanc (337 hectares), followed by Chenin Blanc (242 hectares), Colombard (177 hectares), Cabernet Sauvignon (151 hectares), and Chardonnay (143 hectares). The vineyards in high-tourist areas are less vulnerable to this trend, as the wineries tend to be more profitable. But no one is immune. According to the owner of the Iona Vineyard in Elgin, one of the country’s most lauded new winegrowing regions, “Per the government, a vineyard is worth the same as a vacant field. Here, a ton of apples brings in seven times the return as a ton of grapes.” He went on to relate this to the nationwide rise of Sauvignon Blanc. “For a wine grape, it’s ideal, as it’s popular and you can crop it high. This problem is magnified in areas such as the Swartland, Klein Karoo, and Olifants River, where the industry is composed mainly of independent growers who sell to co-ops. In such an arrangement, yield is paramount, which makes extreme vine age and the resulting low crop load a liability. And it is these old vines that are getting pulled and replaced with either more fashionable varieties or other produce entirely. In response to this trend, in 2002, viticulturist Rosa Kruger began compiling a list of old vine vineyards. In 2014, SAWIS, the organization body that spun from the KWV’s precise record keeping, gave her its vineyard registry dating back to 1900. She then established the Old Vine Project (OVP), which works not only to raise awareness of the special qualities of old vine fruit but also to raise prices to incentivize growers to keep these vines. The OVP’s Certified Heritage Vineyard seal can be used by farms where the average vine age is over 35 years. These efforts appear to be paying off, as the downward trajectory of old vine vineyards has slowed significantly since 2014, with Chenin Blanc the primary beneficiary; the OVP estimates that over half of the South African vines over 35 years old are Chenin Blanc. Despite the isolation of the long apartheid regime (1948–1994), South Africa’s vineyard composition began to slowly modernize behind the curtain. The first varietal Sauvignon Blanc was bottled in 1977, and the first Cabernet Sauvignon blend debuted in 1979. New grapes, especially the red Bordeaux varieties, gained steadily in popularity, but by 1993, South Africa was still planted to 81% whites. Since that time, however, brandy production has declined and wine production has increased. This has caused a dramatic shift in vineyard composition, and in 2018, white grapes accounted for only 55.3% of all vine land. Yet because of their higher yield, nearly twice as many white grapes (792,837 tons) were crushed as red (403,239 tons). Apartheid’s end coincided with a global rush of enthusiasm for a handful of French varieties, specifically Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Chardonnay, and Sauvignon Blanc (Shiraz, too, due to the Aussie explosion). All over the world, native or less popular varieties were being ripped up and replaced with these noble few—a trend that South Africa was quick to embrace. These varieties still dominate the fine wine landscape, but there have been some changes. As an increasing number of coastal regions have been developed since the early 2000s, plantings of Pinot Noir and other cool-climate varieties are on the rise. Further inland, winemakers such as Eben Sadie are experimenting with Mediterranean grapes, and Tinta Barroca seems to have cultivated an especially avid following. White Grapes Chardonnay: During the apartheid years, the preference for quantity over quality showed in the vineyards. Clones were selected for their yields rather than their organoleptic properties, and virus was rampant. Chardonnay was known to be especially virus-laden in the 1970s and ’80s. Importing new material was technically possible during this time, but the process lasted years, if not decades. In frustration, many vintners turned to smuggling. As previously mentioned, at some point in the late 1970s, winemakers Peter Finlayson, Danie De Wet, and a few others conspired to sneak some illicit Chardonnay cuttings into South Africa. They had first arranged for the dormant branches to be sent from Switzerland to Swaziland. From there, the cuttings were brought across the border in the bed of a logging truck. Finlayson and his colleagues passed these off as if they were from the local nursery, but there was one problem. Somehow, a few Auxerrois cuttings had been included in the haul, and Auxerrois had never before been seen in South Africa. When the KWV noticed, it launched an official inquiry in 1986. At its conclusion, instead of prosecuting the perpetrators, the KWV elected to relax its strict quarantine policies. Today, Chardonnay is a big part of South Africa’s winelands. A good proportion goes to bulk, but a fair amount is directed into the country’s robust traditional method sparkling production, known as Méthode Cap Classique, or MCC. A smaller amount is crafted into terroir-driven still wines, and interest in this category is rising sharply. The best fruit for these wines comes from newly developed coastal regions such as Hemel-en-Aarde, Elim, and Elgin, though De Wet is also making ageworthy wines from the limestone-rich soils of the Robertson Valley. In Elgin, where the potential is arguably the highest, viticulture is at risk as farmers are rapidly replacing grapes with apples, a significantly more profitable crop. 7.2% of vineyard land in 2018 6,661 hectares Méthode Cap Classique MCC is short for Méthode Cap Classique, an extremely popular category of Champagne method South African sparkling wine. Legally regulated since 1992, MCC supposedly finds its roots with the French Huguenots but seems to have really begun in 1971 with the appearance of Champagne method sparkling by Simonsig. This is a fast-growing segment of the wine industry that already displays great quality and value despite the plethora of quicker and cheaper examples on the market. While roughly the same amount of sparkling wine was produced between 2008 and 2018, this decade saw an increase of 120% in MCC and a decrease of 31% in other sparkling wine, indicating shift in demand toward premium South African sparkling. Today, Méthode Cap Classique can be made from any variety, and from any region, but it must undergo secondary fermentation in the bottle and rest on the lees for a minimum of twelve months. To be labeled as brut, the wine must contain less than 12 grams of residual sugar, extra brut less than 6, and brut nature less than 3. As in actual Champagne, many of the top producers (Graham Beck, Le Lude, and Charles Fox, for example) take things much further. They and others rely on the classic Champagne varieties of Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and Pinot Meunier (although, again, any variety is technically allowed) and subject their wines to far more extended lees and bottle aging. Robertson Valley, which boasts limestone soils and is the home of Graham Beck, seems to be a hub of quality MCC activity. Chenin Blanc: Chenin Blanc is the most widely planted variety in South Africa and arguably the most exciting. The grape has a long history in the country, where it was traditionally known as Steen (Steen was not officially recognized as being the same as Chenin Blanc until 1963). Chenin Blanc came early to South Africa, but plantings didn’t accelerate until after phylloxera tore through the country’s swaths of Semillon. Being naturally vigorous and drought resistant, Chenin Blanc was a natural fit and grew to form the basis of much of the country’s brandy. Old growers remember a time when 40 to 60 tons per hectare was common, but while perhaps thrilling to behold, such high crop loads and the assuredly poor quality that resulted did little to elevate the variety’s reputation. Plantings of Chenin Blanc got another boost in the 1950s when the arrival of refrigerated tanks changed the way that wines were manufactured. Suddenly, crisp white table wines and fruity non-fortified dessert wines could be produced with relative ease. A semi-sweet Chenin-based wine called Lieberstein debuted in 1959 and was enormously popular on the domestic market. Spurred on by this success as well as its easy cultivation, Chenin Blanc grew to become the most widely planted variety in South Africa. After apartheid ended, many enthusiastic producers eager to participate in the global market ripped up their Chenin Blanc in favor of more “contemporary” varieties such as Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon. This trend continues today—yet there is also a counter-trend in favor of Chenin Blanc that is correcting for some of this. Of the 1,500 hectares of new vines that were planted in 2018, 242 were Chenin Blanc. Old vine Chenin is one of the viticultural treasures of South Africa, and it has been given fresh prestige through the work of the new generation of producers. For the most part, these vines are head-trained and dry-farmed, relegated to hotter interior regions. While many South African Chenins can be alcoholic and rich, the best are concentrated and complex with a pithy, phenolic character and a remarkable ability to age. Premium examples are often aged, if not also fermented, in oak, a portion of which is typically new. It is not uncommon for lees aging, bâtonnage , and even malolactic fermentation to be employed for greater texture. 18.5% of vineyard land in 2018 17,242 hectares Colombard: For hundreds of years, the high-yielding and highly acidic Colombard and Chenin Blanc were the main grapes of South Africa’s brandy industry. As brandy production has declined, so have the plantings of Chenin Blanc and Colombard. However, unlike with Chenin Blanc, nobody is bothering to replant the Colombard, and relatively little fuss is being made about its old vine vineyards. 11.6% of vineyard land in 2018 10,821 hectares Muscat: Muscat has a long history in South Africa. Not only was it among the Cape’s original vinifera plantings, it was also one of the grapes used for the country’s first celebrity wine: Constantia. The original Constantia was unusual for its time in that it was typically produced without fortification. That tradition continues today with Klein Constantia’s Vin de Constance reigning as the most famous of the country’s sweet wines. Inside South Africa, Muscadel (unrelated to the Bordelais grape Muscadelle) is the local name for Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains, while Hanepoot is the name for Muscat of Alexandria. When Hanepoot is fortified prior to fermentation, the result is the vin de liqueur Jerepigo. Hanepoot (Muscat of Alexandria): 1.8% of vineyard land in 2018 1,665 hectares Muscadel (Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains): 0.9% of vineyard land in 2018 825 hectares Sauvignon Blanc: The 1909 post-phylloxera census reflects Sauvignon Blanc’s long history in South Africa, but the grape’s popularity was slow to develop. The first varietal Sauvignon Blanc wasn’t bottled until 1977, and the first Sauvignon Blanc/Semillon blend didn’t appear until 2001. Today, however, it is the most rapidly expanding variety in the country. As of 2018, Sauvignon Blanc accounts for over 10% of all planted area. It is grown in nearly every appellation, but about a third of it is located in Stellenbosch. There, producers position it as the white foil to their high-end Cabernet Sauvignon, à la Napa Valley. Sauvignon Blanc is also the most widely planted variety in cool Constantia, where it is often blended with Semillon and occasionally aged in oak. The national style tends to favor the green and grassy side of the grape and is rarely tropical. 10.3% of vineyard land in 2018 9,533 hectares Semillon: For much of the 18 th and 19 th centuries, the prolific and disease-resistant Semillon was the most widely planted variety in South Africa. Originally known as Greengrape, it was a key component of the country’s early dessert wine and brandy production. Eventually, it was supplanted by Chenin Blanc as the most planted grape in the Cape, perhaps because of Chenin Blanc’s superior ability to deal with the heat and drought of the interior regions. Today, much of the remaining Semillon is confined to the coast. Some small patches of old vines can still be found in Franschhoek and Stellenbosch, where they are occasionally honored with their own bottlings, but Semillon is most often used as a blending partner for Sauvignon Blanc. Interestingly, South Africa is home to the unusual red mutation of Semillon, called Semillon Gris. According to Eben Sadie, the French at one point had the same mutation and culled it, and now producers are calling, begging for cuttings. 1.1% of vineyard land in 2018 1,064 hectares Other Whites: 3.8% of vineyard land in 2018 3,594 hectares Red Grapes Cabernet Sauvignon: As all over the world, Cabernet Sauvignon has become incredibly important to the South African wine industry. It was first documented in 1894 but played a minor role until the 1960s and ’70s, when the movement of independent (that is, non-cooperative) producers began to gain momentum. As these wineries were quality, not bulk, minded, Cabernet Sauvignon’s reputation swelled along with theirs. Today, it is among the most widely planted grapes in South Africa. Grown across the country, its best-known wines hail from the prestige regions of Paarl, Franschhoek, and Stellenbosch. Stellenbosch is especially successful with the variety and seems to have fashioned itself in the mold of Napa Valley. Most of the country’s posh tasting rooms are located there, making it the hub for South Africa’s wine tourism, and the jewel in the crown of their portfolios is inevitably a rich and powerful, modernly constructed Cabernet Sauvignon. However, the Cabernet Sauvignons from even the flashiest producers are restrained by contemporary standards. This is due in part to the Wine Commission’s tasting panel, as qualities such as “over-oaked” are considered a flaw, and in part to the weak Rand driving up barrel prices. 11% of vineyard land in 2018 10,233 hectares Cinsaut (Cinsault): Cinsaut is a vigorous variety that produces generous clusters of large black grapes. In South Africa, it is not uncommon to see the variety bottled as jelly or consumed as table grapes. Cinsaut was introduced to South Africa in the 1880s under the name Hermitage. It swiftly took over the landscape and by 1909 was the third most planted variety in the country. This statistical dominance would end during the rise of Chenin Blanc, and today Cinsaut represents less than 2% of national vineyard acreage. As new plantings are rare, the vines exist mostly in ancient form. These gnarly old patches of dry-farmed, head-trained vines are enjoying a surge in popularity thanks to the new wave of producers. 1.8% of vineyard land in 2018 1,713 hectares Pinot Noir: As of 2018, Pinot Noir occupies comparatively little of South Africa’s viticultural landscape, but many see it as a future star. Though inland South Africa is fairly hot and dry, the more extreme coastal locations are really quite marginal, especially those at the southernmost tip of the continent. According to Peter Finlayson, Pinot Noir has been in South Africa for several decades, but only a single clone was available: the Swiss sparkling clone BK5. Historically, and even today, most of the country’s Pinot Noir was planted in service of MCC production. What’s new and arguably more exciting is the rise of high-quality still Pinot Noir from areas such as Hemel-en-Aarde and Elgin, inspired in no small part by Finlayson’s work at Hamilton Russell in the 1980s and ’90s. 1.3% of vineyard land in 2018 1,176 hectares Pinotage: Pinotage is a fascinating and misunderstood grape with a complex history. Many consumers regard it with some level of contempt, citing its notoriously ferocious tannins and industrial aromas. But its champions insist that those markers are less inherent to the grape than they are indicative of poor farming and careless handling in the cellar. Recent tastings show that with the proper care, Pinotage can yield quite charming and attractive wines. The challenge now will be to convince the leagues of doubting consumers and journalists. Pinotage was created in 1925 when Dr. Abraham Izak Perold, professor at the University of Stellenbosch, swabbed the pollen from Pinot Noir onto a Cinsaut flower. The idea was to somehow marry the best qualities of the two parents into a superior offspring, perhaps one with the refined nature of Pinot Noir and the work ethic of Cinsaut. The seed was planted, but the resulting vines were very nearly forgotten, as Perold changed jobs shortly thereafter. The plants were eventually rediscovered, and the first experimental batches of wine were made in 1941. Two of the earliest wineries to plant and promote the variety were Kanonkop and Bellevue in Stellenbosch. The domestic press that their exciting new wine garnered in the 1960s encouraged a rush of planting. And since Pinotage was thick skinned, drought resistant, and high yielding, it was planted far and wide. Pinotage was quickly treated as the native grape of South Africa, which technically it is. But the export market was not as enthusiastic. The British media was especially hard on Pinotage, likening it to “rusty nails” or “paint thinner,” which caused some confusion and insecurity on the part of the farmers. Part of the problem, modern champions attest, was that Pinotage was originally planted on the hottest parts of a farm, and the variety responds better in cooler microclimates. Isoamyl acetate (the source of paint thinner aromas) can develop if vines experience water stress or high temperatures at harvest. Likewise, the burnt rubber smell many detect in Pinotage is thought to be related to viral disease in the vineyards, though causes are unclear and research on this topic is still underway. High cropping, long a point of contention among South African grapegrowers, certainly served to exacerbate the grape’s herbal and bloody aromas. Aggressive extraction techniques in the cellar yielded the toothsome tannins, and the wines’ tendency toward high pH increased the risk of microbial spoilage. As the notion that the polarizing qualities of Pinotage tend to be the fault of growers and winemakers, not necessarily the variety, spreads throughout South Africa, plantings are again on the rise. It seems that lower yields and a cooler climate make for a friendlier aromatic signature, and gentle handling in the cellar can coax out the Pinot Noir side of its parentage. There are now even whole-cluster examples, made to be enjoyed with a light chill. Pinotage is also the major blending variety in Cape Blends (a well-established term, though not legally regulated). A unique style that has found some popularity among consumers is referred to as Coffee Pinotage. Its coffee aroma is due to the compound furfurylthiol, which is formed from furfural released by toasted staves during fermentation. While new styles may take a while to catch on, it seems that Pinotage may one day evolve from national joke to national pride. 7.3% of vineyard land in 2018 6,791 hectares Shiraz (Syrah): Shiraz has a long history in South Africa, having first been planted in Groot Constantia in the 1890s. Today, it is grown all across the country, in warm and cool regions alike. Because its popularity first spiked during the Aussie-crazed 1990s, most producers label their wine as Shiraz. Those winemakers who favor a more restrained style or look specifically to the Rhône for inspiration, however, often label their wines as Syrah. 10.2% of vineyard land in 2018 9,497 hectares Other Reds: 13.2% of vineyard land in 2018 12,207 hectares South African Wine Law “In South Africa, no wine may carry any information on its label about vintage, origin, or grape variety unless it has undergone a rigorous process of certification. This involves a good deal of record-keeping and paperwork, as all stages of production are monitored to see that the basic sums add up: if so many tons of Cabernet grapes were produced on a particular farm in a particular year, producing so many liters, the authorities will get very anxious if a different volume is bottled. For wine to be certified it must also meet a minimum level of quality, as adjudged by official tasting panels. In 1993, just 12 percent of wine was thus certified, but the proportion rose steadily each year to about 57 percent in 2011—showing a major increase in ambition.” – Tim James “Of course there’s a lot of bureaucracy here. It’s Dutch/English/German founded—what did you think?” – Eben Sadie South Africa’s wine laws and appellation system are the most detailed and strict in the New World. They are also among the oldest, having debuted in 1973. By comparison, the United States didn’t begin drawing appellations until the 1980s, and even then only began with a handful. The architects of South Africa’s Wine of Origin (WO) scheme took the opposite strategy. Not wanting to begin a piecemeal process, they carved the entire country up into districts and regions. Wards were added in 1994, and 2004 saw the advent of single vineyards. In order to list a single vineyard on a label, the producer must petition the government to send inspectors and register the site, which is not to exceed six hectares. The push to establish codified wine laws started in 1969. Despite many international sanctions, the United Kingdom remained a critical export market for South Africa, and that year, the UK was greenlighted to begin negotiations to join Europe’s Economic Community. Britain’s entry meant that it would likely have to adopt continental Europe’s wine legislation, a fact which was not lost on the South African government. It acted fast and managed to launch a comprehensive appellation system in 1973, the very year that the UK joined the EC. The most important element of the original legislature was the creation of an estate category, which gave small producers an avenue to differentiate their wines from the mass creations dominating the market. These wines must be made from grapes farmed as a unit (bordering farms can be included), then produced and bottled in a cellar on the same estate. Today, there are over 200 estate wines. The initial rules stated that a wine had only to possess 30% of a given variety to list it on the label, but today that number is 85%. Minimum vintage requirement is also 85%, but place of origin is a very strict 100%. As Adam Mason from Mulderbosch explains, “If you blend in even a liter from a different appellation, you can’t call your wine Stellenbosch anymore.” Furthermore, a blended wine is not required to detail its varietal composition, but if it does, the grapes must be listed in order of dominance, and if one variety is mentioned, they all must be included. The exception to this is if two or more of the grapes combine to form over 85% of the blend, and each contributing variety represents at least 20%. For example, a wine that contained 60% Sauvignon Blanc, 30% Semillon, and 10% Muscadel could legally be labeled as simply Sauvignon Blanc/Semillon. Despite its European-like intricacy, the WO scheme makes no attempt to control farming practices or winemaking techniques, but it does submit all wines to a chemical analysis and rigorous tasting test before certification is granted. This tasting panel is very powerful; without its approval, a wine cannot list its vintage, variety, or region on the label. The disqualifying flaws span from the flagrant to the subtle, such as exaggerated oak or “lack of typicity.” But while this tasting is meant to be an agent of quality control, it has been criticized for curtailing creativity. For example, as the natural wine movement gained steam, many skin-contact white wines or low-sulfur reds flunked the tasting. Producers, armed with letters from importers stating that customers in their markets actually wanted such wines, lobbied the commission, which eventually relented and created a natural wine category. This demonstrates that the organization is capable of adapting in service of consumer needs, but it also means that South Africa can be slower than other markets to respond to trends. Regions of South Africa The geographical units of South Africa where wine production occurs; click to enlarge and zoom in (Courtesy of SAWIS) The South African approach to drawing appellations is both simple and complicated. The largest areas are called geographical units, many of which contain regions, which contain districts, which contain wards—the smallest of the appellations. This seems easy enough to grasp, but exceptions abound. At the most macro level, there are seven geographical units in South Africa where wine production occurs: Western Cape , Northern Cape , Eastern Cape , Limpopo , North West , Free State , and KwaZulu-Natal . Very little viticulture is found outside the Western Cape geographical unit, and the few wines that emerge are hardly regarded for their quality. But a handful of appellations have been drawn. The Western Cape geographical unit has been divided into five regions: the Breede River Valley, Klein Karoo, Olifants River, Cape South Coast, and the Coastal Region. Speaking broadly, the first three are associated with bulk wine, while Cape South Coast and the Coastal Region are known for fine wine production. That is, of course, a generalization; some truly great wines come from Robertson in the Breede River Valley and co-ops still have a presence in Paarl. Until recently, there was also a sixth region called Boberg, which was rather unusual. Unlike the other regions, it applied only to fortified wine specifically produced from the Coastal Region’s districts of Paarl, Franschhoek, Tulbagh, and Wellington. This was something of a vestigial appellation, as it was not widely seen on labels. Boberg was repealed in February of 2019. Cape Ruby, Cape Vintage, and Cape Tawny are far more popular names for this Port-like type of wine, and these terms have the added benefit of not being confined to any particular viticultural area. The regions of South Africa; click to enlarge and zoom in (Courtesy of SAWIS) Bottling a wine with a ward designation requires that 100% of the fruit come from that ward. Because of this, if wines from two wards within the same district are blended, only the district can be listed on the label; the same applies to wines from different districts within the same region. For example, if a winemaker combines fruit from Stellenbosch and Paarl, then it can only be labeled as Coastal Region. Blending between regions is more complicated; if fruit from the Cape South Coast and Coastal Region are combined, that wine is eligible for the overarching Cape Coastal designation, established in 2017. But if fruit from any other two regions are blended, that wine can only be labeled as Western Cape. This is the largest catch-all appellation allowed in South African wine, and though its reputation is for big, cheap blends, some very fine wine is being labeled as Western Cape. Exceptions abound within the WO scheme. For example, it is not necessary for a ward to be within a district. There are, in fact, 18 wards that lie outside of the established districts of the Western Cape geographical unit. There are also many cross-regional categories. Wards are added, tweaked, or redrawn somewhat regularly. This is a serious and intensive process that can last years and involves experts, winemakers, viticulturalists, and scientists. The districts of South Africa; click to enlarge and zoom in (Courtesy of SAWIS) The coastal wards are most subject to change as they are relatively new and being developed at a dramatic pace. In February 2020, an entirely new WO category was formed outside of the existing categories of geographic unit, region, district, and ward: the Cape West Coast subregion now exists to identify areas more "coastal" in character. It encompasses the districts of Darling, Lutzville Valley, and the western half of Swartland, plus the wards of Groenekloof, St. Helena Bay, Lamberts Bay, Bamboes Bay, and Koekenaap. The wards of South Africa; click to enlarge and zoom in (Courtesy of SAWIS) The following is a breakdown of all of the regions within the Western Cape geographical unit. The most important districts and wards are also discussed. Breede River Valley Region The Breede River is one of the widest rivers in South Africa, and the valleys formed by it and its tributaries are equally broad. The large Breede River Valley region is separated from the Coastal Region and the Cape South Coast by a series of mountain chains. These mountains block much of the ocean’s influence, making for a fairly hot and dry climate, though a steady wind blows daily that is both a blessing (mildew abatement) and a curse (desiccation). This wind, coupled with the lack of rain, makes irrigation essential in the minds of many growers. Breede River Valley district (Photo credit: Kelli White) Most viticulture is confined to the valley floor—flat and expansive stretches of land that feature fertile soils of sand and loam. The foothills of the mountains have soils of sandstone, shale, and schist, but vineyards are rare. Only in the past 20 years has a small collective of ambitious growers expanded into the hillsides. Though it contains relatively few wineries, the Breede River Valley grows more grapes (34.29% of South Africa’s 2018 total) and produces more wine than any other region. This is because it is, by and large, home to massive operations, many of which are cooperatives. Vines are cropped heavy, and much of the local production is sent to the distillers to become brandy. However, the scene is starting to change, with a handful of smaller producers pursuing artisan wines. The Breede River Valley region is divided into three districts: Breedekloof (which, confusingly, means “Breede River Valley” in Afrikaans) in the west, Worcester in the middle and the north, and Robertson in the southeast. Breedekloof District Because of the lingering importance of the brandy industry, the Breedekloof district is mostly dedicated to white varieties, with nearly 2,800 of its 12,604 hectares planted to Chenin Blanc. The next most widely cultivated grapes are Colombard (1,893 hectares), Sauvignon Blanc (1,184 hectares), Pinotage (920 hectares), and Chardonnay (806 hectares). Its wards are unlikely to appear on a wine label, but Slanghoek , with its somewhat cooler microclimate, is thought to have great potential. This area is home to mostly large-scale operations, but a dozen smaller wineries have recently banded together as the Breedekloof Makers. Their goal is to share information and resources and to move away from the big blend thinking of the region in a bid to understand the terroir potential of small-lot wines. Among them is Olifantsberg, a tiny estate dedicated to Rhône varieties. It serves as a model as to the leaps in quality available in moving off of the valley floor and to the mountain slopes. Wards: Goudini, Slanghoek Robertson District Robertson may be located in the warm Breede River Valley, but its position in the southwest makes it the coolest of three districts. The valley actually opens up facing coastal Malgas, allowing the influx of cooling ocean breezes. Because of this, and certainly because of its soils, it is home to over 25% of South Africa’s Chardonnay. Robertson district (Photo credit: Kelli White) For several generations, an important industry in Robertson has been the raising of race horses. These horses are known to be especially sturdy and fast, which was attributed to the area’s soil. Because Robertson possesses massive pockets of limestone (fairly unique in South Africa), the grass and hay grown are rich in calcium. This strengthened the bones of the horses, which improved their endurance and speed. Though still active, Robertson’s horse breeding industry has faded recently and has largely been replaced with viticulture. Today, one can hardly find a swath of ground that isn’t carpeted in vines. Much of Robertson’s Chardonnay goes to bulk or inexpensive wine production, but an increasing amount of it is being redirected to finer purposes. De Wetshof produces a range of single-vineyard and single-soil Chardonnays that have brought considerable critical acclaim to the region. Sparkling wine is another huge part of the landscape, with nearly a dozen of South Africa’s top MCC producers located here. Among them is the biggest, Graham Beck, which is also widely considered the category leader. In addition to Chardonnay (1,684 hectares), Robertson is planted to Colombard (1,982 hectares), Sauvignon Blanc (1,573 hectares), Chenin Blanc (1,546 hectares), Cabernet Sauvignon (1,296 hectares), and Shiraz (953 hectares). This list demonstrates that, while brandy and fortified wine production are still significant parts of regional operations, Robertson has had an easier time realigning itself to so-called noble varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz than other interior areas. But whatever the pedigree, a considerable amount of Robertson fruit leaves the district, used to pad or improve blends bottled under the Western Cape appellation. Wards: Agterkliphoogte, Ashton, Boesmansrivier, Bonnievale, Eilandia, Goedemoed, Goree, Goudmyn, Hoopsrivier, Klaasvoogds, Le Chasseur, McGregor, Vinkrivier, Zandrivier Worcester District Worcester is the largest of the three Breede River Valley districts but the least widely planted, possessing only half the area under vine of either Robertson or Breedekloof. It is also the most closely associated with “brandy varieties,” Chenin Blanc (1,860 hectares) and Colombard (1,176 hectares). These two grapes truly dominate the vineyards; the third most widely planted variety is Sauvignon Blanc, which only accounts for a paltry 578 hectares. As this district branches further inland than the others, it is by far the hottest and driest of the three, though frost is a regular and acute threat. Here, irrigation is almost always necessary, and vineyards higher on the slopes produce better quality. Brandy, bulk wine, and the odd historical sweet wine such as Jerepigo are the order of the day. The wards it contains are barely known, even inside South Africa. Wards: Hex River Valley, Keeromsberg, Nuy, Rooikrans, Scherpenheuvel, Stettyn Cape South Coast Region The Cape South Coast contains many of the most exciting and dynamic producers in South Africa, none of which existed a generation ago. This is because the sprawling region was (for the most part) not legally allowed to be planted until after the KWV abolished its quota scheme in 1992. It took a while for momentum to build, but viticulture really took off in the 2000s, when interest in more elegant wines from cool-climate regions began to increase globally. But though its ascent has been comparatively rapid, by 2018, the Cape South Coast only featured 2,632 hectares under vine. This is barely more than the Klein Karoo, the least developed of South Africa’s regions. But unlike the Klein Karoo, which is still wed mostly to grapes used for brandy, the Cape South Coast is planted almost exclusively to noble varieties. As of 2018, the most predominant vine types were Sauvignon Blanc (783 hectares), Shiraz (333 hectares), Chardonnay (319 hectares), Pinot Noir (309 hectares), and Cabernet Sauvignon (185 hectares). As the region traces the edge of both the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, it contains some of South Africa’s most marginal sites. Since few of these areas are suitable for bulk production, high-quality artisan winemaking is the order of the day. Cape South Coast wards with no district: Herbertsdale, Napier Cape Agulhas District The Cape Agulhas district occupies the very tip of the African continent, and most of the development can be found in the Elim ward. Vines grow among layered shales and iron-rich koffieklip, or “coffee stone,” soils, also known as ferricrete. Battered by wind from nearly every direction, this area is limited in what it can grow. Nonetheless, it is becoming increasingly well known for the quality of its Sauvignon Blanc, which tends to feature noticeable green or grassy tones. Ward: Elim Elgin District Elgin district (Photo credit: Kelli White) Elgin is a small but qualitatively important growing area that began as a ward but was promoted to district status. Situated just to the southeast of Stellenbosch, Elgin is effectively an elevated bowl ringed by mountains. The terrain undulates gently, and most of the agricultural land ranges between 300 and 500 meters in elevation. Soils vary but are primarily decomposed sandstone and shale. With a mean February temperature of only 19.7 degrees Celsius (67.5 degrees Fahrenheit), Elgin is among the cooler regions in all of South Africa. It is also besieged by rains throughout the growing season—over 1,000 millimeters annually. This rain and the accompanying high humidity come with all the attendant risks (mildew, botrytis, fruit dilution), but the regular cloud cover helps extend ripening. Frost is another major concern for farmers. Elgin is the country’s premier source of orchard fruits, with approximately 80% of the land dedicated to apples and pears. Though quality viticulture has been in play here since the 1980s, grapevine planting spiked after the turn of the century, when the value of apples declined. Of course, such is the cyclical nature of agriculture—today, it is grape prices that are falling, inspiring many farmers to reverse course and return their vineyards to apples, which they claim can bring in seven times the income. Because Elgin is relatively tiny and its agriculture is dominated by produce, both vineyards and wineries tend to be on the smaller side. As bulk quantity is not physically possible here, high quality seems to be the shared strategy of the area’s producers. Chardonnay is by far the most successful variety, generally produced in a bright, crisp style similar to the Chardonnays of Walker Bay. Sauvignon Blanc dominates, a handful of good Pinot Noir and Rieslings exist (but the potential for more is there), and Merlot remains a solid point of distinction. Overberg District Overberg , so-named because it was “over the mountains” from Stellenbosch, was once a considerably larger district. But over time, as certain viticultural areas inside it have expanded and matured, they were elevated to districts of their own, shrinking the overarching Overberg. Elgin and Walker Bay are the best known examples of this, and Walker Bay went on to be further subdivided into wards. As Overberg covers a significant span of ground, the area is quite varied, though this is generally a cold, wet, and windy place. It contains several wards, many of which are in their developmental infancy. The Greyton ward was drawn in honor of Lismore Estate. Lismore was started in the early 2000s by American transplant Samantha O’Keefe. O’Keefe purchased a remote dairy farm in the mountains, capitalizing on the same collapse in the price of milk and apples that set farmers to cultivating vines in Elgin. She planted Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, and Shiraz, becoming the first commercial grower in the area. Today, Lismore is one of the most celebrated brands in the country, and its refined wines are especially beloved by critics. Greyton ward (Photo credit: Kelli White) Lismore’s steep vineyard is dramatically situated at around 320 meters above sea level and features extremely rocky soils of shale and slate over clay and limestone. O’Keefe only plants vines where there’s enough clay that she can dry-farm, but the high amount of rain makes fighting vigor (both of her vines and cover crops) a major challenge. Her farm’s isolated location increases wildlife pressure, and O’Keefe struggles to keep the baboons from consuming her later-ripening red varieties. Wards: Elandskloof, Greyton, Klein River, Theewater Swellendam District Malgas ward (Photo credit: Kelli White) The Swellendam district is similar to Overberg in terms of both size and reputation. Though they are adjacent, Swellendam is far more protected from the ocean elements as, with the exception of a tiny tendril that follows the Breede River out to sea, the appellation lies farther inland than its neighbor to the west. In further similarity to Overberg, Swellendam is also most famous for a ward drawn to accommodate a single producer. This ward, Malgas, lies close to the ocean and looks down upon the Breede River. The vineyards of this producer, Sijnn (pronounced “sane”), occupy an isolated plateau in an otherwise bleak landscape dotted by the occasional dairy and wheat farm. Sijnn’s vineyard soils resemble that of Châteauneuf-du-Pape, in that they are a jumble of round weathered stones bound by relatively little topsoil. In honor of this (and despite the region’s cool climate), the proprietors have planted a range of varieties featuring numerous Rhône selections including Roussanne, Grenache, Mourvèdre, and Shiraz. They report an annual rainfall of between 340 and 380 millimeters a year, a mere third of that seen by neighboring Overberg. Wards: Buffeljags, Malgas, Stormsvlei Walker Bay District Walker Bay is by far the most famous and developed of all of the Cape South Coast’s districts. This is due in part to the fact that it contains Hermanus, a small coastal city and popular tourist destination, and also because of the pioneering work done by the Hamilton Russell and Bouchard-Finlayson wineries in what is now Hemel-en-Aarde (Afrikaans for “heaven and earth”). The various wards of Walker Bay stretch up the hillsides that radiate outward from the bay for which the district is named. Two of them, Bot River and Hemel-en-Aarde, were already producing quality wine prior to the KWV quota lift in 1992, but on a very small scale. Aside from those exceptions, Walker Bay is home to some of the youngest and most exciting brands in South Africa. As there was no historic tradition of winemaking here, these estates are being established by outsiders who are specifically drawn to the cool, maritime climate and unique soils of the area. Much of the focus is on Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, and the clear success of these two varieties has attracted interest and even investment from some of Burgundy’s producers. Bot River ward (Photo credit: Kelli White) Of Walker Bay’s many wards, Bot River and the trio of Hemel-en-Aardes are the best known. Due to Hamilton Russell’s early success, the Hemel-en-Aarde wards have molded themselves very much in the model of Burgundy or the Willamette Valley, while Bot River feels more traditionally South African. It is decidedly coastal in feel, with regular ocean breezes and an abundance of rain and mist, and yet the varieties planted are more typical of Swartland. Chenin Blanc is especially important to the area, and even old vines—a real rarity for the coast—can be found. Pinotage and Shiraz are also widely planted, in addition to a good amount of Semillon and Mourvèdre. Because of the contrast of “interior” varieties with a coastal climate, the wines from this region tend toward elegance. Per its name, the picturesque Bot River ward is made up of the valley bisected by the gentle Bot River. Two mountain ranges bracket the area, with the bowl of Elgin sitting over the western ridge and Hemel-en-Aarde lying to the east. The rolling terrain is dotted with farms and orchards, and the soils upon which both grapes and apples grow are primarily rocky shale with outcroppings of sandstone. Gabrielskloof is an important winery to the area, and though it has a long history there, it is starting to incorporate more contemporary approaches to winemaking, as evidenced by a single-soil Syrah series. Beaumont, the first operating winery of the modern era, is also significant. Its focus is on select bottlings of Chenin Blanc. Though neighboring Hemel-en-Aarde gets the lion’s share of press, Bot River is rich in both quality wines and the potential for further development. Hemel-en-Aarde (Photo credit: Kelli White) What is referred to generically as Hemel-en-Aarde is actually three distinct wards (Hemel-en-Aarde Valley, Upper Hemel-en-Aarde Valley, and Hemel-en-Aarde Ridge), whose names are confusingly similar. Collectively, these appellations got their viticultural start in the 1970s when Hamilton Russell, an advertising executive with a holiday home in Hermanus, decided to develop a pair of vineyards. He tested a range of grapes, with Pinot Noir and Chardonnay finding the greatest success, and these varieties continue to dominate the landscape (though experiments are still being carried out). At the time, developing such a marginal, coastal site was not only considered insane, it was also illegal. And yet the resulting wines were so enthusiastically received that, after a series of court battles, the KWV reluctantly relaxed its strict standards, opening the door to the eventual quota repeal of 1992. The three wards of Hemel-en-Aarde wind their way up from the valley floor to the hillside over a series of ridges. For the most part, the valleys are narrow enough that the vines are protected from the winds that regularly whip through Bot River. Hemel-en-Aarde Valley is the lowest in elevation at about 125 meters, while Hemel-en-Aarde Ridge (the highest) crests 400 meters in elevation. Rainfall averages 750 millimeters a year and, according to local producers, the climate is cooler than Burgundy in the summers but warmer during the shoulder seasons. Hemel-en-Aarde Valley and Hemel-en-Aarde Ridge enjoy predominately shale-based clay, while Upper Hemel-en-Aarde Valley is dominated by decomposed granite. Today, the region is a hotspot for young winemakers, many of whom are making some truly compelling wines. Though there are currently only around a dozen physical estates, outside wineries are snapping up vineyard land in a bid to capitalize on this fashionable region. Those who love Burgundy but lament how expensive it has gotten may very well want to keep an eye on the Hemel-en- Aarde wards. Wards: Bot River, Hemel-en-Aarde Ridge, Hemel-en-Aarde Valley, Springfontein Rim, Stanford Foothills, Sunday’s Glen, Upper Hemel-en-Aarde Valley Other districts in the Cape South Coast: Lower Duivenhoks River (no wards), Plettenberg