Expert Guides

Loire Valley

Sandra Ban — Tue, 16 Jun 2026 15:11:51 GMT

Current Revision posted to Expert Guides by Sandra Ban on 6/16/2026 3:11:51 PM

History
Loire Valley Wine Law
The Market
Land and Climate
The Grapes of the Loire Valley
Pays Nantais
Anjou-Saumur
Touraine
Central Vineyards
Central France
Bibliography

The Loire Valley is the third largest wine region in France, yet it is also one of the country’s least well known. It follows the broad sweep of the Loire River for nearly 1,000 kilometers, from the mountains of the Massif Central in the center of France to the wild Atlantic coast in the northwest. The Loire and its tributaries are home to more than 50 appellations. Most are populated by small family winegrowers, many of whom have been farming the same land for centuries.

More famous for its châteaux than its wine, the Loire is a region of evident history, but it is a region of experimentation and discovery as well, where respect for the past and a spirit of innovation exist side by side.

History

The Roman officer and historian Pliny the Elder completed his Natural History in 77 CE, reflecting the world he knew in the first century, including its vineyards and wines. In this text, he mentioned that vines were growing on the banks of the Loire, evidence that this region has a vinous history spanning at least two millennia. But it was not until the sixth century that Grégoire, the bishop of Tours, made the first reference to the vineyards in the local region of Touraine, which today includes Chinon and Vouvray. He also confirmed that vineyards were growing in the Sancerre area, writing, “In the year 582, a late frost scorched the vines.” The church was a driving force in the development of the Loire’s vineyards and wine production, as it was in other parts of France and Europe, until the French Revolution.

The Loire River and its tributaries have long provided a route to market for the region’s wines. On the western coast, close to the mouth of the river, Nantes has been an important trading hub for centuries. There is even a theory that in the 19^th century, the local white wine, now known as Muscadet, acquired its name from Dutch traders looking for a neutral, high-acid white wine that they could add to the botanical noix de muscade (nutmeg) prior to distillation.

In the 15^th century, the Loire, rather than Paris, was the location of the French royal court. While the monarchs shifted back to Paris in the middle of the 16^th century, the Loire continued to be the summer getaway of the nobility and the wealthy, hence the region’s abundance of ornate châteaux and a love of Loire wine among the aristocracy. Charles VII (1403–1461) was one of the kings who set up court in the Loire Valley. During the Hundred Years’ War, Joan of Arc famously went to see him in Chinon to ask for an army before defeating the king of England during the siege of Orléans.

Vines and a castle in Chinon (Credit: Stevens Frémont, InterLoire)

There were other prominent Loire residents who brought fame to the local wines, including François Rabelais. Born in Chinon in the late 15^th century, he was most famous for his satirical work Gargantua and Pantagruel, although he also had a stint as both a religious man and a doctor. Some of his wine-related commentary includes the advice that Sauvignon Blanc is good for constipation and the saying “Always drink, never die.” Around the same time that Rabelais was upsetting the establishment with his scathing and comedic writing, the artist Leonardo da Vinci made the Loire his home. In 1516, at age 64, he crossed the Alps on a mule after being invited by François I to be his royal painter. In his luggage were several paintings, including the Mona Lisa. He died in the Loire in 1519 and is buried in the town of Amboise, in the Touraine region.

Touraine was one of the main areas to benefit from the 1577 law by the Parlement de Paris that prohibited Parisians from purchasing wines made within a 20-league (around 88-kilometer) radius of the capital, but over the centuries the Parisian market didn’t want to pay a high price for quality. As Xavier de Planhol explains in An Historical Geography of France, this eventually led to a deterioration in the quality of wines produced in areas that were easily reached by river or the canal from Paris. “By the beginning of the seventeenth century, Orléans wine was already banned from the royal table and it lost the last shreds of its reputation over the decades that followed.” The increasing urbanization of the French population called for everyday, low-priced wines. As the railways developed in the 19^th century, the regions that had benefited from their waterway connections with Paris became pitted against the low-cost wine producers of the south.

It was around this time that phylloxera arrived in the Loire. It is estimated that when the louse was first identified, in 1877, half the population in the Loire depended in some form on the vine for income. At first, the local phylloxera committees were adamant that they wouldn’t use American rootstocks and would instead inject the soil with carbon disulfide, but it soon became clear that grafting was necessary. The replanting that followed marked a change in the flavors of the Loire: Sancerre switched from Pinot Noir to Sauvignon Blanc, while Cabernet Franc and Chenin Blanc gained popularity in Anjou-Saumur.

During World War II, the Loire Valley’s wine regions were occupied by the Germans. Saumur was a center of resistance: weapons and documents were hidden in casks that crossed the line between free and occupied France, which was situated south of the river. But many men in the region became prisoners of war, including Gaston Huet, who returned to his native Vouvray having lost one-third of his body weight. Vineyards fell into disrepair, with no one to work in them, and without fungicides or pesticides to control the spread of disease. Following the war, many young people left the countryside to work in cities, while those who stayed began bottling their own wines or organized themselves into cooperatives and started selling their wines in the bistros of Paris.

Vines were part of farmers’ income, not their sole income, until the 1960s and 1970s, when goats, cattle, and crops started giving way to vines—and a greater focus on quality winemaking. The 1980s brought major advances in the cellar, with better presses, stainless steel, and temperature control making their debut. Today, the Loire Valley’s wine industry is focused on improving the quality of the raw material: the grapes. There’s also increasing concern regarding the effects of climate change, whether frost, drought, or unpredictable weather events. This is paired with a greener approach; about 30% of Loire Valley vineyards are now either sustainably or organically farmed.

Loire Valley Wine Law

The Loire Valley; click to enlarge and zoom in (Credit: InterLoire)

Loire Valley wines are subject to the Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée (AOC) system, initially established throughout France in the 1930s in response to the chaos that ensued after the phylloxera crisis, which largely destroyed the country’s vineyards. This loss of crops led to a surge in fraudulent practices, and soon the market was awash with low-quality wine produced to fulfill demand. In the absence of legal regulations, grapes and wines were routinely blended, often from different origins both within and outside France, and adulterated in numerous ways to stretch volumes further. The appellation system was an effective means of regulating production and ensuring that wines from a particular origin conformed to certain expected criteria.

Many of the best-known Loire appellations were defined in 1936, in the earliest days of AOC regulation, including Muscadet, Vouvray, Bourgueil, Chinon, and Saumur. Today, 78% of the Loire Valley’s production is designated AOC and there are 53 separate AOCs. Some winemakers choose to operate outside the system, producing wines that can carry only the basic country designation of Vin de France (VdF). As is the case in other countries with similarly restrictive regulations, most of these wines are of basic quality, but some are of the highest quality, made by producers who wish to make the wines they want to make, even if they do not meet the requirements for appellation status. Wines without geographical indication account for 12% of total Loire production.

2020 figures from the Loire Valley Wines Economic Report 2021

Between AOC and VdF lies a third quality designation: Indication Géographique Protégée (IGP). IGPs are subject to similar but less strict regulations compared with AOCs. They usually cover a wider area than the AOCs, and there is typically greater flexibility on yield levels and the grape varieties that can be grown.

The Loire has five IGPs for wine (and one for apple brandy), of which the most important by far is Val de Loire. This covers 4,600 hectares spread over a vast growing area that encompasses 13 different administrative departments and dozens of grape varieties. Reds, whites, and rosés are made under the Val de Loire banner, and almost all are single-variety wines. Permitted yields are 90 hectoliters per hectare, and the wines are light and early drinking in style. Nearly 300,000 hectoliters are made annually under this IGP, which accounts for 9% of all the Loire’s production. The Loire’s other IGPs are Côtes de la Charité, Coteaux de Tannay, Coteaux du Cher et de l’Arnon, and Puy de Dôme. Collectively, they account for a mere 0.2% of the region’s total production.

A final style worth noting is vin gris. This term, though not legally regulated, refers to very pale rosé wines. In Coteaux du Vendômois AOC, these wines are based on minimal skin contact with Pineau D'Aunis. In Reuilly AOC, vins gris experience a short maceration with Pinot Gris' pink skins.

The Market

The Loire Valley is the third largest winegrowing area in France by hectarage, after Bordeaux and the Rhône. It is not easy to visit the Loire Valley in one trip—the drive from Muscadet to Sancerre takes more than four hours. Getting to know its growers takes time, too. There are 3,600 growers cultivating 56,900 hectares of vines, an area larger than the entire Austrian or New Zealand vineyard.

Sales figures for 2020 show that close to three-quarters of all Loire wine, equivalent to 210 million bottles, is sold in France. Within France, supermarkets are the most important outlet for Loire Valley wines, particularly those in a low-price, négociant-dominant market, such as Muscadet and the rosé categories Rosé de Loire and Cabernet d’Anjou. For those appellations held in higher esteem, such as the sweet grand cru–designated wines of Quarts de Chaume or the steely dry whites of Savennières, the independent retail sector and on-trade are the key markets.

The Loire Valley wine association reports that 26% of all wines, equivalent to 70 million bottles, were shipped overseas in 2020. The five most important export markets (both by value and volume) for the Loire Valley’s wine producers are, in order of sales, the US, the UK, Germany, Belgium, and Canada. Region-wide figures, however, hide the huge variability from one appellation to another. For example, exports account for 62% of Sancerre sales and 64% of Crémant de Loire, which has enjoyed a strong period of growth as part of a wider thirst for French crémant styles both at home and abroad. In the UK, for example, sales increased fivefold from 2012 to 2020. But just 4% of all Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil and 14% of Menetou-Salon went overseas.

2020 figures from the Loire Valley Wines Economic Report 2021

White wines take the lead in export markets, accounting for 57% of all wine shipped by volume. Reds and rosé represent 23%, and sparkling 20%. Sancerre is by far the most successful appellation internationally, particularly when it comes to value, while Muscadet, Vouvray, and the Touraine appellation (thanks to Sauvignon Blanc) have healthy volume sales, although value lags.

The cost of a vineyard in each of the appellations reflects the market’s appetite for its wines. For example, the average price of a hectare of vineyard land is €7,000 in Muscadet, €26,000 in Vouvray, and €210,000 in Sancerre, according to figures from SAFER, the French rural land agency. This has implications for young winemakers wishing to start a business. In Sancerre, it is difficult to begin unless you are a member of a winegrowing family or a large wine business. The Anjou area, where a hectare costs around €18,000, has become a hotbed of talent and innovation. Here, many are making minimal-intervention wines and trialing unusual blends.

Land and Climate

The Land

The Loire Valley is the most sprawling of French wine regions, perhaps unsurprising since it follows the flow of the country’s longest river. The geology of the vineyards is highly diverse and often immediately visible. The soil is considered a crucial part of the identity of each place and the starting point for defining an appellation. Visit any Loire winegrower and they will most likely talk about what is under the ground before anything else.

Savennières Roche aux Moines (Credit: Savennières)

The oldest rocks in the Loire Valley—and in all of France—are found in the far west. This is the Armorican Massif (Massif Armoricain), which covers all of northwestern France. It is the remains of the giant Hercynian range of mountains from the Precambrian era. Looking at the landscape today, it is hard to believe that mountains were once here, as the land is low-lying, with only gentle slopes. But 600 million years of weathering have resulted in soils of enormous complexity. These old rocks form the basis of the soils of Muscadet and other appellations of the Nantais region and the western half of Anjou, including Savennières. This area is known as the Anjou Noir (or Black Anjou) because of the dark soils that characterize the Armorican Massif. Granite, gneiss, multicolored schist, slate, and pudding stones are found here.

The dividing line between the Anjou Noir and the Anjou Blanc runs from north to south, starting southeast of Angers. The Anjou Blanc (White Anjou) marks the beginning of the Paris Basin, a low-lying area in northern France that was covered by the sea during the Cretaceous and Jurassic periods (67 to 195 million years ago). The more recent, shallow seas that receded to leave soils based on soft, chalky Cretaceous limestone are easily visible today in the houses, castles, and cellars of the lower Loire. These are the soils of eastern Anjou and Touraine. Further eastward, the Paris Basin continues to be the bedrock of the vineyards of the Central Vineyards, around Sancerre. The seas were deeper here, however, and these older soils (from the Jurassic period) are frequently characterized by the presence of tiny fossils. The Kimmeridgian clays found in Sancerre continue to the vineyards of Chablis. A fault runs through the town of Sancerre, adding complexity to the range of soils and defining the appellations of the Central Vineyards. These include islands of flint, for example around Saint-Andelain in Pouilly-Fumé.

The divide between the Armorican Massif and Paris Basin (Credit: InterLoire)

To the south, back toward the source of the Loire River, the vineyards of the Auvergne have younger soils based on the decomposed volcanoes of the Massif Central. Schists and granite predominate, and Gamay is the red grape that thrives, as it does on the granite soils of Beaujolais.

The Climate

The vineyards of the Loire cover an area that extends more than 800 kilometers across France, but the climate of the region is dictated primarily by its northern latitude. The great majority of the vineyards lie on the 47^th parallel; only the Alsace and Champagne wine regions are further north in France. The growing environment for red wines is marginal, and even for whites it is far from reliable. But beyond the simple commonality of latitude, there is considerable climatic variation both between and within the different appellations, which explains the enormous diversity of grapes and styles produced in the Loire Valley.

The Role of Altitude

Altitude rarely has a significant impact on the climate of the vineyards of the Loire. Most are at or close to sea level. In Muscadet, the viewpoint of Butte de la Roche gives an extensive 360-degree view across the vineyards at less than 50 meters above sea level. Elsewhere, most vineyards are below 100 meters in altitude. There are a few exceptions, however. In Sancerre, the famed slopes of Les Monts Damnés vineyard rise to 436 meters, and many of the vines in the appellation grow between 250 and 350 meters above sea level. Another outlier is the upper Loire, where the vineyards are situated in the Massif Central. These appellations are several hundred kilometers south of the Central Vineyards region, geographically detached from the main vineyard area. Here, the latitude is more like that of southern Burgundy, but the climate is influenced by the altitude of the vines, which are situated between 200 and 600 meters above sea level. The climate is semicontinental, with cold winters and hot summers, and little precipitation. A major climatic influence is the foehn, a warm wind that descends from the mountains to the vineyards.

The overall climate is maritime for the Nantais region, where the Muscadet vineyards lie, becoming more temperate-oceanic in the adjoining Anjou region immediately east. Further eastward, the Atlantic influence diminishes from Saumur toward the warmer red-wine heartland of Touraine, the vineyards of Chinon and Bourgueil. Further east from there, the climate becomes more continental in the premier Sauvignon Blanc growing areas in the Central Vineyards, where there are wider temperature variations between summer and winter. This is also the case for the vineyards of the upper Loire, situated south of the Central Vineyards.

Frost is a regular hazard in this part of the world, and crop losses in recent years—notably 2021, but also 2019, 2017, and 2016—have been dramatic. Beyond frosts, there are multiple other risks to the health and quality of the harvest that are climate related, including hail, autumn rain, and the constant threat of mildew during the growing season. Throughout the appellations of the Loire, vintage variation is significant from year to year, which is one reason for the strength of the Loire sparkling wine industry, second in volume only to Champagne in France. When the weather is challenging during the growing season, it has always been useful to be able to fall back on fizz to make the best of grapes that achieve less than ideal ripeness (in Vouvray, for example). Likewise, in semisweet Anjou rosé, sugar can compensate for underripe fruit.

No Loire vine is far from a river, and these rivers play a key role in determining the temperature, humidity, and airflow of the growing environment. Many of the best vineyards are on south-facing slopes next to a river—if not the Loire itself, then one of its many tributaries: the Maine, Sèvre, Vienne, Indre, Allier, Loir, Layon, Thouet, or Cher. The great sweet wines of Vouvray and Quarts de Chaume are only possible thanks to the vineyards’ proximity to the Loire and Layon Rivers, which create the autumn mists necessary for the development of botrytis in favorable years.

Climate Change

Temperatures have measurably increased in the Loire Valley since the 1940s. According to the Huglin index, the climate in the Loire Valley cities of Nantes, Angers, Tours, and Bourges moved from cold to temperate during the 60-year period to 2010. The average temperature over this period increased by 1.35 degrees Celsius, and an ongoing study notes that average Loire temperatures have increased by 3 degrees Celsius in the last 30 years.