Bay (no wards) Still Bay District In 2026, Still Bay was upgraded from a ward to a district. This district terroir is defined by pure limestone soils, cool coastal climate, and a mere 10 hectares of vines. The producers here are very excited about Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. Ward: Goukou River Valley Coastal Region South Africa’s Coastal Region is the source for most of the country’s high-quality wine. It is also the historic heartland of the industry, containing such seminal growing areas as Constantia, Stellenbosch, Swartland, and Paarl. One need only briefly dwell on the disparate nature of the aforementioned appellations to understand how vast and varied a terrain is encompassed in the Coastal Region. The name is even a bit misleading, as some of the hotter sites, specifically Tulbagh and Wellington, are decidedly inland. But because they fall outside of the tall, L-shaped mountain chain that borders the Ceres Plateau and the Breede River Valley, they are lumped together with the more properly maritime areas such as Stellenbosch. Perhaps what truly unites the region is not so much the coast as proximity to Cape Town. This important city, its dense population, and the bars and restaurants it contains, provide essential support to the surrounding wine industry. Coastal Region wards with no district: Bamboes Bay, Lamberts Bay Cape Town District Constantia ward (Photo credit: Kelli White) The Cape Town district is a good example of the fluidity of the Wine of Origin system. Prior to May of 2017, this was actually two separate districts: Cape Peninsula and Tygerberg. But as both districts were relatively unknown, authorities decided to merge the two and rebrand the combined area to reflect its proximity to the capital. The Cape Town district contains one important ward, Constantia, and three lesser-known wards: Durbanville, Hout Bay, and Philadelphia. The original Constantia farm was registered in 1685, making it one of the first commercial wine endeavors not only in South Africa but in the whole of the so-called New World. It was established by Simon van der Stel, whose sweet “governor’s wine” was the first critically acclaimed wine from South Africa. Later versions were known simply as Constantia. Though there is some debate about the profile of the original Constantia, it is believed that these were generally unfortified dessert wines made in both red and white styles. The category grew to become one of the most internationally sought-after wines of the 1700s, famously consumed by authors, royalty, and heads of state. When van der Stel died in 1712, his estate was subdivided into three parts: Groot and Klein Constantia (“big” and “little,” respectively) and Bergvliet. Over time, other wineries were established in close proximity, and today the ward counts around a dozen active brands. The Constantia ward sits on a small sliver of land that juts out into the Atlantic Ocean. The growing area occupies an amphitheater-shaped valley wedged between False Bay and the ever-expanding sprawl of Cape Town. This urban proximity affects Constantia in two rather dramatic ways. First, land values have been driven extremely high, making it difficult for young or new producers to get established. And second, wine tourism has become a major industry. This latter factor is critical in that it promotes direct-to-consumer sales, which aids profitability. Of course, the downside to such guaranteed and easy sales is that it can sometimes lead to complacent winemaking. Mean February temperatures in the Cape Town district; click to enlarge and zoom in (Courtesy of VinPro) As Constantia is surrounded on three sides by chilly ocean currents and is directly in the path of the relentless Cape Doctor wind, it is very much a cold-climate growing region. The mean temperature in February, the hottest month of the growing season, is only 20.6 degrees Celsius (69 degrees Fahrenheit). Because of this, in addition to the range of prestigious Muscat-based dessert wines, Sauvignon Blanc is the dominant variety. Red grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz have enjoyed some success at higher elevations, where the increased sun exposure and distance from the ocean aids ripening. Heavy rain is a signature of the region, averaging 1,000 millimeters per year, and the soils are primarily clay mixed with sand derived from granite (higher elevations) or sandstone (lower elevations). Located on the opposite side of Cape Town, Durbanville shares a border with Paarl and Swartland. Like Constantia, this is a cool-climate growing region primarily dedicated to Sauvignon Blanc. But because it lacks that appellation’s famous name, a considerable amount of Durbanville fruit leaves the ward, destined for blends based on Paarl or Stellenbosch fruit. Durbanville is one of the few South African winegrowing areas without any real mountain influence. Here, the terrain is dominated by low rolling hills dotted by sheep and small family farms. The ocean influence manifests in the form of ample rainfall (approximately 600 millimeters a year) and thick daily fog. Diemersdal is one of the larger producers in the region and is considered a quality leader. Wards: Constantia, Durbanville, Hout Bay, Philadelphia Darling District Darling , a triangle-shaped wedge within the southwest corner of the Swartland, used to be one of the area’s wards until it was promoted to a district status of its own. Today, it is a popular source of Sauvignon Blanc and a growing number of varietal Cinsauts. Ward: Groenekloof Franschhoek Valley District With its high-end boutique shopping, tourist-ferrying trolley, and French signage, Franschhoek is a unique within the South African wine industry. The ubiquitous presence of tourists is due to the district’s proximity to both Stellenbosch and Cape Town (not to mention its stunning physical beauty). The French signage is thanks to the French Huguenots who settled here in South Africa’s early colonial days, giving the area both its name (Franschhoek is Afrikaans for “French Quarter”) and its linguistic legacy. Franschhoek Valley district (Photo credit: Kelli White) The district (which contains no wards) is a small, narrow valley that forms a pie-shaped wedge between Paarl and Stellenbosch. Because the valley is pinched off at one end, breezes do not regularly flow here. This makes the area a kind of climatic middle ground between its much larger neighbors, as it is cooler than Paarl but warmer than Stellenbosch (though elevation plays a major role in microclimate). The mountains that so dramatically define the valley are made of pure granite, which informs the area’s soils. And as the valley floor is thick with clay, most viticulture has long been confined to the slopes. Plums are the other major agricultural product of the area, and their current high profitability is threatening some vineyards. Franschhoek is planted to a little bit of everything but is most famous for its old vine Semillon, though much of it has been removed over the years. Perhaps the most coveted vineyard in the area is La Colline, which is believed to have been planted in 1936. Beyond that, Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, and Cabernet Sauvignon seem to be the other favorites and are generally cultivated for quality, not bulk. Wards: None Paarl District The Paarl district, one of South Africa’s most historic winegrowing areas, is located at the interior edge of the Coastal Region, in between Stellenbosch, Wellington, and Swartland. It occupies a tense position in South African wine, with one foot in quality production and one foot in bulk. This latter position is especially grounded in the fact that Paarl is also famous as the home of the KWV, whose presence still looms in the guise of a massive private production facility. Paarl district (Photo credit: Kelli White) For the most part, Paarl enjoys granitic soils that contain more clay at lower elevations, and more sand and rock higher up. It is primarily a hot and flat area, though there are exceptions. The Berg River, which originates in the mountains of Franschhoek, flows through, providing irrigation water for local agriculture. Most of the flatland production is dedicated to bulk wine (Vilafonté is a notable exception), but three mountainous areas—Simonsberg, Paardeberg, and Paarl Rock—create more favorable microclimates for quality. Paarl’s wards have been drawn specifically to accommodate and highlight these high-performing viticultural areas. Paarl Rock sits in the center of the district and is a striking, massive, naked mound of pure granite. The Agter-Paarl ward extends behind it ( agter means “behind” in Afrikaans), encompassing a handful of producers. The other two wards sit on opposite sides of the district, one bordering Stellenbosch, the other Swartland. In the south, Simonsberg Mountain marks the boundary between Paarl and Stellenbosch, and its slopes are considered prime viticultural land on both sides. The districts share adjacent wards, Simonsberg-Paarl and Simonsberg-Stellenbosch, the wines from which are remarkably similar given their opposing aspects. On the Paarl side, Backsberg is a clear leader, and Bordeaux varieties and Chardonnay dominate the vineyards. In the north, the Voor-Paardeberg ward occupies the lower slopes of Swartland’s Paardeberg Mountain. Many feel this region bears more kinship to the Swartland, with its vast swaths of old vine Chenin vineyards (though Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz are also widely planted), and rumors persist that it will eventually be moved into the neighboring district. Mean February temperatures in Paarl; click to enlarge and zoom in (Courtesy of VinPro) Paarl is one of the most widely planted districts, boasting even more area under vine than the significantly larger Swartland (14,766 hectares compared to Swartland’s 12,850). Of all these vines, Chenin Blanc is the most significant (2,743 hectares), and many patches of old vines can be found. After that, Cabernet Sauvignon leads with 2,326 hectares under vine, followed by Shiraz (2,123 hectares), Pinotage (1,304 hectares), Chardonnay (1,208 hectares), Merlot (1,012 hectares), and Sauvignon Blanc (929 hectares). Though not statistically significant, Rhône varieties are gaining traction among quality- minded producers. Wards: Agter-Paarl, Simonsberg-Paarl, Voor-Paardeberg Stellenbosch District Stellenbosch is very much the heart of South Africa’s wine industry. Located only an hour’s drive from Cape Town, this district is centered around the picturesque town of the same name, where steepled, white-washed buildings reflect the Afrikaners’ Dutch roots. Stellenbosch University, the main academic training ground for the country’s winemakers and viticulturalists, is also located here. And the dozens of wine farms that extend into the beautiful countryside contain some of the most well-appointed, well-funded, and highly praised wineries in the country. Only Constantia has a longer history under vine than Stellenbosch, which has multiple properties that have been in operation since their founding in the 1600s. As Stellenbosch receives an impressive number of tourists, some of the wine estates function like mini-resorts, complete with restaurants, spas, art galleries, and rooms for rent. The Stellenbosch district stretches all the way from the coastline of False Bay in the south to Paarl in the north, with the Elgin district of the Cape South Coast region just to the east. Given the distinct climates over its many borders, it makes sense that Stellenbosch features a selection of microclimates, ranging from the maritime to the arid. Additionally, multiple dramatic mountain outcroppings interrupt the terrain, which further complicates the terroir. Considering this, it is no wonder that the relatively small Stellenbosch district can already count eight wards within its boundaries, with more rumored to be in the works. Stellenbosch district (Photo credit: Kelli White) Simonsberg-Stellenbosch is the largest, most northerly, and furthest inland of the Stellenbosch wards. It is primarily dedicated to red varieties (Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Shiraz, Pinotage), though Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay are planted in significant amounts as well. The most important winery in the ward is Kanonkop, which is especially well known for its Bordeaux blends and Pinotage. Rustenberg and Warwick are also very high performing. In part because of the warmer microclimate, and in part because of the preponderance of clay in the soil, wines from this ward tend to be on the richer, more luxurious side. Yet they are more elegant than their Paarl counterparts, due to the cool southerly exposure of the slopes and access to ocean breezes. Among locals, the Banghoek ward is often called Banker’s ward, referencing the area’s many wealthy estates (Jackson Family’s Capensis, Delaire Graff, Tokara, Rainbow’s End). This small ward occupies a dramatic valley that sits to the south of Simonsberg-Stellenbosch. It features starkly rising slopes that contain the highest elevation vineyards in Stellenbosch (up to 640 meters), which can be quite cool. The soils here are mostly decomposed granite (sandstone higher up) with clay, and as development has been fairly recent, modern varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay dominate the vineyards. The Bottelary ward, located in the western end of Stellenbosch, has north-facing slopes ideal for the ripening of red varieties, but its proximity to the coast opens the appellation up to the ocean’s cooling influence. Vineyards are mostly confined to the valley floor and low hills, stretching as high as 300 meters. Chenin Blanc can be found here, but Bordeaux varieties, Pinotage, and Shiraz are more common. Just to its south lies the newer Polkadraai Hills ward, which produces a more nervy style of wine. These slopes face mostly south and southwest, opening them directly up to the cooling influence of False Bay and the Atlantic. Sauvignon Blanc dominates, but Shiraz and Bordeaux varieties are also widely planted, as are Chenin Blanc and Chardonnay (to a lesser extent). The other wards are not considered as significant, often because they are cooler or don’t contain as many wineries. Jonkershoek Valley is a very distinctive area. This valley is nestled up to a particularly tall mountain, which captures cool air and moisture. This, plus the clay-heavy soils, results in a more elegant style of wine. Devon Valley is another cool site with very deep and fertile soils. It is said to be more of a challenging place to farm than Jonkershoek, and the red varieties planted here are widely thought to display an herbal or green characteristic. Most of Stellenbosch has not been carved into wards, and these undefined areas often contain the most prized vineyards and respected wineries, such as Mulderbosch and Waterford. A region known as the Golden Triangle , which extends southward from the town of Stellenbosch, is especially revered, as are the slopes of the Helderberg Mountain. This mountain sits at a perpendicular angle to the coastline and channels the ocean breezes to either side, exerting a powerful influence over a broad swath of Stellenbosch. Soils are very heterogeneous in Stellenbosch, but most are some sort of combination of decomposed sandstone or decomposed granite mixed with varying proportions of clay (though small pockets of shale can be found). The most widely planted variety across the entire district is Cabernet Sauvignon, with 2,963 hectares under vine. This is logical, as Cabernet-dominant Bordeaux blends are very much the hallmark wine of the region. Sauvignon Blanc leads the whites with 2,602 hectares planted, and Shiraz (1,964 hectares), Merlot (1,746 hectares), Chenin Blanc (1,344 hectares), Pinotage (1,200 hectares), and Chardonnay (1,099 hectares) follow in order. Though Stellenbosch is one of South Africa’s most historic winegrowing areas, old vine vineyards are rare. This is primarily due to the amount of money that has flooded the district. While it may seem counterintuitive, areas of high investment tend to feature younger vineyards, as the wineries are able to play with the latest clones, rootstocks, and vineyard technology (needless to say, more fashionable grapes are also favored over traditional varieties). But despite the area’s collective resources, because it is the most densely planted district in the Cape, virus—specifically leaf roll— is rampant. Other important wineries include Beyerskloof, DeMorgenzon, Ken Forrester, Meerlust, Neil Ellis, Raats, Rustenberg, Rust en Vrede, Thelema, and Vergelegen. Wards: Banghoek, Bottelary, Devon Valley, Jonkershoek Valley, Papegaaiberg, Polkadraai Hills, Simonsberg-Stellenbosch, Vlottenburg Swartland District Stellenbosch, Constantia, Franschhoek, and even Paarl to a lesser extent, are well-established wine regions packed with grand buildings, eager tourists, and the facilities that service them. The Swartland is something apart. Mountains loom, but they are widely spaced, with broad swaths of wheat-covered plains stretching between them. Wineries (aside from the handful of remaining cooperatives) tend to be modest affairs, barn-like, tucked away from the road, and often absent signage. Tourists don’t accidentally wander into the Swartland (unless for the olive oil); it is a place one must deliberately seek, but visitors are rewarded with some of South Africa’s most compelling wines. Swartland district (Photo credit: Kelli White) The Swartland has a long history under vine, stretching back almost as long as Constantia and Stellenbosch. Records are scant, but the area didn’t start producing a quantitatively significant amount of wine until the mid-19 th century. Broad, hot, and dry, the Swartland seemed to align itself with bulk production early on and remained committed to cooperatives and brandy grapes long after the rest of South Africa started amassing small estates focused on quality in the 1960s and ’70s. Swartland’s fortunes changed in the mid-1990s when Charles Back established a winery named Spice Route. His family’s background was first in bulk and then in estate production, and he believed that the Swartland had enormous potential for quality. Spice Route was cutting edge in that it focused on Mediterranean varieties while the rest of the country was looking toward Bordeaux and Burgundy. But while the winery is significant in its own right, Spice Route is perhaps now more famous as the former employer of Eben Sadie, the man who has almost single-handedly transformed the Swartland from viticultural backwater to the torchbearer for “the New South Africa.” Sadie worked at Spice Route from 1998 to 2001, when he left to focus on his own project, Columella, which released its first vintage in 2000. Before long, his passion and the clear success of his wines inspired friends to follow. Among the first to relocate to the Swartland were the Mullineuxs and Adi Badenhorst, who was raised on the Groot Constantia estate, where his father worked as manager. The three declared themselves “the Swartland Revolution,” and over time, a handful of other (often quite young) winemakers joined them. Today, the Swartland Independent Producers (SIP) carries out this group’s mission “to build a strong regional identity through wines that truly express this uniqueness of the region,” with stated core values and requirements for the local certification. This includes a list of varieties best suited to the region and a mandate for minimal-to-no adjustments in the cellar. Bush vines in Swartland (Photo credit: Kelli White) The Swartland is a vast place, commonly referred to as the breadbasket of South Africa. Its western length runs along the coast, but most viticulture is found further inland, barely in reach of the cooling breezes. Mountains ring the plains, which undulate in low hills that are often covered in livestock or agriculture. The soils are some of the most variegated in South Africa, with sand-like decomposed granite common in the Paardeberg area to the south, where Sadie and Badenhorst are based. Slate, shale, and schist dominate the area around the eastern mountains, and some chalk can be found in the north. Bands of rich red clay loam run west of Malmesbury, and quartz stones are sprinkled throughout. Climatically speaking, the Swartland is primarily a hot and dry place, with little in the way of rainfall. Because of this, wide spaced, head-trained bush vines that can be dry-farmed dominate. These old vines, preserved largely through the area’s lack of prosperity, are one of the Swartland’s most prized and defining characteristics. Chenin Blanc, much of which was planted to support the dessert wine and brandy industries in the mid-20 th century, occupies 2,553 hectares of the area’s vineyards. Shiraz comes next with 2,048 hectares, followed by Cabernet Sauvignon (1,836 hectares), Pinotage (1,464 hectares), and Sauvignon Blanc (1,167 hectares). While not statistically significant, Sadie has been working with the government to import and trial dozens of varieties that he feels might be well suited to South Africa. So far, his imports include selections from Greece, Italy, Portugal, Southern France, and Spain. Most winegrowing is concentrated in the area to the southeast of Malmesbury, the commercial hub of the Swartland, in the Paardeberg and Paardeburg South wards, which are rich in sandy granitic soils. The official Malmesbury ward extends to the northwest of the city but is rarely seen on bottles. The other major hubs for viticulture are in the adjacent Riebeekberg and Riebeeksrivier wards, just to the northeast of Malmesbury. The wines here, cultivated on soils of iron-rich slate and shale, tend to be earthy and powerful, while the Paardeberg wines are more sculptural. Finally, along the northwest coast is the remote St. Helena Bay ward, which contains very little viticulture. This region is regularly 10 degrees Celsius (18 degrees Fahrenheit) less than the inland area, with chalk-rich soils that produce nervy, saline wines. Wards: Malmesbury, Paardeberg, Paardeberg South, Picket-Bo-Berg, Porseleinberg, Riebeekberg, Riebeeksrivier, St. Helena Bay Tulbagh District The Tulbagh district is a unique pocket of land within the South African landscape. It sits inland from the hot, dry Swartland, but because it is an elevated horseshoe-shaped valley carved from tall mountains, it has colder winters and higher rainfall than its neighbor. It is worth pointing out that though Tulbagh and Swartland were both long associated with bulk wine, it was for dry table wine and not dessert wine, unlike the rest of the country. Since the early 2000s, Tulbagh’s reputation has been in flux, as a small but growing number of independent wineries have set up shop. Fable Mountain in particular stands out for its concentrated yet elegant reds. The town of Tulbagh occupies the center of the valley’s bowl, and much of the viticulture is located in the eastern foothills, reaching as high as 450 meters in elevation. Here, Chenin Blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon, and red Rhône varieties thrive. The soils are quite varied but, while neighboring Swartland is grounded in granite, here the primary substrate is shale mixed with clay and quartz. Air currents can be ferocious, and while that can have a pleasant cooling effect, vines highest up the slopes have been known to experience wind damage. Additionally, because of the penned-in shape of the valley, the cold air sinks and becomes trapped, making for a rather distinct microclimate. Wards: None Wellington District Wellington sits in between Tulbagh and Paarl, with Swartland stretching off to the west. This inland area was actually once a ward of Paarl before it was elevated to district status, and many feel that it still spiritually belongs to its neighbor. Like Paarl, Wellington is primarily hot and dry, though it lacks defining mountains. Its low, rolling terrain has long appealed to growers of bulk wine and table grapes, and though quality is improving, the district’s reputation is such that it is rarely listed on a label. The massive private company DGB is based here, and the director calls Wellington and Paarl the “engines of South Africa’s wine industry.” Heat is the biggest hurdle to quality grapegrowing in Wellington, though a dramatic diurnal swing helps preserve acidity. Because of this, the best and most widely planted varieties tend to be heat tolerant, such as Chenin Blanc, Shiraz, and Pinotage, along with some new and notable plantings of Grenache and Carignan. The soils are mostly shale at lower elevations, with weathered granite and sandstone at higher elevations. Wellington is also significant as the center of the vine nursery industry; nearly all of the vine stock distributed across South Africa finds its origin here. Wards: Blouvlei, Bovlei, Groenberg, Limietberg, Mid-Berg River Other districts in the Coastal Region: Lutzville Valley (ward: Koekenaap) Klein Karoo Region Karoo is an ancient word in South Africa, taken from the language of the indigenous San people. It translates roughly to “dry and thirsty land”—an apt description for this land-locked region. The Klein Karoo is essentially a long east-west valley that sits just over a mountain ridge to the north of the Robertson and Swellendam districts. These mountains isolate the region into its own distinct climate. It is not uncommon to see clear blue skies above the Klein Karoo while neighboring Robertson is shrouded in storm clouds. This difference is also reflected in the flora—the landscape becomes suddenly far more parched and desert-like in appearance, with low scrub brushes replacing tall trees. This area is considered by many to be the farthest inland that quality grapegrowing is possible. Over the northern ridge lies the Great Karoo, a vast stretch of mostly barren plains. Klein Karoo region (Photo credit: Kelli White) For the most part, the Klein Karoo is associated with bulk, sweet (Hanepoot, Jerepigo, and Moscatel), and “Port” production. The Calitzdorp district in the east is one of the best-known sources for Cape Vintage, Cape Ruby, and Cape Tawny. But, like much of the rest of South Africa, change is afoot. This is evidenced by the slow delineation of stand-alone wards, many of which were drawn to highlight a cluster of quality activity. Among the more promising are Tradouw and the Tradouw Highlands , where the Joubert-Tradauw winery is located. Meyer Joubert comes from an agricultural family that sold and continues to sell fruit to the area co-ops. He began making his own wine in 1999 and over time has reserved an increasing amount of grapes for his own purposes. The results are surprisingly refined considering the reputation of the Karoo and are a reminder that almost none of the generalizations about the South African wine industry can be taken at face value. Soils vary but are primarily built of shale, which is the bedrock of the southern band of mountains. Down near Calitzdorp, the ground is rich and fluvial, but up in the hills near Tradouw there is more clay, which is essential in such a dry area. Joubert notes that while his vineyard (which sits at around 500 meters) only receives 350 millimeters of rain a year, the mountains receive around 1,000 millimeters. To capture this moisture, his family has series of canals and pipes that redirect the water to their farm. One benefit of the arid conditions is that disease pressure in the Klein Karoo is among the lowest in South Africa. Viticulture is limited and separated into sparse pockets that are only loosely assembled into the greater Klein Karoo area. Because of the emphasis on bulk, brandy, and dessert styles, Colombard is the leading variety, with 716 hectares. Chenin Blanc and Hanepoot follow with 454 hectares and 141 hectares, respectively. Other districts in Klein Karoo: Calitzdorp ( ward: Groenfontein), Langeberg-Garcia (no wards) Klein Karoo wards with no district: Cango Valley, Montagu, Outeniqua, Tradouw, Tradouw Highlands, Upper Langkloof Olifants River Region Olifants River region (Photo credit: Kelli White) The Olifants River region is a vast and remote area located to the north of Swartland that traces the path of the river for which it is named. Overall, this area is even hotter and drier than the Swartland, and in many cases, it is only the river that renders viticulture possible. The region remains very dedicated to bulk wine, as evidenced by the grapes grown. Chenin Blanc and Colombard lead with 2,822 and 2,528 hectares, respectively. Shiraz is a distant third with 702 hectares, followed by Merlot (623 hectares), Sauvignon Blanc (586 hectares), Cabernet Sauvignon (461 hectares), Hanepoot (369 hectares), and Ruby Cabernet (368 hectares). One pocket, the Piekenierskloof ward in the Citrusdal Mountain district, has recently set itself apart for quality. Here the best vines grow at high elevation (around 600 meters) on the slopes of a large sandstone mountain. Rooibos tea bushes and citrus are the primary crops, but patches of old vine Chenin and Semillon can also be found. Piekenierskloof has also been home to the single largest amount of Grenache in South Africa since the 1960s, which has drawn the attention of some of the country’s best wineries. Outside of the ward, in the generic Citrusdal Mountain district, Eben Sadie’s famous vineyard Skurfberg can be found. Other districts in Olifants River: Citrusdal Mountain (ward: Piekenierskloof), Citrusdal Valley (no wards) Olifants River wards with no district: Spruitdrift, Vredendal Western Cape Districts & Wards Outside of Demarcated Regions Within the Western Cape, there is one district, Ceres Plateau, that does not belong to a region; it contains a ward called Ceres. There are also several orphan wards that belong to no district, including Cederberg, Leipoldtville-Sandveld, Nieuwoudtville, Prince Albert Valley, and Swartberg. Of these wards, Ceres in the Ceres Plateau district is the most exciting. Ceres sits up the mountains and inland from Tulbagh. Though a relatively scorching area, vineyards have been shown to thrive at the very high altitude plateau (around 850 meters). Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and Shiraz have so far shown promise, creating characterful wines due to the intense solar radiation (which is thought to thicken skins), the shale-based soils, and extremely cold nights. These are the few vineyards in South Africa that see regular winter snow. Cederberg has also been the site of interesting recent expansion. It is home to some of the highest vineyards at 1,100 meters. Remaining Geographical Units The Northern Cape geographical unit is perhaps the next most significant production region behind the Western Cape. While it produces mostly bulk wine, one region (Karoo-Hoogland), three districts (Central Orange River, Douglas and Sutherland-Karoo) and seven wards (Groblershoop, Grootdrink, Kakamas, Keimoes, and Upington in Central Orange River district, and the free wards of Hartswater and Prieska) have been designated. Of them, the Sutherland-Karoo district, with its high-elevation mountain sites, seems best situated to compete at a quality level. The remaining four geographical units are responsible for only a very small amount of wine compared to the rest of South Africa. The Eastern Cape and Free State each possess a single ward, St. Francis Bay and Rietrivier FS, respectively. The KwaZulu-Natal contains two districts, Central Drakensberg and Lions River. Bibliography Atkin, Tim. 2019 South Africa Special Report. TimAtkin.com, 2019. https://timatkin.com/product/2019-south-africa-special-report/ . James, Tim. Wines of the New South Africa: Tradition and Revolution. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013. Old Vine Project. Accessed January 31, 2020. https://oldvineproject.co.za/ . SA Wine Industry Information and Systems (SAWIS). Accessed January 31, 2020. http://www.sawis.co.za/ . Swart, Elmari, and Izak Smit. Essential Guide to South African Wines. Cape Town: Cheviot Publishing, 2009. van Zyl, Philip, ed. Platter’s by Diners Club South African Wine Guide 2016. Hermanus, South Africa: John Platter SA Wineguide (Pty) Ltd., 2016. Wines of South Africa. Accessed January 31, 2020. https://www.wosa.co.za/ . Special thanks to Jim Clarke, WOSA, SAWIS, and the OVP. Compiled by Kelli White (February 2020) Edited by Stacy LadenburgerPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/research/expert_guides/w/expert-guides/2450/viticultureFri, 25 Sep 2026 20:08:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:92e7e7ac-9036-4856-b81d-6a2a6f635659GuildSomm AdminContents Domestication of the Grapevine Vine Anatomy Grapevine Taxonomy Climate Soil Vineyard Establishment A Year in the Vineyard Vineyard Operations Pests & Diseases Farming Philosophies The Future of Farming Bibliography Grapes are a unique agricultural product. While more than half go toward the production of wine, they are also grown to be dried into raisins or eaten fresh. Grapes command more return per acre than almost any other plant, and in 2018, a single hectare of grand cru vineyard in Burgundy cost over seven million dollars on average. Further, unlike many crops that are planted each growing season, vineyards are a long-term investment—they require several years to become established and are designed to survive for decades. Unlike many commodity plants, the profitability of wine grapes is driven by quality, which includes the grape’s ability to convey a unique sense of place. While other agricultural crops look to new varieties for flavor improvement, disease resistance, and adaptations to climate, most wine producers rely on a small number of established cultivars. Site selection and vineyard practices, however, are critical, since improvement is achieved through management of the vine’s environment. Domestication of the Grapevine Grapes were one of the first fruits to be domesticated by humans. In ancient times, they were prized for their high levels of sugar, a source of both nutrition and novelty. Most of the grape varieties used in wine production belong to a single species, Vitis vinifera , which was first domesticated from wild grapevines, called Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris (or Vitis sylvestris ), at least 7,000 years ago in the land between the Black, Caspian, and Mediterranean Seas. As nomadic people settled into an agrarian lifestyle, they carried grapevines south to Mesopotamia. Domestic vinifera grapes were spread from the Fertile Crescent throughout the Mediterranean and Europe, driven by the westward migration of farming communities and, eventually, the expansion of the Roman Empire. Vitis sylvestris is native to Europe and Western Asia, and wild grapevines still inhabit these areas. Some evidence indicates that there may have been other centers of domestication of Vitis sylvestris , including sites in the Iberian Peninsula and Southern Italy. Over time, a collection of grape varieties was generated through the process of evolution, breeding, and human selection. Today, roughly 10,000 grape cultivars exist, with over 1,400 in commercial production, and grapegrowing has spread to hospitable zones throughout the world. Grapevines are lianas: unlike trees, they do not produce extensive wooden support systems but are instead “structural parasites,” climbing on trees for support. They are also phototrophs, or sunseekers, and invest most of their energy into producing leaves and tall shoots, since rapid vertical growth is essential for competition with other plants for vital sunlight. In nature, grapevines invest little energy in fruit production, yielding just enough scraggly clusters to ensure proliferation. Wild vines are also dioecious, which means that both male and females plants exist, and successful fertilization relies on wind and insects for pollination. Male plants bare no fruit, and female plants are only fruitful when a male plant is nearby. By contrast, since domesticated grapevines are cultivated for their fruit, they have been selected and managed to be prolific. Hermaphroditic, self-pollinating varieties were likely chosen initially, since these vines would have reliably produced more fruit. In addition to high yields, the selection of vines suitable for agriculture favored those with other beneficial characteristics, including large clusters, adaptations to the growing environment, and resistance to disease. The ability to attain the high sugar concentrations necessary for wine production, as well as taste, aroma, and appearance, also factored into selection. Analogous to a house cat and a lion, domestic vines have diverged significantly from those found in nature. Hills in the Napa Valley (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) While the romantic notion of a vineyard paints it as a natural space with little intervention, it is more akin to a highly cultivated garden, organized for both ease of use and optimization of yields and fruit quality. Rows facilitate management and allow tractors and other equipment to access the vines easily. Grapes are propagated vegetatively, generally grafted to a different species’ roots, and trained into small shrubs to facilitate management. Annual pruning dictates the number of shoots that will form in the following year and where they will be located. Growers often impose moderately stressful conditions, such as limited water availability, to encourage the vine to limit its vegetative growth and concentrate its energy on fruit production. By taming and training them, humans have coaxed vines to defy their nature in order to be cultivated effectively for food and wine production. Vine Anatomy Grapevines are perennial, deciduous plants that have a permanent woody frame consisting of a trunk, cordons, canes, and spur positions. Below the ground, an extensive root system anchors the vine and provides an interface with the soil, which supplies water and nutrients to the plant. A vine’s root system is mostly located within the top three feet of soil and consists of mature roots, which survive year to year, and smaller feeder roots, which grow anew each year. Often, Vitis vinifera is grafted onto a phylloxera-resistant rootstock. Grafted vines consist of an above-the-ground portion called the scion, which is joined to the rootstock at the graft union, visible a few inches above the vineyard floor. Some rootstock species develop deep root systems, while others grow more laterally. Credit: Laura Perrone A grapevine’s trunk is analogous to that of a tree; it’s the permanent, vertical structure. Cordons, canes, or spur positions may be attached to the trunk, though the vine’s form will ultimately depend on pruning decisions made during the first few years of the vine’s life. A cane-pruned vine after winter pruning, with dormant buds visible along the cane (Photo credit: GuildSomm) Canes are shoots grown in the previous growing season that have lignified, or turned brown. After pruning, they are generally one to four feet long. Spurs, however, are canes that have been trimmed to a length of several inches. Cordons are horizontal extensions of the trunk and have a number of spur positions located along them. Along a cane, there are dormant buds, and spurs generally contain between one and three buds. During the growing season, these buds develop into fruiting shoots. Every few inches along each shoot, there are nodes, which resemble knuckles, and the portion of stem between nodes is called the internode. Leaves, buds, clusters, and tendrils are joined to each shoot at the node. Collectively, all of the vegetative green growth that develops during the growing season is called the canopy. Two types of buds are located at each node, between the leaf and the stem: lateral buds and dormant buds. Each bud contains a highly compressed potential shoot. Lateral buds develop into shoots called laterals during the current growing season. These are side shoots that branch off of the main fruiting shoots. They are typically non-fruiting but may produce small clusters known as second crop. Laterals are often trimmed or removed through canopy management to prevent overcrowding and shading. Dormant buds, also called latent buds, spend the year maturing and develop into shoots in future years. As a rule, the dormant buds that formed last year, on canes and spurs from one-year-old wood, are the most fruitful. Dormant buds on older wood may also develop into unwanted shoots called suckers. Generally, suckers will not produce any fruit, and they are removed while they are small. Credit: Laura Perrone At each node, a single leaf develops, adjacent to the buds. Leaves are the powerhouse of grapevines, where photosynthesis takes place, and petioles are their stems, connecting leaf and shoot. A small lateral shoot and dormant bud are visible in the “elbow” at the node between the leaf and main shoot (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Clusters are located at nodes near the base of the vine. Most shoots contain between one and three clusters, with two being most common, though the typical number varies by grape variety. Carignan, for example, is known for producing three clusters per shoot. The area of the vine where the fruit is growing is described as the fruit zone. Long, thin coils called tendrils support the vine by wrapping around and attaching to trellises, trees, or other supports. Technically, they are modified flower clusters, though the two bear no resemblance to each other. Clusters and tendrils develop along each shoot in a “hit, hit, miss” pattern. The first few nodes closest to the base of the vine typically have neither. Then, every two nodes have either a cluster or a tendril, while every third node has neither, with the pattern continuing up the shoot. In the beginning of the season, inflorescences, or flower clusters that resemble immature grape clusters, are found on each fruitful shoot. These clusters were actually initiated within the buds during the previous growing season, with the number of clusters determined at that time. Every flower has the potential to be fertilized and become a berry during bloom, and flower clusters are transformed into grape clusters at fruit set. The stem of the cluster is called the rachis. Berries have a thick waxy coating known as bloom that protects the fruit from disease, prevents berry dehydration, and collects yeasts and other microbes useful during fermentation; within most berries are two or three seeds. Ampelography is the science of identifying grape varieties based on morphology. Clusters and berries vary in shape and size, and, along with leaf characteristics and the vine’s overall growth patterns, these attributes are used to identify grape species and varieties based on their unique patterns. Grapevine Function Plants create sugar from carbon dioxide and light through the process of photosynthesis, which takes place primarily in the leaves but may occur in any green plant tissue. Afterward, sugar is transported throughout the vine to be used for growth and development, and also into the fruit during ripening. Plants have a fluid transport system akin to veins in humans. The xylem carries water and nutrients from the roots throughout the vine, while the phloem carries sugar from the leaves throughout the plant. A subsequent reaction, respiration , converts sugar into usable energy called adenosine triphosphate, or ATP. This reaction requires oxygen and releases carbon dioxide and is required for vine growth and development. It occurs in every part of the plant, including the roots, both day and night. During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide in the environment is taken in through microscopic pores in the leaves called stomates. When the stomates are open, water vapor is released from the plant into the atmosphere through transpiration . During periods of stress, especially hydric stress, the vine will close its stomates to conserve water, halting photosynthesis and slowing respiration. Vine Balance A vine with ample water and nutrients will develop a large canopy with fast-growing shoots. Vine vigor refers to the amount of vegetative growth produced by a vine, and it is assessed through several markers, including shoot length and diameter, the number of shoots per vine, and the vine’s tendency to produce laterals and suckers. Vigor may be quantified through pruning weight, which is literally the weight of the material that is removed from the vine at pruning, sampled across a selection of vines. Excessive vegetative growth can be detrimental to fruit quality and quantity. Overly vigorous vines put too much energy into growing shoots and leaves, resulting in a large, shady canopy. Shaded buds will develop into less productive shoots, reducing the overall quantity of fruit over time and exacerbating the imbalance. Fruit quality is often compromised through increased disease pressure and lack of light in the fruit zone. A vine’s capacity is the optimum amount of fruit, or yield, it is able to produce, given its specific conditions. Vines that carry too much fruit for their frame may not be able to successfully ripen it, especially in marginal climates, and will weaken over time, further reducing capacity. On the other hand, if too little fruit is left, the vine will become more vigorous, and the amount of fruit produced will gradually decrease. There is a general belief that balanced vines make balanced wines. Vine balance considers vegetative versus fruit growth. The Ravaz Index, the ratio of fruit weight to pruning weight, is one metric used for assessment. Ratios of 4 to 10 are generally considered balanced. Growers also look at the length of shoots and internodes, targeting three- to four-inch internodes and roughly four-foot shoots. Growers coax vines toward balance through planting decisions, including choice of rootstock and trellis systems, as well as vineyard operations, such as pruning and irrigation. Balanced vines pay off, maximizing yields and fruit quality. Yet it’s important to recognize that balance can take many forms. Larger vines have more capacity for fruit production, and vines grown on