There have also been rises in the minimum temperature (1.4 degrees Celsius) and the maximum (1.3 degrees Celsius) over this period. Researchers have observed that the regions east of Saumur experienced higher rises in maximum temperatures because of the decreasing oceanic influence. The Atlantic serves to lower maximum temperatures in the Nantais region thanks to the presence of cloud cover, which mitigates very high temperatures but correspondingly raises minimum temperatures at night, because the continued presence of cloud is more likely to prevent heat escaping at night.

Climate change has had several consequences, both positive and negative. The Loire was historically a region where grapes often failed to achieve full ripeness. Warmer temperatures and increased levels of photosynthesis have yielded better-quality wines, especially the reds. Today, there are far fewer examples of green and leafy Cabernet Franc; Pinot Noir wines have acquired a sensual richness; Gamay wines are plump and juicy. For whites, too, more reliable ripening has been welcome. The negative effect of higher temperatures is the risk that the wines are unbalanced. Grapes show higher levels of sugar—and therefore alcohol—and lower acidity. The typical profile of the wines has undoubtedly changed. That this is related to climate change is highly probable. But changes in viticultural practices have also allowed grapegrowers to achieve higher levels of ripeness in their fruit through bunch thinning and leaf removal, methods that have benefits for plant health as well.

Viticulture has become more challenging with a changing climate. With higher temperatures early in the season, the vine’s growing cycle has shifted, so budbreak is earlier. As a result, when the spring frosts strike—as they have always done, to a greater or lesser extent—the vine is far more advanced than it would have been in years past and the losses more consequent. The annual fight against frost is a major concern. When frost is forecast, candles are used in the vineyards at night, although some ecologically minded growers are increasingly reluctant to resort to this practice. Using water-spraying at night is an effective solution, but few can access the quantity of water required. Frost fans are often employed as well. The surest solution seems to be using heated electric wires positioned along the training wires in the canopy, but this requires substantial investment. Most growers are seeking adaptations to their working practices, principally by pruning later, pruning longer, pruning twice, or any combination of these. Such adaptations are expensive and time consuming but appear to mitigate losses, at least in part.

At the other end of the scale, heat and drought associated with climate change are problematic, especially in a region where irrigation is forbidden under AOC legislation. At temperatures much over 30 degrees Celsius, photosynthesis decreases, and eventually the vine shuts down and blocks maturation of the grapes. In 2022, early season drought and heat in May were followed by a heat wave and further drought in July, a situation that had never been seen before.

The Grapes of the Loire Valley

White Grapes

Sauvignon Blanc: The Loire Valley is likely the birthplace of Sauvignon Blanc, and it contains around one-third of France’s Sauvignon Blanc vineyard area. The grape’s home is in the eastern part of the Touraine region and further east in the Central Vineyards, an area that includes Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé and sits around 450 kilometers from the Atlantic coast.

Figures from the Loire Valley Wines Economic Report 2021

Sauvignon Blanc was first mentioned in 1534 by François Rabelais in Gargantua and Pantagruel, where he referred to the grape as Fiers. It wasn’t until almost 200 years later that Sauvignon Blanc’s existence in Bordeaux, the country’s other main Sauvignon Blanc–producing area, was recorded. Around that time, in 1783, Sauvignon Blanc was also mentioned in Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé, but it didn’t become the grape of choice until after phylloxera.

Sauvignon Blanc is a fertile variety that can produce large quantities of fruit as well as large canopies. As a result, low vigor soils or low vigor rootstocks, or both, are recommended. Most Sauvignon Blanc growers in the Loire battle powdery mildew each year, and this is becoming a greater issue with increasingly warm, humid weather. Sauvignon Blanc’s naturally small-berried, tightly packed bunches make it susceptible to botrytis, and wood diseases including Eutypa dieback and esca are also common challenges.

The Loire Valley typically yields more restrained examples of Sauvignon Blanc compared with those of New Zealand. The two regions show some similarities in terms of growing season temperatures and annual rainfall. But the sunlight is more intense and there are more sunshine hours in New Zealand compared with the Loire. Henri Bourgeois has properties in both Marlborough and Sancerre and has found that the intensity of light in New Zealand means that extra leaf protection is crucial. The greater sunlight and higher ultraviolet light exposure may play a part in the exuberance of Sauvignon Blanc in New Zealand, while in the Loire the aromas are less overt and less tropical, often including gooseberry, elderflower, nettle, and citrus flavors. In warmer seasons, however, such as 2018, 2019, and 2020, ripeness levels were unprecedented, with ripe orchard fruit, lower acids, and high alcohol commonly found in the wines.

The classic Loire Sauvignon Blanc style is dry, unoaked, and fresh. Grapes are often machine harvested and fermented relatively cool in stainless steel tanks to preserve aromatic freshness. Malolactic fermentation is typically blocked, and a short period on lees ensues before bottling. But there are many prestige and single-vineyard cuvées that are hand-picked, whole-bunch pressed, and fermented wild in barrel (typically used barrels of varying sizes). Experimentation has also increased, with a range of fermentation vessels and different techniques (such as brief skin contact, extended lees aging, and lees stirring) used.

10,094 hectares in 2020

Chenin: Dry vs. Sweet

There is a growing preference for drier styles of still Chenin Blanc. Because of climate change, producers can make wines with riper phenolics and lower acidity levels that don’t need residual sugar as a counterpoint. But there is a concern that consumer demand for dry styles is prompting producers to make dry wines even when they would be better balanced with residual sugar. The preference for drier styles is also affecting the demi-sec category, with residual sugar levels edging lower, while the sec tendre category offers an option between sec and demi-sec.

In the historic and prestigious sweet wine appellations of the Loire, several producers have shifted from producing sweet wines because of financial pressure and are now making dry wines in the appellation of Quarts de Chaume. These wines cannot be labeled with the appellation name, however, as it is a designation for sweet wine only; instead they must be labeled as Anjou AOC Blanc or Vin de France.

Chenin Blanc: The Loire Valley produces 93% of France’s Chenin Blanc. The grape plays a key role in Anjou-Saumur, where its best-known incarnation is in the small but significant appellation of Savennières, and in the eastern slice of the Touraine region, where the Vouvray and Montlouis-sur-Loire appellations champion this versatile variety.

It seems that Chenin Blanc is a Loire native, tracing its roots back at least 1,000 years, when it was referred to as Plant d’Anjou. In the early 16^th century, an abbot and his finance minister brother-in-law, Thomas Bohier, undertook trials with different varieties from around France on the grounds of the Montchenin monastery, south of Tours. The grape now known as Chenin Blanc flourished, perhaps taking its name from the monastery—but there are various theories on the development of the name. There remain around 60 synonyms for Chenin Blanc, with Pineau d’Anjou and Pineau de la Loire the most common in the Loire Valley. The local historian Henri Galinié discovered that Plant d’Anjou and Pineau de la Loire were the most used names until the 1800s, although the peasant growers were commonly using Chenin in the fields. With the standardization of the modern French language followed by the development of the field of ampelography in the early 19^th century, there was a need to remove the confusion between Pineau and Pinot. In an 1875 dictionary, Chenin Blanc appeared as a synonym for Pineau and eventually became the more common name.

Chenin Blanc is not easy to grow. It is an early budding variety, and milder winters are leading to an earlier budbreak. This, in combination with more frequent and harder frosts, puts the vine at risk in early spring. Late pruning and investment in frost protection have become common across the valley. Chenin Blanc is a vigorous variety, and growers who wish to produce quality wine must manage crop loads through removing unwanted shoots and crop thinning, which also help promote aeration in the battle against powdery mildew and bunch rot. While Chenin Blanc is a mid-ripener, traditionally maturing in early to mid-October, the harvests are coming earlier. Highly sensitive to botrytis, it is the variety behind the famed sweet wines of Quarts de Chaume and Bonnezeaux within the Coteaux du Layon.

Used for sparkling styles as well as dry, demi-sec, and fully botrytized wines, Chenin Blanc is one of the finest, most versatile grapes. Depending on the season or the demands of the market, producers may opt to make dry or sweet styles—or, in some cases, different sweetness levels from the same vineyard, undertaking multiple tries (passes), to obtain the ripeness they desire. Typically, a cooler season lends itself to sparkling and taut, dry styles. Riper seasons with dry autumns allow fully mature, dry expressions and sweeter styles to be produced.

9,540 hectares in 2020

Melon B: Melon B is inextricably associated with Muscadet and is planted almost exclusively in the Nantais region. It is often referred to as Melon de Bourgogne because it originated in Burgundy, although it was rejected by its homeland many years ago. The variety has been planted in the Nantais since the 1600s, but for centuries it lived in the shadow of Folle Blanche because of the latter’s prolific production destined for eau-de-vie. Melon B was always recognized as a superior variety for making wine, however, and it is now the dominant variety. It is well-suited to this cool region because it can withstand low winter temperatures.

The Melon B planted in the Nantais accounts for 99.9% of all the plantings of the variety in France. The great majority of this is planted in the Muscadet appellation, where it constitutes the largest concentration of a single variety anywhere in the Loire Valley. Basic wines made from Melon B are typically pale, light in alcohol, unoaked, neutral in flavor, and a good match for the local oysters. To give the wines more aroma and body (and often a slight spritz of carbon dioxide), the traditional practice of aging on lees until the spring following the harvest is widespread in the Muscadet region. Many producers are now taking this practice further, identifying the best sites and limiting yields to create a system of cru wines. With limited yields and extended lees aging, Melon B wines can become serious contenders for some of the best white wines from the Loire. A smaller amount of Melon B (around 18%) is blended with other varieties or made into still or sparkling wines under the Vin de France label.

8,327 hectares in 2020

Chardonnay: For a grape variety that is so ubiquitous, Chardonnay is a minor player in the Loire and rarely seen bottled as a varietal wine. Less important quantitatively and qualitatively than Chenin Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc, or Melon B, it is more often used as blending material to soften the sometimes hard edges of the more acidic Melon B or Chenin Blanc, usually for more basic wines. It also has appeal in sparkling blends with Chenin Blanc. The only place where Chardonnay takes a lead role is in the whites of the Auvergne, which must be 100% Chardonnay. It is also found in blends in the wines of Saint-Pourçain. It is the sixth most planted grape variety in the Loire.

2,902 hectares in 2020

Other White Grapes

Folle Blanche: Folle Blanche, also known as Gros Plant, is a highly productive and highly acidic variety from southwestern France, traditionally used for making Cognac. This most likely explains its strong historic presence in the Nantais region, where it was grown specifically for brandy production for Dutch merchants in the 17^th century. Today, it has its own dedicated appellation for wine, Gros Plant du Pays Nantais, but the volume produced is a fraction of that of Muscadet. The vine buds early, making it susceptible to frost in this cool region. Perhaps more valued for its productivity than its quality, there are nevertheless some appealing, crisp examples to be found, usually from top producers of Muscadet. Like Muscadet, Folle Blanche’s neutral, refreshing qualities make it a popular and inexpensive choice in local seafood restaurants.

Romorantin: A peculiarity of the Loire Valley, the Romorantin variety, a cross of Pinot and Gouais Blanc, is synonymous with Cour-Cheverny AOC, an appellation of 11 villages in the Loire-et-Cher department south and east of the city of Blois. The vineyard area is a tiny 50 hectares, devoted exclusively to the grape, which takes its name from the village of Romorantin. François I once resided here, and legend has it that he was the first person to order Romorantin plants from their native Burgundy, in 1519. Romorantin produces small, flavorful berries that are difficult to ripen—its major drawback. It is harvested relatively late, making very fresh, typically dry whites with notable intensity and length.

Chasselas: Chasselas is an ancient variety of uncertain origins, best known in its adopted home of Switzerland. In the Loire Valley, it has its own appellation, Pouilly-sur-Loire, a mere 30 hectares sandwiched between the two Sauvignon Blanc titans of Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé. Though the region is not particularly well known, there is a long history of producing Chasselas here, and it achieved appellation status the same year as Pouilly-Fumé, in 1937. Chasselas wines are rather quieter than those from the more assertive Sauvignon Blanc. Fresh, floral, and crisp, they are easy-drinking wines generally intended for early consumption.

Pinot Gris: Pinot Gris appears in interesting guises at opposite ends of the river. In the Coteaux d’Ancenis appellation, east of Nantes, it is made into a locally appreciated semisweet wine under the synonym Malvoisie. In the Central Vineyards region, south of Sancerre, the winemakers of Reuilly transform it into a vin gris, a pale and dry rosé, by using its pink skins for color.

Each less than 1% of total vineyard area in 2020

Red Grapes

Cabernet Franc: The most planted variety in the Loire, Cabernet Franc represents one-quarter of the Valley’s vineyard area. Rabelais was the first to mention the red grape in the Loire, in 1534, under the name of Breton. He wrote that it was not grown in Brittany, as the name suggests, but in the village of Beaumont-en-Véron, which is a very short drive from the town of Chinon and continues to be a source of excellent wines. While there is no definitive proof that this wine was Cabernet Franc, the odds are good. It’s possible that the variety came to the Loire via Brittany, hence the name Breton. Alternately, it is noted in Wine Grapes that “in 1631, Cardinal de Richelieu sent out thousands of vines of the best Bordeaux variety to his steward, Abbé Breton, who planted them in Chinon and Bourgueil. The vine was later named Plant de l’Abbé Breton, and then simply Breton.” DNA testing, however, has shown that Cabernet Franc may have its roots not in France but in the Basque country, as it is related to Hondarribi Beltza, with some similar characteristics in the glass.

Cabernet Franc at Charles Joguet in Chinon (Credit: Domaine Charles Joguet)

Cabernet Franc is known for its red fruit flavors and floral notes, and as the understanding of the variety progressed in the first two decades of this century, there was a growing realization that new oak is not necessarily the best partner for this fragrant variety. In terms of structure, it is typically light to medium in body, and it is less tannic than Cabernet Sauvignon, retaining a bright acidity that can imbue the best examples with the ability to age for several decades. Cabernet Franc is not used solely for red wine; it is also widely used in the rosés of Anjou and is permitted in Crémant de Loire.

The variety is at home in the Saumur region as well as the western half of Touraine, particularly the appellations of Chinon, Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil, and Bourgueil. There are also plantings on the schist soils of Anjou, where it can be blended with Cabernet Sauvignon. It may also be found in a blend with Côt (Malbec) or Gamay in Touraine.

Cabernet Franc has suffered from a reputation for failing to ripen properly, resulting in high methoxypyrazine levels, overtly peppery characters, and astringency. But the arrival of a generation of well-trained and well-traveled winemakers, as well as the region-wide Project Cabernet Franc in the early 2000s, prompted a new approach. Producers were encouraged to pick later to improve ripeness, decrease their fermentation temperatures to preserve the wine’s fragrance, and employ oxygen for tannin management and to minimize the variety’s reductive tendencies. They were also encouraged to use less oak, taking inspiration from Burgundy rather than pursuing a Bordeaux style of Cabernet Franc.

Nature has also improved the ripeness levels of Cabernet Franc. Warmer growing seasons and better vineyard management have diminished the green-edged tannins that characterized Cabernet Franc wines of the past. In some warm vintages, however, sugar ripeness occurs before phenolic ripeness and winemakers must be careful not to overextract.

15,950 hectares in 2020

Gamay: Gamay is grown across the Loire Valley and is the second most planted black variety, albeit a long way behind Cabernet Franc. An excellent blending partner, it can also produce compelling varietal wines when carefully grown in the right place. Commonly paired with Pinot Noir (either through choice or necessity), Gamay is also one of several varieties from which growers can choose for blending into Rosé d’Anjou, Saumur Fines Bulles, or Anjou Mousseux. It is not authorized for inclusion in Crémant de Loire. In the Fiefs Vendéens and Coteaux Giennois, Gamay is blended with Pinot Noir, while the reds and rosés of the small Châteaumeillant appellation are blends that involve Gamay to a greater or lesser degree, along with Pinot Noir and Pinot Gris.

On its own, Gamay is used to make pale, delicate wines in the Coteaux d’Ancenis appellation, sometimes with a small amount of Cabernet Franc. In Anjou and Touraine, too, some Gamay is vinified alone to make Anjou or Touraine Gamay, light and early-drinking styles that are sometimes labeled as primeur. The appellations of the upper Loire are where Gamay really shines, especially when grown on volcanic, granite-based soils. In Saint-Pourçain, rosés are 100% Gamay, while reds are blends with Pinot Noir. In the Côtes d’Auvergne, Gamay and Pinot Noir combine to produce easy-drinking reds and rosés. The Loire’s most exciting Gamay wines come from the appellations where the variety is the only one permitted for reds and rosés: the Côte Roannaise and Côtes du Forez. Here, the grape can produce juicy, silky, red-fruited wines that in good years combine more southerly generosity of fruit with Loire elegance and sense of place.

4,197 hectares in 2020

Pinot Noir: It might be better known as the grape of Burgundy, but Pinot Noir has a long history in the Loire’s Central Vineyards, dating to at least the 14^th century. Pinot Noir now represents around 15% of production in the area. The variety is also found further west in the Touraine region, and as far as the Atlantic coastline as a permitted grape within the Fiefs Vendéens appellation. Additionally, it can be used to produce Rosé de Loire, Crémant de Loire sparkling wine (as part of a blend), and rosé and red wines under IGP Val de Loire.

Pinot Noir is vulnerable to spring frosts because of its propensity to bud early, and it is susceptible to both oidium and powdery mildew. While it was once made into crisp reds suited to by-the-glass sales in brasseries, the effects of climate change have created warmer conditions that allow it to ripen more reliably.

Because a wide range of styles is produced, generalizations about Loire Pinot Noir are difficult. From oaked to unoaked, destemmed to whole cluster, there are about as many different approaches to making Pinot Noir as there are clones.

2,227 hectares in 2020

Other Red Grapes

Grolleau: Unique to the Loire Valley, Grolleau is the region’s fourth most planted black grape. Valued historically for its very high productivity, Grolleau has fallen in popularity in recent years as focus has shifted to quality over quantity. There are some interesting examples of varietal red Grolleau to be found, but for the most part it remains a major source of productive income in the form of lightly fruity, off-dry Rosé d’Anjou, where it is an important part of the blend. It can also be used as a blending component in sparkling wines. Grolleau plantings cover around 2,000 hectares.

Pineau d’Aunis: Pineau d’Aunis is an unusual and ancient variety, unrelated to the Pinot family and, unlike several other grapes in the Loire Valley named Pineau, not a synonym for anything else. It is planted almost exclusively in the lesser-known Touraine vineyards of the river Loir (a tributary of the Loire), although it is occasionally featured in blends elsewhere. Susceptible to chlorosis and botrytis bunch rot, it is a difficult grape to grow, and careful management of yields is essential to maintaining quality. Usually vinified red, it produces wines that appear very pale but deliver an altogether more characterful mouthful. Good Pineau d’Aunis is aromatically enticing, with surprisingly robust tannins and peppery spice. The major appellations for Pineau d’Aunis are Coteaux du Vendômois and Coteaux du Loir, where the grape is used to produce red and rosé wines.

Côt: An old variety hailing from southwestern France, Côt is a synonym for Malbec. A cross of Magdeleine Noire des Charentes and Prunelard, the variety has significant clonal variation, and wine style is greatly affected by climate. The Côt wines of the Loire bear little resemblance to the rich and densely fruited Malbecs of Argentina—although both expressions have a distinctive, deep purple color. Côt is a vigorous grape and ripens around two weeks earlier than Cabernet Franc, making it an attractive option in areas where ripening is less than certain. Plantings are concentrated in Touraine, where it appears as a varietal wine or blended with Cabernet Franc or Gamay. Stylistically, Loire wines made from Côt are light and early drinking, falling between Gamay and Cabernet Franc in terms of structure and style.

Each less than 1% of total vineyard area in 2020

Pays Nantais

Muscadet is the most important wine of the Pays Nantais, or Nantais, region, and the Muscadet appellation is the largest in the Loire Valley. It covers an area of 6,863 hectares, low hills carpeted with vines around the city of Nantes. Muscadet is one of the Loire’s best-known wines and one of the easiest to understand. These white wines are light, still, and dry, and almost all are made from a single grape variety, Melon B. Muscadet’s Melon B is more consistent than its versatile Anjou neighbor, Chenin Blanc, but this makes it a surer buy from a consumer’s perspective: the style of wine in a bottle marked Muscadet will never diverge very far from what is expected.

Click to enlarge and zoom in

The history of Muscadet wine is not particularly illustrious. For centuries, Melon B was undervalued commercially, since the always productive Folle Blanche was so much more lucrative for use in brandy production. Melon B rose to prominence only as the brandy trade diminished and interest in wine developed. It finally became established when French vineyards were replanted at the start of the 20^th century, following the crisis of phylloxera. Similarly neutral in style to Folle Blanche, Melon B has always been recognized as a finer wine grape, with more mellow acidity and softer fruit. Yet for most of its history, wine from Melon B has been considered an inexpensive drink for local consumption. Even today, most Muscadet doesn’t travel far.

Muscadet enjoyed a brief period of revived fortunes when it became a popular mainstay at the cheap end of wine lists around the UK in the 1980s and 1990s. At this time, more than 13,000 hectares of Melon B were planted, and négociants were producing large volumes of Muscadet wine. The British thirst for cheap Muscadet had led to increased plantings, higher yields, and a corresponding drop in the quality of the wine produced. At the same time, Muscadet was competing for attention in the UK with new and exciting, exuberantly flavored offerings from the New World. Muscadet fell in popularity, and a succession of poor vintages in the early 1990s further diminished demand. Vineyards were abandoned, and the area under vine has been slowly declining ever since.

While some regions of the Loire have been net beneficiaries of climate change, Muscadet has suffered particularly badly from the vagaries of the climate. Viticulture in the region is increasingly precarious because of spring frosts, which are much more damaging when the vine has started its growing season early, as is increasingly the case. In 2021, average crop loss was a staggering 80% following 11 nights of subzero temperatures in April.

Even so, there is a real cause for optimism in Muscadet: the wines themselves. In a world where it is difficult to find wines that are under 13% alcohol, Muscadet, which typically is 12%, is a notable exception. Exuberance is easy to find, but subtlety is much rarer, and this is where Muscadet excels. For those seeking a wine that will provide an elegant, crisp partner to lighter foods, and that won’t be too expensive or too high in alcohol, Muscadet delivers, and today there are many serious producers of the style.

Aging Sur Lie

Lees aging is one of the major winemaking practices distinguishing different producers and styles of Muscadet today. Winemakers who stir lees frequently and age their wines for several years will have richer, creamier, fatter styles than those who leave their wines to age untouched but protected by the reductive effect of the lees, often in the underground glass-lined vats traditional to the region. The effect of the lees will also depend on the aging vessel chosen. The old-style vats keep the aging wine in an inert environment and at a constant, cool underground temperature, but modern winemakers use all types of vessels, including oak, concrete eggs, and amphorae.

Lees comprise mainly dead yeast cells from the wine’s fermentation. When lees are left in contact with wine for an extended period, they begin to break down, or autolyze, imparting flavor, aroma, and texture to the wine, as well as a mild spritz of carbon dioxide. As Muscadet does not have a strong personality of its own, lees aging can add interest and complexity. The longer a wine is left on its lees, and the more the lees are moved around, the greater their influence on the final wine’s style.

Most Muscadet is aged on its lees for a short time after vinification, which gave the grower the right to add the words sur lie to the label. Traditionally, this was not a separate appellation but an addition to it. The rules state that for a wine to be labeled sur lie, it must spend no more than one winter on lees and may not be bottled before March 1 of the year following fermentation, which equates to between 5 and 14 months of aging. In 2020, Muscadet AOP removed the rights to this verbiage.

Muscadet

The broad, generic Muscadet AOC covers a wide swath of land running from east of the town of Ancenis all the way to the coast beyond Nantes in the southwest, a planted area that totals 6,863 hectares. This encompasses all the land in the other Muscadet appellations (outlined below), plus 1,647 hectares of land entitled only to Muscadet AOC. The generic appellation differs from the other three in terms of the laws regarding its production. Base yields are considerably higher, at 70 hectoliters per hectare compared with 55 for the others, so any of the other appellations may default to the generic appellation if yields are above 55 hectoliters per hectare. There is no right to the sur lie indication (see sidebar) after the 2020 vintage. Instead, the wines may be labeled as primeur to distinguish them as bottled in their youthful state. It is also the only appellation to have the right to include a variety other than Melon B: up to 10% Chardonnay may be added to basic Muscadet wines. The appellation was granted AOC status in 1937.

Muscadet Sèvre-et-Maine

One of the first AOCs granted, in 1936, the Muscadet Sèvre-et-Maine appellation is centered around the Sèvre Nantaise and Maine tributaries of the Loire. It remains the heart of all Muscadet production today, accounting for more than 70% of plantings across 4,912 hectares. The vines grow in a concentrated area just south of the city of Nantes.

The soils of Muscadet comprise a highly complex and varied mixture of igneous and metamorphic rocks, including gneiss, granite, gabbro, amphibolite, mica schist, and many others. Recognizing the variations in wines produced on certain different soil types, producers applied for cru status for wines from these distinctive origins. The first crus—Clisson, Gorges, and Le Pallet—were approved by the Institut national de l’origine et de la qualité (INAO) in 2011. A further four—Goulaine, Château Thébaud, Monnières-Saint-Fiacre, and Mouzillon-Tillières—were granted cru status in 2019. The crus are not appellations in themselves but dénominations géographiques complémentaires, a term describing a supplementary geographical addition that can appear on labels as an add-on to an existing appellation under certain specified conditions. Cru wines are subject to lower yields—45 rather than 55 hectoliters per hectare—and the fruit of very young vines cannot be used (although the minimum age is only six years). The grapes must come from specific identified sites and have higher ripeness (potential alcohol). The wines must be matured for a lengthy period on lees before release to qualify for the additional mention of cru. The crus Goulaine and Le Pallet must stay on lees until April 1 of the second year following harvest; the other approved crus must age for at least an additional six months, until October 1 of the second year after harvest. These wines are often of excellent quality, with the extended lees aging bringing rich texture, increased depth, and savory, autolysis-derived flavors. In bottle, they can age for decades and represent some of the best value wines in the Loire Valley.

Muscadet Coteaux de la Loire

The Muscadet Coteaux de la Loire AOC was granted in 1936. It covers an area almost identical to the Coteaux d’Ancenis appellation (discussed below), on hillsides running along either side of the Loire from Nantes eastward to beyond Ancenis. The planted area is 100 hectares.

Muscadet Côtes de Grandlieu

Muscadet Côtes de Grandlieu AOC, which received appellation status in 1994, is centered around the lake of Grandlieu, south of Nantes and west of the bulk of plantings in Sèvre-et-Maine AOC. It includes 204 planted hectares.

Muscadet Coteaux de la Loire (Credit: Philippe Caharel, InterLoire)

Coteaux d’Ancenis

Between Nantes and Angers, the 150-hectare Coteaux d’Ancenis AOC is situated on slopes set back on either side of the Loire. Its boundaries are almost identical to those of the Muscadet appellation of Muscadet Coteaux de la Loire, and it is centered around the riverside town of Ancenis. Vineyards are scattered over a broad area where crops and cattle populate the flatter land, and vines grow at 20 to 80 meters above the river. Two-thirds of the appellation focuses on semisweet Pinot Gris, locally known as Malvoisie, with 20 to 40 grams per liter of residual sugar. Most is consumed within the region. Reds and rosés are typically 100% Gamay but may contain a small proportion of Cabernet Franc. These are light, dry, and refreshing wines that reflect the cool and mild oceanic climate.

Gros Plant du Pays Nantais

Extending west from Ancenis all the way to the coast is the 570-hectare Gros Plant du Pays Nantais AOC, a former Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure (VDQS) whites-only denomination for dry wines from the Folle Blanche (meaning “crazy white”) grape, less evocatively known as Gros Plant (meaning “big plant”). Both names could be reflective of the grape’s productive nature: since its 2011 AOC status, the appellation’s permitted base yield is a hefty 75 hectoliters per hectare. The wines are mild in aroma and flavor, and they are characterized by their uniformly high acidity. Gros Plant may be aged on lees for a few months in a similar fashion to Muscadet sur lie. Most wines are 100% Folle Blanche but may include up to 10% Colombard.

Fiefs Vendéens

The most oceanic of the Loire’s vineyards is the coastal Fiefs Vendéens AOC, an area of around 350 hectares, where 15 vignerons farm five discrete parcels of vines south of the city of Nantes. The name of each subzone forms part of the appellation: Brem, Mareuil, Chantonnay, Pissotte, or Vix. Because of the complex nature of the soils—as in Muscadet, they are derived from the Armorican Massif—each subzone has its own set of rules regarding permitted varieties and the proportions that must make up each wine. All wines must be blends. Reds and rosés, produced in similar quantities, account for more than 80% of the appellation’s wines. Rosés are blends of Pinot Noir and Gamay; reds are from Pinot Noir or Cabernet Franc blended with Négrette, the variety native to southwestern France that also has historic associations here. Whites are blends of a majority of Chenin Blanc with Chardonnay. The requirement that all wines must be blended has encouraged some growers to produce wine outside the appellation.

Anjou-Saumur

The Anjou-Saumur region is the Loire Valley’s largest for both production and area under vine. Its 15,463 planted hectares cover varied terroir. Nearly every style of wine can be found in Anjou, and from a surprisingly small selection of varieties. The ever-versatile Chenin Blanc dominates for white and sparkling wines, while Cabernet Franc is the primary grape for reds and rosés. Supporting varieties include Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Grolleau, and Pineau d’Aunis.

Most of the vineyards lie on the left (south) bank of the Loire, between the towns of Angers and Saumur. Following a north-south line slightly west of Angers, the old rocks of the Armorican Massif give way to the younger, Jurassic rocks of the Paris Basin, which continues eastward throughout Touraine. Locally, a distinction is made between the Anjou Noir and the Anjou Blanc, reflecting the visible difference between the darker, black rocks of volcanic origin and the pale, chalky limestone.

There are many individual mesoclimates in Anjou-Saumur, but overall the area has the highest cumulative temperatures and lowest rainfall of all the growing regions of the Loire. Although the area is situated east of the Nantais region, its proximity to the coast (the most easterly vineyards are less than two hours from the Atlantic) allows for an oceanic influence on its climate, especially for the more westerly vineyards. Further inland, the locals’ term for the climate—and often the overall natural milieu—is la douceur angevine, which loosely translates as “mild and comfortable Anjou,” although significant spring frosts have impacted recent vintages. The Loire and several other rivers contribute to the climate and styles of wine, notably the Layon and Aubance tributaries, which are responsible for creating conditions favorable to making the sweet wines of Anjou.

A wide range of appellations is covered by the Anjou-Saumur umbrella. There is an equally wide range of quality levels, from small-scale, hand-crafted wines of international renown to large-scale, inexpensive offerings that are commercially successful in France but rarely seen elsewhere. The most important production of the region is rosé, which falls more into the second category. The rosés of Anjou are the reason that the Loire is the second highest rosé-producing region in the country, behind Provence. But in contrast with Provence’s runaway international success, consumption of Loire rosé is largely domestic.

Cabernet d’Anjou and Rosé d’Anjou

The rosé-focused Cabernet d’Anjou AOC accounts for 45% of the Anjou-Saumur region’s volume and Rosé d’Anjou AOC a further 17%. The two appellations cover more than 15% of all the hectarage of the entire Loire Valley. Grapes for these wines can be grown anywhere in the 128 communes that compose the Anjou appellation. Cabernet d’Anjou plantings are of Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet Franc, and any combination or single-varietal expression of the grapes can be used to make this semisweet rosé. Nearly 6,500 hectares are planted for this purpose alone. The wines must contain a minimum of 10 grams per liter of residual sugar, but there is no upper limit, and they are typically sweeter than this. Permitted yields are on the high side for an AOC, at 60 hectoliters per hectare, but this is still lower than the sister rosé appellation Rosé d’Anjou, where 65 hectoliters per hectare is the basic level. A variety of grapes can be used for Rosé d’Anjou, including Grolleau, Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pineau d’Aunis, Gamay, and Côt. Similar in style to Cabernet d’Anjou but typically less sweet, Rosé d’Anjou wines must have a minimum residual sugar content of seven grams per liter. Although its production levels are considerably lower than those of Cabernet d’Anjou, the gentle, off-dry Rosé d’Anjou is a more successful style outside France: it is the most exported of the Anjou appellations, with 37% of production destined for consumption in more than 100 countries.