fertile soils will have more vigor and thus more capacity than those grown on weaker soils. In this scenario, the vine may be more balanced carrying five tons per acre rather than half of that. Appropriate yields should not be prescribed without understanding the conditions of the site. Grapevine Taxonomy Vitis vinifera , also called the European grapevine , includes many of the wine and table grapes. It belongs to the family Vitaceae, along with other common vine plants like Boston ivy and Virginia creeper. Most cultivated grape species belong to the genus Vitis and have 38 chromosomes, while others belong to the genus Muscadinia , formerly considered a subspecies of Vitis , with 40 chromosomes. Beyond vinifera, several other Vitis species are significant in viticulture. Vitis rupestris , Vitis riparia , and Vitis berlandieri are common rootstock species, and Vitis labrusca , Muscadinia rotundifolia , and Vitis amurensis are occasionally used in winemaking. Within each species, there are many cultivars, often called varieties in a wine context. A selection of grape species and cultivars; those cultivars not marked as hybrids are crossings. Note that Muscadinia is considered by some to be a sub-genera of Vitis. (Credit: Laura Perrone) Both species and varieties have been interbred. The offspring of two varieties belonging to the same species are known as crossings, and examples include Chardonnay, Riesling, Merlot, and almost all other cultivars used in winemaking. The products of interspecies breeding are called hybrids; rootstocks and niche wine grapes like Rondo, Chambourcin, and Vidal Blanc are examples. Crossings and hybrids have been bred to incorporate the desirable characteristics of both parents. For instance, Frontenac is a hybrid that combines the cold hardiness and resistance to fungal diseases of Vitis labrusca , with a flavor profile more similar to vinifera. (Labrusca varieties are often marked by a grapey flavor described as “foxy” that is generally not preferred in wine.) Throughout history, grape breeding has occasionally been intentional but more often occurs in nature. Cultivars Crossings of Vitis vinifera are responsible for the tens of thousands of cultivars that exist. Pinot Noir, Savagnin, and Gouais Blanc are old varieties, believed to be closely related to Vitis sylvestris , and found in the lineage of many common European grape varieties. Most crossings arose naturally, but a few well-known examples are products of breeding. The teinturier grape Alicante Bouschet, whose durability and deep color made it popular with home winemakers during Prohibition, was produced by crossing Petit Bouschet, also an intensely colored teinturier with thick skins, with fruit-forward Grenache. Müller-Thurgau, once a very important variety in Germany, was produced from Riesling and Madeleine Royale in an attempt to develop an earlier-ripening grape with Riesling-like aromatics. South Africa’s signature grape, Pinotage, was bred to combine the elegance of Pinot Noir with the hardiness and productivity of Cinsault. From an evolutionary perspective, vinifera grape varieties are organized into three proles, indicating the primary center of their cultivation, evidenced by their physical characteristics. Proles pontica, which includes Zinfandel, Furmint, and Vermentino, is native to the Aegean and Black Seas and has more jagged leaf blades; white hair on the underside of the leaves; mid-sized clusters; and small-to-medium, round berries. Proles occidentalis is native to Western Europe and includes most international grape varieties, such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and Riesling. Occidentalis has convex leaves; small, compact bunches; and small, round berries. Proles orientalis is native to the Middle East, Iran, and Afghanistan and has large leaves, bunches, and berries with an oval shape. Muscat, Cinsault, and most table grape varieties are examples. Grape varieties differ significantly from one another, both in terms of wine flavor and environmental adaptations, as a result of their unique genetics. Every variety is hardwired to produce different amounts of flavor, color, and tannin. The chemical pathways that create each of these may be upregulated, where the production of a compound is increased, or downregulated, where that production is decreased, in response to the environment. For example, grapes under water stress will produce more tannin than those with an ample water supply, even after accounting for the difference in berry size. Varieties also exhibit different behavior. Some go through budbreak a couple of weeks earlier than others, some require more heat accumulation in order to achieve ripeness, and varieties differ when it comes to yield potential, vine vigor, and tolerance to environmental stressors. The grape varieties are usually divided into red (or black) and white grapes, though pink (or gray) versions exist as well, such as Gewürztraminer and Pinot Gris. White grapes can be further characterized as aromatic, partially aromatic, and non-aromatic, primarily resulting from the grape’s propensity to form monoterpenes, compounds responsible for flavors of rose, lychee, and orange blossom. Red grapes differ in their amount of color and its hue. In both cases, levels of acidity and tannin vary, and each grape has a unique flavor profile. Clones Clones are variants within a grape variety that differ slightly in terms of morphology or behavior. Grapevines are prone to mutations that arise from errors during cell division, and the genetic variation that results is the major source of clonal differences. Mutations can affect a single bud, leaf, or flower. When a bud is affected, the single resulting shoot may bear some distinction from the parent vine. Cuttings taken from this shoot would constitute a unique clone that may differ from the parent plant in terms of grape color, ripening dates, yields, berry and cluster morphology, and flavor characteristics. Viral infection also influences gene expression and is another source of clonal variation. The Gingin clone of Chardonnay that is popular in Western Australia, for example, was confirmed to have grapevine leafroll virus, believed to be responsible for some of its positive attributes, including low yields. When clonal selection is performed in a nursery, virus-infected vines are heat-treated to remove the virus before they are propagated and distributed. Old varieties typically exhibit more clonal diversity. Pinot Noir is thought to be at least 2,000 years old, and as a result, many diverse clones exist. As mutations accumulate over time, significant changes may result in the mutant being renamed as an entirely different variety. Pinot Noir, Pinot Gris, Pinot Blanc, Pinot Meunier, and Pinot Teinturier are considered by many to be separate varieties, but each is technically a clone of Pinot. Similarly, the highly aromatic, pink Gewürztraminer is a mutation of Savagnin Blanc. Hybrids Grape Breeding Grape breeding is a slow, laborious process that relies on old-fashioned techniques. Parent breeds are selected and hundreds of offspring created through intentional cross-pollination. These new varieties are grown for several years, characterized, and selected for desirable traits. Today, most breeding programs seek to create varieties that are tolerant to disease and better adapted to the effects of climate change, including drought. While new grapes struggle to gain commercial acceptance, researchers believe they still have a place in viticulture. In 2020, UC Davis released five new Pierce’s disease-resistant varieties with 97% vinifera parentage, created by Dr. Andy Walker. Although these grapes may not be accepted for winemaking, except perhaps as blending grapes, they could be planted around the perimeter of an existing vineyard to shield it from intruders. Hybrid grape varieties allow for viticulture in environments where grapes would not otherwise grow successfully. In America in the early and mid-1800s, vinifera was interbred with native American grape species like Vitis labrusca and Vitis aestivalis that are better adapted to the cold winters and humid, disease-prone summers of much of the Eastern United States. The resulting hybrid varieties include Clinton, Catawba, Delaware, Herbemont, Isabella, Niagara, Noah, and Norton. While some of these are used for wine, many are considered better suited to fruit juice and jam on account of their foxy flavors. Hybrids tend to be high yielding, and the resulting wine is generally regarded as inferior to that of pure Vitis vinifera . After the introduction of phylloxera and powdery and downy mildews to Europe, French researchers looked to hybrids to instill pest and disease resistance until better treatments were found. Beginning in the late 1800s, a large number of French hybrids were generated, including Baco Noir and Blanc, Chambourcin, Chancellor, Couderc Noir, Plantet, Villard Noir and Blanc, Seibel, and Seyval Blanc. These played an important role in European wine production from the late 1800s until the mid-1900s. By the end of the 1950s, hybrid grapes covered one-third of France’s vineyard area. Subsidies encouraged producers to replant vineyards to vinifera grapes, and by the late 1980s, hybrid varieties accounted for only 3% of European production. Today, most hybrids are not permitted by the EU for PDO wine production, though exceptions exist. The German Rondo and Regent, used for their disease resistance and cold tolerance, are most common. French hybrids like Vidal Blanc, Vignoles, Chambourcin, Seyval Blanc, and Maréchal Foch are more typical in vineyards in Eastern and Midwestern North America, along with newer varieties like Cayuga White, Chardonel, Frontenac, and Traminette, which were bred to withstand winter freeze. Japan’s signature grape, Koshu, is a vinifera-dominant hybrid crossed with the East Asian species Vitis davidii . Hybrid grapes are considered by some to be more sustainable, since many are disease resistant and require significantly less use of fungicides. Rootstocks When a vine is grafted, some characteristics of the rootstock are conferred to the scion. While rootstocks were first developed for phylloxera resistance, today, they have other adaptations that may be beneficial to a vine, as they differ in terms of vigor, drought tolerance, resistance to pests and diseases, and adaptations to various soil conditions. Most rootstocks are hybrids of non-vinifera grape species, especially North American varieties. Three species are frequently encountered: Vitis riparia , Vitis rupestris , and Vitis berlandieri . Other examples include Vitis champinii , Muscadinia rotundifolia , and Vitis solonis . Offspring of these species usually demonstrate characteristics inherited from both of their parents. By knowing the general attributes of each, the behaviors of their offspring can be better understood. Berlandieri leaves (left) are dark green and leathery, those of riparia (center) are large and pale, and those of rupestris (right) are small and smooth (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Vitis riparia is native to riparian areas, or those alongside rivers, throughout much of eastern and central North America, where it grows up trees. Because its native habitat is near water, riparia forms shallow, fibrous roots and is not drought tolerant. Riparia induces low vigor and early ripening in the scion and confers phylloxera resistance. It is easy to propagate but does not do well in lime soils. Riparia Gloire is a pure riparia rootstock. Vitis rupestris is native to the American South. A shrubby vine that thrives in rocky creek beds and nutrient-poor areas, it grows extensive roots, resulting in drought tolerance in deep soils. Rupestris is vigorous and will induce large canopies in the scion when planted on fertile soils. It is resistant to phylloxera and somewhat tolerant of nematodes and viruses, so it may result in less virus expression. Rupestris is easy to propagate. St. George is a pure rupestris rootstock. Vitis berlandieri is native to deep limestone soils in Texas and a good choice for use on alkaline soils. Berlandieri develops deep roots and confers some drought tolerance. It induces later ripening and has variable phylloxera tolerance. Berlandieri vines will not root from dormant cuttings so must be bred with another vine in order to be commercially viable. An expanded list of rootstocks can be found in the Compendium Climate The environmental conditions within the vineyard play an important role in shaping wine expression. This phenomenon has been described as terroir . While terroir has been interpreted literally to refer to vineyard soils, most definitions have expanded to encompass the influences of climate, topography, human practices, and sometimes other external biological factors such as microorganisms and virus. Whatever the precise definition, terroir is broadly understood as the elusive quality that gives a wine a sense of place and makes it a more intriguing, unique product. The vine’s environment fosters its growth and development. Because a vine is not able to move, it must instead adapt. These adaptations often manifest themselves as differences in fruit characteristics. As an example, water-stressed vines will develop a smaller canopy that provides less shade to the fruit. Along with a host of other differences in fruit composition, berries that develop in the sun will produce more “sunscreen” phenolic compounds. Fruit ripening dynamics, and the amount of sugar, acid, tannin, and flavor, are all impacted by environmental conditions. It is for this reason that wine is often said to reflect the place in which it’s grown. Climate refers to the patterns and overall amount of heat, sunlight, precipitation, and wind that characterize a region. A related and often confused concept is weather, which describes these properties over a short period. Climate is the long-term average of weather over time. It is often separated into three spheres of influence: macro-, meso-, and microclimate. Macroclimate describes the climate of a larger region, spanning tens to hundreds of miles. While not well defined, mesoclimate identifies a smaller area, a single vineyard or a region that perhaps spans tens of miles and might be impacted by local geographical features like smaller bodies of water, topography, and soil conditions. Microclimate describes the environment directly around the vine and fruit. While this is influenced by the vineyard site, human practices such as trellis systems and canopy management play an important and often underappreciated role in shaping the environment. While some climates are inhospitable to grapegrowing, many grape varieties can be grown in a range of climates and soil types. Chardonnay, for example, grows successfully across disparate regions, as it can be appreciated in a range of styles. Each climate, of course, offers its own unique challenges. Grapes grown in climates that are too warm may ripen early, at the detriment of flavor and acidity, while grapes grown in cool climates may not ripen sufficiently, also impacting flavor. Wet climates may have elevated disease pressure, while overly dry climates may not provide enough water to sustain growth. Climate Classifications Climate classifications consider patterns of temperature and precipitation to give a high-level synopsis of weather patterns and potential hazards. They are a convenient means of comparing regions to one another. While grapes are often associated with Mediterranean climates, some wine regions are better described as maritime, continental, or even subtropical. Mediterranean and maritime climates are moderate, with a small range between summer and winter temperatures. Continental climates have a more dramatic temperature swing throughout the year and experience the classic four seasons. Mediterranean climates have wet winters but receive little rain during the growing season, while maritime and continental climates receive rain year-round. Burgundy, Austria’s Wachau, and Mendoza are typically considered continental; Bordeaux, New Zealand’s Hawkes Bay, and Oregon’s Willamette Valley are maritime; and Tuscany, the Barossa Valley, and Stellenbosch, South Africa, are best described as Mediterranean. While labels are convenient, it’s useful to think of these classifications as a spectrum, with most regions falling in between specific definitions. Vines are temperate plants and require a dormant season prior to budbreak. As a result, climates without sufficiently cold winter temperatures are not suitable for wine grape production. Tropical climates, for instance, have little temperature variation throughout the year and are not suited to wine grapes, but there are subtropical regions where grapegrowing occurs, including parts of eastern Australia, Madeira, and the Canary Islands. Often, grapes grown in these climates are made into fortified wines, where the effect of the vineyard site is arguably less important than the impact of winemaking. In the EU, wine regions are classified into zones depending by climate, and certain practices including chaptalization, acid adjustments, and minimum potential alcohol requirements are governed by zone. Germany, the Loire, Champagne, Alsace, and Austria belong to Zones A and B, which are permitted to enrich wine by 3% ABV and deacidify, but not acidify. Portugal, Southern Spain, Southern Italy, and parts of Greece belong to Zone CIIIb. They may acidify, but not deacidify, and enrich to a lesser extent. The Köppen-Geiger climate classifications divide regions into five main groups—tropical, dry, temperate, continental, and polar—and then further into subgroups based on temperature and precipitation patterns. Under this scheme, most winegrowing regions are categorized as temperate. While this is a very precise and well-defined index, it is seldomly referenced in regard to wine. Environmental Factors Differences in climate can be distilled into a few key properties that are fundamental to a vine’s development: heat, light, water, and nutrients. Without sufficient amounts of each of these, a vine will not be fruitful and, in extreme cases, cannot survive. Temperature It has been said that temperature is the metronome of plants. Heat drives vine growth and development, and many of a plant’s metabolic processes are temperature dependent. In warm climates, vines grow and develop more quickly, and fruit ripens earlier. Vine growth occurs between 50 and 95 degrees Fahrenheit, where mid-70s Fahrenheit is optimal. At lower temperatures, vines are dormant, and at temperatures over 95 degrees, vine growth and fruit ripening may shut down to conserve water. In hot weather, the microclimate around the canopy may actually be significantly cooler than the ambient temperature, as the vine cools itself through transpiration provided that it has a sufficient supply of water. Frigid temperatures can lead to injury and even vine death if precautions are not taken. Temperature affects both the quality and quantity of grapes. At bloom, it impacts the number of berries that will develop in the current growing season as well as the number of clusters that form the following year. Warmer temperatures result in higher yields, and vines will develop more capacity to support the additional crop. Understanding a growing region’s temperature profile, which includes both the overall amount of heat and patterns of accumulation, helps growers predict which grape varieties will be most successful. Varieties differ in the amount of heat needed to ripen. It is often claimed that the best quality wine comes from marginal climates where heat accumulation is just sufficient to ripen the grapes, with classic illustrations being Pinot Noir in Burgundy and Riesling in the Mosel. Flavor profiles are impacted, too. Warmer climates tend to yield fruitier wines, with higher alcohol, lower acidity, and softer tannins, but overripeness is a risk if harvest occurs later in the season. In cooler climates, wine may have lower alcohol, higher acidity, more astringent tannins, and fresh fruit and savory flavors; in some years, however, wines may be underripe and lacking flavor. Heat indices are used to guide varietal selection and to compare climates, estimating the amount of heat that accumulates throughout the growing season as the product of temperature and time. In the United States, the Winkler Index is frequently used to categorize viticultural areas with similar accumulation of “growing degree days” from April 1 to October 31. A region’s degree days are calculated by taking the average daily temperature minus 50 degrees Fahrenheit from every day within this range and summing them. The correction of 50 degrees is used to acknowledge that below this temperature, little shoot growth takes place. The Winkler Index is easily employed, but because it does not account for day length, it is not applicable to all regions. Elsewhere, the Huglin Index, which accounts for latitude, is more common. Growing degree days are calculated from April to October in the Northern Hemisphere and October to April in the Southern Hemisphere. While heat summation is a useful metric, the pattern of heat accumulation is also important. A moderate climate with a long growing season may experience the same overall heat accumulation as a warmer climate that has a short season, but each will impact the fruit differently. Two important concepts related to heat accumulation patterns are continentality and diurnal shift. Diurnal shift describes the difference between day and nighttime temperatures. In warm climates, a large diurnal shift is often thought to be important for wine quality as it seems to preserve acidity and flavors. In marginal climates, warm nights may assist in developing acid and flavors. Continentality is the difference between summer and winter temperatures. Continental climates have wide temperature swings throughout the year and are more prone to spring and fall frost. Continentality can be assessed by comparing the average temperature during the warmest and coolest months of the year. Growing season average temperatures are also used to compare regions. Averages are calculated from April to October in the Northern Hemisphere and October to April in the Southern Hemisphere. Light Sunlight is essential for plant growth. Light in the canopy fuels photosynthesis, which drives plant growth and development and creates sugar that facilitates fruit ripening. The number of sun-exposed leaves on a vine will determine its photosynthetic capacity, where more leaves results in a higher capacity for development, as well as greater water use. About 12 to 16 leaves are required to ripen a cluster. Metered, or dappled, sunlight improves fruit quality and quantity. Shaded buds are less fruitful, but ample light exposure on the shoots increases yields in the following year. Shaded berries ripen more slowly, while berries with direct light exposure can reach high temperatures, which may interfere with ripening. During a heat spike in 2017, one Napa Valley vineyard observed temperatures in excess of 140 degrees Fahrenheit in sunlit berries. Though light determines the rate of photosynthesis and therefore sugar accumulation in the fruit, other features of ripening, like acid degradation and tannin ripening, may be more tied to temperature. Sunlight is typically considered important for flavor development. Light stimulates the production of phenolic compounds, like anthocyanin and tannin, that are considered key for red wine quality, as well as 1,1,6,-trimethyl-1,2-dihydronapthalene (TDN), the petrol flavor observed in aged Riesling. It also encourages the breakdown of pyrazine, the green bell pepper flavor associated with grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon Blanc. While sun exposure upregulates the production of certain flavor compounds, the increase in temperature can result in flavor loss, acid degradation, and sunburn. The duration of sunlight during the day (sunshine hours) and its intensity influence vine and fruit development. Vitis vinifera is said to require at least 1,250 sunshine hours to ripen fruit. Higher-latitude regions have longer days and receive more sunshine hours, while the sunlight intensity is greater nearer to the equator. Sunlight intensity also increases with elevation, but cloud cover, pollution, and smoke can reduce the amount of sunlight that reaches the vine. Water Vines are incredibly resilient plants and have adapted many mechanisms to survive and potentially thrive in periods of drought. While moderate water stress is considered beneficial for wine quality, all plants need water to grow and develop optimally. Vines generally require 10 to 30 inches of rain during the growing season, though more may be necessary depending on the timing of precipitation, temperature patterns, and soil conditions. Sandy soils with low water-holding capacity, warm climates, and high-density plantings require more water. Young vines also need more frequent water additions than mature vines, as their roots are not fully developed and they cannot access water stored at deeper soil depths. Many regions receive insufficient precipitation during the growing season and rely on irrigation. Too little water can stunt growth and development, limit yields, and delay ripening. Under severe water stress, vines close their stomates to conserve water, halting photosynthesis and plant function. Extreme drought conditions result in defoliation and, eventually, vine death. Yet wet conditions can result in excessive yields and slow ripening and encourage the vine to produce a big, vigorous canopy. Timing is also important. An adequate amount of available water is desired early in the season so that shoots reach their full height prior to veraison, when berries change color. Once berries have formed, mild water stress helps to maintain a moderate berry size and promotes the production of phenolic compounds, which are considered integral to red wine quality. Near the end of the season, water deficit can cause dehydration, but rain near harvest can cause berries to swell and split, resulting in dilution and increased disease pressure. Late-season rain frequently reduces wine quality. The amount of water available to the vine depends on soil conditions. Soil has a limited capacity to hold water. Heavy rainstorms can deposit a lot of water, but it may not be accessible to the vine, as some is lost through drainage or run-off. On deep soils, well-developed and deeper root systems allow a vine to source water from a larger volume of soil; shallow soils are more limited in their capacity. The impact of water availability on vine and fruit development, and especially on wine quality, is one of the most important topics being studied in viticulture today. By providing just enough water when the vine needs it, viticulturists hope to improve wine quality and conserve precious resources. Wind A hoyo in Lanzarote (Photo credit: Kelli White) Wind has a cooling and drying effect that can impact vine development. While this may help minimize disease pressure, vines may require more water, as leaves close their stomates under windy conditions to conserve water lost from the plant through transpiration. This leads to less vigorous vines and, in extreme situations, can result in delayed development. It is particularly difficult to establish a new vineyard in very windy conditions. In some instances, vine shelters and windbreaks can help protect the nascent shoots and leaves. Along with windbreaks, other protective measures can be taken in windy climates. In Provence and the Southern Rhône, the vineyard rows may be planted parallel to the prevailing wind, with vines trained low to the ground, in order to minimize damage. In parts of coastal California, some producers have observed that rows planted perpendicular to the wind will “self-shelter,” resulting in higher sugar accumulation. Regions like Greece’s Santorini and Lanzarote in the Canary Islands have developed novel vine training systems for wind protection. Geographical Factors Latitude Wine grapes generally grow between 30 and 50 degree in latitude. In lower latitudes, the vines don’t experience a dormant season, while higher latitudes are often too cold for grapes to attain ripeness, or vines may be threatened by winter freeze. Both temperature and sunlight intensity are generally higher for regions closer to the equator. Those regions further from the equator often have shorter growing seasons but longer days, which accelerates growth and development. Marginal climates may also rely on other influences that increase their viability. For instance, higher latitudes often rely on warming from bodies of water, favorable orientations, and warm air currents, while lower latitudes may benefit from cooling influences like high elevation. Hills & Mountains Hills and mountains can result in significant climatic diversity. The first relevant factor is altitude, which tends to reduce temperature but also increases sunlight intensity. Roughly, for every 300-foot gain in elevation, the temperature will decrease by about 1 degree Fahrenheit, and for every 1,000-foot increase, there is a 2% increase in sunlight exposure. Because cold air sinks, lower-elevation bowls trap cold air and may be more frost prone. Gravity causes soil and water to run downhill, so the bottom of the hill typically has deeper soil and more available water. Mid-slope sites are often considered best for wine quality, as they seem to have an ideal balance of soil and water conditions, along with favorable airflow to prevent frost and disease. Vineyards in the Jura with various elevations, aspects, and orientations (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Elevation plays a key role in diurnal shift, especially in areas prone to marine influence. Vineyards above what’s commonly called the inversion layer tend to see smaller diurnal shifts, while vineyards below this layer warm during the day and cool, sometimes drastically, at night. Some parts of a hill are warmer and sunnier than others. Slope, or the degree of incline, is an important factor. In Côte Rôtie, inclines can exceed 55 degrees. Vineyards in the Mosel reach 70 degrees—these are considered the steepest in the world. While the sun’s position changes throughout the day and year, steeper slopes will intercept the most sunlight on average and tend to be earlier ripening. (Solar panels are positioned at an angle for the same reason.) In Burgundy, grand cru vineyards are often located mid-slope, on the steepest and earliest-ripening part of the hill. Fog Fog is a hallmark of many classic winegrowing regions, including Piedmont, Napa and Sonoma Valleys, and Chile’s Casablanca Valley. It generally results when warm, humid air encounters cooler air. Fog moderates temperature and can reduce the amount of sunlight reaching the vines. It also increases disease pressure. Regions that are known for botrytized wines production, such as Sauternes and Tokaj, rely on humid morning conditions for the development of noble rot. Aspect, or orientation, is the cardinal direction that the vineyard faces. In the Northern Hemisphere, south-facing vineyards intercept the most sunlight during the day, are warmer, and usually ripen earlier than north-facing vineyards, which tend to be the coolest sites. East-facing vineyards get more morning sun, reducing early morning humidity and thus minimizing disease pressure, while west-facing vineyards are exposed during the most intense part of the day, making them more prone to sunburn. Historically, south- and southeast-facing vineyards were preferred, as these conditions facilitate ripening. Mountain ranges tend to have a windward side that experiences more weather and precipitation, with a leeward side that is drier and more protected. Alsace and Mendoza, for instance, are both located in the rain shadows of nearby mountain ranges and receive relatively little precipitation. Bodies of Water Many historic winegrowing regions are situated along bodies of water, as this positioning provided a means of transport as well as groundwater or a source of irrigation. As with hills, where a vineyard lies in relationship to an ocean, lake, or river will affect its climate. Water has a large heat-holding capacity and changes temperature slowly. As a result, proximity to bodies of water results in a more moderate temperature range on both a daily and annual basis. Water can also reflect sunlight onto the vines, helping vineyards to ripen earlier. Air currents that move along water can bring cold or warm air into a region and create fog and mist that reduce the amount of sunlight reaching the vines. Viticulturally important examples include the cooling Humboldt Current off of Chile and Benguela Current in South Africa. The Gulf Stream warms much of Northern Europe, allowing grapes to ripen in locations where they otherwise might not. Humidity is often higher near water, and this can increase disease pressure. In some cases, this is beneficial, as in morning fog that helps develop noble rot in regions known for their botrytized wines. Fog off of the Columbia River (Photo credit: James Mantone) Climate Change The wine business tends to be fixated on the weather due to its profound impact on vintage variation. Because of this, grapes are considered a more sensitive barometer of climate change than other crops. The industry has collected detailed records that illustrate changes over the past 50 years, including in heat accumulation, temperature extremes, and rainfall patterns. In some areas, drought and fire are more rampant than in the past. Changes in climate could redefine quality potential and wine style in classic regions throughout the world. Thus far, they have benefited some areas. Southern England was once considered unsuitable for grapegrowing but is now showing promise for sparkling production. Classic regions in Italy, France, and Germany are producing great vintages more consistently. Alongside any effects of climate change, significant adjustments in viticultural practices over the past 50 years have also played a role in shifting wine styles. Not long ago, many regions struggled to adequately ripen grapes. As a result, viticulture developed practices specifically intended to accelerate the ripening process, and these were widely adopted. Producers developed more efficient canopy architecture, reduced yields, irrigated less, adopted earlier-ripening clones and rootstocks, and removed diseased vines that delayed ripening. The effect of these changes on grape ripening and wine style should not be underestimated. Today, producers are looking to viticultural practices to slow ripening. Cooler sites that were historically less desirable, like those with a north-facing aspect, may be preferred in the future. In some cases, producers are even looking to new varieties; in Bordeaux, a proposal to allow seven new grape varieties in AOC wines was put forward in 2019. Weather Hazards Frost Spring frost can kill young shoots, and while new shoots will often replace the lost ones, their development is delayed and they are typically less fruitful. Frost that occurs in the fall prior to harvest will kill the leaves, which prevents the vine from being able to ripen fruit further. In this case, the fruit will not improve and should be picked right away. These frost events are often the result of an inversion layer, where cold air near the ground is trapped under warmer air. There are several means of frost mitigation: Site selection: Because cold air settles into areas of low elevation, especially bowls that have no way of draining, early-budding (and therefore frost-prone) varieties should be avoided on these sites. Air circulation: Cover crops and plants growing on the vineyard floor should be mowed short prior to frost season to allow for better air circulation. Sprinklers: Overhead sprinklers can be used to warm the surface of the vine by a few degrees. As water freezes, it releases heat, so as long as water is constantly applied during a frost event, the temperature will remain just above freezing. Fans or helicopters: These disrupt the inversion layer to warm the environment. Heat: Heaters and small fires are used to warm the microclimate. Many areas have banned the use of orchard heaters or “smudge pots” due to air quality concerns. Pruning methods: Vines may be pre-pruned, where spurs are left long, or late-pruned. This encourages sacrificial buds to push early in the season, knowing that a later pruning will remove damaged tissue. Sprinklers prevent damage during a spring frost event (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Winter freeze can cause damage to dormant vines if temperatures fall below 5 degrees Fahrenheit. The methods described above only increase the temperatures slightly so are insufficient for protecting against winter freeze. Most vinifera vines can survive until 0 degrees Fahrenheit, but much below this, they risk death. In regions where winter freeze occurs, cold-tolerant varieties like Riesling and select hybrids may be planted. Otherwise, vines are buried each year for insulation and uncovered the subsequent spring. Recently, some producers have begun covering the vines in geothermal, geotextile blankets as an alternative means of freeze protection. Hail Hail regularly causes major localized damage in susceptible regions, including parts of the Loire Valley, Burgundy, Bordeaux, Piedmont, and Mendoza. Its impact on a particular growing season is dictated by the intensity of the event and the phenological stage of the vine. Hail can remove entire shoots and severely damage fruit as well as leaves, reducing the canopy’s capacity to support fruit ripening. Some regions have started using netting to protect the vines from hail. Another method is to fire hail cannons or rockets into the air, disrupting hail formation. Drought Shade cloth protects fruit from intense sunlight (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Many vineyards that thrived in the past now struggle due to lack of water. As with many weather hazards, site selection is key to limiting drought risk. Where it is possible, irrigation can help mitigate damage. Many wine regions in the EU that did not previously permit irrigation, including Bordeaux, Burgundy, Barolo, Barbaresco, and Montalcino, now allow it when faced with drought conditions, though additional restrictions may apply. Drought-tolerant rootstocks such as St. George, 110R, and 140R can also be used to better adapt the vine to its environment. Risks of warm, dry environments include sunburn, which results in caramelized flavors, and dehydration, which concentrates sugars and acid in the fruit and can lead to raisinated flavors. Except in extreme cases, the risk of dehydration is typically not until later in the season, when the fruit has begun softening. Maintaining a protective canopy can help reduce the risk of sunburn, and where this is not possible, growers are increasingly using shade cloth, or fabric that is hung in the fruiting zone after veraison, to protect the fruit from dehydration and sunburn later in the season. In extreme heat events, sprinklers or misters might be used for evaporative cooling. In Australia, some producers apply a clay-based “sunscreen” to the fruit and canopy for protection. Fire Forest fires that occur near wine regions are a growing problem. While vineyards often act as firebreaks and aren’t likely to burn themselves, smoke can be taken in through pores in the grapes or leaves and then translocated to the fruit any time after fruit set. This will taint the wine with an unpleasant, smoky flavor. The West Coast of North America, much of Australia, and parts of Portugal and Spain have all suffered damage from smoke in recent years. Although researchers are currently devoting attention to this topic, currently, there is no successful form of mitigation in the vineyard. Soil While a region’s weather varies from year to year, soil is reasonably stable. In this sense, it is the most enduring aspect of a wine’s sense of place. The basic function of soil, with respect to the vine, is to anchor it and provide it with water and nutrients. Soil conditions determine how much precipitation actually reaches the vine, since different soils absorb and hold water differently. Most critical to wine quality, soil characteristics impact vine vigor, which is driven by the availability of water and nutrients. Vines grown in favorable soil conditions will have deep roots and balanced vigor and are able to adapt to wet and dry conditions more easily. Free-draining soils with limited but adequate water and nutrients are best for wine quality. Highly fertile soils induce too much vigor and are typically avoided, as are soils with toxicities, including high salt or aluminum concentration. Popular Geology As the notion of terroir has been popularized, vineyard soils have become a topic of interest for many wine enthusiasts. Wine descriptions often include information on rocks and soils found in the vineyard, such as their composition, geological age, and origins. Vineyard soils are often described by the qualities of their underlying bedrock. All rocks are classified into three types as determined by the geologic forces that formed the parent material: Igneous rocks like granite are formed from cooled magma and tend to be strong, resistant to erosion, and non-porous. Volcanic rocks are a type of igneous rock formed from lava. Basalt is a volcanic rock that breaks down to form highly fertile clay soils. Sedimentary soils are formed from weathered rocks carried by wind or water and deposited in layers. Limestone, chalk, shale, and sandstone are examples. The characteristics of these soils depend on what they’re made of and how strongly they’ve been cemented together. Metamorphic rocks are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been subjected to heat and pressure. The category includes slate, schist, and gneiss. These rocks may be crumbly and friable or very hard, depending on the forces that shaped them and the underlying rocks’ composition. While these types of rocks are often encountered in wine studies, the information they provide is limited, since these convenient classifications often combine dissimilar soils within a single category. Two vineyards with similar bedrock may have entirely different soils overlaying them. For example, a vineyard with granite bedrock could be overlaid with deep sandy soils or very thin soils. From a viticultural perspective, soils are characterized instead by their physical and chemical characteristics, since these properties determine the amount of water and nutrients available to the vine. Common Geology Terms rock: A solid aggregate of minerals. gravel: Small pieces of rock. soil: Weathered rock sediments combined with organic matter. loam: Soil texture comprised of a blend of different particle sizes, including sand, silt, and clay. aeolian: Wind-blown soil, such as loess or parna. alluvial: Soil transported and deposited by (non-marine) surface water. Alluvial deposits have been cemented into rock. colluvial: Soil transported by erosion and gravity. fluvial: Soil weathered, transported, and deposited by rivers and streams. marine: Soil deposited in ocean beds. glacial: Soil formed and deposited by glaciers. till: Rocks and soil deposited by glaciers. soil pan: An impenetrable layer of soil formed from compaction or cementation, such as hardpan or calcrete . calcareous: Alkaline soil with a high proportion of calcium or magnesium carbonate. A soil’s geological age, which generally refers to the time period when the underlying bedrock formed, is another property that is frequently cited in wine literature. The Kimmeridgian soils developed during the Jurassic Period from marine sediments, for example, are often noted, as they famously appear in Chablis, the Aube region of Champagne, and Sancerre. Just as there is huge diversity in soil today, the sediments laid down during the Jurassic Period were not homogenous; to describe a soil by the time its parent material was formed, while interesting, is not terribly meaningful. Physical Properties Great wines are made from grapes grown on a range of soil types. Within individual regions, producers frequently attribute wine qualities to the rocks found in their vineyard, but more generally, rock type does not appear to be well correlated with wine’s composition or attributes. While different soils clearly contribute to creating distinct wines, many of the differences ascribed to rock type are actually the result of physical attributes of the soil. A heterogenous mixture, soil is comprised primarily of minerals, water, air, and a small portion of organic matter. It’s made from weathered rock, plant material, and soil microbes. Soil’s formation is said to depend on five factors: the parent material, climate, topography, organisms, and time. The hardness of the parent rock will determine how easily it is broken down into soil. Warm, wet conditions will accelerate the weathering process, and the erosion that occurs by water and wind will be shaped by an area’s topography. Rocks and organic matter are broken down by the action of soil microbes and plants’ roots. This occurs slowly: it takes at least 100 years to form an inch of topsoil. Because soils are also transported by erosion, wind, leaching, and the action of rivers and glaciers, vineyards that share a common bedrock composition can have very different soils overlaying them. Soils are organized into layers of sediments called horizons. Topsoil, or horizon A, is the outermost layer and ranges in depth from a few inches to a few feet. The composition of soil in this layer least resembles the composition of the underlying rock, since it has often been deposited from elsewhere. The topsoil contains most of the soil’s organic matter, worms, and microbes. Humus, an important topsoil constituent, is nutrient-dense organic material that holds water and nutrients in the soil, reduces erosion, and helps avoid soil compaction. As rainwater moves through the soil, it leaches smaller particles and nutrients downward. As a result, horizon B, called the subsoil, is less porous, contains a higher proportion of clay, and has better water-holding capacity than the topsoil. Horizon C, or the substratum, may consist of friable rock, and few if any roots are found here. Bedrock, which lies underneath the soil, is not soil at all but the outer layer of the earth’s surface. The manner in which roots navigate this complex layering of soil strata dictates the amount of water and nutrients the plant can access all year long. Variation in the Vineyard The attributes of soil can change rapidly within a vineyard, both vertically and horizontally. Despite receiving the same amount of rainfall, one part of a vineyard may have much more water access than another due to differences in topography and the depth and composition of the soil. Investigating differences in soil prior to planting can lead to better vineyard design that matches compatible rootstock with anticipated soil conditions. Prior to planting, soil pits may be dug throughout the vineyard to reveal the soil’s profile, and soil maps and other technologies can be used to gain insight. Later on, these distinctions are observed as variation in vine vigor. Block divisions and management are most effective if they contemplate the differences in the soil. Soil is a reservoir of water for plants. After a rain event, water is lost through run-off, drainage, evaporation, and plant use. Several attributes influence how water drains and is stored in the soil to be used in the future. Soil depth, or the distance from the soil surface to the bedrock or another impenetrable layer, limits a vine’s rooting depth, which determines the deepest soil that the vine can access. (Roots may, however, be able to penetrate small cracks in friable bedrock.) Deep soils allow roots to access water from greater depths and provide the vine with more water throughout the growing season since the roots are in contact with a larger volume of soil. Because grapevines can develop deeper root systems than most other plants, on these soils, they can access water few competing plants are able to reach. Shallow soils can flood easily and have less available water than deeper soils; they require regular additions of water, sometimes through irrigation, to meet the vine’s needs. Shallow soils are generally not suitable for dry-farming except in climates that receive regular precipitation. Where an impenetrable layer, such as a hardpan, limits the rooting depth, the soil may be ripped prior to planting. Ripping involves dragging a large steel implement through the soil to break up an impenetrable layer. If shallow soils overlay bedrock, ripping is not possible, although modern heavy machinery, including excavators and pneumatic rock breakers, has allowed viticulture to extend into otherwise unusable land. Range of soils sampled from one vineyard in Saint-Estèphe, varying in texture, structure, and composition (Photo credit: Avery Heelan) Two related concepts are key to healthy plant growth: porosity, or the amount of open space in the soil, and permeability, which describes the ability for water, oxygen, and roots to pass freely. These factors allow for drainage, water storage, root growth, and aeration, which are essential for healthy roots and soil microbial populations. Growth will be limited in waterlogged and non-porous soils. Porosity is governed by soil structure, an attribute that describes how soil particles aggregate, or form small clumps, and how easily these clumps crumble. Large pores between soil aggregates increase the porosity of well-structured soils and ensure that water on the soil surface is absorbed. These soils are better able to resist erosion and compaction. A moderate humus content helps the soil stick together, which improves the soil’s integrity. By increasing soil organic matter through the addition of compost and usage of cover crops, it is possible to build better structure in the soil. Compaction Vineyard soils are prone to compaction due to the repetitive use of tractors and other heavy equipment in the vine rows. Compaction destroys porosity, and limited infiltration of water and oxygen in these soils inhibits root growth. To avoid compaction, producers try to avoid unnecessary tractor passes and may use tillage to aerate the soil in conjunction with cover crops, which break up compacted areas with their roots. Soil texture also influences porosity and permeability. Texture, referring to the size of soil particles, includes sand, silt, and clay, where sand particles are largest and clay smallest. Loam is a mixture of the three types and falls on a spectrum depending on the proportion of each component. Soils also contain rocks of different sizes, including gravels, pebbles, cobbles, and boulders. Rocks do not contribute water or minerals to the vine, but they increase drainage and limit erosion. They are generally considered beneficial for vine roots, when not overwhelming in proportion. Sandy soils are sometimes called light soils, while clay soils are described as heavy, a reference to their superior water-holding capacity. Water is held in the soil by sticking to the surface of soil particles and through capillary action (the attraction of water molecules to each other and other substances), which is more effective with smaller pores like those found in clay. Because clay particles are small, they pack more tightly together and have more surface area per volume. Soils heavy in clay content have better structure than sandy soils but can be prone to water logging and tend to harbor higher populations of phylloxera. Soil Color The color of soil is sometimes said to warm the microclimate of the vine. Light-colored soils, such as the white albariza soils of Jerez, reflect sunlight back into the fruit zone, providing even greater warmth during the hottest parts of the day. Darker soils, like the slate and basalt soils of the Ahr in Germany, absorb heat and radiate it throughout the night. While many producers cite this effect, it’s important to note that the vines must be relatively low to the ground to benefit from it. In cool climates, some producers line the vine row with reflective tarps that mimic the impact of light-colored soils. As a result of their lesser water content, sandy soils warm up faster than clay soils, which initiates budbreak sooner and accelerates ripening. In a cool or wet vintage, sandier soils may perform better, while in a warm and dry year, soils with a higher clay content may be preferred. Parasitic nematodes are particularly fond of sandy soils. Loam soils are considered ideal for vineyards, since the combination of particle sizes achieves the ideal balance of drainage, provided by the sand, and fertility, provided by clay, that is desirable for balanced vine growth. The USDA soil texture triangle groups soil types by particle size. Credit: Laura Perrone Chemical Properties While wine style is clearly influenced by the physical factors that dictate water availability, except in the case of nutrient deficiencies, few differences in wine can be attributed to a soil’s chemical composition. Rocks are made of minerals like quartz, mica, feldspar, gypsum, calcite, and flint. These minerals do not make their way into the glass directly; rather, the vine roots take up only small ions, including the 17 mineral nutrients that are described below. (Note that minerals and mineral nutrients are distinct from one another, though frequently confused.) While the weathering process releases a small amount of mineral nutrients from the soil, most of the nutrients supplied to the vine come from organic matter and fertilizers. Current understanding of rock chemistry suggests it does not play an important role in soil chemistry as related to the vine, with one important exception: calcareous soils are strongly alkaline. Soil pH The pH of soil is its most important chemical property. pH is a scale of acidity that ranges from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very basic), with water considered neutral at a pH of 7. Technically, pH is a measure of the hydrogen ions, or protons, dissolved in a solution, where more acidic substances have more protons. pH is a logarithmic scale, which means that a pH of 6 has 10 times the amount of protons as a pH of 7. Soil pH ranges from 3 to 10. Soils described as acidic have a pH below 6.5, neutral soils are 6.5 to 8, and alkaline (basic) soils are over 8. From a viticultural perspective, neutral soils are considered ideal, while those lower than 5 are generally considered to be unsuitable for farming, though they may be amended to lift the pH to a more desirable range. Overly acidic soils might also induce aluminum toxicity, which is detrimental to root growth. High pH, above 8.5, is the result of significant lime content, which is found in calcareous soils including limestone, chalk, tufa, marlstone, and marble. These soils are frequently associated with wine quality, though the precise reasons for this connection are not well understood. Basalt, sandstone, shale, slate, and schist tend to be more acidic. The slate soils in the Mosel, for example, can have a pH below 6. Soil acidity, however, depends not only on the nature of the parent rock but also on climatic and human factors. A soil’s pH influences the mineral nutrients that are available to the vine. Nutrients are stored by adsorbing, or sticking, to soil particles. Positively charged nutrients are attracted to soil particles, which are largely negatively charged. Soil particles have a limited surface area to hold nutrients, described as the cation exchange capacity (CEC). Larger particles like sand have less total surface area per volume and are less nutrient dense. Clay soils are rich in nutrients, but because the nutrients are bound more tightly, they are less available to the vine. Soil organic matter also increases CEC. Nutrients compete for space on the CEC, so too much of one nutrient can induce a deficiency in another. In acidic soils, protons take up too much space on the CEC, and as a result, some nutrients are less available in low-pH soils. Acidic soil induces phosphate deficiency, while alkaline soils can induce iron deficiency. Along with soil texture, pH has a significant influence on the availability of nutrients. pH also influences which plants will grow. Most rootstocks are not well adapted to high pH, so lime-tolerant rootstocks, often Vitis berlandieri based, must be used. This is important to recognize, since it is difficult to separate the influence of rootstock from that of soil pH. Agricultural soils become increasingly acidic over time, which can degrade soil structure and disrupt microbial communities. As nutrients are leached from the soil, protons take their place on the CEC. The decomposition of organic matter and respiration of roots release carbon dioxide, which forms carbonic acid in the soil. Additionally, the use of ammonia-based fertilizers increases acidity over time. A farmer may amend soil acidity through liming, which is the application of limestone, dolomite, or lime (calcium hydroxide), to neutralize the topsoil. Typically, this occurs when a vineyard site is being developed, but these materials can also be applied along with compost in an established vineyard to maintain a desired soil pH. Soil organic matter helps buffer against change in pH. Soil Toxicities Dissolved salts like sodium chloride (table salt) are toxic to plants in high concentration, as they hinder the vine’s ability to absorb water. Water follows a concentration gradient and flows from areas with less salt content to areas with more. Irrigating with water with a high salt content is one of the biggest causes of saline soils. Parts of California’s Central Coast, Mexico’s Baja region, and South and Western Australia struggle with salinity. In response, salt-tolerant rootstocks such as Ramey have been developed to adapt vines to saline conditions. Sodicity is a related concept but considers only the amount of sodium in the soil. Too much sodium reduces soil permeability and destroys soil structure because high concentrations of sodium have a repelling effect and disperse clay particles. Soil Microbiome Plants evolved with a plethora of microorganisms. Microbes living in the soil are critical to vine health, impacting fertility, plant growth, disease resistance, and climate adaptation. Microbial populations are highly concentrated in the rhizosphere, or the area directly around plant roots, and may even colonize the roots internally. Microorganisms facilitate the vine’s nutrient and water uptake in several ways. Mycorrhizae, or symbiotic associations of fungi and plant roots, are perhaps the best example. In this arrangement, fungi provide the vine with water and nutrients in exchange for sugar produced through photosynthesis. These fungal roots serve as an extension of the vine’s own root system. Beneficial, nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert proteins from decaying plant matter into sources of nitrogen that the vine is able to use, including ammonia and nitrates. Some fungi and bacteria that live in soil, however, will cause disease if they enter the vascular system of plants. Beneficial microbes help protect vines from invasion by these pathogens through a number of mechanisms. They might limit pathogen populations by feeding on them or outcompeting them, block access to plant roots, or release hormones that stimulate the plant’s own defense system to react against the intruder. Certain microorganisms release hormones that stimulate plant growth and development. While these relationships are not yet well understood, they may imply that microbial populations are able to influence fruit composition. Scientific communities are considering the potential of “microbial terroir” resulting not only from soil microbes’ contributions to fermentation but also from their influence on fruit development and composition. Vine Nutrition Grapes have relatively low requirements for water and nutrients, as far as agricultural plants are concerned, so they may be cultivated on soils considered unsuitable for other crops. Yet deficiencies can limit growth and development. Soil fertility refers to the ability of the soil to provide nutrients. Starving vines for nutrients can reduce yields, impede the vine’s ability to ripen fruit, and render the vine more susceptible to pests and diseases. On the other hand, excess of certain nutrients can be detrimental to quality. Vines require 17 essential nutrients for healthy function. Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are supplied by water and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, but the rest are taken up through the soil. Of those absorbed through the soil, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are by far the most important, as they are essential for plant growth and development. They are considered macronutrients, along with sulfur, calcium, and magnesium, as the vine uses them in macro quantities. Boron, manganese, copper, iron, zinc, molybdenum, nickel, and chlorine are micronutrients, as the vine has less demand for them. An expanded list of grapevine nutrients can be found in the Compendium Nitrogen has the most significant impact on grape quality and yields, and its availability is key to soil fertility. Insufficient nitrogen results in weak vines with short shoots and chlorotic leaves, while excess nitrogen can lead to vigorous vines with dark green canopies and reduced yields. Particularly for red grapes, the shade provided by this type of a canopy is considered negative for quality. Nitrogen-rich vines also attract pests such as leafhoppers. Plants are able to use nitrogen in the form of ammonia or nitrates. Potassium helps to maintains cell structure through osmotic pressure and facilitates ripening through sugar transport and deacidification. After veraison, potassium is exchanged for protons in the berries, lowering the fruit’s acidity. Potassium deficiencies can result in elevated levels of acidity in the fruit, low yields, and uneven ripening. Leaf discoloration and leaves that roll under are symptoms. Excesses can reduce fruit acidity and may induce deficiencies in other nutrients. Phosphorous is important for photosynthesis as well as energy storage and transport throughout the vine. It’s a key component of both nucleic acids and ATP. Deficiencies are relatively rare but reduce yields and cause discoloration of the leaf margin. Foliar symptoms of magnesium, manganese, and potassium deficiencies (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante [left], Sarah Ferguson) Nutrients are depleted from the vineyard over time as fruit and canes are removed at pruning. Certain nutrients, like nitrogen, are leachable, meaning they can be washed from the soil in groundwater runoff, while others, like phosphorus, are more immobile. Most vineyards require nutrient additions from time to time, particularly of the macronutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (known collectively as NPK). Producers can assess nutritional deficits through petiole sampling at flowering or veraison, taking soil samples, or observing visual symptoms. Nutrient imbalances like nitrogen and iron deficiency cause characteristic chlorosis, or yellowing of the leaves either along the leaf veins or within the leaf margin. With red grape varieties, imbalances like phosphorous and potassium deficiency may also cause reddening in the leaves due to an accumulation of anthocyanin, the same pigment that gives red grapes their color. These symptoms are easily mistaken for common diseases such as leafroll and fanleaf viruses. Certain nutrients are mobile in the plant, and in the case of deficiency, they will be translocated from older leaves into newer ones, since the plant prioritizes the development of young leaves. Other nutrients are tied up in compounds that cannot move freely within the vine and are considered immobile. This can help with diagnosis of problems: if a nutrient is mobile, older basal leaves will show symptoms first. With immobile deficiencies, symptoms appear in younger leaves first. Fertilization Fertilizers may be applied directly to the soil or through fertigation, where the fertilizer is dissolved in water and applied through the irrigation line. Both mineral (inorganic) and organic fertilizers can be added in this way. Some micronutrients, including boron, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, and iron, are applied through foliar sprays, which are fine mists sprayed onto the canopy. Fertilization may be done at any point during the growing season except near bloom, since fertilization during this time can disrupt berry set. More complex forms of nutrition include compost and the incorporation of cover crops into the soil, referred to as green manure. Compost is spread on top of soil and then incorporated slowly through rainfall or light tillage. Green manure is tilled into the soil and gradually broken down over time. Mineral fertilizers are readily useable by the plant, so their effect is more immediate. Complex fertilizers must be broken down by soil microorganisms, which is a slow and inconsistent process, especially in dry years; they may not be absorbed by the vine for several years. Mineral fertilizers are less expensive than the alternatives but, over the long term, can cause soil acidification. Vineyard Establishment Site Selection Farmers have always sought the sites that produce the best wines. The phrase Bacchus amat colles , meaning “Bacchus loves the hills,” is an enduring observation from early explorations of site selection. While this process is more of an art than a science, some forethought can improve quality and save money. Within a region, certain sites are preferred based on their mesoclimates, the availability of water, and the rarity of adverse conditions like frost. Some sites ripen earlier than others, which may be advantageous in a cool region and less desirable in a warm one. Terrain is also a consideration. While hillside sites may be enticing, they are often more difficult and expensive to farm. Economic factors like the reputation and cost of the land and the proximity to markets, labor, and resources are considered as well. Because of the proliferation of vineyards in the past few decades, wine regions may have laws dictating if and where new vineyard land may be planted. While much of the vineyard land in Europe is already delineated, as viticulture spreads, the suitability of new sites may be evaluated by comparing their soils and climates to those of established regions. Planting Material In some regions, grape variety is dictated by local laws. Otherwise, the climate and intended wine style should guide the choice of varieties. Selection may also be influenced by factors such as personal preference, marketability, or tradition. Rootstock, where used, should be matched to the site conditions and any hazards to be mitigated, such as nematodes and high concentrations of salt or lime. The influence of clone is generally small compared with site, variety, and rootstock. If multiple clones are available, flavor and yield considerations, ripening characteristics, disease resistance, and notoriety may guide the selection. In particular, several clones of Pinot Noir have been popularized for various flavor and ripening characteristics, including Pommard, Wädenswil, 667, 777, and 115. The vast majority of grapevines are grown from grafted vines with plant material obtained from a nursery. Grapevine propagation is labor intensive, and many growers are not equipped for this undertaking. Nurseries strive to provide vines that are virus free, an important assurance for a long-term investment. The downside is that nurseries are often limited in the varieties and clones that they carry. Grapevine Propagation Cuttings of scion and rootstock are joined using an omega punch (Photo credit: Novavine) Except under experimental conditions, wine grapes are almost never propagated from seed. During fertilization, DNA is recombined, so each seed produces an entirely new variety that may not possess the attributes of its parent plant. The seeds of self-pollinating vines are highly inbred and prone to recessive-type diseases; many are nonviable or non-fruiting. While they may share some similarities with their parent, vines grown from seed bear unique genetics, and it can take years to characterize a new vine’s behavior. Instead, vines are propagated vegetatively from dormant cuttings, which are 12- to 18-inch pieces of cane taken from a parent plant. Cuttings are taken from dormant vines during the winter months and stored at low temperature until they are ready for use. Dormant cuttings of rootstock or vinifera varieties can be planted directly in the ground, or they may be grafted prior to planting. Ungrafted vines, typically rootstock selections, are sold as dormant rooted cuttings that have been grown in a nursery for a season, unearthed during dormancy, and kept in cold storage prior to planting. Cuttings may originate from a single parent vine, called a clone, or from massal selection, where cuttings are taken from numerous vines throughout a vineyard that may have undergone small mutations. Producers who prefer clones hope to replicate the characteristics of the parent in their own vineyards. Since clones are genetically identical, they may result in a more even, easy-to-manage vineyard. A producer may instead choose massal selection for the increased genetic diversity, which could confer more disease resistance and, potentially, complexity in the wines. Grafting is essentially the fusing of plant tissues of two different species. In the case of grapevines, grafting is typically used to join a vinifera scion to a non-vinifera rootstock. Occasionally, the variety may be changed in an existing vineyard by grafting onto established vines in the field, known as top grafting. In certain situations, this may be preferable to replanting the vineyard. Layering Layering, also known as provignage , is a traditional method of grapevine propagation. In layering, a shoot from a neighboring vine is laid down into the ground, where it roots and forms a new vine that may be separated from the mother vine. This technique is cheap and easy, but it cannot be used in soils with phylloxera. Several vineyards still utilize provignage when replanting, including Bollinger’s Clos Chaudes Terres and Clos Saint-Jacques, which provide grapes for the brand’s prestige cuvée , Vieilles Vignes Françaises. During grafting, cuts are made in both pieces of wood, allowing the vines to fit together and join like puzzle pieces. Two compatible plants with similar circumferences are connected such that their cambium, the layer of cells between the xylem and phloem responsible for wood’s increase in diameter, is matched up. Once the graft heals, the grafted vine functions as a single plant with characteristics from both the rootstock and scion. Traditionally, a number of different shapes of cuts have been used, such as a v-shaped cleft graft or an omega punch. There are two major types of grafting in viticulture, bench and field grafting. In bench grafting, two dormant cuttings, the rootstock and scion, are joined together at the nursery, usually by machine. The scion cutting is trimmed to a few inches prior to grafting, leaving a single bud. Afterward, the graft is wrapped to provide support and stored in a warm, damp room for several months to “callus,” or heal. The graft union is then waxed, and vines are stored at cold temperature prior to planting in the spring. Grafted vines may be grown for one season in the nursery and sold as dormant bench grafts. Alternatively, the grafted cutting may be planted in a pot just after callusing, grown in a greenhouse, and sold during the same year as a green-growing bench graft, or potted vine. Potted vines are less expensive, and they mature one year earlier than dormant bench grafts. In field grafting, rootstock is planted in the vineyard in the spring and allowed to grow for an entire season. The scion is then grafted on top, either in the fall or following spring. Field grafting uses a technique called chip-budding, where very small pieces of cuttings containing a single bud are inserted into the rootstock. Similar to own-rooted vines, rootstock is sold as a dormant rooted cutting. Of these options, bench grafting is easier and less expensive, and only vines that have been successfully grafted are planted. Field grafting is more expensive overall, yet the costs are spread out over two intervals. It requires skilled labor and can have a greater failure rate, but these vines have a more stable root system at the time of grafting and may have more longevity. The choice of planting material is often inhibited by what is available locally. In the past, winemakers traveled to established growing regions and brought cuttings home with them to be used in vineyard establishment. While this practice allowed for diversification in newer growing regions, it is technically illegal in most countries and has been responsible for the proliferation of grapevine viruses all over the world. In order to import vines legally, a state-approved nursery must verify that the plant stock is pest and virus free, a process that takes several years but avoids undesirable stowaways. Foundation Plant Services (FPS) is the major US nursery used for this purpose. Own-Rooted Vines For most of history, vines were grown on their own roots. As phylloxera spreads throughout the world, ungrafted vines are becoming rare, and even in areas where phylloxera is not present, producers may still use rootstock to provide other benefits or adaptations to the scion. Some have suggested that own-rooted vines make better wines. Grafted vines are clearly changed to some extent by their rootstock, and it is not unreasonable to believe that this impacts fruit composition. Yet these changes could be positive as well as negative, and the overall effect on wine quality probably depends more on other environmental conditions. Land Preparation Prior to planting, land that has been used for vineyards or other agriculture in the past may be allowed to lay fallow (bare) for a couple of years or be planted with cover crops that build soil organic matter and nutrition. Soil assessments reveal a soil’s pH and any nutrient deficiencies, which are easiest to amend before planting. The land is cleared of trees, foliage, and large rocks and roots. Drainage may be improved through ripping or through the installation of subterranean drains to prevent waterlogging in low-lying spots. Earthwork is done in the spring or fall, when soils are damp but not too wet to pass equipment. Lime might be applied to soil to reduce high acidity prior to planting (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Determining a vineyard’s boundaries is one of the first steps of planning. Vineyards are typically divided into several management blocks, and thoughtful placement of the divisions between them simplifies vineyard management. Ideally, blocks are relatively homogenous in terms of variety, rootstock, soil, microclimate, and elevation. Boundaries often respect natural borders formed by topographical features, transitions in soil, and roads. A grower may choose to adapt varieties, rootstock, and vineyard architecture to the block’s natural characteristics. Vineyard Architecture A vineyard’s layout and trellis system design are referred to as its vineyard architecture. Row orientation, or the rows’ planting direction, is a fundamental decision. A north-south orientation allows both sides of the vine an equivalent duration of sunlight throughout the day. The downside is that fruit on the west side of the vine may be overexposed to the afternoon heat. East-west rows allow the canopy to intercept the maximum amount of sunlight all day, but this will result in significant differences between the north and south side of the vine, as the south side has more exposure. Recently, northeast-southwest orientations have become popular in warmer regions, as they maximize light interception while also shading themselves during the hottest part of the day, protecting fruit from sunburn and dehydration. On slopes, rows may either be oriented up and down or across the slope. Rows that follow the slope have better airflow and are generally safer for equipment, provided that rows are not too steep. However, this orientation can result in erosion, and fruit along the row may be uneven due to differences in elevation. On steep slopes, terracing is necessary for rows planted across the slope to allow equipment to work safely. Classic examples of terracing are found in Portugal’s Douro, the Northern Rhône, and Alto Adige. Terraced vineyards are expensive to build and maintain and can be difficult to manage. They also have a tendency to create heterogeneous soils due to the large amount of earth that must be moved to create the terraces. Vineyard spacing refers to the distance between rows as well as the distance between vines. The combination of these is called vine density, which typically ranges from 500 to 6,000 vines per acre, while the space between vines and rows typically ranges from about 4 feet to 12 feet. European vineyards tend to use higher density, with 4,000 vines per acre (10,000 vines per hectare) being common. Much of the New World uses planting densities of 1,500 vines per acre or less. Narrow row spacing is more efficient in terms of land use but may require specialized tractors and farming equipment. High-density planting is used to limit vine vigor through competition and to maximize yields, and it is believed by some to produce higher-quality fruit. Vigorous vines, however, are better suited to wider spacing. Low-density planting may also be more appropriate for vineyards with inadequate water supply or for dry-farming, as observed in many Spanish wine regions. It can significantly reduce farming costs since less infrastructure is required and there are fewer vines to tend to per area. Efficient vineyards do not leave empty space along a vineyard row, so if wider vine spacing is used, the size of the vine is generally adjusted to fill all of the available room. Trends in vineyard architecture are subject to the prevailing wisdom of the time. Producers often look to classic regions that they admire or to their neighbors to inform their choices. However, what works on one site, or in one region, may not be the most appropriate layout for all sites. Useful Conversions Yields Typical yield = 2–10 tons (US) per acre 1 ton fruit ≈ 120–160 gallons of wine ≈ 50–70 cases 10,000 kilograms fruit ≈ 50–65 hectoliters of wine 1 acre produces ≈ 100­­­–700 cases Vine Density 1,000 vines per acre ≈ 2,500 vines per hectare To calculate vines density from vine and row spacing, use this table . Standard to Metric Conversions 1 hectare ≈ 2.5 acres 1 ton per acre ≈ 11–15 hectoliters per hectare of wine Planting Planting occurs over one or two years, and once vines are in the ground, the vine requires at least two or three years to become established before any fruit is harvested. During the first year after planting, the focus is on growing healthy roots. In the next couple of years, it shifts to development of the vines’ permanent structure through vine training. Vines are planted by hand or machine. While hand-planting is traditional, it is labor intensive. Machine planting is significantly less expensive and can have very good results; it shows a lot of promise as an opportunity for mechanization. Planting typically occurs in the spring, though vines may be planted anytime during the growing season, taking care to avoid frost before the vine has become established. Young vines require more attention than those that are established. J-rooting, a common cause of young vine decline, occurs when vines are placed in holes with their roots bent upward. Young vines are also prone to certain fungal diseases that can result in vineyard failure if infected plant material is used. While the notion of starving vines of water to encourage deep root growth has been popularized, young vines’ root systems are not well developed, and they may require frequent irrigation. Water stress will stunt growth and ultimately shorten the life of the vine. Even in regions where irrigation is not permitted, exceptions are typically made for vineyards less than three years old. Growers remove weeds that can outcompete or girdle young vines and often place growing tubes around the vines to protect them from weeds and animals. During the first two to three years, any fruit that forms is typically removed to allow the vine to put maximum energy into vegetative growth. Failing to do this can weaken vines and shorten the vineyard’s lifespan. Vine Training A vine’s training system is the shape and position of its permanent structures, including the trunk, cordons, canes, and spurs, and is best observed after winter pruning. The training system is ultimately determined by the cuts made during pruning in the first few years, which have a long-term impact on the vine’s shape. The three most common vine-training systems are cordon-trained and spur-pruned; head-trained and cane-pruned; and head-trained and spur-pruned. Considerations for choosing the most appropriate system include grape variety, environmental conditions, and yield goals. Very often, tradition, which may be codified in law or local trends, will also play a role. Cordon-Trained & Spur-Pruned Cordon-trained, spur-pruned vines, commonly referred to simply as cordon-trained vines, can have up to four cordons attached to the trunk, described as unilateral, bilateral, or quadrilateral. Along each cordon are permanent spur positions located every few inches. As the grapevine ages, permanent wood accumulates at the base of each spur and develops into arms. Shoots grow from the spurs during the season, and during pruning they are trimmed back into spurs, so that each year, the vine looks nearly identical. Credit: Laura Perrone There are a number of advantages to this system, which has been widely adopted, especially in warmer regions. After establishment, cordon-trained vines are the easiest, fastest, and cheapest to prune. Shoot development along the cordon is generally very even, with a clear fruit zone. This system is also suitable for mechanization. Because these vines have more permanent wood than other systems, they store more water and nutrients and may better tolerate adverse environmental conditions. Kicker Canes Kicker canes are sacrificial canes that are left on spur-pruned vines during pruning. They can be used to devigorate the vine or to avoid frost risk to the shoots at spur positions. These shoots will go through budbreak first because of apical dominance, delaying budbreak in the remaining spurs, and eventually be removed. However, cordon-training is not always the best option. An extra year may be required before fruit is harvested to establish the cordon and spur positions. Cordon-trained vines store more reserves through the winter since they have more permanent wood, resulting in more vigor and a need for wider spacing. Spur-pruning is not appropriate for varieties that have low fertility in buds close to the cordon, such as Nebbiolo and Carmenère, since spur-pruning can reduce their yields. It is also risky on frost-prone sites. In these conditions, all buds tend to push at the same time, opening up the vine to greater loss. To minimize this risk, some growers pre-prune the vines or leave kicker canes, strategies that help minimize frost risk. Head-Trained & Cane-Pruned Head-trained, cane-pruned vines typically have one or two canes (though as many as four are possible) attached to the head (top) of the trunk. Guyot is a well-known variation of cane-pruning that includes one spur for each fruiting cane attached directly to the head, called replacement or renewal spurs. During the growing season, shoots form on each bud along the cane and renewal spurs. The grower selects and lays down a new fruiting cane, called the baguette in French, during pruning each year, removing the cane from the previous season. Renewal spurs ensure that there is always a good supply of canes near the head of the vine that may be retained for the coming year. Credit: Laura Perrone The main advantage of cane-pruned vines is that they have less permanent wood and fewer reserves, so they are less vigorous and better suited to high-density plantings. Despite their lower vigor, they are often more productive than spur-pruned vines (when grown under equivalent conditions) and may require more fruit thinning to ensure adequate ripening. Cane-pruned vines have fewer pruning cuts than spur-pruned vines; as a result, they may be less prone to fungal diseases that enter the vine through pruning wounds. Many believe that cane-pruning is inherently better for wine quality. It is used in many of Europe’s most esteemed wine regions, so it has been adopted by many producers. Yet there are some important disadvantages of this system. Cane-pruned vines require skilled labor for pruning, which increases farming costs, and they are not suitable for mechanization. They are more susceptible to winter freeze, because buds are located further from permanent wood, leaving them more vulnerable to damage. Due to apical dominance, budbreak and development are uneven along the cane, with uppermost buds and those located at the vine’s extremities favored. Head-Trained & Spur-Pruned Taille Chablis used on Chardonnay in Champagne (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Head-trained, spur-pruned vines—also called bush, gobelet, or head-trained vines—have many spur positions attached to arms that form from the head of the vine. During the growing season, shoots will form at each spur position, and at pruning, the spur positions will be restored. Head-trained vines are typically found in warm, sunny growing regions with limited water availability. Much of Spain and Southern France, and vineyards with older plantings in California, utilize this training system. Head-training systems are also common with large-bunched varieties that are prone to rot, like Zinfandel and Petite Sirah, since the lack of wires and stakes prevents the clusters from becoming tangled in the trellis and damaged as the fruit develops. Head-trained vines are the least expensive to establish and manage, since no trellis system is required, and as a result, canopy work is minimal. The initial training and pruning of head-trained vines requires skilled labor, though pruning becomes easier over time. However, head-trained vines are the least productive and not suitable for mechanization. Because all of the fruiting shoots are attached to the vine near the head, this system is prone to crowding. Head-trained vines share the same concerns of frost risk, trunk disease, and low-bud fertility as cordon-trained and spur-pruned vines. Vine Head Height The height of the vine, as indicated by the head of the vine, determines the height of the fruit zone. It can range from as little as six inches to nine feet in the case of pergola-trained vines. Vine height may be dictated by the training or trellising system, or if mechanization will be used, there may be particular specifications depending on equipment. Higher-density plantings require vines to be shorter; a general rule of thumb is that the height of the canopy should not exceed the row width, or vines will shade those in the row next to them, reducing sun interception and light in the fruit zone. Vines that are closer to the ground may receive additional warming from heat reflected or radiated from the vineyard floor, which may be beneficial in cool climates and less desirable in warmer ones. Shorter vines have increased frost risk, since cold air sinks. Extreme heights, whether short or tall, are uncomfortable for vineyard workers and may increase farming expenses. While a number of other training systems exist, most are a variation of these basic structures, which can be adapted by leaving additional cordons, canes, or spur positions. The novel Sylvoz training system, used on high-yielding varieties and sites, is cordon-trained and cane-pruned. This results in a large number of fruiting shoots during the growing season and is an example of adapting the training system to the site and yield requirements. Champagne employs a number of unique training systems, including Taille Chablis and Vallée de la Marne, that are high-yielding and reduce the risk of frost damage. Trellis Systems The organization of the vine’s canopy begins with the choice of the trellis system, or the structure of posts and wires that support the canopy. A vine’s trellis accommodates its natural impulse to grow vertically and provides support for the shoots and fruit, since the vine is not able to support itself. It helps spread the shoots out more evenly, which improves airflow and light penetration in the canopy, reducing disease pressure and increasing the photosynthetic capacity of the vine. From a practical standpoint, the trellis system facilitates vineyard operations. It keeps shoots out of the vineyard row, allowing tractors and other equipment to pass. Because the shoots are organized in a predictable pattern, canopy management work is easier. The shape of the vine training system often guides the options for trellising. The trellis typically considers the natural growth patterns of the vine. Shoots can be trained upward or downward, or they may be partially supported by a wire and then allowed to drape down. Vitis vinifera likes to grow vertically and will be devigorated if it is trained downward, whereas hybrid grapes often prefer downward growth. Large vines require more space and a more extensive trellis system, such as a divided canopy system, which has multiple fruit zones and allows the vine to spread out. Climate, soil, variety, and rootstock must all be considered when choosing a trellis system, which will influence the vine’s microclimate. Cooler climates require more efficient sunlight interception, while sunny climates demand protection. Humidity and airflow are also important considerations. Finally, there are practical factors like cost, ease of use, and compatibility for mechanization. Simpler systems with fewer wires are usually less expensive and less labor intensive. Mechanization works best on cordon-trained, spur-pruned vines with a single “wall” of shoots. While a number of trellis system designs exist, it is more important to understand the concepts behind them than each individual design. While some of these trellis systems are traditional, others were designed more recently to optimize microclimatic conditions. Variations of each of these are common around the world, and many similar systems go by different names. Untrellised Vines Head-trained vines are typically not trellised. In sunny climates, shoots may be left to drape onto the floor, while in cooler climates, shoots may be tied to a central post for support and to allow more sunlight in the canopy and fruit zone. Untrellised vines require very little canopy management, since minimal work is required to arrange shoots. Because shoots sit on the vineyard floor, some vineyard operations, like running equipment through the rows, are more challenging. This arrangement can result in dense canopies with excessive shading and increased disease pressure, which is exacerbated by the difficulty of getting adequate spray coverage. Untrellised vines are not suitable for mechanized harvesting. An old, head-trained vineyard with untrellised vines (left) and a head-trained vine with canes tied together prior to winter pruning (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Non-Divided Canopy Systems A bilateral cordon-trained vine with VSP trellising (Photo credit: Avery Heelan) Cordon and cane-pruned vines have many options for trellis systems. These are broadly categorized as divided or non-divided systems, and in each case, shoots may be trained upright, or they may be allowed to hang down toward the ground. On low-vigor sites, cordon and cane vines are often trained to one or two horizontal canes