Rosé de Loire

An additional category of rosé wine covers approximately 730 hectares spread across the Anjou-Saumur and Touraine regions. Rosé de Loire is made from the same range of grapes as Cabernet d’Anjou and Rosé d’Anjou, but it is always dry, with a maximum permitted residual sugar of three grams per liter. There is no requirement to state the sweetness level on any of these wines.

Anjou

In addition to rosé, the generic appellation of Anjou covers red, white, and sparkling wines from grapes grown in the same large area as those destined for rosé. Anjou was once a prosperous wine region whose renown was built around sweet white wines made from Chenin Blanc. In 1881, 45,000 hectares of vines were planted, but plantings fell to 10,000 by 1893, following the phylloxera crisis. New plantings in the early 20^th century focused on Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon, from which light reds known as rouget were made, but red production didn’t become the mainstay of the appellation until the 1960s. Today, around 60% of the generic Anjou appellation’s production is Anjou Rouge, made from Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pineau d’Aunis, and Grolleau. Wines labeled Anjou Gamay must be 100% from the variety. While these wines are undoubtedly deeper in color than the rouget styles, they are intended for consumption within a couple of years.

Terre de l’Élu in the Anjou Noire (Credit: J.Y. Bardin)

Chenin Blanc is the principal variety for the white wines of Anjou, which must comprise 80% or more of the variety, with an option to add Chardonnay or Sauvignon Blanc. Despite the fall in popularity of whites from Anjou, they still account for around 30% of production. At the high end, they are currently undergoing a renaissance, and consumers are increasingly seeking them out. One of the reasons for this is that several new, quality-focused producers have purchased vineyard land in appellations authorized for sweet wines only, such as Coteaux du Layon or Quarts de Chaume. Any dry white produced from these sites has the right only to the Anjou appellation, and the wines, made from 100% Chenin Blanc, are produced at yields well below the requirements for the generic appellation. A small quantity of Anjou Mousseux, accounting for only around 10% of the Anjou appellation’s production, is made from the same range of grapes (with no more than 20% Chardonnay). These bottled-fermented sparkling white or rosé wines spend at least nine months on lees before disgorgement.

Anjou Brissac and Anjou-Villages

Anjou Brissac and Anjou-Villages are relatively recent additions to the Anjou AOCs. Both are appellations for red wines only, made from Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon. Anjou-Villages, an AOC since 1987, recognizes the better sites within the Anjou AOC. These sites typically have the best exposure and are earliest to ripen. Yields for Anjou-Villages are lower than those for Anjou Rouge, at 55 hectoliters per hectare, and the wines are similar in style to Anjou Rouge. Anjou Brissac, a 1998 appellation, is centered around the Aubance River area just south of Angers. It covers the same 120-hectare area as the sweet wine appellation Coteaux de l’Aubance. The rainfall here is particularly low compared with that of the surrounding area, with slightly higher elevations to the west offering protection from oceanic humidity. The vines of Anjou Brissac receive 100 millimeters less rain than the rest of the Maine-et-Loire department during the growing season, and average temperatures are higher by 1 degree Celsius. The wines of Anjou Brissac are subject to lower yields, at 50 hectoliters per hectare, and have more depth of flavor than most of the region’s reds.

Coteaux du Layon

Though the fortunes of Anjou-Saumur have changed over time, sweet wines made from Chenin Blanc continue to be produced in the region. The growing conditions along the Layon River, a small tributary that flows northwest through the region, joining the Loire River south of Angers, are especially favorable for production of these wines. The grapes achieve high levels of ripeness, growing on well-exposed, sunny slopes close to the river. Rainfall is low, and temperatures are so warm in places that the native vegetation is Mediterranean. The river can also help foster the perfect conditions for botrytis, which typically occurs several times a decade. Changes in taste are partly responsible for the decline in the fortunes of the sweet wines of Anjou, but, equally, increased mechanization, chaptalization, and chemical inputs in the vineyards have played a part. By the middle of the 20^th century, many of the best hillside sites around the Layon had been abandoned, considered too difficult to farm mechanically. The ability to add sugar to make wine sweet, rather than having to rely on good weather in challenging vineyards, made it possible for winegrowers to create acceptable, if not great, sweet wines from lesser, easier sites—a situation replicated in other parts of the country. The reputation of the sweet wines of the Layon declined alongside interest in drinking them. Only a very small number of producers continued to make high-quality wines. Since the mid-1980s, however, there has been a renewed energy from young producers snapping up languishing vineyards and reviving the tradition of high-end wines in the historic sites of the Layon. Recognizing that nature rarely delivers ideal conditions for making sweet wines, they have been focusing on producing dry wines as well. While raising the quality level of sweet Chenin Blanc wines, they are simultaneously creating awareness of the excellent dry wines that these vineyards can produce.

Anjou-Saumur produces more sweet wine from Chenin Blanc than any other region, with eight separate appellations for sweet wine, all of which are 100% Chenin Blanc. Most of this production centers around the Layon River. The basic appellation, Coteaux du Layon AOC, covers 13 communes on both sides of the river, totaling 1,640 hectares. The appellation is solely for wines with at least 34 grams per liter of residual sugar, and permitted yields are 35 hectoliters per hectare. Coteaux du Layon Villages covers 180 hectares within the wider Coteaux du Layon appellation. Six villages—Beaulieu-sur-Layon, Faye-d’Anjou, Rablay-sur-Layon, Rochefort-sur-Loire, Saint-Aubin-de-Luigné, and Saint-Lambert-du-Lattay—can add their names to the basic appellation. To do so, yields must be slightly lower, at 30 hectoliters per hectare, and 51 grams per liter of residual sugar is required. Coteaux du Layon Premier Cru Chaume is a superior 70-hectare appellation within the commune of Rochefort-sur-Loire, where Chenin Blanc achieves higher ripeness levels. These wines will likely be sweeter than the minimum required residual sugar level of 80 grams per liter, because the sugar level at harvest needs to be higher than that of the other two appellations. The grapes in the Coteaux du Layon appellations must be harvested by hand, but chaptalization is permitted in all of them except Premier Cru Chaume.

Quarts de Chaume

The most prestigious of Anjou’s sweet wine appellations, and arguably the whole Loire Valley, is Quarts de Chaume Grand Cru. This is the only grand cru appellation in the Loire Valley for any style of wine. Its merit in attaining this title was hotly debated, resulting in two successful legal challenges against it, but the coveted grand cru status was finally awarded in 2011. The argument against Quarts de Chaume as a grand cru centered on the possibility that consumers would confuse the appellation with the existing Coteaux du Layon Premier Cru Chaume for reasons including the identical style of the wine, the proximity of the two vineyards (they are next to each other), and the very similar name. But it is hard to argue that the final decision was a bad one. The hill of Chaume is an exceptional site. The highest point for miles around (though it rises only 100 meters above sea level), this 40-hectare appellation sits on a bed of complex soils that include Broverian schists and pudding sandstones. The vines grow on a thin layer of clay between 25 and 75 meters above sea level, on steep, south-facing slopes overlooking the Layon River. The hill here, sheltered from north winds, follows a curve in the river, making it ideally situated for the production of sweet wines. In good years, autumnal morning mists rise uninterrupted from the river to encourage the development of botrytis in the ripe grapes. The yield requirement for Quarts de Chaume Grand Cru is 20 hl/ha, slightly lower to that of Coteaux du Layon Premier Cru Chaume, at 25 hectoliters per hectare. Minimum sweetness is similar, with Quarts de Chaume at 85 grams per liter and Coteaux du Layon Premier Cru Chaume at 80. The wines of Quarts de Chaume Grand Cru are likely to be a good deal sweeter than this, however, since the minimum required level of sugar in the Quarts de Chaume grapes at harvest is 298 grams per liter, equivalent to 18% potential ABV. In the best years, these world-renowned wines demonstrate that perfect and rare combination of site, grape variety, and human expertise, creating wines with remarkable balance and freshness that can age for decades.

Bonnezeaux

A little further back along the Layon toward Saumur lies Bonnezeaux AOC, another small quality appellation for sweet Chenin Blanc in the commune of Thouarcé. The appellation is just 80 hectares, with three south-facing slopes on the right (north) bank of the Layon. Yields are 25 hectoliters per hectare. Unlike Quarts de Chaume Grand Cru, but as in the greater part of the Coteaux du Layon legislation, the wines may be chaptalized. The minimum residual sugar level is 51 grams per liter, which is sweeter than basic Coteaux du Layon but below the higher-level Layon appellations. Often, the sweetness level is far higher than the minimum requirement, however, and the best of these wines can age very well.

Coteaux de l’Aubance

The Aubance River flows parallel to the Layon, joining the Loire slightly upstream. The Coteaux de l’Aubance AOC covers a 220-hectare area on both sides of the river. The proximity of the river supports the development of botrytis in good years. The wines, similar in style to those of Coteaux du Layon, follow very similar requirements in terms of yields (35 hectoliters per hectare) and minimum sugar levels in the finished wine (34 grams per liter). Like Coteaux du Layon wines, the best of these are good-value, medium-sweet wines. Popular locally, they are often drunk à l’apéritif and usually enjoyed in their youth.

Coteaux de Saumur

The last of the Anjou sweet wine appellations based on Chenin Blanc is Coteaux de Saumur. Grapes for these wines can grow over a large area of the chalky soils south of Saumur, but a mere 10 hectares are planted. The wines are fresh and medium sweet, showing the influence of the limestone soils rather than the schist-based soils of the Layon and Aubance. Yields are 35 hectoliters per hectare and grapes must be hand-picked. No chaptalization is permitted, and the final wines must have a residual sugar level of at least 34 grams per liter.

Savennières

Old vines in Savennières (Credit: Savennières)

Savennières is a charming, tiny village situated 15 kilometers southwest of Angers. The appellation is also small, with only 150 hectares planted, all to Chenin Blanc, covering three adjoining communes on the north bank of the Loire. Though it was difficult to clear and cultivate the land, this is a natural and privileged site for vine growing. The south- and southeast-facing slopes have excellent sun exposure and ventilation from the river breezes. The number of sunshine hours is high, and rainfall is relatively low. The soils are very shallow, and the vines are never far from the rocks below. These include a wide variety of schists and volcanic rock; there are also patches of windblown sand and clay. This is Anjou Noir terrain. Yields are naturally low, and the combination of terroir and grape yields austere wines with intense texture and minerality. In more recent years, winemakers have shifted toward earlier-drinking styles, with little obvious oak use. There is also a general move to earlier picking, thus the botrytis that was a common feature of wines from Savennières in years past is avoided.

The 40 or so producers within the appellation are focused on quality. All the grapes are hand-picked, and 75% of the vignerons work organically. Savennières wines attract the highest Chenin Blanc prices of all Loire Valley wines. In 2001, the vineyard was classified as a UNESCO World Heritage site in recognition of its long history of winegrowing and the perfect adaptation of vine to site through the skill of generations of wine growers. The INAO has called the vineyard a symbol of la douceur angevine.

While Savennières AOC focuses on dry wines, demi-sec and sweet wines are also permitted. In fact, when the appellation was granted, in 1952, it was recognized principally as a vineyard for the production of wines containing residual sugar. While regulations for other appellations in the region have changed to allow production of only sweet or only dry wines, the producers of Savennières have retained the right to both. Clearly, though, it is the dry wines of Savennières that have made it a famous source of quality Chenin Blanc today, along with the tiny twin jewels of Savennières Roche aux Moines (33 hectares) and Coulée de Serrant (7 hectares), each of which is a separate appellation island within Savennières.

The Savennières appellation lies across a series of coulées (valleys), among them Coulée de Serrant. This appellation straddles both sides of the valley and adjoins Savennières Roche aux Moines to the south. These two appellations have excellent exposure and particularly thin soils, and permitted yields are even lower, at 30 hectoliters per hectare for Coulée de Serrant and 35 for Roche aux Moines. The latter is a rocky outcrop of the Armorican Massif, where vines grow on south- and southwest-facing slopes overlooking the Loire. Winegrowing was recorded here as early as the 12^th century, when monks from the order of Saint-Nicolas d’Angers planted a south-facing slope overlooking the Loire that became known as La Roche aux Moines. A priory that was home to Benedictine nuns in the same period was also surrounded by vines. Coulée de Serrant can trace its origins back to 1130, when vines were planted by Cistercian monks. Arguably, there is more that unites these tiny appellations, both in terms of history and site, than divides them, and differences in style are a reflection more of the philosophy of the winemaker than of the site. Coulée de Serrant is a monopole vineyard, owned by the biodynamic zealot Nicolas Joly, who makes a very ripe style of wine, often with botrytis and residual sugar. Savennières Roche aux Moines is divided among a handful of growers, and the wines tend to reflect an earlier-picked style.

Saumur

The vineyards of Saumur AOC are in the extreme southwest of the Paris Basin, planted on the chalky limestone soils characteristic of the Anjou Blanc. This 2,000-hectare area forms the eastern and southern part of the Anjou-Saumur region, which joins Touraine to the east. All the Saumur vineyards are situated south of the Loire River. The climate is broadly oceanic but warmer and drier than that of the vineyards to the west. Styles of Saumur wine include reds and rosés made predominantly from Cabernet Franc, whites from Chenin Blanc, and sparkling wines, which account for more than 60% of production. Still wines were traditionally usually white, but today reds and whites each account for close to 20% of Saumur production, with a small amount of dry rosé making up the balance.

Saumur Blanc still wines are dry and made from 100% Chenin Blanc. Generally easier drinking than the fuller-bodied, savory Chenin Blanc wines of the Anjou Noir appellations, they offer elegant balance and fine, linear acidity. There are some exceptional wines from single vineyards such as Brézé. Saumur red wines must be at least 70% Cabernet Franc, with the option to add Cabernet Sauvignon and Pineau d’Aunis. These wines are light and supple, intended for early consumption and often served slightly cool.

Cellar dug from tuffeau (Credit: Domaine Charles Joguet)

Saumur Mousseux, also known as Fines Bulles, is made using the traditional, bottle-fermented method and must be aged for at least nine months on lees, although more-complex examples are aged for years. Whites are at least 60% Chenin Blanc and rosés 60% Cabernet Franc; the wide range of other varieties used includes Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pineau d’Aunis, Gamay, Grolleau Gris, Grolleau Noir, and Pinot Noir. Saumur benefits from the presence of extensive cellars dug from soft tuffeau limestone, used to build the houses and châteaux of the area. The cellars, which often extend hundreds of meters underground, are ideal for aging wines at a constant temperature. These fresh and early-drinking sparklers are reliable in quality, especially from the larger producers whose cellars line the river close to the town of Saumur.

Centered around the town of Saumur are many of the producers of Crémant de Loire, the broader appellation for high-quality sparkling wine that covers 2,800 hectares across a wide range of growing conditions in the Anjou-Saumur and Touraine regions. In recent years, there has been a surge in the growth of these wines, as they offer a good-value alternative to pricier bottle-fermented sparkling options. Crémant de Loire is found in blanc and rosé styles, and the permitted varieties are plentiful: Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, and Orbois are the white varieties; reds include Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Grolleau Noir, Grolleau Gris, Pineau d’Aunis, and Pinot Noir. The regulations for bottle aging are the same as those for Saumur Mousseux, with a minimum of nine months on lees following a second fermentation in bottle. Permitted yields are slightly higher for Crémant de Loire (74 hectoliters per hectare) than for Saumur Mousseux (67 hectoliters per hectare), and a key difference in production is that grapes destined for crémant must be harvested by hand.

Saumur Puy-Notre-Dame

The geographic designation of Saumur Puy-Notre-Dame was added to Saumur AOC in 2009. It is a superior designation for a 60-hectare area centered around the small town of Le Puy-Notre-Dame, the highest point in the region, some 20 kilometers south of Saumur. These wines have higher concentration: at harvest, the grapes must have potential alcohol levels of 12%, higher than Saumur Rouge’s 10.5%. Yields are also lower (50 hectoliters per hectare versus 57 for Saumur), and the wines cannot be chaptalized. The vines are planted at around 80 meters above sea level. Composed of at least 85% Cabernet Franc, with the balance coming from Cabernet Sauvignon, these wines are deeply colored and more structured than those of Saumur.

Saumur-Champigny

The jewel in the Saumur crown is Saumur-Champigny AOC. This 1,600-hectare region covers nine adjoining villages on a plateau above the town of Saumur. The name derives from the Latin campus ignis (field of fire), perhaps a reference to the high temperatures in this protected location, which is bordered to the south by the forest of Fontevraud, and to the east and west by the rivers Loire and Thouet. The soil is clay and tuffeau limestone, which both provides drainage and retains moisture, creating ideal conditions for the vines to thrive. Cabernet Franc must account for at least 85% of a Saumur-Champigny wine, but this figure is almost always 100%. These wines are among the most highly regarded in the Loire Valley; the best show the elegance, freshness, fragrance, and finesse that Loire Cabernet Franc can achieve. Highly approachable when young, the wines have generous fruit and supple tannins. The finest, such as the wines of Clos Rougeard, will improve for a decade or more.

Haut-Poitou

The small region of Haut-Poitou, granted appellation status in 2011, covers an area of 110 hectares south of the town of Chinon. The altitude is relatively high, at up to 150 meters above sea level. Wines may be red, white, or rosé. More than 80% of production consists of whites from primarily Sauvignon Blanc, with an allowance of up to 40% Sauvignon Gris. Reds are 60% Cabernet Franc, which may be blended with Gamay, Pinot Noir, and Merlot. A small amount of rosé is made from Cabernet Franc, Pinot Noir, and Gamay. Haut-Poitou wines are fruit-driven and intended for early consumption largely within France.

Touraine

The Touraine wine region and catchall Touraine appellation begin a few miles east of the city of Saumur and continue eastward along the Loire until slightly beyond the town of Blois. The majority of the appellation’s 4,450 hectares of vineyard lie between the Loire and Cher rivers, which meet slightly west of the city of Tours. It is a vast area, comprising 143 wine villages. Touraine sits in the Paris Basin, where the diverse soils include tuffeau, sand, clay, and flint, and alluvial terraces also have deposits of gravel. The climate varies, becoming increasingly continental toward the east, with decreasing rainfall (650 millimeters annually in the west of the region versus 550 millimeters in the east). Within the Touraine region, there are many individual appellations that have been successful within and beyond France’s borders, particularly Vouvray, Chinon, Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil, and Bourgueil. There are several lesser-known areas that intrigue wine lovers, including the Cour-Cheverny appellation.

The main grape varieties of Anjou-Saumur—Chenin Blanc and Cabernet Franc—are also grown in Touraine, particularly in the western half. But the primary white grape planted in the Touraine appellation is Sauvignon Blanc, at 43% of plantings (Chenin Blanc accounts for just 7%). The dominance of Sauvignon Blanc is largely a reflection of market demand; growers have planted it to replace less successful varieties. Gamay is the most planted red variety with 21% of vineyard area, followed by Cabernet Franc with 10% and Côt with 8%. While varietal wines dominate in Pays Nantais, Anjou-Saumur, and the Central Vineyards, blends are more common in the Touraine region, particularly red and rosé blends. Here, Cabernet Franc is joined by Côt, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir, and Gamay.

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Viticulture in Touraine began in the first century CE with the introduction of the vine by the Romans. Wine was first consumed locally, then boosted by the arrival of the royal court and the 1577 law banning the sale of wine made within the Paris region. Notable wine villages today, including Vouvray and Chinon, were largely unknown until the 17^th and 18^th centuries. Over time, demand grew for wines that could be transported along the many waterways to the country’s capital. By the mid-19^th century, it was calculated that two-thirds of Touraine’s wine production was drunk outside the region. Despite the positive reputation of Vouvray, Touraine reds were primarily seen as a good blending partner because of their deep color rather than their intrinsic qualities.

Internationally, Touraine AOC is viewed as a source of good-value white wines compared with Sancerre or Pouilly-Fumé. In an effort to improve Touraine's reputation, five small denominations have emerged within the AOC, collectively accounting for just 7% of Touraine’s production.

Touraine Oisly is a small, 12-producer appellation focused solely on lees-aged Sauvignon Blanc grown on sand and clay, with rounded styles most typical. The largest of the five denominations is Touraine Chenonceaux, whose white wines, made exclusively from Sauvignon Blanc, are produced on well-draining slopes along the Cher River. Yields for Chenonceaux are stricter than those for Touraine AOC (60 hectoliters per hectare versus 65). The wines must be approved by a tasting panel. Gentle, fruity red blends, which must be between 65% and 80% Côt with a minimum 10% Cabernet Franc, are also permitted under Touraine Chenonceaux.

In Touraine-Amboise, Touraine-Azay-le-Rideau, and Touraine-Mesland, Chenin Blanc is the dominant white grape. In Touraine-Mesland, Chenin Blanc can be blended with a small amount of Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay. There are less than a dozen producers in this small appellation, and very little wine is exported. The soils are flinty sands. A small amount of rosé and red is made using Gamay and Cabernet Franc.

Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil and Bourgueil

Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil and Bourgueil are contiguous AOCs on the north bank of the Loire River. Both allow red and rosé styles, with Cabernet Franc dominating the final wines, though rosé accounts for only a small percentage of production. Both also require the same maximum yield (55 hectoliters per hectare). Many local producers have vineyards in both appellations and suggest that the creation of two appellations was driven more by politics than terroir.

Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil (1,069 hectares), which is centered on the village of the same name, is slightly smaller than Bourgueil (1,220 hectares), to the east, which comprises six villages, including Bourgueil itself. The river is south of both appellations’ vineyards, and they are protected from cold northerly winds by a forested hilltop. The finest, most ageworthy wines are made from the vineyards that slope upward toward this forest on tuffeau-clay soils. At the bottom of this hillside, there is a large terrace dominated by well-drained sandy-gravel soils, which yields lighter-bodied, earlier-drinking wine styles in both appellations. Most of Saint-Nicolas’s vineyards and just half of Bourgueil’s sit on this alluvial terrace. The rest of Bourgueil’s vineyards are on the chalky-clay soils of the hillsides, contributing to this appellation’s greater reputation for rich yet elegant styles that can be drunk at two years, with some examples drinking well beyond two decades. Saint-Nicolas also has around 100 hectares of vineyard near the river on silty-gravel soils, further contributing to the region’s production of easy-drinking, fruity wines. A Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil and a Bourgueil grown on the same sandy-gravel terrace, however, are difficult to differentiate in a blind tasting. It is easier to distinguish two Bourgueil wines sourced from different soil types.

Viticultural challenges in this area include frost, particularly on the flatter terraces; the slopes are less affected. Since the early 1990s, the producers of Saint-Nicolas have been working collectively to minimize frost damage, purchasing frost fans and installing sprinkler systems. Following a severe frost in 2016, the project was enlarged. At a cost of €2 million, an area of about 420 hectares, or two-fifths of the appellation, now relies on the appellation-financed frost protection systems. In the summer months, drought has been increasingly common, and those on the well-draining alluvial terraces suffer most. Irrigation is not permitted per EU rules. On the chalky-clay slopes, the vines are better able to withstand dry spells, but erosion can be a problem, particularly with storms and erratic weather conditions caused by climate change. Cover crops are often planted between the rows to reduce damage.

The cooler nature of the clay-chalk soils generally means the picking begins later in these areas than in the vineyards of sandy-gravel soils, which heat up quickly. In the winery, grapes tend to be vinified according to soil. The sandy-gravel soils typically yield lighter, fruity styles; to emphasize these qualities, winemakers will ferment the grapes at cooler temperatures and extract gently to make an easy-drinking, light-in-tannin wine with little oak influence. Fermentation temperatures are likely to be a couple of degrees higher for the grapes sourced from the clay-chalk hillside, with longer maceration times and maturation in oak barrel.

Chinon

Chinon, located south of the Loire River, is the Loire Valley’s largest red-producing appellation. Uniquely, Chinon also allows for white and rosé wine production. The region began exporting wine via the port of Nantes in the 18^th century, and that early wine was most likely white, as demanded by Dutch traders. Today, Chinon continues to produce white wines from Chenin Blanc, but there are only 74 hectares planted, equivalent to just 3% of production. The vineyards of Chinon now cover 2,397 hectares of land, but when the region attained AOC status, in 1937, there were just 550 hectares of vines. At that time and into the next decade, it was still rebuilding its vineyards after phylloxera, Prussian occupation (1870–1871), and German occupation during World War II, and growing crops for food was more important than making wine. Today, two in five wine producers also grow other crops.

From the confluence of the Vienne and Loire Rivers, Chinon’s vineyards extend southeast for more than 25 kilometers, encompassing 26 villages, from Savigny-en-Véron in the west to Crouzilles in the east, with the picturesque town of Chinon at the center. Vineyards sit on both sides of the Vienne, most on the north bank, where plantings reach an altitude of about 100 meters. There are many different exposures, including some north-facing vineyards on the south bank of the Vienne.

View of Chinon from Clos du Chêne Vert (Credit: Domaine Charles Joguet)

While as many as 50 different soil types were identified in a 1978 university thesis by Jacky Dupont, Chinon is best understood by its three main soils. First, alluvial terraces made of sand, silt, and river gravels can be found on lower, flatter lands close to the river, as well as in the wedge of the appellation where the Loire and Vienne meet, in western Chinon. Known as the Véron peninsula, this area has highly sandy soils that are free draining and warm up quickly, making vines in this part of the appellation early to bud and early to ripen.

The second soil is tuffeau mixed with clay, found on the coteaux (hillsides), where the vineyards rise upward, away from the river and the valley floor. Here, the limestone is yellow, unlike the white chalks of Saumur. The coteaux run almost continuously from Chinon to Avon-les-Roches, nearly 20 kilometers. This is where many of the appellation’s most prized vineyards, such as Le Clos de l’Olive, Le Chêne Vert, and La Croix Boissée, are located. If there were grand cru vineyards in Chinon, the vast majority would be at these sites, which produce the most elegant, densely concentrated, chalky-textured, and ageworthy Cabernet Franc.

Chinon’s third terroir is generally found at the top of the hillsides, where sand and clay mix with flint; it is also found on the hillocks, known as puys, found in the Véron peninsula. These soils, while not considered as prestigious as the clay-limestone of the coteaux, also yield high-quality wines.

The climate in Chinon is influenced by nearby bodies of water: the Atlantic Ocean and the confluence of the Vienne and Loire Rivers. It is mild, with a warm summer, a high number of sunshine hours, and relatively low rainfall. Climate change is bringing challenges, however, with drought occurring more often. A lack of water particularly affects vines on the free-draining sandy-gravel soils, where moisture is not readily retained. Spring frosts and hail have wiped out some growers’ crops entirely in recent years. As a result, the maximum yield of 55 hectoliters per hectare is rarely reached. There is a focus on quality, and 45% of the vineyard area is either organic or in conversion, according to the appellation.

As in Bourgueil, the wines of Chinon are generally vinified by terroir. The grapes picked from the sandy-gravel soils are suited to making fresh, fruity, unoaked wines. They are often machine harvested, fermented in inert vessels, macerated for a brief period, and bottled relatively early for consumption in the short term (two to five years). Meanwhile, the finest fruit sourced from the clay-limestone coteaux is hand-picked, gently extracted, treated to a long maceration, and fermented and aged in some oak, with a proportion of new wood. Around half of the producers use up to 25% new wood, and just 5% use a high proportion (75% to 100%). These wines are seriously concentrated, offering fragrant red and black fruit (depending on the vintage), an elegant mouthfeel, and a fine line of tension. Cabernet Franc is prone to reduction, and producers can manage this tendency by using regular racking to introduce oxygen to avoid off-flavors.

Most Chinon producers make a rosé, a practice that has increased in recent years because of market demand. Only a small number of producers make their rosé from direct pressing exclusively; more often, winemakers employ the saignée method or a combination of techniques. The color of the resulting wines is often salmon pink, with red fruit, floral, and citrus notes combining to make a refreshing style.

The relatively obscure Chenin Blanc from Chinon is made in a variety of different styles, generally yielding wines with subtle orchard fruit, supple texture, and refreshing acidity.

Vouvray

Winemaking in the famed appellation of Vouvray, situated on the outskirts of Tours, is thought to have begun in the fourth century, though the wines didn’t enjoy export success until much later. In the 17^th century, the Dutch started to export Vouvray, which became more popular as new transport links—first the canals, then the railways—opened new markets. By the mid-19^th century, Vouvray was the shining star of the Touraine wine region, gaining international recognition. Yet in 1848, a study showed that most of its wines were still considered fairly ordinary: 7% of the vineyards were classified as first class, 7% as second class, and the rest (86%) as “very ordinary.” While many winegrowers replanted with hybrids after the arrival of phylloxera, in 1882, Chenin Blanc was most successful.

In the early 20^th century, wine adulteration was widespread. In the absence of appellation laws, still white wines from the Loire were transported to Reims and Épernay, where they were made into sparkling wines and labeled as Champagne. There were also unscrupulous dealers in the Loire who were mislabeling their poor-quality whites as Vouvray, which by this time had developed a good reputation. In 1923, locals threatened to take an entire village of producers to court for misusing the Vouvray name. The appellation system aimed to remedy the issues of wine fraud, and in 1936 Vouvray became a white wine appellation based on Chenin Blanc (with the little-known Orbois contributing a maximum of 5% to the blend).

Tuffeau limestone is the basis of Vouvray. Some vineyards sit almost directly on the limestone, but most have a topsoil of clay or flint, or both, in varying proportions. The slopes are referred to as premières côtes, where the topsoil is clay-flint, a soil known locally as perruches. Grapes grown here are used for the best wines, which are the most delicate and fine—although it’s difficult for an outsider to pinpoint where the côtes begin and end. On the rolling plateau, the deeper, clay-rich topsoils create a cooler, damper environment, and thus the grapes take longer to ripen and may not attain the same level of ripeness as those on the côtes. As a result, many of the grapes grown on the plateau are destined for base wines for sparkling Vouvray, which requires a potential alcohol of just 9.5% compared with 11% for still wine. The premières côtes receive better sun exposure, and the topsoil is thinner, allowing the vines to reach the limestone more easily.

There are many shades of Vouvray, from sparkling to still, dry to botrytized, and everything in between. And within each category, there are many nuances. For example, very dry styles (less than two grams of residual sugar per liter) are very much in vogue. Dry styles are more popular than sweeter styles, but they can be lean and flinty or richly ripe and oaked, depending on the site, the season, and the producer. Sparkling wines also vary, from high-yielding, machine-harvested, traditional method fizz destined for supermarkets to hand-picked, small-batch, ancestral method cuvées. Although 60% of Vouvray production is sparkling wine, it is rarely seen in export markets: 9 out of 10 bottles of sparkling Vouvray are consumed in France, while 2 out of 3 bottles of still Vouvray are shipped overseas.

Traditionally, Vouvray producers attempted to make all styles, from dry to sweet, in the same year and sometimes from the same vines, achieved by making several passes through the vineyard during the harvest period. This was not possible, however, when the grapes did not ripen enough to make sweet styles, and thus these wines were highly prized in part for their rarity. But climate change has made it possible to achieve higher levels of ripeness more consistently and produce sweet wines annually. Improved ripeness levels and lower acidity levels also make the production of balanced dry whites much easier; there is no need for sugar to hide very high levels of acidity or harsh phenolics. In some warmer years, like 2018 and 2020, grape sugars can rise quickly, creating wines that have potential alcohol levels above 14% or even 14.5%, which are more suited to demi-sec styles than unbalanced, high-alcohol, sec styles. The cool 2021 season also produced many dry Vouvray wines that would have benefited from more residual sugar to counter their bracing acidity.