or cordons, referred to as a non-divided system, since there is a single fruit zone. Several trellis systems are commonly used for non-divided canopies. In vertical shoot positioning (VSP), the shoots are trained vertically and compressed into a single wall between several wires of support. VSP is ideal for high-density plantings. It respects the tendency of vinifera grapes to grow vertically and results in good light interception. VSP works well for lower-vigor vines, as shoots may be positioned for good airflow and coverage with anti-fungal sprays. For vines with higher vigor, the canopy may become too dense and humid, restricting airflow and harboring disease. Warmer climates that risk overexposure may require more protection in the fruiting zone. VSP is suitable for mechanization; however, this system requires additional labor to tuck shoots into the trellis. It is moderately expensive to install and operate. Where more protection from sunlight is desired—for example, on warmer sites that are prone to sunburn—a slightly wider variation of VSP may be used, with spreader bars that open the canopy slightly. This is also good for more vigorous vines, since it allows for better airflow and sunlight penetration into the canopy and reduces crowding in the fruit zone. California Sprawl is an example of a two-wire system. In this layout, the shoots are flopped over a single higher wire that provides support and shade to the fruit zone. Two-wire systems are less expensive to install and require less canopy work than VSP. This system is compatible with vigorous canopies but may restrict airflow such that the underside of the canopy becomes humid and prone to disease. A cordon-trained vine with high wire trellising (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) In high-wire systems, such as high bilateral cordon, the cordon or cane is trained along a support wire, while the fruiting shoots sprawl unsupported in all directions. It is a good low-cost option since it is well suited to mechanization and requires little canopy management, and with basic infrastructure, it is inexpensive to install. Because the fruit is located near the top of the vine, it gets good light exposure, but this system might not offer suitable protection in very warm climates. High wire systems require a tall head height, so these vines can be difficult to prune and harvest by hand. Divided Canopy Systems On high-vigor sites, a divided canopy may be utilized to provide more space for the vine and avoid overcrowding. Divided canopy systems are typically quadrilateral cane or cordon-trained. The canopy may be divided horizontally, with two parallel fruit zones located three to four feet apart at identical heights, or vertically, with an upper and lower fruit zone. Many of these have an analogous non-divided canopy system. Uneven ripening is a risk of divided canopies since there are multiple fruit zones. Some producers will even harvest the different zones on different dates. There are horizontally divided equivalents of each of the systems mentioned above. Lyre is similar to VSP, Wye is similar to California Sprawl, and Geneva Double Curtain is similar to the high-wire system. In each case, the canopy is mirror-imaged across the vine row. Scott Henry and Smart-Dyson are unique vertically divided systems used primarily in New World wine regions including parts of New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Chile, and the United States, as well as Spain and Portugal. Scott Henry is a quadrilateral cane-pruned system, with two canes trellised vertically and two trellised downward. This system is used for high-vigor situations where tighter row spacing is desired. While efficient, the fruit from the upper and lower fruiting zones will ripen at different times (fruit on the upper cane ripens first, another example of apical dominance). Smart-Dyson is a similar system used for high-vigor bilateral cordon vines, where shoots are trained both up and down. It is very suitable for mechanization, and the fruit on these vines ripens more evenly than with Scott Henry. Overly vigorous VSP vines can easily be retrofitted to this system. A quadrilateral cordon-trained vineyard with a Lyre trellis system (Photo credit: GuildSomm) Other novel trellis systems are possible. Pergola, also called tendone in Italy and latada in Spain, is a classic system used on high-vigor, high-production vines in Southern Europe. Pergola systems allow workers to pass below the vines. These systems make efficient use of vineyard space, allowing maximum light interception by the canopy while also providing adequate protection in the fruiting zone. In humid areas like Rías Baixas, pergola trellising promotes airflow and reduces fungal disease pressure. Whereas the canopy of other trellis systems can be thought of as perpendicular to the ground, in pergola systems, the canopy is parallel. The high height of the fruit zone makes pruning and harvesting challenging, and this layout doesn’t easily accommodate driving equipment through the vineyard. Te Kauwhata two-tier, a vertically divided training and trellising system used in New Zealand (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) A Year in the Vineyard Phenology is a term that describes a vine’s reoccurring patterns of growth and development throughout the year. Major milestones include budbreak, flowering and fruit set, veraison, harvest, and leaf fall. Except in tropical environments, grapevines fruit once per year. They spend the entire growing season establishing a canopy and ripening their fruit, and during dormancy, they survive off of carbohydrate reserves stored in the trunk and roots during the growing season. Credit: Laura Perrone In the Northern Hemisphere, the growing season begins with budbreak (or budburst) in March or April and ends with harvest sometime between August and November. (In the Southern Hemisphere, budbreak occurs in September or October, with harvest between February and May.) While the dates of budburst, flowering, and veraison are reasonably consistent for most varieties, with differences of about two weeks at most, a much larger span of harvest dates is observed between varieties. Start of the Growing Season Coulure on a wild rootstock vine (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) When the temperature begins to warm to about 50 degrees Fahrenheit, the vine begins transporting sap containing nutrients and energy stores from the roots to the buds to initiate shoot growth. This may be observed as weeping, where sap is pushed through open pruning wounds. Excessively wet conditions at this time might prevent soils from warming, stifle root growth, and delay the start of the season. At budbreak, the dormant buds begin to “push,” and the compressed shoots stored inside begin growing. The first leaves appear, and as the shoot elongates, new leaves emerge from the shoot tip. The growth is slow at first, fueled by energy stored in the roots and trunk. Budbreak occurs according to apical dominance, where buds that are located further from the ground push first. After a few weeks of slow growth, the vines enter a period known as rapid shoot growth or the “grand period of growth.” During this time, shoots may increase in length by inches per day. By flowering, the shoots are typically about half of their full size. Flowering & Fruit Set Grape flowers do not resemble the common notion of a flower with petals radiating from the pistil (female flower part). Rather, grape flower petals form a cap around each flower that falls off during flowering to reveal the stamens (male flower parts). Pollen from the stamens falls onto the pistil during fertilization, and each fertilized flower turns into a grape berry. The weather during flowering is critical, as low temperatures interfere with fertilization, ultimately reducing the number of berries as well as the overall yield. Bloom typically begins six to eight weeks after budbreak and continues over a span of one to three weeks. Shortly after flowering, during fruit set, fertilized flowers turn into berries and the yields for the season become more apparent. Under favorable conditions, roughly a third of flowers develop successfully into berries. Flowers that are not fertilized fall off. The rapid growth phase pauses during flowering and resumes after fruit set. After set, the vine begins devoting more energy to fruit development. The berries are hard and green at first and rapidly increase in size as cells within the berries divide. Starting at set, reactions begin taking place inside the berries that will ultimately determine berry composition, and the environmental conditions around the cluster more significantly influence fruit composition. Acid, tannin, and some flavor precursors begin accumulating, and the timing of canopy management operations becomes more critical. Coulure & Millerandage Two terms are used to describe irregular outcomes at fruit set. Coulure, or shatter, occurs when a large percentage of berries are not fertilized successfully, and few berries form. While cold weather at flowering is often to blame, certain grape varieties, such as Merlot and Grenache, are prone to coulure. Millerandage, also known as hens and chicks, describes a condition where berries contain a different number of seeds, resulting in different berry sizes. It is often the result of a nutrient deficiency or disease. The Wente and Gingin clones of Chardonnay are known for their tendency for millerandage. While both of these conditions are detrimental to yields, they do not necessarily reduce quality. Veraison Veraison is one of the most recognizable and photogenic phases of grape development, where grapes change color from green to red—or, in the case of white grapes, from bright lime green to a pale, translucent green. This occurs about four to six weeks after flowering and marks many important changes in the vine. Prior to veraison, the vine invests its energy into growth and development. By veraison, the shoots are typically full height, and the vine’s energy is focused on fruit ripening. Color, flavor, and sugar begin accumulating in the fruit. Acidity and astringency decrease, and the fruit begins to soften. Berries continue increasing in size for several weeks after veraison, but cell enlargement, rather than cell division, is responsible for this increase. Veraison (Photo credit: Robert Black) Harvest & Post-Harvest Depending on the desired level of ripeness, harvest ranges from 4 to 12 weeks after veraison for dry wine styles. Harvest for sweet wine styles may occur much later in the fall. Different varieties ripen at different rates, and ultimately, the winemaker decides when the fruit is ready to be harvested. Ripeness should be thought of as a spectrum, rather than a discrete point, and harvest timing within this ripening window has serious implications on wine style and expression of site. After the fruit has been harvested, the canopy changes colors from green to yellow as leaves senesce. The vine redistributes energy from the canopy into the trunk and roots. During this time, the vine must store enough energy to provide for early development in the following year, from budbreak until leaves are big enough for photosynthesis. After nutrients have been translocated from leaves and shoots into the permanent features of the vine, the end of the season is marked by leaf fall, when spent leaves fall and the vine enters dormancy. Vineyard Operations Pruning One of the most important annual operations in the vineyard is pruning, where last year’s vegetative growth is removed to make way for new growth during the coming season. During pruning, viticulturists determine the number and position of buds that will turn into shoots. Through the process, they set potential yields, guide the permanent shape and balance of the vine, and foster organization to facilitate other operations. Pruning is not only one of the most technical vineyard operations, since the decisions made affect the vineyard’s long-term trajectory, but also among the most expensive and labor intensive. Its goal is to slowly work toward vine balance. Pruning diminishes the overall capacity of the vine by leaving fewer shoots and leaves to support fruit ripening. It concentrates the vine’s energy into the buds that remain, so that the shoots they produce are longer, stronger, and more fruitful. If a vine is pruned with balance in mind, yields will stabilize over time, since the vine is neither overtaxed nor overshaded, both of which decrease yields. There are a few conventional wisdoms used during pruning: The most fruitful buds are those on one-year-old wood (from last year’s fruiting shoots). Thicker canes should be pruned to longer spurs with more buds since they have more capacity than smaller canes. If there was excessive vegetative growth in the previous year (for example, if shoots grew too long), more buds should be left this year to balance the shoot growth. Pruning occurs during winter dormancy and before budbreak. In the Northern Hemisphere, this is typically between December and March. Vines that are pruned earlier in this window may be more prone to fungal trunk diseases and winter freeze. Pruning should never be done in the rain, and it is ideal to wait several days after the last rain to minimize the risk of fungal disease. Late pruning can be used to delay budbreak slightly in order to avoid the risk of spring frost, but if it occurs after budbreak, it can ultimately weaken vines. Ideally, pruning should occur as late as possible, while still being finished in time for the start of the season, but timing is often dictated by the availability of labor. Spur Pruning A spur with two buds will grow into two shoots during the season. At pruning, one of these shoots is removed entirely, while the other is trimmed back to a spur. The only decision the pruner must make is which cane to use for the spur. For spurs on cordons, the lower cane is typically favored to keep spur positions from reaching too high. It is also best for the spur to be vertical, which may override this preference for the lower cane. During pruning, one cane is removed entirely from each spur position, and the other is trimmed into a spur. Credit: Laura Perrone Spur-pruned vines may be pre-pruned, where the top portion of the cane is cut and removed from the vineyard prior to making the final pruning cuts. This is a method used to divide labor, allowing the second pruning pass to occur as late as possible. The first pass is more labor intensive, since the brush must be removed from the trellis, whereas the second pass is more thoughtful, since these are the pruning cuts that matter. Head-trained vines require a longer-term vision, considering where the shoots will grow the following year. Typically, spurs that are oriented away from the head of the vine are most desirable. During establishment, spur positions will occasionally be pruned into “rabbit ears,” where both canes at a spur position are pruned into spurs for the following year, to leave more buds and increase the capacity of the vine. Cane Pruning In cane pruning, buds that grow into fruiting shoots come from a single cane instead of many spurs. Pruning cane-pruned vines is more complex. Guyot is a specific type of cane pruning, where the producer selects one cane that will be retained and used as the fruiting cane the following year, and one cane that will be trimmed into a renewal spur. The renewal spur may be the next year’s fruiting cane, so its placement is critical. Renewal spurs should be located close to the head of the vine, and the spur should be oriented such that it is not growing into the row. During pruning, at least one fruiting cane is retained and laid down. A renewal spur is optional. Credit: Laura Perrone Selecting a suitable cane is also important. An ideal cane is moderate in diameter, with normally spaced internodes, and is well positioned so that it may be bent and tied to the support wire along the vineyard row. Canes are generally pruned to between 8 and 16 nodes. The number of buds retained depends on the growth observed in the previous season along with yield goals for the season ahead. After a suitable cane is selected, the rest of last year’s growth is removed. In cane pruning, the cane must be tied to a trellis wire for support. This is generally done as a second pass that happens once pruning is finished. For varieties where buds in the middle of the canes may struggle to push, the cane may be tied into an arch to encourage more even growth. This training technique, sometimes called “cane cracking,” is often used for Riesling in Germany and Nebbiolo in Piedmont. Guyot-Poussard Pruning The pruning principles described here are widely used throughout viticulture. However, an alternative school of thought is rapidly gaining traction, especially in growing regions with more resources. Guyot-Poussard pruning is based on concepts originally described by Eugène Poussard and Charles Guyot in the 1860s. The idea behind this method is that traditional pruning leaves “scar tissue” in the vine that ultimately diminishes its ability to transport water and nutrients, and encourages Esca and other fungal diseases. This alternative system is more conscious of where these wounds occur and seeks to make pruning cuts that respect the vine’s sap flow. Large cuts and cuts near the head of the vine are avoided. These practices are believed to extend the longevity, productivity, and health of the vineyard. The downside is that this type of pruning is extremely technical and has a steep learning curve. Pruning consultants Simonit & Sirch have popularized their own version of Poussard pruning and travel throughout the world teaching these complex techniques. Mechanical Pruning Pruning for cordon-trained, spur-pruned vines may be done mechanically, using a method similar to hedging. Common mechanical pruners cut everything off of the vine above a certain height, or make cuts around four sides of the cordon, called box-pruning. Mechanical pruning leaves long spurs and results in haphazard canopies. While effective, mechanical pruning cannot replicate the quality of pruning by hand, which benefits from human intuition and thoughtful decision-making. Mechanical pruning is unlikely to gain widespread acceptance any time soon, but it is more widely used for pre-pruning. Minimal pruning, where vines are pruned minimally or not at all, is used occasionally in grape production, more often for raisins. While this is not a technique that will be adopted by many wine producers, it does provide an interesting illustration of how the vine regulates itself over time. Minimally pruned vines have many short shoots, and while clusters are irregular in size and position, they tend to orient themselves on the outside of the canopy. These vines develop an extensive system of permanent wood and do not resemble the organized, homogenous, well-position vines of many vineyards. Canopy Management While a region’s macro- and mesoclimates shape vine growth and development, the vine’s microclimate is largely determined by its canopy. The main function of the canopy is to provide energy to the vine through photosynthesis. A vine’s photosynthetic capacity increases with the amount of sun-exposed leaves. Additionally, the canopy hydrates and cools the microclimate through transpiration and evaporative cooling. Dense canopies are more prone to fungal disease, as they are more humid but also have less airflow, and they make it more difficult to get coverage from sprays that protect the vine from mildew and botrytis. Canopy management includes a series of vineyard tasks designed to fine-tune the microclimate and organize the vine. It is one of the most effective ways for a producer to improve wine quality, especially in vigorous or disease-prone vineyards. The importance of sunlight in the canopy and fruit zone were more fully realized in the last 40 years, and since then, more extensive research has informed the practices used today. Shoot thinning (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Appropriate canopy management practices depend on the conditions of the growing environment as well as vine vigor. Warm, sunny climates often demand more protection from sunburn and dehydration, while cool, wet climates require maximizing sun exposure and reducing disease pressure. More work is needed to keep vigorous vines healthy and their quality high. Labor availability is also an important consideration, as many of these operations occur during the spring and early summer, often the busiest part of the growing season. Fruit cost will help dictate the extent of canopy management that is reasonable. During shoot thinning, unwanted shoots are removed to reduce crowding and competition. Good candidates for removal include multiple shoots growing from a single bud, suckers, laterals, and shoots that are growing in inconvenient spaces, such as into the vineyard row. Vigorous vines will push more suckers and laterals and require more shoot thinning. Timing is important. It’s easiest to remove shoots before they are six to eight inches long, but removing unwanted shoots too early encourages more to grow in their place. A viticulturist may prefer to let the shoots grow longer to diffuse energy. If vigor is limited, thinning should be done sooner to allow the vine to focus its energy on remaining shoots. The process often begins prior to bloom and may be repeated as necessary. Through shoot positioning, a viticulturist orients the shoots in the canopy in an organized and even way. Where a trellis system is used, positioning also involves tucking shoots into support wires that help hold the shoots in place. Shoot positioning creates an even environment, with a balance of light exposure and protection, and makes all subsequent vineyard work easier. It’s done after bloom, once the shoots are long enough but while they are still sufficiently flexible to bend without breaking and are not too tangled. Leafing, or removing leaves from dense canopies, improves airflow and sunlight penetration throughout the canopy and fruiting zone, which reduces disease pressure. Often, leaves are removed from the morning side of the canopy in the fruiting zone but retained on the afternoon sun side. Internal leaves may be removed from higher up in the canopy to increase airflow and light while leaving fruit protected. Leafing can be done any time after fruit set, but earlier is better. Exposing shaded berries to sun later in the season makes them more vulnerable to sunburn, since they aren’t well adapted. The maximum benefits of sunlight in terms of flavor development occur prior to veraison. A vine before and after leafing (Photo credit: Sarah Ferguson) Suckering and leafing can be mechanized. While this might slightly damage the remaining shoots, it allows for timely action, which may ultimately be more important in terms of fruit quality. Hedging is trimming shoots and leaves that fall outside of the plane of the canopy. It creates a tailored, shrub-like appearance. Hedging keeps the rows clear and prevents damage from vineyard equipment. Topping is a specific form of hedging where shoots are cut at the top to keep them from growing taller, as they will continue to grow as long as they have enough water, since they lack a terminal bud. Topping is done after shoots have reached their maximum height, if the growing tip is still green and active. Along with pruning, cluster thinning is an opportunity for the viticulturist to manage yields directly. Clusters may be removed to achieve targeted yields and prevent overcropping. Young vines are often prone to setting too much fruit for their small stature, and there are varieties, including Chenin Blanc, Carignan, Grenache, and Valdigué, that are more ambitious in terms of yields. As vines move toward balance, they require less crop adjustment. Cluster thinning may be done at any time throughout the growing season but generally occurs between fruit set and veraison, once yields can be estimated. A common technique is to leave two clusters on healthy shoots, one cluster on shoots that are half-height, and no fruit on short shoots. On low-vigor and cooler sites, it might be more prudent to leave only one cluster per shoot. A second round of cluster thinning known as green drop, or green harvest, may be done at the end of veraison, where clusters with delayed maturity are removed to promote homogenous ripening. To hasten development and not overtax the vine, however, earlier crop removal is better. In many vineyards, the economics of dropping fruit do not make sense, as the grower is literally leaving money on the ground. While lower yields do not necessarily result in higher quality, the grower may be incentivized to retain more fruit than is ideal. For this reason, some producers have moved toward acreage contracts, where a buyer pays for fruit by the acre instead of by the ton. Ultimately, many wineries seek to own vineyards in order to tailor viticultural practices to the needs of their wine program. Yields While excessive yields are detrimental to fruit quality, severely limiting crops is not economical and can reduce quality. Throughout the world, high-quality wines are made from grapes cropped at anywhere from less than one up to eight tons per acre. As a general rule of thumb, reducing the amount of fruit increases the rate of ripening. In marginal climates, limiting yields may be necessary. In climates with adequate warmth and resources, significant crop reduction may lead to uneven ripening, with sugar accumulation and acid loss outpacing flavor development and tannin ripening. At certain times in history, vines have been systematically overcropped to increase yields and profits, but this ultimately produced lower-quality wines. As a reaction to this, many now believe that a vine has a limited capacity to produce flavors and that lowering yields increases flavor concentration. While reducing yields speeds up sugar accumulation, it is not generally true that the flavors of higher yielding vines are more dilute (within a reasonable range). Vines with more fruit actually adjust their metabolism to produce more flavor compounds. Appropriate yields depend on both the vine and its environment. In warm climates, higher yields make more sense, since the increased rate of ripening can support more fruit. Larger vines on rich soils can also support higher yields than smaller vines on weak soils, and higher-density plantings will produce higher yields per acre (but lower yields per vine) since the acreage is used more efficiently. Certain wine styles fare better than others with larger yields. With white and sparkling wine, for example, acid retention may be more important than concentration. Vineyard Floor Management For part of the year, native grass and broadleaf species, weeds, and cover crops grow on the vineyard floor. These plants will impact the amount of water and nutrients available to the vine and, as a result, managing the vineyard floor is an important aspect of managing the vine. The conditions on the vineyard floor also influence the microclimate. Bare soil is warmer than soil covered in plants. Covered soils are cooler during the day but may take longer to cool off during the night, since airflow is impeded. These soils are also more prone to frost damage on emerging shoots, as pockets of cold air can become trapped in tall cover crops. Cover crops are intentionally seeded during the fall. Legumes like peas and clovers and a range of grasses are common in viticulture. Legumes add nitrogen to the soil but have low water requirements. Some grasses have high water requirements and can be used to devigorate vines through competition. Brassicas may help control nematode populations. Cover crops and other plants limit erosion during the winter months, reduce compaction, and soak up excess soil moisture in the spring. During the growing season, plants compete with vines for water and nutrients. Later in the season, they may wither and die, or they may continue to grow if there is sufficient water. Crimson clover is an attractive, nitrogen-rich cover crop (Photo credit: Robert Black) The primary goals of vineyard floor management include optimizing the amount of water and nutrients that are available to the vine, limiting erosion, building soil organic matter, and influencing microclimate. Good cover crop selection coupled with appropriate vineyard floor management strategy will also keep invasive weed species from inundating the vineyard. On the practical side, clearing the vineyard floor allows workers and equipment to pass easily and safely through the vineyard rows, and keeps weeds from becoming entangled in the vines. During the growing season, a number of practices are used to manage plants on the vineyard floor. From a practical standpoint, the work is divided into two zones that are managed using different machinery. While the alleyway between rows is easy to access with tractors and plows, the area under the vine row requires more specialized equipment. Mowing is generally the first step of control against weeds and cover crops. Just after budbreak, rows may be mowed to increase airflow and reduce frost risk. Mowing early in the season encourages regrowth and can be used to soak up excess moisture. In dry climates, mowing later in the season will typically kill the groundcover. Tillage, or cultivation, is the turning over of the top 6 to 10 inches of soil. Tillage can be used to add fertility to the soil through green manure and reduces competition between the vine and groundcover for water and nutrients. It also reduces rodent populations, which can cause significant damage on no-till soils. Tillage is not typically practiced on hills, as it encourages erosion. Some producers vehemently oppose tillage since it destroys soil structure, can hinder water’s absorption into the soil, encourages erosion, and disrupts soil microbial communities. As soil is turned, carbon is brought to the surface and off-gases as carbon dioxide, which some believe contributes to global warming. Lightly tilled soil after harvest (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Mulching, also called green mulching, refers to mowing or crimping cover crops and grasses so that they make a carpet over the vineyard that discourages weeds from growing. Crimping uses a heavy implement to flatten plants to the ground, making “crimps” every few feet that damage the plants. Mulching helps conserve soil moisture and also reduces the soil temperature, which some believe is beneficial for soil bacteria. When compared with bare soil, it cools the microclimate, since the ground stays at a lower temperature and does not reflect much sunlight back into the vine. Under the vine row, herbicides are the cheapest and easiest method for weed removal, but many are critical of their use in farming. While organic herbicides exist, they are not particularly effective. Producers are increasingly moving away from the use of herbicides in favor of mechanical cultivation, which involves using a French plow or other implement that scrapes the top of the soil to remove weeds and other plants. Others plant a low-growing perennial cover crop like clover that will outcompete the weeds. Most of these practices occur in the spring and early summer, once the soil is dry enough for equipment to enter the vineyard without becoming stuck. Timing depends on water and nutrient availability and how much competition is desired, as well as labor, since this is a busy season in the vineyard. In dry climates, competition for water should be limited, so cover crops may be mowed, crimped, or tilled early in the season. In wet climates, cover crops can be used to remove excess moisture from the soil and may be allowed to grow year round. Beyond these factors, there are different schools of thought in terms of management techniques. On one end of the spectrum, some farmers will cultivate the soil each year in the spring, once soils are suitably dry, to integrate cover crops and weeds and remove sources of competition and habitat that might harbor pests and rodents. Weeds underneath the row may be cultivated using an implement like a French plow or desiccated using an herbicide like glyphosate. These techniques can reduce irrigation requirements and are popular with those who dry-farm. Others see the plants that grow on the vineyard floor as a vital part of the vine’s ecosystem and put a great deal of thought into what is growing there, when it is growing, and how to manage it. They view cover crops less as competition and more as an opportunity for building soil fertility and organic matter. Nitrogen-fixing cover crops may be selected to add nitrogen to the soil. Where competition needs to be limited, cover crops with low water requirements or those that go to seed early in the season may be planted. These producers typically prefer practices that maintain soil structure, using, for example, mowing and crimping rather than tillage. Water Management Water management is another lever for influencing grape quality. Ideally, the vine has enough water to keep it functioning healthily, but not so much as to induce additional vegetative growth. In many climates, the soil has plenty of water early in the spring, though excess moisture in the ground at this time can cause waterlogging, which inhibits root growth. Springtime rains, if paired with ample sunshine, can produce vigorous vegetative growth early in the season, but by mid-summer, water may be in short supply. Throughout the growing season, precipitation or irrigation is generally necessary for vineyard health. Irrigation is expensive and labor intensive, and most producers prefer to avoid it, if possible. Unfortunately, not all wine regions and sites are suitable for dry-farming. Historically, vineyard sites with adequate water reserves were selected, but as the climate changes, dry-farming is becoming increasingly difficult even in some traditional growing regions. The upside is that where water is limited, it can be controlled, which can be beneficial since excess water is often the culprit for low wine quality. An aerial NDVI map is used to identify areas of water stress throughout the vineyard (Credit: Jennifer Angelosante) In areas where irrigation is not used, water management occurs passively through site selection, decisions made during site preparation, and vineyard floor management. The resulting wines may demonstrate more seasonal variation, and for this reason, it could be argued that they present a more honest expression of the vintage. On the other hand, where irrigation is used, the viticulturist can fine-tune the vine’s water status. While more generous irrigation can be used to help support a larger crop load, quality-minded producers typically follow a deficit irrigation strategy. Where deficit irrigation is used, vines often receive less water during the growing season than they would in a region with regular summer rainfall. Under deficit irrigation, the vineyard is monitored for water stress, and just enough water is added to keep the vine healthy. Some growers irrigate fewer times at larger volumes, while other irrigate more frequently at lower volumes. The former technique is used to encourage deeper root growth and to acclimatize the vine to water stress. The latter may be more appropriate on soils with low water-holding capacity. Partial rootzone drying is a specific deficit irrigation technique where only half of the rootzone receives water at a time, which encourages the vine to be more efficient with its overall water use throughout the season. Growers who irrigate monitor water stress in a number of ways: NDVIs are vineyard maps that demonstrate vine vigor, based on the color of the canopy, as captured by aerial infrared photography. These maps suggest areas of water stress. Soil moisture probes give an indication of the amount of water in the soil. Leaf water potential is a measurement taken using a tool called a pressure bomb on individual leaves, identifying their degree of water stress. The amount of pressure that must be applied to a leaf in order for it to release water from the petiole (leaf stem) indicates how many stomates are closed, a response to stress conditions. Predictive models estimate how much total water is lost from the vineyard soil through evapotranspiration (the combination of water lost due to evaporation from the soil and transpiration from plants) and then add back a certain percentage of this amount, depending on the weather forecast. Though irrigation has been used in agriculture for about 8,000 years, a number of different types of irrigation are practiced today. Drip irrigation is by far the most common. It is highly efficient in its water use but expensive to install and maintain. It also provides the ability to fertigate, where fertilizer is added through the irrigation system. Overhead sprinklers are another option, applying water evenly over the surface of the vineyard. Sprinklers double as frost protection and may be used during heat events to lower temperatures through evaporative cooling. Sprinklers increase moisture in the canopy, however, which increases disease pressure. They are inefficient, since water is lost to evaporation, and expensive to install. Under flood irrigation, the vineyard is flooded with water diverted from a nearby water source. While no longer common, this is still used in Chile and Argentina. Flooding the soil can stymy root growth, but it can also be effective at disrupting populations of phylloxera, and vineyards may be flood irrigated several times per season. Harvest Harvest is a busy time in the vineyard. Each pick requires the coordination of labor, equipment, and transportation. These logistics must be responsive, since picks are decided only a few days ahead of time and plans may be impacted by inclement weather and other unforeseen events. Collaboration and flexibility on the part of both vineyard manager and winemaker are necessary to achieve the best expression from the land. A number of factors influence a winemaker’s decision of when to harvest, including levels of sugar and acid, tannin texture, and flavor profile, along with practical considerations like winery capacity and weather. From a grower’s perspective, an earlier harvest is often desirable, as this ensures the safety of the fruit—waiting can risk damage from weather or disease. Rain or irrigation can cause fruit to swell and may dilute sugar, acid, and flavor concentration. However, water stress during the ripening period can concentrate the fruit through dehydration. Producers who purchase fruit often pay for grapes by the ton, but since dehydrated fruit weighs less, a grower may prefer to irrigate close to harvest, while a winemaker might prefer extra concentration. This is another reason why acreage contracts are becoming increasingly popular. Fruit is vulnerable to damage and oxidation from the time it comes off the vine until it is safely in tank. Keeping the fruit safe, intact, and cool is of upmost importance and requires that picks occur quickly and smoothly. In warm regions, fruit may be harvested during the night to keep it cool. Traditionally, fruit has been harvested by hand. Harvest season is a time of celebration, since it represents the culmination of a year’s work. In Europe, students and townspeople were often enlisted to join in the festivities. Today, cost and labor limitations force growers to consider alternative methods. Mechanical harvesters are improving each year; the technology is promising and may eventually surpass hand-harvesting from a quality perspective. As with mechanical pruning, specific vineyard architecture is required for machine harvesting. In some areas, like New Zealand, it is standard. The distinctive style of New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc has even been attributed to the use of machine harvesting. While there are exceptions, for producers that prioritize quality, hand-harvesting is still the standard. Once harvest is finished, the vineyard work for the year is nearly done. If there is no rain, the vines may be fertilized or irrigated to help them store sufficient reserves for the following season, and cover crop seeds may be sown. Autumn is also the best time to identify and remove diseased vines, since symptoms are generally most severe at the end of the season. Pests & Diseases Pests and diseases threaten vineyard health and longevity as well as the quality and quantity of the current season’s fruit. An essential part of a viticulturist’s job is to diagnosis, treat, and prevent these ills. Pests Phylloxera feeding on vine roots (Photo credit: Matteo Abreu) Some vineyard dwellers are helpful, preying on undesirable insects and fungi. Others, however, vector disease or damage the fruit or vine directly, preventing proper growth and development by inhibiting photosynthesis or nutrient uptake. Phylloxera vastatrix , literally “the devastator,” is among the most infamous pests. A destructive yellow louse native to the Americas, it now inhabits most vineyard soils worldwide. It was first observed in Europe in 1863 and spread throughout the Continent, destroying vineyards in its wake. Phylloxera feeds on the vine’s roots, and while this is not fatal in itself, the punctures allow infection by pathogens in the soil. Ultimately, this causes necrosis and prevents healthy uptake of water and nutrients. Phylloxera’s damage is slow and can take years to come to fruition, gradually reducing the vine’s ability to successfully ripen fruit and eventually killing it. While Vitis vinifera is highly susceptible, it was discovered in the 1870s that native American grape species are resistant to phylloxera’s damage. As a result, vinifera was grafted to (mostly) American rootstocks. The use of rootstock has been an effective remedy overall, but there have been missteps. AXR1, a rootstock used commonly in California during the 1900s, was initially believed to be phylloxera resistant and later proven not to be, resulting in a second round of attack by phylloxera and massive replants. Several rootstocks still used today may not be as resistant as was once thought. There are still wine regions, however, that are reasonably phylloxera free, including Washington State, parts of Southern Australia, Argentina, and Chile. In Australia, strict quarantine protocols limit phylloxera’s spread. Sandy soils and those that flood regularly (including by flood irrigation) are fairly inhospitable to the aphid. Nematodes are native to Europe and Asia. Similar to phylloxera, they are parasites that feed on roots, ultimately limiting the capacity of the vine to uptake water and nutrients. Several species of nematodes are found in viticulture. The best known of these is the dagger nematode, Xiphinema index , which vectors fanleaf virus. In soils that are affected, the practice of leaving soils fallow for several years prior to replanting is helpful. Certain cover crops, like mustard, are believed to produce toxins unfavorable to nematodes, discouraging their proliferation. Nematode resistant rootstocks—for example, O39-16—may also be used. Mites are very common in vineyards as well. Some are damaging, while others are beneficial. They feed on leaves, making small brown galls or causing discoloration and reducing the vine’s photosynthetic capacity. Usually, this isn’t serious, but if mite populations grow out of control, they can delay ripening and may even result in defoliation. While chemical treatments are available, many use cultural and biological controls instead. Mites thrive in dusty conditions, so dust should be kept at a minimum when driving through a vineyard. Predatory mites feed on undesirable mite species and can be released into the vineyard to slow their damage. Several organic and non-organic treatments are available to effectively control mite populations should counts exceed established economic impact levels. Many other insects call the vineyard home. Mealybugs vector leafroll virus, and glassy-winged sharpshooters vector Pierce’s disease. Other species, like the suzukii fruit fly and the European grapevine moth, damage the fruit and open it up to infection by botrytis and other pathogens. Leafhopper nymphs (left) and mealybugs (Photo credit: Avery Heelan [left], Shawn DeMartino) Insects are differentiated by the type of feeding that they do, and this is key to diagnosing which insect is culpable for damage. Sucking insects include leafhoppers and sharpshooters, while cutworms and beetles are chewing insects. To limit damage, predatory insects, like ladybugs that will prey on immature leafhoppers and aphids, may be released. Host plants may be removed from the area or planted nearby to divert insects out of the vineyard. Mating disruption is a technique in which pheromones are released, making it difficult for insects to find each other and mate successfully. When necessary, pesticides can also limit insect populations. Bird netting is used throughout New Zealand to protect vines from crop losses (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Birds and mammals are incredibly destructive in vineyards as well. Their feeding reduces yields and injures fruit, which encourages disease, and larger animals may damage vineyard infrastructure. Wild boar are a key concern throughout Italy, France, and Germany. In South Africa, baboons walk down vineyard rows “harvesting” clusters as they pass, and in Australia, kangaroos can eat up to 150 kilograms of fruit in a day. In the United States, bird damage is estimated to cost vineyards $70 million per year in losses. Prevention, through bird netting, air cannons, noise emitters, scarecrows, and fencing, may be used in areas where animals pose a threat. Nearly all vineyards in New Zealand use bird-netting to protect the vines, while some producers in Northern California employ falconers to discourage smaller birds. Bird damage is often most severe in early-ripening vineyards, and some producers interplant small amounts of sacrificial, earlier-ripening varieties, in hopes that the birds will eat them and move on. Diseases Fungal Diseases Powdery & Downy Mildew Powdery and downy mildew are native to North America. While indigenous American grape species are largely resistant to these fungal diseases, Vitis vinifera is highly susceptible. Dormant mildew spores overwinter in buds and bark, and under favorable conditions, they multiply and cause infection. Both powdery and downy mildew can result in devastating crop losses. Powdery mildew ( oïdium in French) was first described in 1834 in the United States, and it ravaged Europe 10 years later. It is caused by the fungus Erysiphe necator (also known as Uncinula necator ). Under warm, damp conditions, spores are carried by wind and infect green plant tissue. Mildew’s spread is temperature dependent, with the greatest success between 70 and 85 degrees. Powdery mildew is most detrimental from budbreak until veraison, when it can grow on berries. It causes small, web-like, fuzzy patches on leaves and fruit as well as black scarring on canes. Growers treat powdery mildew with vineyard sprays of sulfur or systemic fungicides on the canopy, generally at regular intervals throughout the growing season. (Note that the elemental sulfur used as a fungicide in the vineyard is distinct from the sulfur dioxide used in the winery.) Control is especially important at budbreak and bloom, since infections on immature plant tissue can spread quickly. Sulfur is typically applied every 10 to 14 days from budbreak until veraison, systemic fungicides every 21 days, and organic biological fungicides, such as Serenade and Sonata, every 7 days. Vineyards are sometimes threatened throughout the growing season, or the danger could be more intermittent. A dry, warm climate may require 8 to 10 sprays, while at-risk climates may demand over 12 sprays per year. Some producers are able to spray less through careful vineyard monitoring when conditions are favorable. To reduce applications, some viticulturists in the Napa Valley use indicators such as mathematical models or spore traps, which assess the risk of infection, and treat only when the threat is sufficient. Canopy management choices can also minimize risk. Canopies with good airflow are less mildew prone, and the efficacy of sprays depends on coverage, which is easier to achieve on open canopies. Some grape varieties, including Cabernet Sauvignon, Carignan, and Chardonnay, are more susceptible than others. Merlot, Pinot Noir, Riesling, and Zinfandel are less severely affected. Mildew-infected berries are generally excluded from production as they contribute unpleasant, moldy, and earthy flavors to wine. Powdery mildew symptoms on leaves and fruit (Photo credit: Jack Kelly Clark, used with permission from the University of California Statewide IPM Program [left], Jennifer Angelosante) Downy mildew ( mildiou in French) is caused by Plasmopara viticola. It is sometimes called Peronospora in Europe ( Plasmopara was previously taxonomically classified as Peronospora ). It is most successful in warm conditions from 65 to 77 degrees Fahrenheit, but unlike powdery mildew, downy mildew only spreads through water. Regions that receive summertime rain like Northern Europe and the East Coast of the United States are more threatened by downy mildew, while sunny areas including California, Western Australia, and Northern Chile are largely free of it. Downy mildew attacks green plant tissue, especially young shoots and leaves, and causes oily yellow spots on leaves. Severe infections cripple growing shoots and can lead to defoliation, which will shut down the vine. Berries infected with downy mildew turn green-gray or pink-gray and shrivel. Downy mildew is treated through regular spray applications of Bordeaux blend, a mixture of copper and sulfur that treats both downy and powdery mildew, or systemic fungicides. Sprays are typically applied every two weeks beginning at budbreak, though reapplication is required after rain. Affected fruit is removed through sorting, either on the vine or sorting table. Bunch Rot Several microorganisms, including species of fungi and bacteria, cause bunch rot in grapes, which destroys the flavor and integrity of fruit, typically rendering it useless for winemaking. Botrytis cinerea is the most familiar of these. Botrytis is able to penetrate and infect healthy berries. Other bunch rot culprits are opportunists that attack damaged fruit. Sour rot is a form of bunch rot caused by yeast and bacteria that colonizes damaged fruit and produces off-flavors like acetic acid (vinegar). Botrytis overwinters in canes and clusters and germinates in rainy spring conditions, where 65 to 75 degrees Fahrenheit is ideal for its spread. Bunch rot often begins during flowering. Spores become trapped in flowers and lie dormant until veraison, when sugar begins accumulating in the berries. Rain near harvest and insect, bird, or mechanical damage also welcome botrytis and other infections that feed on the sugar. Infected berries turn brown (white varieties) or reddish (red varieties) and shrivel, sometimes becoming fuzzy and gray. After botrytis has infected berries, other species such as acetobacter can cause sour rot. The best way to avoid botrytis is prevention. Anti-fungal sprays at bloom and prior to bunch closure are particularly important to limit its effects later. Cultural practices that encourage airflow in the canopy, like shoot thinning and leafing, will reduce disease pressure as well. Infected plant material should be removed from the vineyard at the end of the season. Tight-bunched cultivars are most vulnerable, since spores become trapped within the cluster at bunch closure, and dense, shady, and humid canopies foster disease. Berries have a waxy cuticle that protects them from infection, and many red cultivars produce compounds in their skins that combat botrytis. Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, Riesling, Sauvignon Blanc, Zinfandel, and Pinot Noir are prone to botrytis, while Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Sémillon, and Muscat are less so. Under certain conditions, botrytis infection late in the season can cause a positive result known as noble rot. Sémillon, Sauvignon Blanc, Chenin Blanc, Riesling, and Furmint are all botrytis-prone and used to create some of the world’s most expensive and sought-after sweet wines. Noble rot requires dry conditions so that the fruit remains intact and secondary infection by acetobacter and other pathogens does not occur. Trunk Diseases Esca causes a tiger-striped pattern on leaves (Photo credit: Avery Heelan) The trunk diseases are a collection of maladies such as Esca, Botryosphaeria, and Eutypa dieback caused by fungal spores that enter the vine through pruning wounds. Infections in the cordons and trunk decay the plant’s vascular system and prevent the transport of water and nutrients to the vine’s extremities. Brown “cankers” or portions of damaged wood are visible in the permanent wood. Trunk diseases are one of the most serious economic threats to vineyards worldwide and result in premature replanting and vine death. Eutypa dieback is caused by Eutypa lata and typically affects only a single spur position before advancing through the rest of the vine. Eutypa causes stunted shoots, shriveled fruit, and small, cup-shaped, chlorotic leaves. Botryosphaeria results in a distinctive pie-shaped wedge inside the permanent wood, and shoots on the vine’s extremities are often undersized. Esca was officially discovered in 1898, but there are ancient references to the disease. It causes black measles to appear on berries and very distinct tiger-striped leaves with scorching along the margins. The risk of trunk disease is minimized through good pruning practices. Cane-pruning may be preferred over spur-pruning, and antifungal paste may be painted onto wounds to keep spores from entering. Once infection occurs, the portion of cordon with a canker may be removed, and a new shoot retrained in its place, to prevent the infection from spreading further into the vine. Black Rot Black rot is a fungal disease instigated by Guignardia bidwellii that plagues vineyards in humid climates, especially in the Eastern United States and parts of Europe. Spores are released with spring rains and attack young green growth, forming small, reddish-brown circular spots on the leaves and dark lesions on the stems. The best way to avoid black rot is to remove all affected clusters from the vineyard, as the spores will otherwise overwinter in the plants. Copper-based fungicides are also effective. Bacterial Diseases Red Leaf Diseases With the exception of teinturier varieties, the leaves of healthy Vitis vinifera should not turn red in the fall. A number of so-called red leaf diseases cause the leaves of red grape varieties to turn red, and the leaves of white varieties to turn yellow. The source of these diseases may be virus, bacteria, or other pathogens, and they can be confused for a variety of nutrient deficiencies. Viticulturists look at secondary symptoms to identify the underlying cause, and testing for nutrient deficiency or the presence of virus can be used for diagnosis. Pierce’s disease, often called PD, is caused by the bacteria Xylella fastidiosa, which infects the xylem of vines, preventing the transport of water. Pierce’s disease is vectored by sap-feeding insects like sharpshooters and spittlebugs. It is increasingly common in California but rarely observed in Europe or climates with sufficiently cold winters. Delayed budbreak, stunted growth, and fruit dehydration are common symptoms, and they are further exacerbated by drought. Pierce’s disease is identified by uneven shoot lignification, and “matchsticks,” which are petioles that are left on shoots after leaves defoliate. Infected vines will typically die within two to five years, but cold winter conditions seem to extend the life of some vines. There is no treatment for Pierce’s disease, and infected vines should be removed to reduce spread. The insects that vector PD live in riparian areas, so nearby vineyards are generally at greatest risk. Building a barricade of plants, such as PD-resistant vines, has been suggested as an effective means of control. “Grapevine yellows” describes several phytoplasmic diseases, including Flavescence dorée, that are primarily found in Southern European wine regions. Phytoplasms are a specialized type of bacteria that infect plants’ phloem. Delayed, abnormal shoot growth, discolored leaves that curl downward, and berry dehydration are symptoms. Because the shoots do not lignify, infected vines are easily identified by their green shoots in the fall. Leafhoppers are a primary vector of grapevine yellows, so control of these insects is key to slowing the spread, as is removal of any diseased vines. Crown gall, caused by the bacteria Allorhizobium vitis (previously known as Agrobacterium vitis ), is the most common disease of nurseries worldwide. It infects vine tissue during grafting, and later, galls form at the graft union and girdle the vine. Bacterial blight, caused by Xanthomonas ampelina, kills young shoots. It is spread by rain and on pruning tools, and it can be controlled by copper sprays such as the Bordeaux mixture. Blight is found in South Africa, Southern Europe, Argentina, and Australia. Viral Diseases Foliar symptoms of fanleaf virus (Photo credit: Sarah Ferguson) Grapevine leafroll virus causes significant reduction in yields and slows fruit maturation. On red varieties, leaf margins turn red while veins remain green, and the leaves of white varieties turn yellow. In both cases, the leaves fold downward. Mealybugs are the primary vector of leafroll and are transported throughout regions by birds, wind, and on equipment and workers’ clothes. Leafroll is treated by removing infected vines and through suppression of the mealybug population. One popular treatment is sexual confusion, where tags with mealybug pheromones are placed throughout the vineyard to disrupt mating. In warm regions, where fruit ripens quickly, some winemakers may view leafroll as beneficial, but there are more effective methods to delay maturity. Grapevine fanleaf virus reduces yields and fruit quality and shortens the lifespan of a vineyard. Infected vines often exhibit abnormal asymmetric leaves, a yellow mosaic pattern in the leaf margin, and yellow bands along the veins. Millerandage is a symptom. Fanleaf is typically introduced to a vineyard through infected planting stock, and afterward, it is vectored by the nematode Xiphinema index . Once fanleaf has been introduced, it is difficult to remove from a vineyard, particularly as nematodes are able to transmit the virus even after the vineyard has been fallow for years. Nematode resistant rootstock, such as O39-16, may be used during replanting. Red blotch disease is attributed to a virus discovered in California in 2011. It lowers wine quality by delaying and even preventing ripening. Infected leaves from red cultivars exhibit a distinctive red mosaic appearance, with red veins, that is sometimes mistaken for leafroll virus. Best Practices The spread of pests and disease can be limited by following a set of best practices. Care should be taken to avoid carrying soil or insects on equipment, shoes, clothing, and shears from vineyard to vineyard, especially if a diseased vineyard has been identified. Pruning shears and other equipment must be cleaned prior to use. Dead plant material, especially from infected vines, should be removed during winter pruning to prevent pathogens from overwintering there. In some cases, the removal of diseased vines will prevent neighboring vines from being infected. During vineyard establishment, only vines that have been tested and certified to be free of virus should be used, and a thorough inspection can minimize the risk of introducing infected planting material. This is also why growers are encouraged to import new plant material through nurseries equipped to do so safely, rather than bringing in so-called suitcase clones themselves. Farming Philosophies After the end of World War II, many chemical resources that had gone toward the production of explosives became destined for a new fate: commercial NPK-based fertilizers. This heralded a cultural shift in agriculture and the proliferation of the “better living through chemistry” mentality. By the time the 1970s came around, a lot of farmland had been overworked and overfed. Organic farming and its successors are seen as a backlash to these newer ways of farming, today known as conventional agriculture. Wine grapes are often farmed with quality in mind. While sustainable farming has not been shown to make better wines, the belief that this is probably the case leads to alternative practices. Indeed, many of the most esteemed wine estates throughout the world employ some form of non-conventional farming. As consumer demand for healthier and more environmentally friendly products increases, producers continue adopting more sustainable practices. Organic Farming Organic farming, popularized in the 1970s as the antidote to industrial agriculture, avoids the use of synthetic chemicals that are commonly used in farming. These include conventional fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, and systemic fungicides. (Organic farming also prohibits the use of genetically modified organisms, or GMOs, but since these are not accepted in the wine industry, this is not a point of distinction in viticulture.) The transition from conventional to certified organic agriculture takes at least three years and requires ongoing audits. A number of organizations worldwide grant organic certification, including the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Bioagricert, Agriculture Biologique, and Australian Certified Organic. Spraying in Organic Viticulture Many people believe incorrectly that organic and biodynamic vineyards do not use fungicide sprays. In fact, organic fungicides are typically applied more frequently than their conventional counterparts. While there are restrictions around the amount of product applied per year, sulfur- and copper-based products, including the Bordeaux mixture, are permitted. In 2018, the EU reduced the limit for copper in organic vineyards to four kilograms per hectare per year, taken over a seven-year average, which allows producers to apply more in a particularly bad year (effective as of 2019). Vineyards in France have received attention for the high levels of copper, a heavy metal, that have accumulated in the soil as a result of these sprays. While many argue that they are better than the synthetic alternatives, this is controversial, and scientists are currently looking for healthier solutions. Varied practices fall under the umbrella of organic farming. On one end of the spectrum, organic agriculture resembles conventional agriculture but with organic products replacing synthetic chemical inputs. Other growers go “beyond organic” and seek to minimize inputs, improve the soil, encourage biodiversity, and even look after the spiritual health of the vineyard. This range of beliefs and emphases has led to further delineation of various farming schools of thought. Many of these philosophies share a common set of values: Intolerance of chemically synthesized fertilizers, herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides. Preference for complex forms of fertilizer like compost, fish emulsion, and cover crops, rather than mineral-based fertilizers. Vineyard-floor practices that build soil organic matter, preserve soil structure, and increase fertility. Encouragement of biodiversity, both in the soil and on the farm. Holistic, systems-based thinking and decision-making for long-term results. Biodynamic Farming Biodynamic farming shares many of the principles of organic farming but includes extra inputs. It was originally proposed by Austrian Rudolph Steiner, a controversial figure in his time, in a series of lectures given in 1924. While sometimes described as a more premium form of organic farming, the key distinction between organic and biodynamic farming is the annual application of nine biodynamic preparations, applied to the vineyard in homeopathic quantities. Biodynamic farming is also unique for its spiritual nature. Practitioners may elect to farm by the moon calendar, which has been used traditionally in farming and is still mentioned in the venerable Farmer’s Almanac , or the biodynamic calendar, a sort of astrology for plants developed by Maria Thun beginning in 1962. Demeter is the primary biodynamic certification granted throughout the world, and Biodyvin and respekt-BIODYN are smaller regional organizations. For decades, non-conventional farmers had the option to self-identify as organic or biodynamic. But while many farmers wish to go beyond the basic requirements of organic agriculture, the emphasis of biodynamics on the nine preps and its adherence to the cosmos are not priorities for some seeking a more environmentally friendly approach. Regenerative Agriculture Regenerative farming is viewed by some as the next frontier of organic farming. Whereas organic farming takes a stance of “do no harm,” regenerative farming seeks to go further, actively improving the land through soil building, nurturing microbial ecosystems, and advancing the health of the vineyard. Its ultimate goal is to reduce climate change through carbon sequestration, or removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Regenerative agriculture is heavily influenced by teachings from the Rodale Institute and the Weston A. Price Foundation, and while there is currently no certification, some programs are being developed. Mimi Casteel of Hope Well Vineyard in the Willamette Valley is one of the leading voices for regenerative agriculture within the wine community. The focus of regenerative agriculture is, fundamentally, on management of the vineyard floor. Building organic matter in the soil, preserving soil structure by no-till practices, and the use of cover crops encourage soil health and prevent erosion. Regenerative farming is sometimes mistakenly described as “do-nothing farming.” At its best, regenerative farming is very active and requires careful observation and decision-making. Sustainable Farming Sustainable farming, called lutte raisonée in France, has been used as a catchall to describe a range of growing practices. On the one hand, it could be thought of as a more pragmatic alternative to organic farming, since producers are free to intervene when necessary. Yet sustainable farming also encompasses a wider range of values than organic farming, including the responsible use of resources like water, power, and fuel. While sustainable farming is generally unregulated, several regional certifications have been created to offer better definition of the concept. These programs look at vineyard inputs and practices as well as use of resources (such as water and electricity), business sustainability, and even labor practices. Many of them encourage continual, gradual improvement, such as doing fewer sprays in a year, eliminating the use of herbicides, or reducing water use. Examples include Sonoma County Sustainable, Napa Green, Lodi Rules, SIP Certified, and LIVE. The Porto Protocol, formed in 2019, is a global initiative that encourages growers to adopt practices that combat climate change. Integrated Pest Management Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is essentially a systems-based approach to treating vineyard pests and diseases. Rather than treating a symptom, IPM encourages producers to identify and treat root causes or adjust the environment to make conditions less favorable for pests and disease—requiring an understanding of their lifecycles. IPM emphasizes the use of biological and cultural controls over chemical controls such as insecticides and fungicides. It treats maladies by exploiting predator-prey and host relationships, habitat manipulation, physical barriers, and biological interventions like mating confusion. Other Considerations There are a number of reasons that a producer may generally adhere to particular farming practices but not choose to seek certification, even if it might offer a point of distinction. Certifications are expensive, labor and paperwork intensive, and disproportionately costly to small operations. Some prefer to instead spend that time improving their farming practices. For producers that do not intend to use certification for marketing purposes, the effort and cost might not make sense. Others prefer the flexibility to use treatments in case of an emergency. While many have moved in the direction of more sustainable practices, there are practical limitations to farming non-conventionally. Most vineyards are businesses and must be economically viable. Non-conventional agriculture can be more costly; at a minimum, it requires more vineyard oversite than conventional practices. In challenging climates, chemical-based disease control can be more effective than its organic counterparts, which might result in yield and quality losses. With any vineyard philosophy, there are trade-offs, and dogmatism can ultimately do more harm than good. For example, organic sprays often must be applied more frequently than conventional ones, which requires tractors to pass at least twice as often, increasing compaction and burning more fuel. The Future of Farming The Importance of Experience In practice, it is difficult to anticipate how the nuances of a vineyard site will interact with a particular grape variety, rootstock, or viticultural practice. There are simply too many confounding factors. While study gives insight and informs decision-making, in reality, grapegrowing is a craft best learned in the vineyard, through observation, experimentation, and years of experience. A vineyard is best understood by those who work it on a daily basis. Vineyard Labor In many regions, agricultural work is done by a migrant labor force that travels to the region only during the growing season. This is driven by economic disparities that make it more profitable for these workers to pursue employment far from home. But political constraints, housing shortages, better economic opportunities at home, and the strain this schedule places on family life are rapidly disincentivizing migrant labor. Many agricultural communities rely on what is ultimately an unsustainable model, and labor shortages pose a real threat. A reduction in the workforce increases labor costs, ultimately impacting bottle price. On the top end, this may be surmountable; however, for some producers, hand-labor is rapidly becoming cost-prohibitive. In some regions, labor is not available at any price. As a response, many producers are forced to consider increased mechanization in the vineyard. Vineyard Mechanization As more traditional farming practices grow in popularity, an equal and seemingly opposite trend is the rise of mechanization and technology in the vineyard. Certain tasks are widely mechanized, including ploughing, mowing, hedging, and spraying. Others, like leafing and suckering, are reasonably easy to mechanize, while some operations, such as pruning, are more difficult to mechanize without a loss in quality. Mechanical harvesters picking in New Zealand (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Mechanization is more responsive, faster, and cheaper than doing the work by hand, which may allow better timing with grapevine phenology. It requires significantly less labor, and technology is improving each year, sometimes resulting in better wine quality than hand labor. However, currently, mechanization is not as precise as hand work for many tasks and can damage the fruit or vine. It requires specific vineyard architecture, and many established vineyards would need to be retrofitted in order to use it. Mechanization also changes the culture of grapegrowing, eliminating the human element and traditional ways of working. While the wine industry has been much slower to adopt mechanization than other forms of farming, it is widely acknowledged that in the future, many tasks currently done by hand will likely be done by machine. Precision Viticulture Fruition Sciences’ sap flow sensors remotely monitor water lost through vine transpiration (Photo credit: Fruition Sciences) Increased mechanization has also paved the way for an emerging field known as precision viticulture, which uses extensive data collection and artificial intelligence (AI) to improve quality and efficiency. A number of interesting vineyard monitoring tools are being developed. Tractors and drones equipped with cameras are used to create vineyard maps with data collected on a vine-by-vine basis. Mapped data might include areas of water and nutrient stress, color accumulation, the degree of fruit ripening, yield estimates, and diseased vines. Precision viticulture seeks to minimize overtreatment and can be used to support sustainability through resource conservation. For example, variable irrigation schemes irrigate or fertigate vines based on their specific needs, saving huge amounts of water. Additionally, equipment is being designed to reduce the amount of product needed. While the technology has not yet been perfected, electrostatic fungicide sprayers release a fine mist of particles that are attracted electrostatically to the vine, providing better coverage with less volume. The mechanical pruners of the future will likely be programmed with artificial intelligence and “taught” to prune vines as a human would. AI could be used to train machines to do a number of farming tasks, likely at a fraction of the cost and time they take today. It is possible to imagine each individual vine being farmed to a particular specification to optimize quality and yields. Homogeneity in the Vineyard Many vineyard management principles and operations have historically been used to create more even conditions within the vineyard. Homogeneity facilitates management, since it is easier to keep vines in their optimal levels if they all have the same needs, and this approach has been credited with increasing wine quality, especially on the value end. Some have raised the question of whether homogeneity in farming sacrifices complexity in wine. While this is yet to be seen, as precision viticulture offers the possibility of approaching true homogeneity, there may be a point of diminishing returns. Going forward, this will be an important philosophical question in viticulture. Precision viticulture allows for the acquisition of data for better decision-making, cost reduction, and conservation of resources like water and labor. Overall, it presents many potential benefits, especially for the value segment of the market, but many producers are wary of this vision of the future. The quest for optimization requires a target and is often met with standardization; whenever many producers emulate a specific wine style, it is at the detriment of diversity. The challenge of precision viticulture will be the emphasis, and not erasure, of terroir. Looking Ahead Viticulture is an ever-changing science. As more is learned about biological systems and plant function, and as climate and palates evolve, viticulturists must continue to adapt and rethink beliefs that have driven decision-making for years. What is fixed, however, is the interdependence of the vineyard system, which combines human inputs, the environment, and the vine’s natural inclinations, as dictated by genetics. The viticulturist spends all season tending grapes with the goal of delivering healthy, ripe fruit and adequate yields at harvest; from here, the process is in the hands of the winemaker . Bibliography Bettiga, Larry J. Grape Pest Management . 3rd ed. Oakland, CA: University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources, 2013. “Catalogue of rootstock varieties registered in France.” Pl@ntGrape . Accessed September 2, 2020. http://plantgrape.plantnet-project.org/en/porte-greffes . Coombe, B. G., and P. R. Dry, eds. Viticulture . Vol. 1: Resources. Underdale, South Australia: Winetitles Pty, 1988. Coombe, B. G., and P. R. Dry, eds. Viticulture . Vol. 2: Practices. Broadview, South Australia: Winetitles Pty, 1988. Goldammer, Ted. Grape Grower's Handbook: A Complete Guide to Viticulture for Wine Production . 3rd ed. Centreville, VA: APEX Publishers, 2018. Ivaldi, Marion Sepeau. “Les AOC gagnent un peu de liberté d'irriguer.” Vitisphere.com , September 2017. https://www.vitisphere.com/actualite-86036-Les-AOC-gagnent-un-peu-de-liberte-dirriguer.htm . Jackson, Ronald S. Wine Science: Principles and Applications . 5th ed. London: Academic Press, 2020. Johnson, Hugh, and Jancis Robinson, eds.. The World Atlas of Wine . 8th ed. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2019. Jones, Gregory. “Climate, Grapes, and Wine.” GuildSomm . August 12, 2015. https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/gregory_jones/posts/climate-grapes-and-wine . Keller, Markus. The Science of Grapevines: Anatomy and Physiology . 2nd ed. London: Elsevier Academic Press, 2015. Maltman, Alex. “Part 1: Soil Principles.” GuildSomm . January 17, 2013. https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/soils_for_sommeliers/posts/soil-principles . Maltman, Alex. “Part 2: Vineyard Geology.” GuildSomm . January 24, 2013. https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/soils_for_sommeliers/posts/part-2-vineyard-geology . Maltman, Alex. Vineyards, Rocks, and Soils: The Wine Lover's Guide to Geology . New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2018. Martin, Fleur. “The Irrigation of Grapevines in Europe – an Update on Existing Legislation.” Irrigazette . October 28, 2016. https://irrigazette.com/en/news/irrigation-grapevines-europe-update-existing-legislation . Meloni, Giulia, and Johan Swinnen. “The Political Economy of European Wine Regulations.” Journal of Wine Economics 8, no. 3 (2013): 244–84. https://doi.org/10.1017/jwe.2013.33 . Rienth, Markus, and Thibaut Scholasch. “State-of-the-Art of Tools and Methods to Assess Vine Water Status”. OENO One 53 (2019). https://doi.org/10.20870/oeno-one.2019.53.4.2403 . Robinson, Jancis, and Julia Harding, eds. The Oxford Companion to Wine . 3rd ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2006. Robinson, Jancis, Julia Harding, and José Vouillamoz. Wine Grapes . New York: Harper Collins, 2012. “Rootstocks for Grafted Vines.” Winegrowers Supplies . Accessed September 2, 2020. https://www.winegrowers.info/rootstocks/home.htm . Skelton, Stephen. Viticulture: An Introduction to Commercial Grape Growing for Wine Production . 11th ed. London: Stephen Skelton, 2009. Skinkis, Patricia A., and R. Paul Schreiner. “Grapevine Nutrition.” Oregon State University . June 2011. https://catalog.extension.oregonstate.edu/sites/catalog/files/project/media/em9024/index.html . Todorov, Kerana. “Napa Valley Grape Growers Gearing Up for Second Half of 2017 Harvest.” Wine Business.com . Accessed July 26, 2020. https://www.winebusiness.com/news/?go=getArticle&dataid=189951 . White, Robert E. Soils for Fine Wines . New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2003. Compiled by Jennifer Angelosante (September 2020) Edited by Stacy LadenburgerPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/research/expert_guides/w/expert-guides/2647/italy-part-iv-southern-italyThu, 03 Sep 2026 23:29:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:100dcb47-9d85-4f8b-8959-ee0d3d5a7532Jonathan EichholzContents The Grapes and Grape Families of Southern Italy Abruzzo Molise Puglia Campania Basilicata Calabria Sicily Sardinia Bibliography Southern Italy is more agrarian and less industrialized than the northern portion of the country, and it has been slower to develop infrastructure. Farther from the rest of Europe—geographically as well as culturally—it is also more isolated by mountains and seas. Although it is home to large cities, such as Naples and Palermo, and popular tourist destinations, such as the Amalfi Coast, the south has more poverty than, and over double the unemployment rate of, the rest of Italy. Some of its regions are not widely known outside the country, except perhaps to descendants of Italian immigrants who left those regions seeking opportunity. Click to enlarge During the unification of Italy in the 19 th century, the Risorgimento government was largely composed of northerners. The south was hurt by heavy taxation, high protective tariffs on northern industrial goods, and a mandatory seven years of military service, which had a particularly significant impact on the farm labor force in rural areas. As late as 1900, the illiteracy rate in southern Italy was 70%, 10 times higher than that of England, France, or Germany. More than four million Italians—over 10% of the national population—immigrated to the United States between 1880 and 1924, most of them from the rural south and the island of Sicily. Yet despite its hardships, southern Italy has a long and rich history with viticulture and was likely one of the world’s earliest centers of vine domestication, after the Caucuses, Levant, and eastern Mediterranean. A 2017 archeological discovery of wine residue in terra-cotta jars inside a cave at Monte Kronio, in southwestern Sicily, suggests that winemaking in this area goes back 6,000 years. The arrival of the Phoenicians and then the Greeks led to the expansion of vine cultivation. The Greeks reached southern Italy in the eighth century BCE and called this part of the peninsula Oenotria—“the land of trained vines.” They brought viticultural knowledge with them and enhanced the local wine-drinking culture, introducing both the alberello (bush vine) training method and the Greek symposium. The region along the coasts of southern Italy and its islands became known by the Romans as Magna Graecia, meaning “great Greece,” for its Greek settlers. The Greek influence in southern Italy as seen at the Valley of the Temples in Sicily (Credit: Michael Markarian) There are also Spanish and Arabic influences throughout southern Italy. The south can be a paradox: a melting pot of cultures resulting from centuries of rule by outsiders alongside fiercely independent regions with local identities, dialects, and customs. Southern Italy is colloquially referred to as Mezzogiorno, Italian for “noon,” referring to the intensity of sunshine there at midday. Like the rest of Italy, the south has diverse climates and topography, from the colder, mountainous terrain high in the Apennines to gentler coasts and flatter plains. The two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea (Sicily and Sardinia) are also part of the south. Many of southern Italy’s wines and grape varieties are found only in their local areas, providing an exciting opportunity for exploration. The Grapes and Grape Families of Southern Italy Several key grape varieties of southern Italy—including Aglianico, Montepulciano, Zibibbo (Muscat of Alexandria), and Cannonau (Grenache)—are covered in the Introduction to Italy Expert Guide . Below are additional grapes and families that are important to southern Italy, while others are discussed in the regional sections that follow. White Grapes Greco: The Greco group, like the Malvasia varieties, is one of the most confusing sets of grapes in Italy. Many unrelated grape varieties in Italy were given Greek-sounding names—Greco, Grecanico, Grechetto—either because they were thought to be of Greek origin, or because they were used for wines made in the “Greek style” of air-drying grapes, concentrating musts by cooking, and adding resin or other flavorings. The most important Greco grape of southern Italy, known simply as Greco, is found mainly in Campania and the volcanic soils of Greco di Tufo DOCG. It is late ripening and susceptible to vineyard diseases, with low vigor and productivity, and it is prone to oxidation and volatile acidity in the cellar. Its wines are ageworthy and complex, with full body, an oily texture, high acidity, and flavors of peach, pear, tropical fruit, and honey. It is not widely grown outside Campania and pockets in neighboring regions, such as Lazio and Puglia, but it is both heat and drought resistant and may be successful in warmer and water-challenged environments in the future. The unrelated Greco Bianco, also called Greco di Gerace, is found mainly in Calabria and is genetically identical to Malvasia di Lipari and Malvasia di Sardegna. It is used for both dry wines and sweet passito wines. Greco Moro and Greco Giallo are white grapes grown mainly in Lazio, and Greco Nero is a red grape used in Calabrian blends. Catarratto: Although grown almost exclusively in Sicily, Catarratto is one of Italy’s most planted white grape varieties. Named for the cataracts, or waterfalls, of wine it produces, Catarratto is a highly productive grape and has long been a dependable variety for making simple, quaffable Sicilian white wines and inexpensive, fortified Marsala. Two main biotypes are often interplanted and are genetically identical but have separate entries in the Italian national registry: Catarratto Bianco Comune has higher sugar and lower acidity, and Catarratto Bianco Lucido has more-compact bunches and can be more refined. Producers often distinguish the latter by simply calling it Lucido. Both grapes are offspring of Garganega. Plantings have been in steady decline, but Catarratto still represents nearly one-third of the Sicilian vine area. Grown almost everywhere in the western and central parts of Sicily, Catarratto also plays a supporting role in Etna Bianco, adding fruitiness to Carricante’s minerality. Carricante: Another variety named for its high production, Carricante derives its name from caricare , “to load”—as in loading up a cart or donkey with a large volume of grapes. Despite this reference to quantity, Carricante is considered one of the highest-quality, most ageworthy, and most complex Italian white grapes. It has low alcohol, high acidity, a lemon flavor, and pronounced minerality, with TDN-based flavors of petrol and kerosene, like those of some dry Rieslings. Some producers harvest Carricante as late as possible to curb its high acidity, and malolactic fermentation is commonly used as a softening method. Carricante tolerates climatic extremes, such as rain and humidity, and thrives at the higher elevations of Mount Etna, especially on the eastern slope, which is the coolest and rainiest side of the volcano. Falanghina: One of the oldest varieties of Campania, Falanghina, along with Aglianico, is thought to be among the grapes used in the revered Falernian (Falernum in Latin) wines in ancient Rome. There are at least two distinct Falanghina varieties: Falanghina Beneventana, which has more structure, alcohol, and floral character; and Falanghina Flegrea, which has fruitier flavors of peach, yellow apple, cherry pit, and apricot. These grapes have naturally high acidity and are generally co-planted in vineyards, and the resulting wines reflect characteristics of both. In addition to its primary home of Campania, Falanghina can also be found in Lazio and Puglia. Fiano: One of Italy’s oldest and most ageworthy white grapes, Fiano was nearly extinct in the 1940s when it was revived by the work of the Mastroberardino estate. Fiano is late ripening and low yielding, and its thick skins can withstand rot and moisture in the cooler and rainier parts of Campania. It is versatile and site specific, yielding steely, smoky, ageworthy wines from volcanic soils, and lighter, fruitier wines for early consumption from sandier soils. The typical Fiano has flavors of hazelnut, green apple, and pear, developing notes of beeswax and acacia honey with age, and tasters often identify a smoky, flinty character. Some producers use skin maceration to increase the aromatics, weight, and richness of the wine. Fiano is found in Campania, Sicily, Puglia, Molise, and Basilicata. The aromatic Puglian variety called Fiano Minutolo, or Fiano Aromatico, is unrelated. Grillo: A natural crossing of Catarratto Bianco Lucido and Zibibbo, Grillo first appeared relatively recently in western Sicily, in the late 19 th century. It is resistant to heat and drought but sensitive to sunburn, and it oxidizes easily. With high acidity and full body, Grillo is known for higher-quality Marsala production as well as crisp, herbal, dry white wines. Winemakers generally favor reductive winemaking for Grillo and are careful to preserve the variety ’s thiols and the resulting flavors of cassis, grapefruit, and passion fruit, which sometimes evoke comparisons to Sauvignon Blanc. There are two biotypes, Grillo Vecchio and Grillo Nuovo, the latter of which is more commonly planted, as it is less susceptible to millerandage. In addition to its presence in Sicily, Grillo can be found in Puglia, and some Rossese Bianco vines planted in Liguria have been shown to be genetically identical to Grillo. Red Grapes Frappato: An offspring of Sangiovese and half-sibling of Nerello Mascalese and Gaglioppo, Frappato is found primarily in southeastern Sicily, in the areas surrounding Vittoria, Ragusa, and Siracusa. It is very late ripening, withstands hot and dry conditions, and performs best in red, sandy calcareous soils, resulting in more fragrant wines. Frappato is less vigorous than other Sicilian varieties and is often pruned with the Guyot system to increase production. Because Frappato is a reductive variety, winemakers generally use frequent pumpovers or rack-and-return to increase oxygen flow and avoid off-flavors. As a varietal wine, Frappato is pale colored, light bodied, and low in tannin, with flavors of strawberry, violets, and dried herbs. Refreshing and juicy, it can be served chilled. Frappato is a common blending partner with Nero d’Avola. In Cerasuolo di Vittoria DOCG, for example, it performs a softening role. Frappato is also grown in Puglia. Nerello Mascalese: A natural crossing of Sangiovese and Mantonico Bianco, Nerello Mascalese is often compared to Sangiovese and Nebbiolo as one of Italy’s best and most refined red grapes. It is named for the Mascali plain, in northeastern Sicily, and it is the signature grape of Mount Etna, Faro, and other areas in northeastern Sicily. Thin skinned and large berried, Nerello Mascalese is late ripening and very vigorous; old, pre-phylloxera vines, which are prevalent in the area and produce less fruit, and the use of alberello training help limit yields. Alberello bush vine in Frank Cornelissen’s Etna vineyard (Credit: Michael Markarian) Nerello Mascalese is light colored and high in tannin, with flavors of sour cherry, tobacco, aromatic herbs, and minerals. The higher altitudes of Mount Etna are key to its full phenolic ripening and development of floral finesse. At lower elevations where it is harvested earlier, the variety makes wines can show riper fruit but more vegetal and bitter astringency. Nerello Mascalese is also grown in western Sicily at much higher yields and authorized for Marsala production, and it can be found across the Strait of Messina in Calabria. Nero d’Avola: Officially listed as Calabrese in the national registry, this red grape is more commonly called Nero d’Avola, named for the town of Avola, on the coast of southeastern Sicily. It buds early and ripens late (although two weeks earlier than Frappato), and it is planted primarily in warm, dry areas, including most of Sicily. Nero d’Avola tolerates heat and highly saline soils and retains acidity even in warm temperatures. It is often trained low to the ground to absorb heat. Rich in anthocyanins, Nero d’Avola has the deepest color of the main Sicilian red varieties. There are many clones and biotypes that have adapted over the centuries to Sicily’s terroirs. Nero d’Avola wines generally have rich texture, ripe fruit, and salinity, with flavors of dark cherries and spicy and aromatic herbs. A range of varietal wines are produced, including some with new oak and sweet passito versions. In Cerasuolo di Vittoria DOCG, Nero d’Avola is blended with Frappato, elevating the blend’s richness, structure, and color. Primitivo: One of the top five most planted red grapes of Italy, Primitivo is found primarily in Puglia, with some plantings in Campania. It is genetically the same as Zinfandel