The maximum permitted residual sugar for a Vouvray sec is 8 grams per liter (the level can be adjusted depending on the acidity content).

Some producers claim that only dry Vouvray can provide a true expression of site; others fiercely disagree, claiming that there are no other places in the world that can make demi-sec or moelleux Chenin Blanc with such harmony and finesse. Falling between sec and demi-sec styles is sec tendre, an unofficial but widely used term for wines with a subtle sweetness that rounds out the midpalate and contributes texture.

Montlouis-sur-Loire

The Montlouis-sur-Loire AOC sits on the south side of the Loire River, opposite Vouvray on the north bank. It is a much smaller appellation, with just 442 hectares of vines compared with Vouvray’s 2,234 hectares. Its size is limited by the Cher River to the south, sandwiching the vineyard between two rivers.

Vines have been grown here since the fifth century CE, but the wines were long sold under the name Vouvray. Like Vouvray, Montlouis-sur-Loire is an appellation for white wine only, making both still and sparkling Chenin Blanc. In addition to traditional method sparkling wines, the appellation includes a pétillant category, for delicately sparkling wines (1.5 to 2 bars), and since 2020 the cahier des charges has incorporated pétillant naturel. Vin Mousseux á Fermentation Unique, produced from just one fermentation, must spend a minimum of nine months on lees and must be disgorged, which is not always the case with pét-nat. In the Montlouis vineyards, the planting density is very similar to that of Vouvray, while the yields (52 hectoliters per hectare for still, 65 hectoliters per hectare for sparkling) are identical. Montlouis also produces the full range of styles, from dry to sweet. The vineyards of Montlouis, however, either sit on a plateau or face the Cher rather than the Loire, and the topsoils are mainly a blend of clay and flint. The bedrock is yellow limestone from the Turonian era.

Montlouis has a high percentage of young producers because of the lower cost of land compared with that of Vouvray. Almost half the producers farm organically and hand-harvest. Some producers have vineyards in Vouvray, but, as the law states that Vouvray must be vinified in Vouvray, those with cellars only in Montlouis must label their wines as Vin de France.

Cheverny

The Cheverny appellation was created in 1993, but the area has long made wine: there are records of vineyards dating back to the Middle Ages, and Cheverny’s viticultural importance increased following the 1577 law forbidding the sale of wine made in the region around Paris. It now covers 650 hectares south and east of the city of Blois.

Cheverny wines are always blends: the whites are made predominantly from Sauvignon Blanc, with Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, or Orbois. For the reds, Pinot Noir must account for 60% to 85% of a blend, with Gamay or, occasionally, Cabernet Franc or Côt included. The vineyards grow on alluvial soils. The white wines tend to be aromatic, fresh, and round, while the reds are typically fresh, fruity, and easy to drink.

Cour-Cheverny

The unique 50-hectare Cour-Cheverny appellation produces white wine from Romorantin. Grown here on alluvial soils of sand with either clay or gravel, Romorantin vines produce small berries and are relatively productive. The variety is high in acidity and can often be surprisingly full in body. The wines are typically dry, but late-harvest sweet wines are occasionally produced. Some of the best wines are made from old, ungrafted vines.

Jasnières

Jasnières is a small (70-hectare) appellation exclusively for Chenin Blanc, located 50 kilometers north of Tours on the Loir River. In this cool enclave, the grapes can ripen only because of their favorable position on southeast-facing slopes above the river. A forest to the north protects the vines from cold winds. Jasnières has a reputation for very steely, firm wines that can take years—even decades—to evolve. Climate change, however, may increase fruit maturity, helping make the wines more accessible in their youth. When conditions permit, botrytized wines can be made.

Coteaux du Vendômois

Sitting along the banks of the Loir River, the 120-hectare Coteaux du Vendômois AOC is named after the town of Vendôme. Chenin Blanc is the white variety of choice, with up to 20% Chardonnay permitted, but the most distinctive aspect of this appellation is its use of Pineau d’Aunis to make both its reds and vins gris. The variety typically yields pale-hued wines that are light, vivacious, and peppery.

Central Vineyards

Sancerre

The likely birthplace of Sauvignon Blanc, Sancerre yields wines that provide the benchmark for the variety around the world. A two-hour drive south of Paris, Sancerre is a bucolic hilltop town, voted France’s favorite village in 2021. The appellation radiates outward from Sancerre and comprises 16 villages and hamlets, covering just shy of 3,000 hectares on the west (left) bank of the Loire River.

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It is thought that vines were first planted in the area around the second century CE in the neighboring village of Saint-Satur, then known as Gordona. Vines were again recorded by Grégoire of Tours in 582. Sancerre wines likely became more famous when Etienne I (1133–1190), the Count of Sancerre, also held the role of France’s grand bouteiller (grand butler), whose duties included sourcing the royal wine supply. Sauvignon Blanc, then referred to as Sauvignon Fumé, was first recorded as growing in Sancerre and Pouilly in 1783, and the area became known for its fine white wines, particularly those from the village of Chavignol. Following phylloxera, large swaths of the vineyard area were replanted with Chasselas, a lucrative table grape that was much desired in Paris, as well as Gamay. But Chasselas was not considered a quality wine grape, and farmers started experimenting with Sauvignon Blanc. In 1936, the Sancerre appellation was created exclusively for Sauvignon Blanc wines, and in 1959 red and rosé wines made solely from Pinot Noir were incorporated into the appellation.

Today, Sancerre is an export-focused appellation. In 2020, exports totaled 82,147 hectoliters, worth €84.36 million. This is equivalent to €10.27 per liter, while Loire whites sold for, on average, €6.95 per liter. The premium on Sancerre is linked to supply and demand as well as the elevated price of land.

The appellation of Sancerre rises from the river valley, culminating in La Cuesta, the town’s highest point, at 356 meters altitude. The appellation’s main divide runs through the hillside village from which it takes its name. The Sancerre and Thauvenay fault lines run north-south, with the land on the eastern side of the faults cascading toward the river. Here, flinty clay is the main soil type. West of both the town of Sancerre and these fault lines, the vineyards mainly sit at elevations between 200 and 300 meters and are planted on a rolling landscape. There are many different exposures, from north to south and east to west. The hills reveal layers of sedimentary rock, which have shifted and eroded over hundreds of millions of years. But the bedrock is generally Jurassic limestone, whether Kimmeridgian, Portlandian, or even Oxfordian.

There are three main soil types in Sancerre. Terres blanches, named for the white appearance of the soils in the summer sunshine, are Kimmeridgian marls, which consist of clay and limestone. The word caillottes (or griottes) refers to limestone pebbles of differing sizes. The third soil, silex, is rich in flint and found mostly on the eastern slopes of Sancerre. Terres blanches are relatively cool, and grapes take longer to ripen on these soils than on caillottes. Sancerre grown on Kimmeridgian marls tends to be more complex and fuller bodied, while caillottes typically produce more open, fruity wines. Silex generally yields powerful, firm, and even lightly bitter styles. It is common for producers to blend grapes from different sites to create their main white Sancerre cuvées.

Michel Redde’s Barre à Mine vineyard in Pouilly-Fumé with a view toward the hilltop town of Sancerre (Credit: Rebecca Gibb)

Since the 1990s, there has also been a rise in single-vineyard cuvées and terroir cuvées, which seek to express one of more than 400 lieux-dits or a specific soil type. It is increasingly common to find a vineyard name—for example, Le Chêne Marchand or Les Monts Damnés—on a Sancerre label. The name of a soil, such as terres blanches, might also appear. While it is doubtful that Sancerre drinkers are as interested in terroir as Burgundy lovers, Catherine Petrie’s Master of Wine research paper noted that both single-vineyard and terroir wines attracted a significant premium compared with a domaine’s classic, typically larger-volume white Sancerre. In his book Les terroirs sancerrois, Thibaut Boulay, a Sancerre vigneron and professor of history at Tours University, provides evidence that the term climat was recorded in Sancerre several centuries before the Burgundians documented it.

Sancerre’s production is overwhelmingly focused on white wine, which accounts for 85% of the appellation’s production. Red wine represents around 10% of Sancerre’s production, with rosé accounting for 5%. Yet Pinot Noir has a long history in Sancerre. According to John the Magnificent (1340–1416), the duke of Auvergne and Berry, which included Sancerre, the area’s Pinot Noir wines were “the best in the kingdom.” They were also a favorite of Louis XVI (1754–1793). In 1816, the Paris wine merchant André Jullien published Topographie de tous les vignobles connus, arguably the first modern wine guide, and noted that Sancerre “is surrounded by vineyards that produce [red] wines with good color, moderate alcohol and a good taste.” Pinot Noir was the main variety and remained dominant until phylloxera wiped out the vineyards. White varieties were favored during the replanting phase, and in 1936 Sauvignon Blanc became the sole grape of the Sancerre appellation. Red and rosé wines made from Pinot Noir joined the appellation 23 years later.

Fruit and freshness are key components in red Sancerre, but the range of styles is diverse. Although red Sancerre was once seen as a lowly brasserie wine, there are now fine, ageworthy examples. Pinot Noir vineyards are planted on both sides of Sancerre’s fault lines, making both limestone- and flint-based expressions, as well as on different exposures with varying clones. In the winery, there are myriad choices that can be made to yield a desired style. Winemakers often amend their approaches depending on the season’s fruit. It is clear that climate change has contributed to increasingly ripe, red styles that have the structure for oak maturation, while greater fruit maturity also enables a higher percentage of whole clusters to be used, if desired. There is a trend toward less extraction across the whole Loire Valley, producing less tannic, drying styles.

Rosé Sancerre must be dry and produced solely from Pinot Noir, and the wines are generally a pale salmon hue. The saignée method is used most often, although Alphonse Mellot’s Vingt Mille Pieds Sous Sancerre is a serious rosé, made from vines planted at the incredibly high density of 20,000 vines per hectare.

Pouilly-Fumé

The Pouilly-Fumé AOC is located at the midpoint of the Loire River. Sitting on the eastern (right) bank of the river, opposite Sancerre, this smaller appellation (1,333 hectares) is less prestigious than Sancerre and lacks some of its romantic allure. Today, Pouilly-Fumé focuses exclusively on still, dry white wines produced from Sauvignon Blanc, but it is believed that grapes have been grown here since at least the fifth century CE. According to the appellation’s cahier des charges, the vineyard area boomed under the stewardship of Benedictine monks, and the opening of the Briare Canal in 1642 connected the thirsty Parisian market to Pouilly-Fumé’s winemakers.

When the railway arrived in the mid-19^th century, travel time to Paris was significantly reduced, and there was great demand for table grapes, which led to widespread planting of Chasselas. Following the devastation of phylloxera, Sauvignon Blanc became the area’s signature variety, frequently blended with Chasselas. While plantings of Chasselas remain, the variety has its own appellation: Pouilly-sur-Loire. Typically, Chasselas ripens 7 to 10 days before Sauvignon Blanc.

There are seven villages within Pouilly-Fumé’s borders, including Pouilly and the highest point, Saint-Andelain, which is home to its most famous producer, Domaine Didier Dagueneau (although its wines have been labeled as Vin de France since the 2017 vintage). The name Pouilly-Fumé results from Sauvignon Blanc’s historic local name, Blanc Fumé de Pouilly, literally, “smoked white of Pouilly.” The name was given not because of the wine’s flavor but because the berries developed a harmless, smoke-colored bloom at maturity.

Pouilly-Fumé runs for about 20 kilometers along the river and has a variety of soils. Around the village of Saint-Andelain, home to Dagueneau’s famed Silex cuvée, the soil composition is predominantly flint-clay. Around the unassuming village of Pouilly-sur-Loire, clay-limestone Kimmeridgian marls peppered with oyster shells are common. In these cooler soils, grapes ripen later and yield rounded, fuller-bodied wines that are typically longer lived. The vineyards in the northeast of the appellation are more likely to be planted on the limestone pebbles known as caillottes and make earlier-drinking, fruiter wines, as in Sancerre. In general, Pouilly-Fumé producers start harvest a few days after Sancerre.

Many Pouilly-Fumé producers own or rent vineyards in Sancerre. It is no easy task to distinguish one appellation from the other, even for locals. Two wines grown on flint, in Pouilly and in Sancerre, may have more in common than two Sancerre wines tasted side by side.

Pouilly-sur-Loire

There are just 30 hectares of Chasselas planted in Pouilly-sur-Loire AOC, and the grape is used to make nonaromatic, dry white wines. Chasselas is an early ripening, vigorous variety and was favored in the past for its reliable and abundant crops. It was used as a table grape for the Parisian food market and was highly profitable in the late 1800s. According to Jacky Rigaux’s Pouilly-Fumé: Jewel of the Loire Valley (2009), 3,000 metric tonnes of grapes were shipped from the station of Pouilly in 1865 alone. But after the railway’s extension to warm southern France, Paris no longer wanted Pouilly’s grapes, and the region returned to wine production.

There are no producers specializing in the wines of Pouilly-sur-Loire, though a few fine Pouilly-Fumé producers, such as Michel Redde and Jonathan Pabiot, focus on making Chasselas wines of concentration and character through low yields and careful attention in the vineyard.

Other Regions

Surrounding the Loire’s twin star appellations of Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé are a further five AOC regions and two IGPs, which can provide good-value alternatives to the wines of their more renowned neighbors, often in a similar style. While Sauvignon Blanc is by far the most planted grape, red and rosé still wines are also made. These regions are small; all together, they account for only 25% of the production of the Central Vineyards area, while Pouilly-Fumé is at 25% and Sancerre at 50%. Lacking the international cachet of Sancerre or Pouilly-Fumé, relatively few of these wines are exported.

Menetou-Salon

The Mentetou-Salon vineyard area forms a continuation of that of Sancerre, spreading southwest, away from the Loire, toward the city of Bourges. The most significant of the satellite appellations, it covers 627 hectares across 10 villages. Vines grow on Portlandian and Kimmeridgian limestone soils, and production mirrors Sancerre in style. Sauvignon Blanc and Pinot Noir are the only permitted varieties for whites, reds, and rosés, and whites dominate. The vineyards around the charming village of Morogues, in the heart of the appellation, are densely planted on gently rolling hills interspersed with trees and hedges, and there is visible biodiversity. Menetou-Salon has more organic vineyards than any other appellation in the Central Vineyards. The hills are somewhat lower than those of Sancerre, so vines suffer less stress and grapes typically ripen a week earlier. Menetou-Salon wines are less austere than those grown closer to the Loire River, but they can be equally long lived.

Quincy

Southwest of Bourges, the vineyards of Quincy and Reuilly are clustered around two Loire tributaries. The Quincy vineyard is 332 hectares and entirely devoted to Sauvignon Blanc. The vines grow almost wholly on the left bank of the Cher, on an ancient terrace of sand-based soils with gravel, clay, and silt. The climate is cool, humid, and prone to frost, but crop losses from frosts these days are minimal, thanks to the farsighted co-operative investment of the vignerons of Quincy, who purchased 66 wind machines back in 2000. Because the appellation’s vineyards are so concentrated, nearly all are covered by the fans, a boon to Quincy growers in years like 2021, when the whole of France suffered enormous losses from frost. Quincy wines are popular in France, and with good reason. They are assertive and fruity, with a zesty freshness.

Reuilly

The 289-hectare appellation of Reuilly sits just southwest of Quincy, in the valley of the Arnon River. The landscape here is different from that of surrounding areas, with scattered parcels of vines far outnumbered by fields of cereal crops, and with sweeping vistas punctuated by wind turbines. The land is lower, and this, combined with hot, dry summers, leads to earlier harvests than in Quincy. Around half of the production is Sauvignon Blanc, and the warmer conditions produce rounder, softer whites than those of Quincy. Reuilly was granted appellation status for reds and rosés in 1961. Today, the region produces some light red wines from Pinot Noir and, perhaps most notably, pale, aromatic rosés (vins gris) from Pinot Gris, a rare variety in the Loire Valley.