in California and Crljenak Kaštelanski, or Tribidrag, in Croatia, where it originated. Primitivo ripens unevenly within individual bunches, and it is one of the first grapes to be harvested in Italy (its Italian name refers to its early maturation). Primitivo accumulates sugar easily and results in high-alcohol wines. Historically, the grape was used as vino da taglio , the “cutting wine” included in blends to boost body and alcohol in poorer vintages or lighter wines from the north. It suffered because of the European Union’s vine pull incentives in the late 20 th century, when many of Puglia’s centenary Primitivo vines were removed. New plantings have been rebounding, however, based on the commercial success of Primitivo and Zinfandel, with an increase of nearly 40% in the first decade of the 21 st century. Red and rosato wines are made, as are sweet passito and fortified wines. Source: Italian Wine Central, 2022 data Abruzzo Located about halfway down the eastern side of the Italian peninsula, between the Apennines and the Adriatic Sea, Abruzzo—like its northern neighbor Marche—is a transitional region from north-central to southern Italy. The climate becomes more Mediterranean, Sangiovese gives way to Montepulciano, and the territory of the Etruscans and Papal States transitions into Magna Graecia. The ancient Greeks went as far north on the Adriatic coast as the city of Ancona, in the Marche. Abruzzo was originally called Aprutium, named after the Praetutii, an Italic tribe that lived in the early city of Interamnia (modern-day Teramo). The wines of Abruzzo were well known during the Roman era. During the Middle Ages, the Medici bankers of Florence ruled over parts of Abruzzo. Some suggest these close ties were a reason for Sangiovese’s migration from the south to Tuscany, and for the connection between Abruzzo’s Montepulciano grape and the Tuscan town and Sangiovese-based wine region of the same name. Abruzzo is mostly mountainous and hilly. It is one of the greenest parts of Europe, with much of the region forested and conserved as national parkland. The snowcapped mountains of the Gran Sasso d’Italia massif include the highest peak of the Apennines, Corno Grande, at over 2,900 meters (9,500 feet) above sea level, the highest point in Italy outside the Alps and Mount Etna. The mezzadria system, in which sharecropper tenants farmed the land and split the profits with landlords, was common here until it was dissolved in the mid-20 th century, and many farmers grew wheat, olives, cereals, and other crops in addition to wine grapes. Phylloxera significantly reduced vineyard land, and many people left rural areas to escape poverty and seek employment in new industries. Today, Abruzzo is a major contributor to Italy’s bulk wine production, and its wine industry is dominated by co-ops. Most of the region’s production is table wine, and less than one-third is at the DOP level. Abruzzo has three DOCGs, seven DOCs (four of which cover nearly the entire region), and nine IGPs (with one that covers the entire region). Production has been increasing in recent years, with more than 3.1 million hectoliters (34.8 million cases) of wine made from 32,650 hectares (80,700 acres) of vineyards in 2022. The most planted grapes are Montepulciano (57%) and the Trebbiano varieties (29%), including both the common Trebbiano Toscano and the higher-quality Trebbiano Abruzzese. Montepulciano Montepulciano, Italy’s second most planted red grape, considered a workhorse variety, most likely originated in the mountainous Peligna valley of Abruzzo and plays a starring role in most of the region’s DOC/Gs. Because it accumulates sugar easily but its pip tannins ripen very slowly, colder, mountainous terroirs are preferred for achieving slow, even ripening and for avoiding unripe flavors. Montepulciano is planted nearly everywhere, however, including areas that are much warmer, and the wines range from simple and cheerful to concentrated and ageworthy. The region-wide Montepulciano d’Abruzzo DOC requires a minimum of 85% Montepulciano, with some subzones requiring higher percentages or monovarietal wines. Two well-regarded subzones, Terre dei Vestini and Terre di Casauria, both in the province of Pescara, require at least 90% and 100% Montepulciano, respectively, along with higher minimum alcohol, lower maximum yields, and longer aging. Within Vestini is the important wine district Loreto Aprutino, home to one of Abruzzo’s iconic producers, Valentini. Vines in Montepulciano (Credit: GuildSomm) Montepulciano d’Abruzzo has a maximum elevation of 600 meters (1,970 feet) generally, or up to 700 meters (2,300 feet) for vineyards with direct southern exposure. Riserva wines require a minimum aging of two years, with at least nine months in barrel, while some subzones have stricter aging requirements. The Montepulciano d’Abruzzo Colline Teramane subzone was elevated to its own separate DOCG in 2003 and was recently renamed Colline Teramane Montepulciano d’Abruzzo DOCG to emphasize the place rather than the grape variety. It covers a large area with clay-based soils in the northern province of Teramo. Wines must be made from a minimum of 90% Montepulciano, with the remainder exclusively from Sangiovese; in the broader DOC, several red grapes are allowed. In 2025, Casauria DOCG followed suit and was elevated from subzone to DOCG, focused on 90% Montepulciano within the Pescara province. Colline Teramane requires lower maximum yields and higher minimum alcohol than the general DOC. The DOCG requires a minimum aging of one year, with at least two months in bottle; the Riserva level requires at least three years of aging, with one year in barrel and two months in bottle. Abruzzo’s most famous producers, Valentini and Emidio Pepe, eschew the DOCG and bottle their reds under Montepulciano d’Abruzzo DOC instead. Montepulciano is high in anthocyanins, resulting not only in deeply colored red wines but also in a dark style of rosato that is more pale red than pink, obtaining its color with little or no maceration time on the skins. Cerasuolo d’Abruzzo DOC , named for this cherry color, is for rosato wines based on a minimum of 85% Montepulciano. A Superiore version requires at least 90% Montepulciano, with slightly higher minimum alcohol and aging. Trebbiano While Italy’s widely planted Trebbiano Toscano can be high yielding and indistinctive, lending itself to wines and products of process, such as vin santo, balsamic vinegar, and brandy, the unrelated Trebbiano Abruzzese is one of Italy’s highest-quality white grape varieties. The name of the grape, however, is not equivalent to the wine made in the region-wide appellation Trebbiano d’Abruzzo DOC , which can come from a minimum of 85% combined Trebbiano Toscano, Trebbiano Abruzzese, and/or Bombino Bianco, with up to 15% other authorized grapes. Cerasuolo Cerasuolo comes from the Italian word for “cherry,” and, until the 1970s, this was an unofficial term to describe the darker color of Italian rosato . In Abruzzo, Cerasuolo d’Abruzzo DOC is named for the cherry color of its rosato wines. In Sicily, however, Cerasuolo di Vittoria DOCG is not a rosato but a red wine, named for either the cherry flavor of the wine or the red color of the terra rossa soils. Trebbiano Abruzzese has been mistakenly identified as Bombino Bianco, Passerina, and other varieties. Some producers estimate that only 20% of the so-called Trebbiano grapes grown in Abruzzo are truly Trebbiano Abruzzese, which is typically co-planted and blended with Trebbiano Toscano and Bombino Bianco. The variety has high acidity, but the acidity drops if the grapes are overripe. Pick timing is crucial and has been misjudged in the past when Trebbiano Abruzzese was mistaken for other white grapes or simply harvested along with them. While Montepulciano performs best in cooler, mountainous terroirs, where longer hanging times can be achieved, Trebbiano Abruzzese is better suited to the gently rolling hills closer to the coast, where there is more sunlight and less humidity. Although the DOC does not require it, some producers and iconic bottlings, such as Valentini’s Trebbiano d’Abruzzo and Tiberio’s Fonte Canale, focus exclusively on Trebbiano Abruzzese. When made well, it has delicate aromas of orchard fruits and white flowers, a creamy texture, and a mineral edge. Other Regions of Abruzzo Abruzzo DOC , which has the same boundaries as Montepulciano d’Abruzzo, Cerasuolo d’Abruzzo, and Trebbiano d’Abruzzo, is an overarching DOC for a wide range of dry, sparkling, and sweet passito wines. Varietal wines from grapes such as Passerina, Pecorino, Cococciola, Malvasia, and Montonico are permitted to be labeled with the name of the grape variety before the DOC name (for example, Passerina d’Abruzzo DOC), giving the misleading impression that they have their own denominations. Sparkling wines made from native grape varieties using the tank method can be labeled Trabocco, an unofficial term trademarked by the consorzio and named for trabocchi , the fishing platforms at the end of piers that are common on the Adriatic coast. In 2023, four DOCs—Abruzzo, Montepulciano d’Abruzzo, Cerasuolo d’Abruzzo, and Trebbiano d’Abruzzo—simultaneously launched new subzones, largely based on Abruzzo’s four provinces. They are Colline Pescaresi (Pescara province), Colline Teramane (Teramo province), Terre di Chieti (Chieti province), and Terre Aquilane or Terre de L’Aquila (L’Aquila province). There is an exception for Montepulciano d’Abruzzo, because the name Colline Teramane is already used for a separate DOCG there. In Montepulciano d’Abruzzo, the Colline Teramane subzone is instead called San Martino sulla Marrucina, named for the commune of the same name. Other changes were also introduced, including adding Superiore and Riserva levels where they did not already exist, and making those levels exclusive to, and required for, the subzones. Abruzzo DOC also introduced a new rosato category, based on a minimum of 85% Montepulciano, making it a parallel to Cerasuolo d’Abruzzo. Abruzzo received its second DOCG in 2019 when Tullum DOCG , also called Terre Tollesi DOCG, was elevated from a DOC. Tullum DOCG is near the coast of the southern Chieti province and focuses on varietal white wines made of Pecorino or Passerina, reds made of a minimum of 95% Montepulciano, and sparkling wines made of a minimum of 60% Chardonnay. A Riserva level for reds requires at least two years of aging, including six months in barrel. The DOCG has only 19 planted hectares. Two small DOCs also in the Chieti province, Ortona DOC and Villamagna DOC , require a minimum of 95% Montepulciano for their red wines, with Ortona also allowing whites based on the Trebbiano varieties. Molise The region of Molise is the second smallest in Italy (after Valle d’Aosta) in both population and land area. It was administratively part of the Abruzzo region until the 1960s and has much in common culturally, historically, and geographically with its northern neighbor. Like Abruzzo, it is very mountainous, and, although it has a coastline, the heights rise swiftly inland. Molise’s most planted grape varieties, like Abruzzo’s, are Montepulciano (51%) and Trebbiano (12%). Molise makes a significant amount of wine considering its small size, producing 513,000 hectoliters (5.7 million cases) of wine from 5,450 hectares (13,400 acres) of vineyards in 2022. An overwhelming majority is table wine, and Molise is tied with its southern neighbor Puglia for the lowest percentage of wine at the DOC/G level (7%). Co-op and bulk production are common. Molise has no DOCGs, four noncontiguous DOCs, and two IGPs. While Molise is not widely known in the wine world, even within Italy, it is the home of the important local Tintilia grape. This red grape, named after the Italian word tinto (dyed) for its deep color, appears to be genetically related to grape varieties in Spain and Sardinia, and some believe it originally came from the Iberian Peninsula. It is very low yielding and was nearly abandoned in Molise in favor of more productive varieties, but several old vines survived. Tintilia has been propagated by dedicated producers who see its quality potential as a signature grape of Molise, and more than 100 hectares (250 acres) are planted. Tintilia wines are typically high in acidity, full bodied, deeply colored, and lightly aromatic, with spicy, floral, and herbal flavors. The grape performs best above 400 meters (1,300 feet) in elevation. Tintilia del Molise DOC , established in 2011, allows red and rosato wines based on a minimum of 95% Tintilia and mandates a minimum elevation of 200 meters (650 feet). A Riserva version for reds requires a higher ABV, at 13%, and a minimum aging of two years. Molise’s other denominations include Biferno DOC , in the eastern province of Campobasso, toward the Adriatic coast; Pentro di Isernia DOC , in the western Isernia province, farther inland; and the overarching Molise DOC . More than 70% of Molise’s production is red wine, and the DOCs authorize a wide range of wine styles and both varietal wines and blends from international and native grapes, such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Aglianico, Montepulciano, Chardonnay, Fiano, and Falanghina. Puglia Puglia (or Apulia) forms the southeastern spur and heel of Italy’s boot, with a long stretch of coastline along the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. It is less mountainous than most of Italy and, like the northern Po River valley, is one of the only areas of the country with flat and fertile plains. It has long been an agricultural region, focused on exports of olives, wheat, barley, oats, table grapes, almonds, figs, and cash crops. Puglia produces nearly half of Italy’s olive oil. Wine has historically been defined by co-op production of bulk wine, high volume, and vino da taglio . While largely warm, flat, and fertile, Puglia has some cooler, higher-elevation areas, such as the Daunian mountains in the north. Valleys are formed by rivers that rise in the Apennines and empty into the Adriatic Sea. The Fortore River forms the border between Molise and Puglia in the north, and the Ofanto River borders the Murge plateau in central Puglia. The ancient Apulian tribes most likely arrived from Illyria across the Adriatic Sea at the end of the Bronze Age and beginning of the Iron Age, around the first millennium BCE. When the Greeks arrived on the Salento peninsula, they established city-states that became some of the most important wealth centers and military ports of Magna Graecia. The Romans had strongholds and built roads, such as the ancient Appian Way, stretching from Rome to Brindisi, Puglia. After the fall of Rome, Puglia was an area of dispute and conquest by the Normans, Lombards, Aragonese, Ottomans, Saracens from North Africa, and others. It was ruled by the Byzantine Empire in the Middle Ages, and, during this period, its monks were responsible for sustaining viticulture. Puglia’s famous trulli , cone-shaped dwellings made of limestone, were present by the 14 th or 15 th century CE. It is believed that residents would quickly dismantle these structures when representatives from the Kingdom of Naples came to collect taxes. Today, Puglia has the third-largest area under vine of any Italian region, with 94,250 hectares (232,800 acres) of planted vineyards. Many growers took advantage of EU financial subsidies to pull up vineyards, and many old bush vines were lost in the process, in favor of high-yielding varieties. With these higher yields, the region is second only to Veneto in wine production, making more than 10.8 million hectoliters (120 million cases), much of it basic table wine. Like Molise, only 7% of Puglia’s production is at the DOC/G level. The region has 4 DOCGs, 28 DOCs, and 6 IGPs, and Puglia produces a higher volume of IGP wine and vino da tavola than any other region. Castel del Monte Puglia was particularly prosperous under the rule of the 13 th -century Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, who built the octagon-shaped Castel del Monte, a mystical-looking fortress that is now a UNESCO World Heritage site. The castle sits on a hill of the Alta Murgia, the highest part of the Murge plateau, in north-central Puglia, south of the Ofanto River. The surrounding area has higher elevations, a rugged landscape, and calcareous limestone rock formations. Castel del Monte lends its name to three of Puglia’s DOCGs and one overarching DOC. Castel del Monte (Credit: Michael Markarian) The most important grape of the Castel del Monte area is Uva di Troia, also called Nero di Troia. Plantings have increased in the 21 st century, both for monovarietal wines and for adding freshness and finesse to Puglian blends. Uva di Troia yields wines that are medium bodied and well structured, with flavors of red cherries, red currants, orange blossom, black pepper, tobacco, and underbrush. Castel del Monte Rosso Riserva DOCG requires a minimum of 65% Uva di Troia, while Castel del Monte Nero di Troia Riserva DOCG is for varietal wines with at least 90% of the grape variety. Both DOCGs require a minimum aging of two years, including at least one year in wood, and a minimum 13% ABV. Castel del Monte is also home to a unique rosato -only DOCG based on the red grape Bombino Nero, which is required at a minimum of 90% in Castel del Monte Bombino Nero DOCG . The fragrant Bombino Nero has thin skins and a crisp and racy acidity, making it more suitable for rosato than many of Puglia’s bolder red grapes. The rosato wines are fresh, fruity, and floral, with flavors of red berries and citrus, and the DOCG sets a maximum of 10 grams of residual sugar per liter. The overarching Castel del Monte DOC is for white, rosato , red, and sparkling wines made from a wide range of international and native grape varieties, including Aglianico, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, and the white Bombino Bianco (unrelated to Bombino Nero). Tavoliere DOC , or Tavoliere delle Puglie DOC, is to the north of Castel del Monte and also focuses on Uva di Troia. Its red and rosato wines require a minimum of 65% of the grape, and, if labeled Nero di Troia, they must have a minimum of 90%. Red wines at the Riserva level require a minimum aging of two years, including at least eight months in wood. Gioia del Colle and Manduria Moving south from Castel del Monte, past the capital city of Bari and toward central Puglia, Primitivo gains prominence. While the grape previously existed here under different names, it was named Primitivo by Don Francesco Filippo Indellicati, a priest and amateur botanist, who encouraged its planting in the Gioia del Colle area in the late 18 th century. From there, it spread farther south to the area around the town of Manduria, in the Taranto province, the other main region known for Primitivo today. The Gioia del Colle area, just south of Bari, sits on the Murge plateau, and vineyards are planted on hillsides at elevations between 250 and 500 meters (820 and 1,640 feet) above sea level. There is a wide diurnal temperature range, and the soils are calcareous limestone with some red clay. The wines can be lighter and more graceful, with higher acidity, than those coming from the flatter, warmer lands around Manduria, which are weightier and rounder, with more ripeness and higher alcohol. Primitivo di Manduria DOC is for red wines with a minimum of 85% Primitivo. The Riserva level requires a minimum aging of two years, with at least nine months in barrel, along with a minimum 14% ABV, up from 13.5% ABV for Normale. The separate Primitivo di Manduria Dolce Naturale DOCG , elevated in 2011, is for sweet passito wines based on 100% Primitivo. The grapes must be air-dried to achieve a minimum potential alcohol of 16%, and the final wines require a minimum 13% ABV and at least 50 grams of residual sugar per liter. Gioia del Colle DOC allows varietal wines made of 100% Primitivo, as well as red and rosato blends based on 50%–60% Primitivo, along with Malvasia Nera, Montepulciano, Negroamaro, and/or Sangiovese. Primitivo Riserva requires a minimum aging of two years and a minimum 14% ABV, up from 13% ABV for varietal Primitivo. White blends in the DOC are based on Trebbiano Toscano, and sweet dessert wines here are based on Aleatico rather than Primitivo. These wines may be passito or fortified (in a style similar to the region-wide Aleatico di Puglia DOC ). Salento Peninsula In the southern third of Puglia on the Salento peninsula, the most important grape variety is Negroamaro. It is named for the dark color of its berries and was originally thought to be a Greek import, although there is little evidence that it is related to any Greek varieties. Negroamaro is an abundant and dependable grape that withstands heat extremely well and doesn’t lose acidity in warmer temperatures, making it suitable for this southern climate. There are several different Negroamaro clones that yield many different styles of wine, from structured and full-bodied reds intended for longer aging, to finer and less structured styles ideal for rosato production. The red wines are typically full bodied and high in tannin, with flavors of black fruit, tobacco, and black licorice. The rosato wines can be as deeply colored as a pale red, and flavorful, sometimes with residual sugar. The most well-known denomination for Negroamaro is Salice Salentino DOC , which for red and rosato wines requires a minimum of 75% of the grape variety, or a minimum of 90% if varietally labeled. It also allows varietal and sparkling wines based on Chardonnay, Fiano, and Pinot Bianco, and sweet passito and fortified wines based on Aleatico. The red Riserva wines based on Negroamaro require a minimum aging of two years, including at least six months in wood. A number of other DOCs in the area feature Negroamaro, such as Brindisi DOC , which requires a minimum of 70% Negroamaro for red and rosato wines, or a minimum of 85% if varietally labeled. The DOC also allows white and sparkling wines made of Chardonnay, Malvasia Bianca, Fiano, Sauvignon Blanc, and other grapes. White Grapes in Puglia While Puglia is mostly known for red and rosato wines, it does have white grapes of distinction. Verdeca was historically known as a base wine for vermouth production but is increasingly used for standout monovarietal wines and white blends. Named for the green color of its berries, it is genetically identical to the Greek variety Lagorthi. Verdeca is also a parent, along with Zinfandel, of the Croatian red grape Plavina. Verdeca white wines are fresh and crisp, with delicate herbal and green apple flavors. Bombino Bianco is unrelated to Bombino Nero, but both are so named because they have clusters that resemble the shape of a cuddling infant ( bambino in Italian). Bombino Bianco has long been confused with other Italian white grape varieties, such as Trebbiano Abruzzese, but has potential for high-quality wines that are creamy and fresh, with high acidity and flavors of peach, almonds, and anise. Pampanuto is a lower-acid white variety found in northern and central Puglia. It is usually blended with higher-acid grapes such as Bombino Bianco in DOC and IGT wines. Other white grapes gaining attention in central Puglia include the aromatic Minutolo, also known as Fiano Minutolo or Fiano Aromatico, and Bianco d’Alessano, which is often blended with Verdeca. Much of the Trebbiano Toscano in Puglia is used for vermouth production. Campania Home to Naples, Italy’s third-largest city, Campania is the most populous and industrialized region of the south. It is known for the ancient ruins of Pompeii, in the shadow of Mount Vesuvius, and the tourist resorts along the striking cliffs of the Amalfi Coast and on the island of Capri, in the Tyrrhenian Sea. This was the first part of Magna Graecia on the mainland settled by the ancient Greeks, who founded the city of Neopolis, today’s Naples. Two of the last remaining active volcanoes on Italy’s mainland—Vesuvius and Campi Flegrei—are on the Gulf of Naples. Vineyard on the slopes of Vesuvius (Credit: Adobe Stock) The Romans referred to the area south of Rome as Campania Felix (“blessed country”) for its fertile soils and abundant agriculture. The legendary Falernian wine came from here, and distinctions were made between wines grown in vineyard sites of different quality levels, elevations, and classifications. Pompeii was an important wine production center and wine market outside Rome. Excavated artifacts of the city preserved under volcanic ash by the eruption of 79 CE indicate the vibrant wine culture that existed: thermopolia , taverns that served wine and hot food; dolia , large terra-cotta jars for fermentation; and frescoes depicting Bacchus, grapes, vineyards, and wine consumption. Campania is still a major wine producer, with an output of 1.5 million hectoliters (16.4 million cases) of wine from its 25,600 hectares (63,250 acres) of planted vineyards. The wines of Campania are almost evenly split between red and white, and the region’s top grape variety is Aglianico, with 34% of all plantings. More than four-fifths of Campania’s production is IGP and table wine, with only 19% at the DOC/G level. The region has 4 DOCGs, 15 DOCs, and 10 IGPs. Aglianico-Based Denominations While Campania is known for its Mediterranean coastline, the inland provinces of Avellino and Benevento are cooler and more mountainous. Although its name likely derives from the Spanish llano (plain), Aglianico is generally grown on hillsides and steep mountainous slopes, near volcanoes and ski resorts that receive significant snowfall in the winter. Far from the image of the warm coast, this pre-alpine area has a continental climate, with risks of spring frost and fall rains. The highly structured and ageworthy Aglianico is the focus of two of the region’s DOCGs, earning it the nickname Barolo of the South. Aglianico is an ancient grape variety that has adapted to its terroirs over time. There are three main biotypes associated with its three main growing areas in Campania and Basilicata. The most famous of these, Taurasi DOCG , covers 17 communes in the Avellino province, an area known as Irpinia. It became southern Italy’s first DOCG in 1993 and remained the only one for a decade. Ancient Counterfeit Wine The wines of Pompeii were so famous and sought after in ancient Rome that there is evidence of wine counterfeiting during this time. Archeologists have discovered fake Pompeii merchant stamps used on ceramic transport jars produced outside the region. The volcanic soils of the Taurasi area resisted phylloxera until the 1930s. Phylloxera was followed by World War II and major earthquakes that compounded its devastation in the area. Producers were encouraged to replant with more prolific grape varieties, such as Trebbiano, Sangiovese, Montepulciano, and Barbera. Largely because of the efforts of Mastroberardino, Aglianico remained a focus of the Irpinia region. There are still ungrafted Aglianico vines in the area, including some that are 200 years old—perhaps the oldest vines in Italy. Cordon spur and Guyot training are common, although the old methods, such as alberata training of vines to live trees, are still used as well. The Taurasi biotype is the most floral of the Aglianicos and, with an aroma of red rose, is the most frequently compared to Nebbiolo. Taurasi’s hilly terrain, also inviting comparisons to Piedmont, is bisected by the Calore River, with wide diurnal temperature variations, warm summers, and cold winters with heavy snowfall. Most vines are planted between 300 and 600 meters (980 and 1,970 feet) above sea level, although some are at nearly 800 meters (2,620 feet) in elevation. While there are no official subzones, the DOCG covers a large area, and the differences in elevation, soil type, and climate result in diverse styles of wine, giving producers options for showcasing the character of a particular commune or blending wines from various sites across the denomination. The northwestern communes of Venticano, Pietradefusi, and Torre Le Nocelle are at the lowest elevation, on calcareous marl soils, and their temperatures are warmer. Grapes are generally harvested the earliest here, and the wines are rounder and fleshier. The western area, around the communes of Lapio, San Mango sul Calore, Montemiletto, and Montefalcione (overlapping with Fiano di Avellino DOCG), has steep slopes and clay and volcanic soils, with wines that are refined and flinty. The northernmost area, around the communes of Bonito, Fontanarosa, Luogosano, Mirabella Eclano, and Santangelo all’Esca, has more gravel mixed with clay and volcanic ash. The greatest concentration of volcanic material is around the hamlet of Taurasi, an area that is less rugged and has excellent drainage. It is about 350 to 400 meters (1,150 to 1,300 feet) above sea level, and the wines produced here have great depth and balance. The southernmost area, around the communes of Castelvetere sul Calore, Paternopoli, Castelfranci, and Montemarano, has the highest elevation and coolest climate and is the last to harvest. The soils have more loam and clay, and the wines are among the most powerful and ageworthy produced in the region. Taurasi DOCG is for red wines only, requiring a minimum of 85% Aglianico, although monovarietal bottlings are common. The Normale wines require a minimum aging of three years, with at least one year in wood, while the Riserva level requires four years of aging, with 18 months in wood. To the northwest of Taurasi in the Benevento province is Aglianico del Taburno DOCG , elevated to DOCG status in 2011 and covering 13 communes, mainly on the eastern side of Mount Taburno. This limestone massif has calcareous clay soils, and, compared with Taurasi, the area is generally cooler, with considerably more rainfall (up to 1,600 millimeters, or 63 inches, annually) and even wider diurnal variations. Taburno is less famous than its neighbor and has historically been dominated by co-op production. The Aglianico wines from Taburno typically have high acidity, with great freshness and notes of tobacco and herbs. The Aglianico biotype associated with this area is often called Aglianico Amaro, referring not to bitterness but to its particularly high acidity levels. Aglianico del Taburno DOCG allows both red and rosato wines, made of a minimum of 85% Aglianico. The Normale reds must be aged for a minimum of two years, while Riserva versions require three years of aging, with at least one year in barrel and six months in bottle. Other Wines of Irpinia and Sannio The Avellino province roughly corresponds to an area known culturally and geographically as Irpinia, named for the ancient Hirpini tribe, and the Benevento province corresponds to an area called Sannio, named for the ancient Samnites. In these cool, inland, mountainous areas, in addition to Aglianico, there are several important white grape varieties and denominations, including Campania’s two white wine DOCGs. Overlapping the western edge of Taurasi is Fiano di Avellino DOCG . By the mid-20 th century, Fiano had largely been forgotten and abandoned until Antonio Mastroberardino sought out old vines of Fiano remaining in some vineyards around Avellino. Mastroberardino produced its first vintage of Fiano in 1945, making only 30 bottles. The grape’s presence slowly grew from there, but it remained little known and extremely rare through the 1970s. Fiano di Avellino was first established as a DOC in 1978, then upgraded to DOCG in 2003. It is a large area, covering 26 communes around the Sabato and Calore River valleys and the foothills of Mount Partenio, in the Apennines. Some of the snowcapped mountain peaks reach as high as 2,000 meters (6,600 feet) above sea level, and the Fiano vines are generally planted on slopes between 300 and 650 meters (980 and 2,130 feet) in elevation. The soils of Fiano di Avellino are mostly calcareous clay with some volcanic elements, although given the large size of the denomination, they vary in composition. The eastern part of the DOCG has clay-dominated soils and yields pristine, mineral, lacy Fiano wines. The southern sector is at the lowest elevation and has loosely packed sand. The wines made in this area are lighter bodied, fruity, and best for earlier consumption. The northern section is rich in volcanic tuff and clay, and the Sabato River has a more moderating influence here, resulting in bigger, more savory wines. The northwestern area is higher up in the foothills, with very poor, rocky soils and a thin layer of volcanic ash. The Fiano wines produced here are richer, more powerful, and the smokiest and most ageworthy examples of the grape. Notable crus for Fiano include Lapio and Candida in the east, Montefredane in the north, and Summonte in the northwest. Winemaking and viticultural decisions, such as harvest timing, length of skin maceration, and time spent on lees, contribute to the diversity of styles. Fiano di Avellino DOCG requires a minimum of 85% Fiano, and the remainder of the blend may include Coda di Volpe, Greco, and/or Trebbiano Toscano. Riserva wines require a minimum aging of one year and a minimum 12% ABV, increased from 11.5% for Normale wines. The DOCG allows still white wines only. In the northern portion of the Avellino province is Campania’s other white wine DOCG, the smaller Greco di Tufo DOCG , also authorized in 2003. It spans eight communes on both sides of the Sabato River, up to the border with the Benevento province, and is known for volcanic soils with alluvial deposits from the river. The town of Tufo was named after the soft volcanic rock used for construction. The area around the commune of Tufo has extreme viticulture on very steep slopes, with vineyards planted between 500 and 600 meters (1,640 and 1,970 feet) above sea level. The volcanic soils are rich in clay, limestone, and gravel, with chalk and sulfur elements, and very poor in nutrients. The highly regarded communes of Santa Paolina and Montefusco are at slightly lower elevations, with less-steep slopes, and the soils have larger amounts of clay, organic matter, and iron. Greco wines have a deeper yellow hue when compared with wines made with other Campanian grapes, such as Fiano, and they are more opulent, with higher alcohol, fuller body, and an oily, tannic texture—often described by locals as “a red dressed like a white.” Greco di Tufo DOCG allows still and sparkling wines made with a minimum of 85% Greco and the remainder Coda di Volpe. The white Riserva wines require at least one year of aging. Spumante wines must be made in the traditional method ( metodo classico ) and can range from sweetness levels of extra brut to extra dry. Normale sparkling wines must spend at least 18 months on the lees, and a minimum of 36 months is required for Riserva. Although Falanghina is grown all over Campania and authorized in many DOC blends, it is most closely associated with the northern Benevento province. Here, the Mustilli winery, in Sant’Agata dei Goti, resurrected ancient varieties from old vineyards that were facing extinction, identified the local Falanghina Beneventana variety, and bottled the first monovarietal Falanghina in 1979. Falanghina has surged in popularity over the past few decades, with modern fermentation techniques designed to preserve its aromas and produce clean, fruity, easy-drinking wines. The number of planted hectares of the two Falanghina varieties nearly doubled between 2000 and 2010, and, in 2010, 4.8 million bottles of Falanghina were produced in the province of Benevento alone. Falanghina del Sannio DOC , established in 2011, covers the entire Benevento province, allowing still white, sparkling, and sweet late-harvest and passito wines based on a minimum of 85% Falanghina. The spumante wines can be made using the tank method, in which case they must range from extra brut to extra dry, or they can be made in the traditional method, requiring a minimum of 12 months on the lees and a final sweetness level of extra brut or brut. All styles can be labeled with one of four subzones: Guardia Sanframondi (Guardiolo), Sant’Agata dei Goti, Solopaca, or Taburno. The overarching Sannio DOC , with the same four subzones, is for a wide variety of white, rosato , red, sparkling, and sweet wines in the Benevento province. They may be blends or varietally labeled, or they may feature dual varieties on the label (for example, Aglianico-Piedirosso). The white blends must include a minimum of 50% Malvasia Bianca di Candia and/or Trebbiano Toscano, and the red and rosato wines a minimum of 50% Sangiovese. The overarching Irpinia DOC , elevated from IGT to DOC in 2005, serves the same purpose for the Avellino province, with white wines that must include both Fiano and Greco; red and rosato wines based on a minimum of 70% Aglianico; and other sparkling, sweet, and varietal wines. Red wines from 24 communes can be labeled with the subzone of Campi Taurasini if they include at least 85% Aglianico. These wines might be considered more youthful versions of Taurasi. The white grape Coda di Volpe Bianca, named for clusters shaped like a fox’s tail, may be bottled as a varietal wine in Sannio or Irpinia DOC, but it is more often used as a blending grape. It has lower acidity and a round, creamy texture that can soften the structure of Fiano or Greco. Coastal and Island Areas Closer to the coast in the province of Napoli, Vesuvio DOC is named for the famous volcano and allows a wide range of white, rosato , red, sparkling, and sweet passito and fortified wines. The white wines must include a minimum of 45% Coda di Volpe and/or Caprettone and may also include Falanghina, Greco, and other white grapes. The red and rosato wines must include a minimum 50% Piedirosso; these can also include Aglianico, Olivella, Sciascinoso, and others. The white, red, rosato , and spumante wines may be labeled Lacryma Christi del Vesuvio if they have a higher minimum 12% ABV. Some experts believe that Coda di Volpe and Caprettone are the same grape variety, although they are very different in both the vineyard and the glass. The vines called Coda di Volpe in the Vesuvius area, for example, are more likely Caprettone, which is the more common variety. Caprettone, named for the shape of a goat’s beard, has much smaller berries and clusters. It also has higher acidity than Coda di Volpe, leading many producers to make Caprettone-based sparkling wines. The red grape Piedirosso (“red feet”) is named for the red color of its stalks. It’s the second most planted red grape in Campania and the top red in the Napoli province, appearing in a number of DOCs and IGTs. It has a pale red color, flavors of red berries and tar, and floral and herbal notes. Because of its lower acidity and softer tannins, Piedirosso is often used as a blending grape with Aglianico. On the island of Ischia, off the coast of Naples, Ischia DOC allows red blends based on Piedirosso and Guarnaccia, the local name for Grenache. The white and sparkling wines of Ischia rely on the local grapes Forastera and Biancolella, which are both herbal and saline. Forastera has a richer mouthfeel, and Biancolella is brighter and fresher. Varietal and passito Piedirosso wines are also made. Costa d’Amalfi DOC , best known for the wines of Marisa Cuomo, allows a wide range of white, rosato , red, sparkling, and passito wines. Whites are based on Biancolella, Falanghina, and other grapes, while red and rosato wines are primarily based on Piedirosso, along with Aglianico, Sciascinoso, and others. The wines may be labeled by one of three subzones: Furore, Ravello, or Tramonti, which is especially renowned for its centenarian vineyards. North of Naples toward Lazio is Falerno del Massica DOC , named for the famous Falernian wine. The DOC features Falanghina-based whites, Aglianico-based reds, and varietal Primitivo. Source: Italian Wine Central, 2022 data Basilicata Southeast of Campania, Basilicata is a mountainous and nearly landlocked region, with small coastlines on the Tyrrhenian Sea and the Gulf of Taranto. This region represents the instep, or arch, of Italy’s boot. There is very little industry here, and agriculture on the rocky, rugged terrain is generally low yielding. In the 20 th century, Basilicata was marked by poverty and emigration from the Italian south. Today, it is perhaps best known for the ancient city of Matera, a UNESCO World Heritage site and the 2019 European Capital of Culture, where caves are carved into the calcareous stone of a steep ravine. Basilicata produces about 85,000 hectoliters (958,000 cases) of wine from 2,050 hectares (5,000 acres) of vineyards, making up less than 0.2% of Italy’s total wine production. It has one DOCG, four DOCs, and one region-wide IGP. More than four-fifths of its wine is red (82%). As in neighboring Campania, the leading grape variety is Aglianico, with 56% of all plantings. North of the capital city of Potenza, Basilicata’s most important wine region, Aglianico del Vulture, is adjacent to Campania’s Irpinia. Mount Vulture, named for its seven peaks that resemble the bird of prey with its wings outspread, is an extinct volcano and geologically older than Mount Taurasi and Mount Taburno. The side of the volcano is dotted with scescio , grottoes built into the tuff, first constructed by Albanian refugees fleeing the Ottoman Empire in the 15 th century and later used as wine cellars. Old vine training methods introduced by the Albanians can still be seen in the area, including a capanno (shed or hut), in which three posts are tied together like a tripod. The posts can be positioned to create a canopy and provide protection from sun and wind. Aglianico del Vulture DOC , established in 1971, represents about a quarter of Basilicata’s total wine production. Unlike Campania’s Aglianico-based denominations, Aglianico del Vulture requires all wines to be made of 100% Aglianico. In addition to red wines, it allows Aglianico-based traditional method sparkling wines, which must spend at least nine months on the lees. A Superiore version was elevated to a separate DOCG in 2010, as Aglianico del Vulture Superiore DOCG . The DOCG is for red wines made of 100% Aglianico, with a minimum 13.5% ABV, compared with 12.5% ABV in the DOC. The Superiore wines must be aged for at least three years, including one year in barrel and one year in bottle. A Superiore Riserva version must be aged for a minimum five years, with at least two years in barrel and one year in bottle. Mount Vulture is the only Italian volcano east of the Apennines. The mountain blocks hot winds from northern Africa and is open to the cool breezes of the Adriatic Sea, resulting in a climate that is cooler than that of Taurasi. With less-fertile soils and a large diurnal shift— at higher elevations, it can be up to 20 degrees Celsius (36 degrees Fahrenheit)—the Aglianico grown here has high levels of tannin, acidity, sugar development, and anthocyanins. The Vulture biotype of Aglianico has the highest intensity of fruit expression and flavors. While Vulture is a large area, covering 15 communes, the key towns for wine production include Barile, Venosa, and Maschito. The volcano’s highest point is just over 1,320 meters (4,330 feet), but all vineyards in the denominations must be planted between 200 and 700 meters (660 and 2,300 feet) above sea level. There are several different altitudes, expositions, calderas, craters, and lakes on the volcano, providing a variety of terroirs and microclimates. The effusive volcanic activity created many different layers over time. The areas closest to the volcano’s summit have more tuff, while other areas formed from deposits of a large lake have more sedimentary and calcareous soils. Recognizing these different expressions of terroir, there are 70 official contrade (hamlets or districts) that may be listed on labels, although they are not widely known and some producers prefer to label with the name of a commune instead. Basilicata is also home to varieties from the Malvasia group, including the spicy and aromatic Malvasia Bianca di Basilicata, which some experts believe is the same as Malvasia Bianca Lunga and Malvasia Bianca di Candia, as well as the lightly aromatic but very rare red Malvasia Nera di Basilicata, which is used mainly as a blending grape. Basilicata’s lesser-known DOCs allow wines based on these Malvasias, as well as Sangiovese, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Primitivo, and other grapes. Calabria Just south of Basilicata is the region of Calabria, the toe of the Italian boot. This rugged peninsula extends toward Sicily and separates the Tyrrhenian and Ionian Seas. Because of its large coastline, it was the location of several important settlements of Magna Graecia. Cremissa, the ancient name for the city of Cirò, was famous for its temple devoted to wine, and its wines were said to be the reward for winners of the ancient Olympic games. The Greeks moved farther inland in Calabria than they did in other regions, where their settlements were largely coastal. Today, Calabria’s level of wine production is minimal. Most of the wine regions are on the two coasts. In recent decades, the industry has suffered because of the degradation of ports and infrastructure, an aging workforce, and the EU’s vine pull scheme, which resulted in a 30% decrease in plantings in the first decade of the 21 st century. With production declining, Calabria now has 8,900 hectares (22,000 acres) of vineyards, producing just 270,000 hectoliters (3 million cases) of wine, the fourth smallest of any Italian region. It has 1 DOCG, 9 DOCs, and 10 IGPs. More than three-quarters of its wine production is red, and its top grape is Gaglioppo, which makes up 48% of all plantings. Calabria is largely focused on bulk and table wine, with only 12% of production at the DOC level. Of Calabria’s nine DOCs, Cirò DOC , named for the city on the Ionian coast, has the most market relevance. White wines must include a minimum of 80% Greco Bianco, while red and rosato wines require at least 80% Gaglioppo. In 2025, Ciro Classico , was elevated to a DOCG, which requires a minimum of 90% Gagglioppo aged for a minimum of 36 months with 6 in wood. Gaglioppo is one of Italy’s most