Coteaux du Giennois

The Coteaux du Giennois extends across a narrow, 50-kilometer strip on the right bank of the Loire, but vines cover less than 200 hectares of this area. Named after the city of Gien to the north, the vineyards are concentrated mostly in the far south, close to the Pouilly-Fumé appellation. A relatively recent appellation, Coteaux du Giennois graduated from VDQS to AOC in 1998. Vines are planted on south- and southwest-facing flint and limestone hills, some facing Sancerre across the river. The climate is a little cooler than that of Sancerre, more like neighboring Pouilly-Fumé. Whites from Sauvignon Blanc account for 70% of production, offering early-drinking, fresh wines with varietal typicity. Reds and rosés can be light and elegant, made from blends of Pinot Noir and Gamay.

Côtes de la Charité

The Central Vineyards region has two small IGPs, both formerly classified as Vin de Pays and both on the right bank of the Loire. Côtes de la Charité IGP covers 50 hectares south of Pouilly, in a largely wooded area on calcareous clay soils. Slightly more white wine than red is produced, from Chardonnay and Pinot Gris. Pinot Noir is grown for reds, and a little rosé is also made.

Coteaux de Tannay

Coteaux de Tannay is an IGP of just 25 hectares east of the main Coteaux du Giennois vineyard area. A range of grapes are grown on calcareous soils. White wines dominate, made from Chardonnay, Pinot Blanc, Melon B, Pinot Gris, and Auxerrois. Reds, based on Pinot Noir and Gamay, account for 25% of production. A small amount of rosé is also made.

Orléans

Created in 2006, Orléans AOC includes vineyards on both banks of the Loire around the city of Orléans and is distinctive for its use of Pinot Meunier. This 60-hectare appellation makes red, white, and rosé styles, predominantly on sandy-gravel soils south of the river, with a small portion on the chalky north bank. In both the rosé and red wines, Pinot Meunier must compose a majority of the blend. The whites, which are generally early drinking, are Chardonnay dominant, with a small amount of Pinot Gris permitted.

Orléans-Cléry

The 20-hectare red wine appellation Orléans-Cléry sits southwest of the city of Orléans on the right bank of the Loire. Produced solely from Cabernet Franc on sandy-gravel terraces, the wines are light in body and gently spiced.

Central France

Most wine maps of the Loire Valley show a vineyard that starts in the middle of France, at Sancerre. But by the time the Loire River has reached this point, it has already flowed halfway along its course. The Loire’s source is in the Massif Central, a volcanic region far from the tourist hordes and fairy-tale castles of Touraine and Anjou. Geographically closer to Burgundy than most of the other Loire vineyards (on a clear day the vineyards of the Mâconnais are visible from the Côte Roannaise), the upper Loire focuses on a set of grape varieties also influenced by Burgundy: Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and Gamay. Even so, the winemakers consider themselves firmly part of the Loire.

These far-flung pockets of vines may be hidden away, but they are arguably some of the most dynamic appellations in the Loire Valley, a region usually known more for its storied traditions than its novelty value. This area is comparatively very recently established, with the Loire Volcanique growers’ association formed in late 2019 and the oldest appellation dating to 1994, and the winemakers are driven by youthful enthusiasm. Even the soils are young here, at not even a million years old. Four appellations make up the Central France region: Saint-Pourçain, Côtes d’Auvergne, Côtes du Forez, and Côte Roannaise. There are two IGP denominations as well, IGP d’Urfé and IGP Puy de Dôme.

Saint-Pourçain

The Saint-Pourçain vineyards extend across 600 hectares in a rural and picturesque region of small fields, hedgerows, wildflowers, and Charolais cows, all centered around the town of Saint-Pourçain-sur-Sioule. Formerly a VDQS, it was granted appellation status in 2009. The vines grow in an area that is 30 kilometers from north to south, just west of the Allier, a Loire tributary. Soils are sandy, with islands of granite, and a band of clay-limestone runs down the center of the appellation. Wines of all colors are made here. Rosés are 100% Gamay, while reds must be blends of Pinot Noir and Gamay. Whites are from Chardonnay and Tressallier (also known as Sacy), a variety grown almost nowhere else and of which the locals are particularly proud. The requirement to blend it with Chardonnay has led some of the more independently minded growers to make 100% Tressallier as Vin de France. This unique, appealing wine sells quickly, with no apparent need of an appellation to endorse it.

Côtes d’Auvergne

An hour’s drive south of Saint-Pourçain is Côtes d’Auvergne, an appellation granted in 2010. Located mostly south of the industrial city of Clermont-Ferrand, it was an important winegrowing area encompassing thousands of hectares in the years before phylloxera. Now, it is just 350 hectares. The soil is volcanic here: the conic remnants of the Puy mountain chain loom all around. In some of the best vineyards, such as Corent, which is itself an old volcano, vines grow directly on volcanic ash deposits. Corent is one of the five crus of the appellation and is authorized only for production of rosé. The other four—Boudes, Madargue, Chanturgue, and Châteaugay—are authorized solely for red. All reds and rosés of the Côtes d’Auvergne are made from Gamay, possibly with a minority percentage of Pinot Noir; whites must be 100% Chardonnay. The wines are generally light and refreshing in style, with the fruit grown at altitudes of 350 to 550 meters above sea level.

Côtes du Forez

East of the Côtes d’Auvergne and across the Forez mountains are the remaining two vineyards of the upper Loire. Both are a short distance from the Loire, which flows north and is situated east of the vineyards. The more southerly of the two appellations is Côtes du Forez, an AOC of 150 hectares, granted in 2000. The appellation is for reds and rosés only, from 100% Gamay. Some producers grow varieties as varied as Roussanne, Viognier, Pinot Noir, Riesling, and Syrah, bottled under the IGP d’Urfé label. There are also red wines made from Gamaret, a Swiss-derived cross between Gamay and Reichensteiner that is usefully less susceptible to rot than Gamay.

Côte Roannaise

North of Côtes du Forez is the 215-hectare Côte Roannaise, a growing area with a 25-kilometer stretch of east-facing vineyards in the foothills of the Madeleine mountains, 400 to 500 meters above sea level. An AOC since 1994, this is Gamay country. The appellation is for reds and rosés only, made exclusively from Gamay. Like its sister appellation to the south, it is also home to a wide range of grapes made into IGP d’Urfé wines. The preferred clone is Gamay Saint-Romain, which has a conveniently upright growth habit and smaller berries than the Gamay of nearby Beaujolais, as well as a distinctly peppery quality. Producers here are using it to make serious and attention-worthy wines.

Bibliography

Asselin, Christian, Loïc Bienassis, Marie-Luce Demonet, François de Izarra, Alain Lecomte, Jean-Max Manceau, Laurence Peydro, Olivier Poussier, Muriel Roudaut, and Marie-Ève Scheffer. Chinon: Voyage au pays de Rabelais. Encyclopédies du Voyage. Gallimard, 2017.

Boulay, Thibaut. Les terroirs sancerrois: Un héritage géologique, culturel et immatériel. Loubatières, 2020.

Brouard, Emmanuel. La Loire et ses vins: Deux mille ans d’histoire(s) et de commerce. Flammarion, 2021.

“Changement climatique à l'échelle de 2 vignobles en Val de Loire.” Accessed July 22, 2022. https://www.techniloire.com/fiche-technique/changement-climatique-lechelle-de-2-vignobles-en-val-de-loire.

Chrétien, Philippe. “Adaptations viticoles et oenologiques aux conséquences du changement climatique en Val de Loire” (working paper, ADACLIM, 2019). https://techniloire.com/sites/default/files/mini_fiche_action_2020-21.doc.pdf.

Frankel, Charles. Land and Wine: The French Terroir. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014.

Friedrich, Jacqueline. Earthly Delights from the Garden of France: Wines of the Loire. Vol. 1 of The Kingdom of Sauvignon Blanc: Sancerre, Pouilly-Fumé and the Sauvignon Satellites. Paris: published by the author, 2011.

Jullien, André. Togographie de tous les vignobles connus . . . suivie d’une classification générale des vins. Paris: Mme Huzard and L. Colas, 1816. https://wellcomecollection.org/works/yqjenk6g.

“Le prix des terres.” Accessed August 31, 2022. https://www.le-prix-des-terres.fr/carte/vigne/.

Leturcq, Samuel, and Lammoglia, Adrien. “La viticulture en Touraine (Moyen Âge–XXe siècle): Dynamiques spatiales et commerciales du vignoble.” Histoire et sociétés rurales 49 (2018): 31–75. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01965661.

Loire Valley Wines. https://www.vinsvaldeloire.fr/en.

Loire Valley Wines Economic Report 2021. Accessed August 7, 2022. https://loirevalleywine.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/vins-val-de-loire-chiffres-cles-eco-2021-EN.pdf.

Neethling, Etienne, Gerard Barbeau, Herve Quenol, and Cyril Bonnefoy. “Évolution du climat et de la composition des raisins des principaux cépages cultivés dans le Val de Loire.” Climatologie 8 (2011): 79–92. https://doi.org/10.4267/climatologie.323.

Rigaux, Jacky. Pouilly-Fumé: Jewel of the Loire Valley. Terres en Vues, 2009.

Robinson, Jancis, Julia Harding, and José Vouillamoz. Wine Grapes: A Complete Guide to 1,368 Vine Varieties, Including Their Origins and Flavours. New York: Ecco/HarperCollins, 2012.

Sorcelle, Laurent. Sancerre: Terre et vins d’enchantement. Editions l’Arcande, 2013.

Wilson, James E. Terroir: The Role of Geology, Climate, and Culture in the Making of French Wines. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1999.

Compiled by MW Rebecca Gibb and MW Beverley Blanning (November 2022)

Edited by Stacy Ladenburger and Sandra Ban

Tags: Preview

Spain

Jonathan Eichholz — Sun, 14 Jun 2026 22:59:24 GMT

Current Revision posted to Expert Guides by Jonathan Eichholz on 6/14/2026 10:59:24 PM

"I would sooner be a foreigner in Spain than in most countries. How easy it is to make friends in Spain!"- George Orwell, "Homage to Catalonia," 1938

History of Spain
Land & Climate
Spanish Wine Law
The Grapes of Spain
Atlantic Coast
Duero River Valley
Ebro River Valley
Mediterranean Coast
Central Plateau
Andalucía
The Islands
Bibliography

Home to the world’s largest vineyard area, Spain boasts a winegrowing history that is ancient and discontinuous. Several events throughout its three millennia of viticulture have threatened the industry, including the Moorish conquest of Iberia, the phylloxera crisis, a devastating Civil War, and several decades under a fascist regime, during which winemaking customs lost favor to bulk production and cooperatives. Today, Spain’s languages, cultures, and food and wine traditions remain distinct—long after the country's unification in the late 15^th and early 16^th centuries.

Spain’s heritage styles—its deep-hued rosados, nutty rancios, and slowly aged gran reservas—are now joined by more contemporary aesthetics. While some growers have adapted to a modern palate, others hold to tradition. Others still seek to reimagine classic Spanish wines for the 21^st century, reclaiming indigenous grape varieties and marrying innovation to ancestry. Born from these varied philosophical approaches is a Spanish wine industry equipped with the diversity and talent to capture new generations of consumers while safeguarding a long-cherished identity.

History of Spain

Ancient History

Anthropological studies have found trace evidence of Vitis vinifera in Spain dating as early as 3000 BCE. Fragments of vine wood and other vestiges of ancient grapes have been identified at three sites in Southern Spain. The introduction of viticulture to Iberia, however, is widely attributed to the Phoenicians, who arrived and established what would become Cádiz in today’s Andalucía approximately two millennia later, around 1100 or 800 BCE, depending on the account. A seafaring and mercantile people, the Phoenicians, whose borders corresponded roughly to modern-day Lebanon, traveled across the Mediterranean basin trading goods, among them wine. Examples of lagares (stone troughs used for crushing grapes) dating to the period have been found in several locations in southern Spain. Evidence also suggests that Jerez’s famed Macharnudo vineyard was planted soon after Phoenician colonization.

But the Phoenicians weren’t the first to settle Iberia. By the Bronze Age, two distinct cultures had been established—the Iberians, who had arrived from North Africa, and the Celts, who came from further north. The Greeks were next to arrive. Their first major outpost, however, was more northern, near the Pyrenees, a city they called Emporion (today Ampurias, or Empúries in Catalan). The Carthaginians descended from the Phoenician people and succeeded them in trade relations between the Eastern and Western Mediterranean. They clashed with the Romans, both in Iberia and beyond. Tensions escalated into the Second Punic War, where Greeks, Iberians, and Celts fought for both the Carthaginians (led by the general Hannibal) and the Romans. Ultimately, Rome prevailed, by 206 BCE driving the Carthaginians from what the Romans then called Hispania.

The Romans expanded upon the traditions of winegrowing already established on the Iberian Peninsula, bringing modern technologies and improved wine quality. They introduced various innovations, including the implementation of smaller amphorae constructed from finer, more durable, and less porous clays. The Romans also exported some Iberian wines back to Rome and the Italian Peninsula. Rome’s stronghold over Iberia began to crumble in the late fourth and early fifth centuries CE, less than 100 years before the Western Roman Empire’s fall. The Visigoths, after sacking Rome in 410, settled in Gaul and Spain. Other Germanic tribes, including the Vandals, Suevi, and Alans, also invaded Iberia. The Visigoths, who had already converted to Arian Christianity (not Catholicism, as the Franks had), triumphed over the other tribes and extended their reach throughout the peninsula, which they would rule for the next three centuries.

Medieval Times to Early Modern Period

In 711, Ṭāriq ibn Ziyād led a Muslim Berber army across the Strait of Gibraltar, and the following year, he defeated King Roderick, Spain’s last Visigoth monarch. This began the Moorish conquest of Spain, and within a half decade, nearly all of Iberia had fallen under Muslim rule, save some stretches in the north. The Moors offered some degree of religious tolerance toward the Jews and Christians they had conquered. While alcohol is strictly forbidden in Islamic scripture, viticulture and winemaking persisted in Iberia over the course of their leadership. In addition to wine, grapes were cultivated for raisins and distillation—a science mastered by the Moors, though its applications were for medicine, perfume, and other goods, never for consumption.

The Reconquista (reconquest) of Spain by Christian forces began almost immediately upon the Moors’ arrival. Though it would take almost eight centuries for the peninsula to completely come into Catholic reign, they slowly chipped away at Moorish territory over this timespan. Notably, Porto was reconquered in 868, a date typically given to the initial establishment of Portugal as separate from Spain. This piecemeal Reconquista of Iberia allowed for a series of autonomous kingdoms, which would only later unify and form what is now considered Spain. As Moorish reach waned, French monks crossed the Pyrenees to establish monasteries in these newly independent areas, bringing with them winemaking knowledge. Some of the earliest monasteries were in Galicia’s Ribeiro area, and their grapegrowing success led the English to import their wines across the Bay of Biscay.

In 1469, Isabella I of Castile married Ferdinand II of Aragon, both heirs to their respective kingdoms, representing the de facto unification of Spain once Ferdinand succeeded the throne in 1479. The joint rulers expelled the remaining Moors (as well as the Jews) from Granada in 1492, the same year Christopher Columbus set sail for the Americas in Ferdinand and Isabella’s name.

The Renaissance years also brought a renaissance for Spain’s wines. Despite the ongoing conflict with England, including its devastating defeat of Spain’s armada in 1588, the country became a critical export market for Iberian wines. English influence and investment in Sherry (as well as Port) remains clear today. England gained a palate for sack, considered a forerunner of Sherry, though important examples of Málaga sack and Canary sack are also well documented. Scholars debate exactly what sack was—particularly its degree of sweetness and whether or not the wines were fortified. It was likely an inexpensive imitation of the dried-grape wines that had reemerged in Italy and Greece in the Middle Ages (such as Tuscan vin santo). While the Italian and Greek examples were highly prized and incredibly expensive, the Spanish diluted the market and likely the wines themselves, blending raisinated grapes with fresh must to yield a poorer-quality product. The remarkable expansion of European wine stocks following the end of the Reconquista favored these less expensive sacks over their eastern counterparts. Those wines were primarily accessed by nobility, while sack achieved a wider audience, including England’s middle class.