ancient native varieties. It is an offspring of Sangiovese and Mantonico Bianco, and therefore a sibling of both Frappato and Nerello Mascalese. Gaglioppo retains its high acidity in this warm southern region and is resistant to frost but less so to drought. It oxidizes easily and can have a pale red-orange color, with rough tannins and flavors of red berries, dried herbs, and underbrush. Poorly made wines can be astringent, with harsh tannins and acidity, but the best can be reminiscent of a lighter, more saline Nebbiolo or a fresher Châteauneuf-du-Pape. In the late 1980s, Librandi, the dominant producer in Calabria, introduced its Gravello wine, a so-called Super Calabrian blend of Gaglioppo and Cabernet Sauvignon, aged in French barriques, and labeled as an IGT wine. Later, Cirò DOC was amended to allow Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, and Merlot in blends; these deepen the color and add international appeal. For monovarietal Gaglioppo wines, some winemakers use longer maceration times at cooler fermentation temperatures to help polymerize tannins and stabilize color. Calabria’s Greco Bianco, unrelated to Campania’s Greco, has a lighter body, is not as tannic, and has a sweeter aromatic profile than Greco. Studies show that it is genetically identical to Malvasia di Lipari and Malvasia di Sardegna, but it is not yet recognized as such in the national registry. Greco Bianco is used only for dry white wines in Cirò DOC but reaches its best quality expression in the sweet passito wines of Greco di Bianco DOC . (Note that Greco Bianco is the grape variety and Greco di Bianco is the denomination.) Named for the commune of Bianco, at the southeastern tip of Calabria, Greco di Bianco DOC requires a minimum of 95% of the Greco Bianco variety and at least one year of aging for the air-dried wines. Sicily Separated from the Italian peninsula by just 3 kilometers (2 miles) at the narrowest point of the Strait of Messina, Sicily (Sicilia in Italian) is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, at more than 25,000 square kilometers (nearly 10,000 square miles) in size. Only a 20-minute ferry ride from the mainland, the autonomous region of Sicily often feels entirely separate from the rest of Italy. Perhaps more than any other Italian region, Sicily is a mix of cultural influences. The earliest tribes were the Sicani on the western side of the island and the Siculi (the source of Sicily’s name) in the east. These tribes likely came from the Iberian Peninsula and Calabria, respectively. The Elymi, believed to be from ancient Troy, were in the far northwest. When, in the eighth century BCE, the Phoenicians settled on the western coast and the Greeks on the eastern coast, they brought viticultural knowledge and greatly expanded plantings, although evidence of winemaking in Sicily predates their arrival. The earliest winemaking in Sicily was likely from wild grapes, and the Greeks criticized these wines as weak and unrefined compared with Greece’s best examples. With its fertile soils, sun-drenched climate, and strategic position in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily was a frequent target for conquest and rule by outsiders. As a province of the Roman Empire, Sicily served as Rome’s granary for almost six centuries. After the fall of Rome, Sicily was controlled by Vandals, Goths, and Byzantines. The Muslim conquests began in the ninth century CE as armies from northern Africa and Spain invaded the island, and Islamic control of Sicily lasted for nearly two centuries. Norman rulers from northwestern France arrived in the Middle Ages, succeeded by a line of German (Swabian) kings, most notably King Frederick II. The Spanish crown of Aragon claimed Sicily after overthrowing the French house of Anjou and eventually united it with the Kingdom of Naples, collectively calling the area the Kingdom of Two Sicilies. Periods of rule by the Piedmontese house of Savoy, the Austrian house of Habsburg, the Spanish house of Bourbon, and others culminated with Garibaldi’s forces conquering the island in 1860, when Sicily became part of a united Italy. Palmenti Prior to the 20 th century, stone fermentation buildings called palmenti were often housed in Sicily’s large farm complexes. Freshly harvested grapes were brought from the vineyard to the palmento , where they were crushed underfoot and the juice underwent alcoholic fermentation. The stone floors kept the temperature cool, and, in some areas, palmenti were built with levels to make use of gravity during the process. Today, many of Sicily’s historic palmenti are still on display at wineries. They are generally not used for vinification, however, as Italian food production laws prohibit the use of certain surfaces, including volcanic rock. A common thread throughout Sicily’s history is that it has been valued—and often exploited—for its abundant agricultural resources, including wine. The British merchant John Woodhouse arrived in Marsala in 1770 and saw an opportunity to make cheaper fortified wines in the style of Port and Madeira, investing in the expansion of viticulture and winemaking infrastructure. The vineyard boom continued when phylloxera hit France in the 1860s, and French merchants increasingly turned to Sicily for inexpensive vino da taglio . In the 20 th century, Sicilian wine co-ops were among the first in Italy, and their focus was on large quantities of bulk wine. A renewed focus on quality wine emerged in the 1970s and 1980s. An important figure in this era was Diego Planeta, who became president of Cantine Settesoli, a high-quality co-op based in Menfi, in 1973, and president of the state-owned Istituto Regionale della Vite e del Vino (IRVV) in 1985. Planeta believed that the Sicilian wine industry had to be exposed to what was happening outside Sicily, sending Sicilian enologists abroad to study modern viticulture and winemaking techniques. The IRVV also planted experimental vineyards to study both native and international grape varieties. A new wave of Sicilian wineries, winemaking consultants, and quality-minded producers emerged during this period, with the founding of new wineries and younger generations of historic family wineries refocused on quality production, including Marco De Bartoli, COS, Donnafugata, Planeta, and Benanti. While international varieties helped to expand the appeal of Sicilian wine to global export markets, more recently the focus has returned to Sicily’s unique native grapes, including Nero d’Avola and Nerello Mascalese. Sicily is at the southernmost end of Italian viticulture, stretching below the 37th parallel, farther south than the northern tip of Africa. It has a Mediterranean climate, with abundant sunshine and warmth, but its climate is also the most variable of any Italian region. The average elevation on the island is more than 500 meters (1,640 feet) above sea level, and much of the climatic inconsistency is because of altitude. On this mountainous, hilly island, some areas are blasted with the hot sirocco wind coming from Africa, while others are sheltered by mountain barriers. Most of the island is semiarid, with only the northeastern corner receiving considerable rainfall, and snow is common at higher elevations. The generally warm and dry environment makes organic viticulture possible, and 34% of Sicily’s vineyards are organic. Today, Sicily has the most vineyard area of any Italian region, with 119,250 hectares (295,000 acres) of plantings. Yet, because of lower yields, lower planting density, and the prevalence of old bush vines, it is only fourth largest in wine production, making 5.9 million hectoliters (65 million cases) of wine in 2022. Only about 20% of Sicilian wine is bottled on the island; much of it is still shipped in bulk to the mainland to be bottled or blended into other wines. Sicily has 1 DOCG, 23 DOCs, and 7 IGPs, and today 38% of its production is at the DOC/G level—a number that has surged since the island-wide Sicilia DOC was promoted from IGP in 2011. About two-thirds of Sicily’s production is white, and one-third is red and rosato . Sicily’s most planted variety is Catarratto, followed by Nero d’Avola. The largest concentration of plantings is in the western part of the island, particularly the provinces of Trapani, Agrigento, and Palermo, with fewer vines in the eastern provinces. Mount Etna On the eastern coast of Sicily, just north of the city of Catania, Mount Etna is the largest active volcano in Europe, at about 3,350 meters (11,000 feet) above sea level. It is also one of the world’s most active volcanoes and is almost constantly erupting, with its exact height varying based on periodic deposits from eruptions and collapsing of the crater rims. Documentation of volcanic activity dates to 1,500 BCE, although evidence of eruptions goes back much further. Mount Etna was formed by the collision of the African and Eurasian tectonic plates and began as an underwater volcano about 500,000 years ago, gradually rising above sea level as layers were added by eruptions over time. While viticulture on an active volcano may sound like a dangerous proposition, Etna’s eruptions are generally considered effusive rather than explosive, meaning gases escape easily rather than building up pressure, and lava flows are relatively gentle and slow moving. Mount Etna (Credit: Michael Markarian) Viticulture has taken place on Etna since well before the Greeks arrived. In the 19 th century, Etna was a major source of vino da taglio and the most planted area of Sicily, with about 50,000 hectares (123,600 acres) of vineyards producing wine. Its output declined through the impacts of poverty, war, the loss of the rural labor force, and the shrinking of the bulk export market. Fortunately, interest in Etna wines reemerged before its old bush vines, stone terraces in the vineyards, and ancient lava stone palmenti were entirely lost. Etna became Sicily’s first DOC in 1968. The DOC covers 20 communes and forms the shape of a backward C along the northern, eastern, and southern slopes of the volcano. Sicilian producers, including the Benanti family and the winemaker Salvo Foti, conducted important research and brought attention to Etna in the 1980s and 1990s. This was followed by foreign investment and the arrival of outsiders in the 2000s—Frank Cornelissen from Belgium, Marco de Grazia from Florence, and Andrea Franchetti from Rome—which sparked a planting boom and the emergence of Etna wines on the global stage. Often called an island on an island, Etna’s climate differs from the rest of Sicily’s, more closely resembling that of northern Italy: higher altitude, more rainfall, cooler temperatures, a larger diurnal shift, and harvest as late as October. Vineyards begin at about 300 meters (980 feet) above sea level, and the DOC allows plantings up to 800 meters (2,600 feet) on the northern slope, which has the largest number of producers and is most renowned for red grapes. Vineyards can be planted above 900 meters (3,000 feet) on the eastern slope and above 1,000 meters (3,300 feet) on the southern slope. Partly because of these higher altitudes, more white grapes are grown in these areas. At higher altitudes, the diurnal temperature variation can exceed 30 degrees Celsius (54 degrees Fahrenheit). Wind currents blow up and down the mountain slopes, and Etna’s average wind speed is 2 to 4 meters (6.5 to 13 feet) per second, twice that of Barolo. The eastern grecale and southeasterly sirocco winds bring precipitation to those sides of the mountain; Etna’s eastern slope, the closest to the Ionian Sea and the most exposed to wind and rain, receives an average 2,000 millimeters (79 inches) of rainfall annually, compared with 800 millimeters (31 inches) on the northern slope—another reason for more Nerello Mascalese in the north and more Carricante in the east. Volcanic soils on Mount Etna (Credit: Michael Markarian) Alberello vine training is common on Etna, and bush vines, because they are freestanding, can tolerate the high winds. At higher elevations, where it is cooler, the vines have 360-degree exposure to sunlight, which aids grape ripening. They are trained lower to the ground, absorbing heat that is stored in and radiated from the black volcanic ash. The volcanic soils are generally dark, coarse, rocky, and well draining, restraining vigor in the vines, although they differ throughout the area based on the layering of lava flows. The great diversity in geology, elevation, and climate within Etna has resulted in a closer examination of its terroir and comparisons with the differences found in vineyard sites within Burgundy or Barolo. Etna’s contrade were officially authorized beginning with the 2011 vintage, but many producers had begun labeling their Etna wines by contrada in the years prior. Contrade are largely based on geological formations established by different lava flows. They are not single vineyards but districts, zones, or neighborhoods, similar to frazioni or menzioni geografiche aggiuntive (MGAs). Today, Etna DOC recognizes 142 official contrade , and awareness of them is growing. Red wines make up 55% of the production in Etna DOC , which also authorizes white, rosato , and spumante wines. White wines require at least 60% Carricante, and the remainder can include the Catarrattos, Minella Bianca, Grecanico Dorato, and other white grapes. Etna Bianco Superiore must include a minimum of 80% Carricante and can come only from the commune of Milo, on the eastern slope. Red, rosato , and spumante wines require a minimum of 80% Nerello Mascalese, and the remainder may include Nerello Cappuccio and even white grapes. A Riserva category for red wines requires at least four years of aging, including one year in wood. Sparkling wines must be made in the traditional method, with at least 18 months on the lees, and may be brut or extra dry. While Nerello Mascalese, representing 79% of Etna’s red plantings, is the star for red wines, the addition of Nerello Cappuccio (locally Nerello Mantellato) to the Etna Rosso blend can contribute fleshy fruit and darker color and soften acidity and tannins. Nerello Cappuccio is used in higher percentages in the southern sector, where many old vine plantings are found, and some producers are bottling monovarietal Nerello Cappuccio wines labeled as Sicilia DOC or Terre Siciliane IGT. Etna Bianco wines show a wide range of stylistic diversity depending on growing area, vine age, the blend added to Carricante, and winemaking decisions, such as malolactic fermentation, lees contact, and type of aging vessel. The Soils of Mount Etna Centuries of eruptions have resulted in the layering of volcanic material with different ages and mineral compositions. Lava flows, locally called sciari , are essentially barren rock soon after they are formed, and, over hundreds of years, they will erode into soil and develop humus, microbial activity, and organic material suitable for vines. Etna’s vents shoot out ash, pumice, and glassy black fragments called ripiddu , which can be blown surprisingly far from their source. These pyroclastic accumulations often contain allophane, a clay mineral derived from volcanic cinders, which has cation-exchange properties that are essential for plant growth and help rocks break down more quickly into fertile soil. These clays also store water that vines can access during summer droughts. Older soils and those with a greater concentration of allophane, which are more common on Etna’s northern slope, have more nutrients and greater water retention, allowing red grapes to fully ripen in a marginal climate. Younger lava flows, more common in Etna’s south, have coarser, sandier soils that are lower in nutrients, well aerated, and well draining. These soils allow for easier root penetration. Other Regions of Northeastern Sicily Northeast of Etna, at the tip of Cape Peloro, in the province of Messina, is Faro DOC , where Nerello Mascalese is the featured grape. The small DOC is for red wines only, requiring a blend of 45%–60% Nerello Mascalese, 15%–30% Nerello Cappuccio, 5%–10% Nocera, and the optional inclusion of up to 15% Nero d’Avola, Gaglioppo, and/or Sangiovese. The coastal area has soils of sand and clay. Surrounded by both the Tyrrhenian and Ionian Seas, it is exposed to rain and humidity from the sirocco wind, with fewer and lower hillsides to provide protection as compared to areas farther west. Plantings are minuscule, and the appellation was in danger of extinction in the 1990s, but producers such as Palari and Bonavita have reinvigorated it. Nocera was the most important variety here in the 19 th century, when the area’s strategic location near the ports made it a ready source of darkly colored vino da taglio for France. Nocera adds lush richness, full body, deep color, acidity, and smooth tannins to Faro blends, and some producers are making monovarietal bottlings. Nocera was thought to be the main grape of the famous Mamertinum wine favored by Julius Caesar and Pliny the Elder in ancient Rome. The wine’s name lives on in Mamertino DOC , near the port town of Milazzo, with white wines based on Grillo and Inzolia (the Sicilian name for Ansonica) and reds based on Calabrese (Nero d’Avola) and Nocera. The soils have more iron and a brown tint, and the area is more protected from wind and rainfall than Faro thanks to the north-facing foothills of the Peloritani and Nebrodi mountains. Off the northern coast of Sicily in the Tyrrhenian Sea, a short ferry ride from Milazzo, are the Aeolian Islands, also referred to as the Lipari Islands, named for the largest and most populated island. In addition to Lipari, the principal islands are Salina, Vulcano, Panarea, Stromboli, Alicudi, and Filicudi. The archipelago was formed by volcanic activity, and the islands of Stromboli and Vulcano still have ongoing eruptions. Salina has the most vineyard plantings. Malvasia delle Lipari DOC covers all the islands and allows for sweet white, passito , and fortified wines based on 92%–95% Malvasia di Lipari. (Note that Malvasia di Lipari is the grape variety, and Malvasia delle Lipari is the DOC.) The wines must also include 5%–8% Corinto Nero, a local red grape that some believe is a mutation of Sangiovese and that gives the wines a coppery tint. Studies indicate that Malvasia di Lipari is genetically identical to Calabria’s Greco Bianco, Sardinia’s Malvasia di Sardegna, Madeira’s Malvasia Candida, Croatia’s Malvasia Dubrovačka, and Spain’s Malvasía de Sitges. The passito wines are the most classic expression of Malvasia delle Lipari DOC and represent about 80% of production. After being harvested late in the season, the grapes are dried on cane mats outside in the sun for about 7 to 15 days. The bunches are turned over at least twice a day for even drying and covered at night to prevent mold, dew, and rot. The wines are delicate and fresh, with flavors of honey, peach, apricot, and orange peel. The passito and fortified versions require a minimum of 60 grams per liter of residual sugar. Dry Malvasia di Lipari wines are made under Salina IGT. Other Regions of Southeastern Sicily The southeastern corner of Sicily is generally flatter, with lower hills and sandier soils. It includes the ancient city of Siracusa, settled by the Greeks in the eighth century BCE, as well as the towns of Noto and Ragusa, celebrated for their baroque architecture. Historically, there was abundant and varied agriculture here, including tomatoes, citrus, olives, and wheat. The plain between the Dirillo and Ippari Rivers was highly regarded for viticulture by the Romans. The city of Vittoria was founded in this area in the early 17 th century CE. Vittoria became one of the most important ports for the export of Sicilian wine, before the impact of phylloxera and the weakening of export markets in the 20 th century. Today, the area surrounding the city of Vittoria is home to Sicily’s first and only DOCG, Cerasuolo di Vittoria , established in 2005. The red wines must be a blend of 50%–70% Nero d’Avola, with 30%–50% Frappato. Wines labeled with the Classico subzone, which surrounds the most historic growing area, require longer aging, until March 31 of the second year following harvest (about 18 months). The heart of the Classico area, around the town of Vittoria, includes a plateau at about 175 to 300 meters (570 to 980 feet) above sea level, rising to higher elevations around the town of Chiaramonte Gulfi, in the foothills of the Hyblaean Mountains. While Nero d’Avola is grown here and throughout Sicily, this is the primary and best growing area for Frappato. The soils are terra rossa, red sand over limestone, resulting in Frappato with additional delicacy and aromatic lift. Winds are strong in this area, reducing disease pressure, but producers must consider planting orientation to prevent the winds from damaging grapes. In Vittoria, cerasuolo is a red wine, with the name referring to the cherry flavors in the wine or the red color of the soils. Frappato contributes lightness and floral fragrance to the blend, while Nero d’Avola brings richness, structure, and color. The Vittoria area is home to star producers such as COS and Arianna Occhipinti, and, outside the DOCG, monovarietal Frappato wines are drawing the attention of wine professionals for their light body, crunchy freshness, and versatility at the table. Vittoria DOC shares the boundaries of Cerasuolo di Vittoria DOCG and allows youthful novello wines as well as varietal wines made of Nero d’Avola (Calabrese), Frappato, and Inzolia. Nero d’Avola is believed to have originated in the town of Avola, just a few kilometers east of Noto on Sicily’s coast, and it is still the most important variety in the surrounding area. Eloro DOC straddles the two provinces of Siracusa and Ragusa and authorizes red blends and varietal wines made of Nero d’Avola, Frappato, and Pignatello (Perricone). Its official subzone, Pachino, is considered a grand cru for Nero d’Avola, and red wines labeled Eloro Pachino require a minimum of 80% Nero d’Avola, although in practice most are monovarietal. South of Noto, Pachino is at the very southernmost tip of Sicily, at Cape Passero. It is one of the hottest parts of the island, with summer temperatures often above 30 degrees Celsius (86 degrees Fahrenheit), and harvest in Pachino occurs about two weeks earlier than in Noto. The land is flatter near the coast, rising to about 50 meters (165 feet) above sea level. Pachino is surrounded by the sea, and diurnal temperature variations are minimal. Rainfall is also minimal during the growing season, and alberello training is common. The expressions of Nero d’Avola from this area are powerful, concentrated, and full bodied, with intense aromas and flavors. The soils of Pachino are generally brown in color, with calcareous clay and a high saline content. The darker soils radiate more heat to bush vines growing close to the ground. A key attribute of Pachino is that mineral content and soil types can vary greatly within short distances. Pachino has several contrade that—although not officially recognized on labels—are famous for their unique expressions of Nero d’Avola, including Baroni, Bufaleffi, Maccari, and San Lorenzo. Some producers, such as Gulfi, make bottlings from all four sites and embed the contrada name within the proprietary name of the wine. The Eloro contrade wines are among the most sought-after expressions of Nero d’Avola. The rare sweet wines of this area, Moscato di Noto and Moscato di Siracusa, are made from Moscato Bianco and were absorbed into the broader Noto DOC and Siracusa DOC , respectively. The air-dried passito versions are best known. Unlike Zibibbo, Moscato Bianco has thin and delicate skins that burn in the sun. When the grapes are dried outside, the wine has a deeper color and riper flavors of dried fruit and caramel, and shows increased oxidation. When dried indoors in a cooler, temperature-controlled environment, the wines retain more fruit and floral freshness. Another white grape of southeastern Sicily is Albanello, which makes wines that are bright and crisp, with floral, herbal, and white stone fruit flavors. Although there are only a handful of plantings, it is grown by key producers, such as Arianna Occhipinti and Gulfi. In Occhipinti’s flagship SP68 Bianco wine, it is blended with Moscato di Alessandria (Zibibbo). Marsala At the western end of Sicily in the province of Trapani, Marsala is a historic port dating to its founding by the Carthaginians in the fourth century BCE. Its present name comes from its time under Arabic rulers who called it Mars el-Allah (“Allah’s harbor”). Arabic and Spanish influences are strong in western Sicily, which is the most planted part of the island for viticulture, and the wines of Marsala historically were produced using fractional blending in perpetuum , the Italian name for the solera systems used in Jerez. The British merchant John Woodhouse is generally credited with “inventing” the current style of Marsala, although winemaking was present here long before his arrival. Woodhouse introduced the process of fortification in 1773, aiming to create a less expensive fortified wine in the style of Port, Sherry, and Madeira. Another British entrepreneur, Benjamin Ingham, set up a rival company near Woodhouse in 1812 and furthered the industrialization of Marsala and the expansion of its export markets. Marsala’s vineyards were historically dominated by Grillo, Inzolia, and Catarratto, but, after the attacks of powdery mildew in the mid-19 th century and phylloxera in the early 20 th century, the high-yielding Catarratto became the primary choice for replanting. Catarratto yields lower-alcohol wines that oxidize easily, and the industry developed a greater reliance on grape sugar, spirit, and other additives to mask the base wines. Marsala’s reputation suffered in the 20 th century, and it became primarily known as a cheap cooking wine. The Marsala disciplinare was revised in 1984 in an attempt to restrict some industrial practices. The updated regulations limited the sourcing of grapes to the province of Trapani and restricted the use of mosto cotto (cooked must) and the addition of such flavorings as spices, fruit, and eggs. The regulations also added the use of Damaschino, another high-yielding and low-alcohol white grape variety, and reinstated a version made with red grapes. Budbreak at a vineyard in Marsala (Credit: Michael Markarian) Marsala DOC requires Oro (“golden”) and Ambra (“amber”) wines to be made from any combination of the white grapes Catarratto, Inzolia, Grillo, and/or Damaschino. The Rubino (“ruby”) wines must have a minimum of 70% of the red grapes Perricone (Pignatello), Nero d’Avola (Calabrese), and/or Nerello Mascalese. The Ambra wines require the addition of at least 1% mosto cotto through a process called concia . This is an inexpensive way to mimic the tawny color of barrel aging and is prohibited for Oro and Rubino wines. All Marsala wines must be aged in barrels of oak or cherrywood, although the first four months may be in alternative types of vessels. To promote steady oxidation, the barrels are not entirely filled or topped off. The most basic level, Fine, requires at least one year of aging; Superiore requires a minimum two years; and Superiore Riserva requires a minimum four years. These styles can have additives of coloring or flavoring, such as sifone (a sweet and syrupy mistelle), mosto cotto , and rectified concentrated grape juice. Additional labeling terms were developed to identify recipes that appealed to specific markets, such as Italy Particular (IP), Superior Old Marsala (SOM), London Particular (LP), and Garibaldi Dolce (GD). Nearly all Marsala falls into the Fine and Superiore categories; as of 2010, 80.7% of production was Fine and 18.6% Superiore. At the higher quality levels, a Marsala aged in the perpetuum system and labeled Solera must be aged for a minimum of five years and does not carry a vintage date. A wine that has no additions other than grape spirit can be labeled Vergine; these must also be aged for a minimum of five years. If a Vergine or Solera wine is labeled Riserva or Stravecchio, at least 10 years of aging is required. The grapes used for the sifone , mosto cotto , or fortification spirit must come from within Marsala DOC. The Fine wines require a minimum 17.5% ABV, and all other styles require 18% ABV or higher. Marsala is also designated by sweetness level, with secco having a maximum 40 grams per liter of residual sugar, semisecco between 40 and 100 grams per liter, and dolce having at least 100 grams per liter or higher. All Vergine wines must be secco . Today, there is a reemergence of quality-minded producers, challenging Marsala’s reputation as an inexpensive cooking wine, with a focus on artisanal base wines, drier styles, and higher-quality grape varieties, such as Grillo. Marco De Bartoli is the standard-bearer in this area, having founded his winery in 1978. His most iconic wine, Vecchio Samperi, is named for the contrada where his family’s cellar is located, tying the wine to a sense of place—which was virtually unheard of in Marsala when the wine was first released, with the 1980 vintage. This vino da tavola does not qualify for Marsala DOC because it is unfortified and its ABV is lower than the minimum; it is made in the traditional solera style of Marsala that was used before Woodhouse’s arrival. Source: Italian Wine Central, 2022 data Pantelleria About 100 kilometers (60 miles) southwest of Sicily, and 60 kilometers (35 miles) from Tunisia, is the volcanic island of Pantelleria. The island is nearly constantly whipped by winds of more than 20 kilometers (12 miles) per hour. The climate is hot, dry, and sunny; the soils are nutrient poor, sandy volcanic ash; and the topography is jagged and rocky, with varied slopes and elevations formed by different volcanic eruptions. Zibibbo is at home here in the hot, dry, windy climate. Unlike Moscato Bianco, Zibibbo has large berries and thick skins and can withstand wind and sunburn. Historically, it was popular for both table grapes and raisins, and its Sicilian name is derived from zibibb , the Arabic word for “dried grape” or “raisin.” The freestanding bush vines on the island are trained in the alberello system. For wind protection, the vines are buried low to the ground in circular, concave pits. The pits collect dew and moisture, preserving the limited water availability for the vines and preventing evaporation. Vineyard parcels on Pantelleria are small and highly fragmented, divided over the centuries under Muslim inheritance laws. Labor is expensive and time-consuming in this rugged terrain, and many goods need to be imported to the island. Since the cost of making wine is higher on Pantelleria than elsewhere in Sicily, where many inexpensive wines are produced, Pantelleria’s producers have distinguished themselves with premium products that can attract a higher price point. The Donnafugata estate on Pantelleria (Credit: Bryce Wiatrak) While Pantelleria DOC allows many types of wine, from sparkling to fortified, its most renowned offerings are the sweet Moscato di Pantelleria and Passito di Pantelleria. These wines are made similarly, from late-harvest Zibibbo dried in the sun either on or off the vine. Moscato di Pantelleria is lighter, fresher, and less sweet, with flavors of dried herbs, fig, ginger, and dried apricot. Passito di Pantelleria is sweeter, lusher, darker, and more concentrated, with flavors of honey, orange marmalade, raisins, and dates. The traditional method of making sweet wines on Pantelleria is to add dried grapes to a base wine of fresh grapes during fermentation (similar to the method of Tokaji Aszú but without botrytis). Grapes are dried either outdoors in the sun in a walled area called a stenditoio , or in drying tunnels called serre , which intensify the heat and accelerate the pace of drying. There are three stages in the process, including the harvesting of fresh grapes and two degrees of drying: passolata grapes are semidried, with about 25%–40% of their juice as sugar, and passa Malaga grapes are fully dried raisins, reduced to only one-quarter of their original weight, with 55% of their syrup becoming sugar. It is the use of the passa Malaga that gives Passito di Pantelleria its deeper color and more concentrated, raisinated flavors. Wine styles can vary based on the ratio of dried grapes to fresh must, drying method, aging vessel, and vineyard area. Given the varied terrain and fragmented vineyards of Pantelleria, there are some well-known contrade used on labels. Marco De Bartoli released his first Passito di Pantelleria in 1984, named Bukkuram (“father of the vineyard”) for the contrada in which the grapes are grown. Donnafugata released the first vintage of its iconic Ben Ryé (“son of the wind”) in 1989, sourcing grapes from higher elevations on the island, giving this passito wine more acidity and freshness. Other Regions of Western and Central Sicily In recent years, there has been a resurgence of unfortified dry wines in western Sicily, from varieties such as Grillo, Zibibbo, and Pignatello, bottled under the island-wide Sicilia DOC or Terre Siciliane IGT. Inzolia is a rare example of a tannic white grape variety, with low natural acidity, and, in the past, it was well suited to the oxidative character of Marsala. Today, a better understanding of the grape has led to its use for bright, crisp, citrusy, and lighter-bodied Sicilian whites, and it is authorized in most Sicilian DOCs. In the lagoon off Sicily’s western coast, across from the salt pans of Marsala, is the tiny island of Mozia, which was once a major port and trading post for the Phoenicians. Joseph Whitaker, the nephew of the Marsala producer Benjamin Ingham, first planted Grillo on the island in the 19 th century. It’s a low-lying area with a unique microclimate, and the topsoil in the vineyards is composed of seashells and shards of ancient Phoenician pottery. Tasca d’Almerita purchases the grapes from the island and makes a dry Grillo wine that is light, delicate, and salty. In addition to the island-wide denominations, there are other large DOCs of note. Menfi DOC , on the southwestern coast, in the Trapani and Agrigento provinces, is noteworthy as the home of Planeta and the Settesoli co-op. The southwestern part of the island is hot and arid, affected by the strong sirocco winds. Harvest here is the earliest in Sicily, as early as mid-July. The hot, dry, and windy conditions make organic, biodynamic, and sustainable viticulture popular in this region. The DOC allows a wide range of white, red, rosato , sparkling, sweet, and varietal wines. Central Sicily has higher elevations, generally about 400 to 900 meters (1,300 to 3,000 feet) above sea level, and has one of Sicily’s only truly continental climates. Vineyards are far apart, surrounded by wheat, mountains, and valleys, with cooler temperatures and extreme diurnal variations. The very large Contea di Sclafani DOC , in north-central Sicily, where the provinces of Palermo, Agrigento, and Caltanissetta meet, is home to some of the island’s major producers, including Tasca d’Almerita, Castellucci Miano, and Feudo Montoni. It was originally a catchall DOC, like Menfi, allowing many different styles and grape varieties, but it was modified in 2017 to focus on white wines based on Catarratto and reds based on Nero d’Avola and/or Perricone, including dry and late-harvest versions of both. Sardinia After Sicily, Sardinia (Sardegna in Italian) is the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is closer to the French island of Corsica, with which it has much in common culturally and geologically, than to the Italian peninsula. Like Sicily, it is an autonomous region with a mix of cultural influences. A dominant feature of the island is the presence of thousands of nuraghi (plural of nuraghe ), truncated conic towers built with basalt stones by early Sardinian peoples during the Bronze Age. The Greeks tried to penetrate the island but were largely unsuccessful because of the earlier Phoenician settlements. A strategically located island, Sardinia was a frequent target of conquest and came under periods of rule by various groups, including Romans, Vandals, and Byzantines. Sardinia also has the most enduring Spanish influence of any Italian region, a result of four centuries of rule by the house of Aragon and the Spanish crown. Both the local dialect, Sardo, and Catalan are officially recognized languages on the island. The link to Spain is reflected in the presence of grapes such as Cannonau (Garnacha) and Carignano (Cariñena). Sardinia’s tie to Italy began when it was given to the Piedmontese house of Savoy in the 18 th century. Sardinia has rocky, rugged terrain, and its geology is one of the oldest and most diverse in Italy. Formations dating back 500 million years, and long periods of erosion and metamorphic activity, have resulted in a mix of volcanic lava, basalt, granite, schist, sandstone, limestone, marls, and other soils. The mountainous and hilly interior of the island is home to about four million sheep raised for milk and cheese—half of the total Italian sheep population—and is where 80% of all Italian cork is produced. Sardinia’s wine production is a smaller part of its agricultural economy. While Sardinia is nearly the size of Sicily in total land area, it produces less than one-eighth of Sicily’s wine volume. Sardinia makes just about 684,000 hectoliters (7.6 million cases) of wine annually from its 26,700 hectares (66,000 acres) of vineyard plantings. About two-thirds of its wine production is red and the remainder white, with 57% at the DOC/G level. The island has 1 DOCG, 17 DOCs, and 15 IGPs. Its top grape varieties are Cannonau (35%) and Vermentino (28%). Both grow all over the island, but Vermentino is more prevalent in the north and Cannonau in the center and south. Vermentino-Based Denominations Sardinia is home to about three-quarters of Italy’s Vermentino, with 4,500 hectares (11,100 acres) of the total 6,000 hectares (14,800 acres) planted in Italy. Compared with Vermentino grown in other areas, such as Liguria and Tuscany, Sardinian Vermentino can be creamier, waxier, and fuller bodied. The igneous soils of the island are nutrient poor and restrain vigor, and the harsh winds thicken the grapes’ skins. Sardinian Vermentino reaches its peak of complexity, austerity, and ageworthiness in the region’s first and only DOCG, Vermentino di Gallura , which covers the northeastern corner of the island. The soils here are pink granite, rare in Italy, with high acidity and mineral content along with some sand and clay. The area is sunny, surrounded by Mediterranean scrub, and exposed to constant, salty sea winds. The poor, rocky, granitic soils reflect heat, which promotes ripeness, and the wines have a pronounced minerality, aromatic richness, and saline character. The DOCG requires a minimum of 95% Vermentino, and, for Normale wines, a minimum 12% ABV; wines with a minimum 13% ABV can be labeled Superiore. The Superiore versions are often aged on the lees and in barrel, and they are riper and more full bodied. Sparkling, late-harvest, and passito versions are also authorized. The island-wide Vermentino di Sardegna DOC requires a minimum of 85% Vermentino, and the wines tend to be fruitier and best for earlier consumption, although the diversity of soils and elevations throughout the island allows for a range of styles. Sparkling wines are also authorized and can be made at a range of sweetness levels, from brut nature to demi-sec. Cannonau-Based Denominations Sardinia’s most planted grape variety, Cannonau, is identical to Spain’s Garnacha and France’s Grenache. It likely arrived on the island with the Aragonese conquest in the 14 th century. There are many Cannonau biotypes throughout Sardinia, resulting from its mutation and adaptation on the island over centuries, and many producers prefer to use massal selection from very old vines for genetic diversity. Cannonau is productive and resistant to drought and heat, and it thrives on sandy and granitic soils. Cannonau is grown throughout the island in the region-wide Cannonau di Sardegna DOC , which requires a minimum 85% of the grape variety, and it is made in various styles, from light and simple to structured and complex. Sardinia’s version of Grenache can be earthy, rustic, and spicy, with ripe fruit, full body, and high alcohol, but it can be pale in color because of its easy oxidation. Red, rosato , fortified, and passito wines are authorized. Cannonau di Sardegna DOC includes three high-quality subzones. From north to south, they are Oliena (Nepente di Oliena), Jerzu, and Capo Ferrato. For red wines, a Riserva level requires a minimum aging of two years, with at least six months in wood. A large Classico subzone covers the entire Nuoro province (which absorbed the former Ogliastra province in 2016) in the east-central portion of the island and requires a higher minimum of 90% Cannonau as well as a minimum aging of two years, with at least 12 months in barrel. Other Varieties and Regions of Sardinia Another principal red grape of the island is Carignano, also a Spanish transplant that is well suited to Sardinia’s climate, as it is resistant to both drought and wind. It is concentrated in the Sulcis area, at the southwestern tip of the island, and on the island of Sant’Antioco, which is connected to southwestern Sardinia by a bridge. Carignano performs well in the sandy soils of this area, and there are many old, ungrafted, pre-phylloxera vines. Carignano del Sulcis DOC requires a minimum of 85% Carignano. Red, rosato , novello , and passito versions can be produced. Red wines of Riserva level require a minimum 12.5% ABV, and Superiore wines must have a minimum 13% ABV; both require a minimum aging of two years, with at least six months in bottle. These wines, typically from old vines on sandy soils, are powerful, ripe, fleshy, and concentrated. Mirto A popular local beverage in Sardinia is the liqueur Mirto. The myrtle ( mirto ) plant grows wild in the Mediterranean scrubland of Sardinia and Corsica, and its berries are macerated in an alcohol base with water and sugar to make Mirto. The sweet, herbal liqueur is often served chilled as a digestivo at the end of a meal. Mirto di Sardegna is a protected IGP, requiring 28%–36% ABV, no additives of coloring or flavoring, and less than 270 grams per liter of total sugar. Carignano is genetically identical to Bovale Grande, which some believe is a separate Sardinian biotype or closely related variety. It is not the same, however, as Bovale Sardo, which some studies indicate is identical to the Spanish variety Graciano. Another prominent red grape on the island is Monica, the name used for a group of unrelated varieties that make light-bodied, easy-drinking wines, with flavors of red berries and fresh herbs. Monica is typically a blending grape used to add freshness to Cannonau or the Bovale grapes, but it is increasingly prized for monovarietal examples in Monica di Sardegna DOC and other DOCs. The white grape Nuragus shares its name with the prehistoric stone structures on the island. It was favored for its extreme drought resistance and, as recently as 1990, was the most abundant grape variety in Sardinia. When yields are too high, the wines are uninteresting, but quality is improving for these fresh, lightly aromatic, low-alcohol whites. Nuragus grows best in the marly calcareous clay soils near Sardinia’s capital city of Cagliari. Nuragus di Cagliari DOC requires a minimum of 85% Nuragus and allows still and frizzante wines, which can be dry or amabile . The white grape Torbato is minimally planted but known through the bottlings of one producer, Sella e Mosca. It performs best in the chalky, marine soils called terre bianche around Alghero, in northwestern Sardinia, yielding fresh, light wines in both still and sparkling versions in Alghero DOC . Nasco is one of Sardinia’s oldest grape varieties and is prized for its high quality. Its name comes from the Sardinian nuscu (musky), referring to the strong herbal aromatics of the wine. It is mostly found in the calcareous-marly hillsides near Cagliari. Dry, sweet, and fortified wines can be made in Nasco di Cagliari DOC , which requires a minimum of 95% Nasco. The sweet wines are the most interesting and complex. Moscato Bianco, known as Moscadeddu locally, is used for sparkling, passito , fortified, and late-harvest wines in DOCs such as Moscato di Sorso-Sennori DOC and the island-wide Moscato di Sardegna DOC . Malvasia di Sardegna, which is identical to Sicily’s Malvasia di Lipari and Calabria’s Greco Bianco, is found in the sweet white, sparkling, and passito wines of Malvasia di Bosa DOC . The wines are more powerful and less aromatic than other Malvasias, and a Riserva level requires a minimum aging of two years, including one year in wood. Vernaccia di Oristano is a white grape unique to Sardinia and unrelated to Italy’s other Vernaccias. It is grown near the central-western city of Oristano. It thrives in two soil types: gregori , which have low fertility and low limestone content and are found at higher altitudes, and bennaxi , the more fertile, alluvial soils at lower altitudes that are rich in loamy clay. Vernaccia di Oristano DOC wines are made in an oxidative style and can be dry or sweet and fortified or not. They are aged in a solera system of chestnut or oak barrels, which are not completely topped up, encouraging the best wines to develop and age under a layer of flor for a minimum of two years, or three years for Superiore and four years for Riserva. These rare wines can be beautifully complex, with flavors of almond paste, dried apricot, hazelnut, orange rind, fresh herbs, and white chocolate. Bibliography Bastianich, Joseph, and David Lynch. Vino Italiano: The Regional Wines of Italy . New York: Clarkson Potter, 2005. Bjugstad, Daniel. “Irpinia: The Heart of Campania.” GuildSomm. 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Read the Introduction to Italy Expert Guide Read the Northern Italy Expert Guide Read the Central Italy Expert Guide Compiled by Michael Markarian (November 2023) Edited by Stacy LadenburgerPreview