Fortification likely came later, but by the time of the Age of Exploration, it was an important preservative, allowing Spain’s wines to cross the Atlantic. The high amounts of residual sugar in some wines, as well as intentionally oxidative rancio styles, also prevented spoilage on these long voyages. In its early years, Spain forbade its new colonies from producing their own wines, with the purpose of bolstering Spanish transatlantic exports (still, early wine industries were created in Argentina and Chile).

The Spanish achieved other technological advancements during this timeframe, such as the transition from animal skins and amphorae to wooden butts and casks as storage vessels. Toward the late 1700s, Manuel Esteban Quintano Quintano, a priest from Rioja, traveled to Bordeaux and observed the oenological practices there. Upon returning, he began to experiment with cask-aging, a completely foreign practice locally. He went on to export his wines to Cuba in barrel, receiving a positive response. Yet financial challenges—such as the cost of investment and aging before sale—and cultural pushback stopped barriques from catching on.

That would change in the mid-1800s, when two prominent Spaniards were exiled during the Carlist Wars, a series of civil wars throughout that century. Peruvian-born Luciano de Murrieta García-Lemoine, later the Marqués de Murrieta, spent part of his exile in Bordeaux studying the region’s wines. He would later adopt Bordeaux’s élevage techniques at his own Logroño property, with his first oaked vintage in 1852. Camilo Hurtado de Amézaga y Balmaseda, the Marqués de Riscal, similarly returned from exile in Bordeaux. Along with knowledge of Bordeaux winemaking, he brought cuttings of Cabernet Sauvignon, first harvesting the resulting vines in 1860.

Phylloxera to Franco

The great phylloxera crisis that ravaged vineyards worldwide throughout the mid- to late 19^th century initially proved beneficial to the Spanish wine industry. It wasn’t the first scourge to hit Europe; oidium arrived in France in the late 1840s, and during its devastation, the French relied on their southern neighbor to fill their wine deficit. The railway had not yet been constructed, so Spanish vineyard growth was concentrated around port cities such as Alicante. When phylloxera first took hold in France in the 1860s, the country needed replenishment once again but could look to the interior, using rail transport. Rioja was one of the chief beneficiaries, and its cultural and financial exchange with the French during the last decades of the 19^th century allowed for the evolution of Rioja wine as it is generally understood today. An 1877 trade deal between France and Spain reduced tariffs on the outgoing wines, further allowing Spain’s industry to boom. In all, Spain’s vineyard area rose 40% between 1860 and 1888.

This expansion, however, amplified the tremendous bust that followed once phylloxera entered Spain in the late 1880s. Trade agreements were lifted, and in 1892, tariffs were imposed on Spanish wines coming into France, whose own vineyards began to recover and who also found in Algeria a new source of wine. Spain had experienced a 32-fold increase in exports between 1850 and 1891. At the peak during the phylloxera crisis, Spain provided 80% of imports into France, a number that dwindled to 26% in the 1930s. By the time phylloxera arrived in Spain, its treatment was understood—grafting onto phylloxera-resistant American rootstock—though the country was left little time for recovery between its own epidemic and World War I. At the onset of the war, Spain had lost one-third of its national vineyard. The industry was further stifled as France recovered, no longer needing droves of Spanish imports.

The 20^th century offered little relief to Spain and its wines. The king went into exile in 1931 after local elections that gave a majority to republican parties, and the Second Republic was proclaimed. In 1936, Francisco Franco led the Nationalist uprising against the Republicans and became head of state. The Civil War lasted until 1939, and Franco would rule as dictator until his death in 1975. In the decades following the Spanish Civil War, Spain’s wine industry struggled to modernize. As poverty swept rural winegrowing areas, production was centralized under local cooperatives that emphasized quantity over quality. Other than Sherry and a few select wineries, including the iconic but elusive Vega Sicilia, Spanish wine was largely ignored by international audiences. Poorer-quality grapes like Palomino (vinified as a table wine) gained widespread plantings due to their vigor. Spain continues to suffer from the reputation established during this time, as well as the persistent bulk industry that dominates production.

Toward the end of Franco’s regime, there were signs of a new era for Spanish wine. In the 1960s, Miguel Torres introduced stainless steel and temperature-controlled fermentation to his family’s winery in Catalonia. In 1972, famed French enologist and winemaker Émile Peynaud, working as a consultant for the Marqués de Riscal, identified Rueda and its grape Verdejo for the possibility of creating a more contemporary style of non-oxidative white wine. He also suggested planting Sauvignon Blanc in the region.

Spain’s transition to democracy began in 1975. The first general election since 1936 was held in 1977, and the country started its return to greater economic prosperity with more potential international business. In 1986, Spain joined the European Union; in 1999, it adopted the euro, which began circulating in 2002. Its democratization opened opportunities for Spain’s aspiring winemakers to travel and study in France, California, and beyond, returning with contemporary practices. Fit with a global perspective, these younger generations also sparked a new passion for Spain’s heritage styles and indigenous varieties. As a result, Spanish wine today is more diverse and internationally accessible than ever.

Spanish Wine in Context

According to the International Organisation of Vine and Wine, in 2018, Spain harvested 969,000 hectares of vines, equal to 13% of the global vineyard surface and more than any other country. That also corresponds to roughly 2% of Spain’s total land being dedicated to viticulture. Spain, however, is not the world’s largest producer of wine. It comes in third, with 44.4 million hectoliters, trailing Italy and France. The discrepancy in these two rankings might be accounted for through low yields, the wide vineyard spacing of Spain’s plentiful old vine sites, and the distillation of grapes for brandy. Spain does eclipse all other nations as the world’s largest exporter of wine, shipping 21.1 million hectoliters outside its borders. Yet the total value of Spain’s exports is less than a third of France’s and less than half of Italy’s. This is due to Spain’s substantial bulk industry, comprising more than 50% of total output, a great deal of which is sold to France and bottled as Vin de France.

Land & Climate

The Land

Iberia represents the meeting of the Atlantic Ocean with the Mediterranean Sea through the Strait of Gibraltar, which halts the near convergence of Europe with Northern Africa. This has allowed the peninsula a cultural mixing unique in Western Europe and has significant implications on geological and climatic conditions.

The Iberian peninsula (Click to enlarge and zoom in)

Spain is separated from France by the Pyrenees Mountains, the small nation of Andorra nestled within that border as well. It shares the Iberian Peninsula with Portugal, which occupies the southwestern corner. Mainland Spain’s latitude is roughly between 36° and 44° N, placing it squarely within the range of 30° to 50° N considered standard for quality viticulture. It follows only Switzerland in having the highest average elevation in Europe, and this elevation proves essential to maintaining freshness for many regions. According to The World Atlas of Wine, “a good 90% of all Spanish vineyards are higher in altitude than any major French wine region.”

Spain’s autonomous communities (Click to enlarge and zoom in)

At the heart of Iberia, Spain sits atop the Meseta Central, a large plateau that includes the capital Madrid, which has an average elevation of 660 meters above sea level. The country is bisected by the Sistema Central, a mountain range that effectively separates the Meseta in two. The northern section is both higher and smaller than the southern portion. In addition to the Pyrenees and the Sistema Central, several mountain ranges cut through the Spanish countryside. The Cantabrian Mountains begin in Galicia and continue parallel to the northern coast. The Sistema Ibérico runs perpendicular to the Sistema Central, stretching from Castilla y León to Valencia. The Sierra Morena range borders the Meseta Central to the south, and the Sistema Penibético, which includes the Sierra Nevada range, lines the southeast of the peninsula.

Water surrounds Spain, with the Mediterranean to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and its gulf, the Bay of Biscay, forming a right triangle with northern Iberia, western France, and the British Isles. Several major rivers flow through Spain, and vineyards are cultivated on many of their banks. Some of the most important, from north to south, are the Miño, Ebro, Duero, Tagus, Guadiana, and Guadalquivir.

Legally, Spain is divided into 17 autonomous communities, or comunidades autónomas, further split into 50 provinces. Fifteen of Spain’s autonomous communities compose the mainland, while two involve a series of islands: the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean and the Canary Islands off the coast of Northern Africa. All but two, Cantabria and Asturias, have DO wine regions. Additionally, Spain has two autonomous cities, Melilla and Ceuta, both interrupting Morocco’s northern coastline.

Climate

Despite the common image of arid, windmill-dotted plains, the climate across Spain varies widely. Generalizations might specify some pockets as Mediterranean, continental, or maritime, but it is difficult to make broad assumptions.

The country generally grows warmer toward the south, with the Sistema Central providing a marked shift in temperatures. Exceptions exist, such as the warmer pockets of the Catalan coast and cold, high-elevation sites in Andalucía. Spain experiences seasonality, especially beyond the Mediterranean coastline, with both scorching summers and harsh winters in some regions. Diurnal swings can be wide, particularly at higher elevations. Several wind patterns also affect temperatures. The Poniente blows from the west, bringing cold air from the Atlantic, while the Leveche brings in hot, drying currents from the African desert. Another warm—but humid—wind, the Levante, comes in from the east, funnels through Gibraltar, and can be felt throughout southeast Spain.

The northern coast, extending through Galicia and narrowing to its end in Basque Country, encompasses what is often called Green Spain. Rainfall here is the highest in the country, with parts of Galicia receiving more than 2,000 millimeters per year. Precipitation drops dramatically just outside Green Spain’s boundaries, with much of the country receiving less than 500 millimeters annually. Dry-farming remains standard, though irrigation for viticulture was legalized in 1996 in certain circumstances.

Spanish Wine Law

Spain’s wines are organized under a quality pyramid similar to the Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée system in France, Denominazione di Origine Controllata in Italy, or Denominação de Origem Controlada in Portugal. The first Spanish Denominaciones de Origen (DOs) were awarded in 1932, four years before the codification of France’s first AOCs.

DO Defectors

In December 2015, the modernist winery Artadi withdrew from the Rioja DOCa, citing an inability to express specificity of site under the appellation scheme. Its defection reflected widespread questioning of the DO system. Many argued that even the best-known DOs and DOCas, like Cava and Rioja, sacrificed consistent quality to appease the interests of larger producers. A number of producers in different DOs hoped to break down their appellations into smaller tiers in the tradition of Burgundy. The month following Artadi’s departure, influential winemaker Telmo Rodríguez published his “terroir manifesto,” addressing these concerns and calling for a nationwide pivot toward quality over quantity. It was signed by about 150 Spanish winegrowers and others in the industry. That same year, 40 wineries in Rioja Alavesa pitched a new and separate Viñedos de Álava DO. The motion has since been retracted, following Rioja’s new categories, which were first voted upon in 2017. Many, however, still view these as an insufficient solution. The conversation isn’t limited to Rioja, as evidenced by recent movements in Cava. The 2019 establishment of Corpinnat in response to mass-produced Cava has presented the DO with an identity crisis. It lost many top-shelf producers who contributed to the Cava de Paraje category, in addition to those producers who had already left and belong to Clàssic Penedès.

The lowest-quality tier of Spanish wine is Vino de Mesa (or VdM), translating to “table wine.” These wines can be blended from various areas of the country but by law will bear no region on the label, although they can list the address of the registered bottler or, if within an established DO, only the postal code. Since 2008, these wines have been allowed to state both vintage and variety. A step above, Vino de la Tierra (VdlT) will come from within a confined area of varying size, from a collection of villages to a whole autonomous community. The VdlT might also be used for quality wines made by experimental winemakers looking to operate outside the confines of higher-tier regulations. Both VdM and VdlT wines fall under the broader table wine umbrella within European Union law, while VdlT wines are also designated Protected Geographical Indication (PGI), which mandates that 85% of grapes derive from a given area.

The remaining tiers all qualify as PDOs (Protected Denominations of Origin) under the European Union. Spain continues to legislate several further sub-designations within that category: Vino de Calidad con Indicación Geográfica (VC or VCIG), Denominación de Origen (DO), Denominación de Origen Calificada (DOCa), and Vino de Pago (VP). The most basic PDO wine is VCIG. While still overseen by a governing body, or órgano de gestion, VCIGs adhere to less rigid regulations than higher tiers. The VCIG tier also operates as a stepping stone between VdlT areas aspiring for Denominación de Origen status. Regions must wait a minimum five years before applying for elevation to DO.

The DO rung encompasses most regions familiar to wine consumers. Rías Baixas, Sherry, Ribera del Duero, and more than 60 others are DO wines. In general, DO regions refer to a single, confined winegrowing area, but non-contiguous appellations can be designated as well (the widest-spanning example being Cava). Each DO is governed by a consejo regulador, to which wineries must submit samples of all of their wines to make sure they adhere to regional standards. It is also the role of the consejo to enforce the pliego de condiciones, the official document that dictates appellation regulations. The pliego de condiciones clarifies every aspect of winegrowing, including yields, vine training, viticultural practices, vinification techniques, and permitted varieties.

Spain's quality tier above DO is DOCa. While DOCa has no equivalent in France, it could be compared to Italy’s Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita classification. Unlike Italy’s DOCGs, however, Spain only has two DOCa regions. The first, Rioja, was granted DOCa status in 1991, three years after the category was established. Priorat followed and was recognized by Spain in 2009 (after elevation at the Catalan level in 2000). It usually features the Catalan translation Denominació d’Origen Qualificada (DOQ) on its labels.

A final PDO category, Vino de Pago, was established in 2003. Vinos de Pago were first conceptualized in Castilla-La Mancha, which still has the highest concentration of these appellations. A Vino de Pago is a designation awarded to a single estate that may exist within or outside of a DO. Few Vinos de Pago are found within prestigious appellations. Vinos de Pago must be estate bottled and the vineyard owned by the winery operating in its bounds. The estate must be in production for a minimum of 10 years before applying for Vino de Pago status. Regulations within Vinos de Pago are very specific and often more stringent than those of DOs that surround them. For example, Vinos de Pago, in setting their own pliegos, might allow for the use of less-traditional varieties or methods, in contrast to nearby DOs. In theory, a Vino de Pago should transcend the quality of wines vinified in its broader DO, should there be one, or at least show distinction. In reality, many contest the effectiveness of the Vino de Pago scheme, debating the overall quality of these wines and how many cater to more international palates. Others point to the relatively large size of individual Pagos, the smallest being 1.5 hectares (Vallegarcía), and how some might use the category to skirt other restrictions under DO law, such as the prohibition against irrigation.

Spain's Vinos de Pago

A hypothetical Vino de Pago Calificado category is also primed should an estate within Rioja or Priorat (or any future DOCas) apply for Pago status. As of 2025, 27 Vino de Pago estates are active. They should not be confused with Grandes Pagos de España, a separate non-governmental consortium of Spanish wineries who co-market their wines with minimal overlap.

Beyond appellations, Spain also conforms to a series of aging designations that are regulated on its bottles. Historically, Spanish wines have been associated with long-term aging in oak, particularly American, barrels. The aging classification scheme attempts to formalize the different styles of wine that emerged under that tradition, and each will require a minimum amount of time spent in barrel, as well as total time aging, before release to the market.

While these regulations exist for the whole of Spain, several regions, including Rioja and Ribera del Duero, have drafted their own, stricter minimums for aging requirements. Yet even in regions that still champion these terms, the aging classification has become less popular, as producers favor shorter aging in newer French oak vessels, or less oak influence altogether. They are particularly rare for white and especially rosado wines. Wineries that do continue to bottle age-designated wines might far exceed these minimum requirements by years or even decades, including at the crianza tier.

Aging requirements for Spain, Rioja, and Ribera del Duero (Credit: Brandon Lee Wise)

In recent years, Spanish winegrowers have shown interest in creating further regional breakdowns with the aim of communicating greater specificity of place on their labels, beyond often wide-reaching appellations. The movement takes inspiration from Burgundy and its pyramid of regional, village, premier cru, and grand cru wines. The first to make such strides was Priorat in 2009, with the creation of the Vi de Vila category, allowing for wines to be labeled by village. Bierzo and Rioja followed suit in 2017, as did Rueda in 2019. These village programs break with traditions of blending, long viewed as fundamental in many Spanish wine regions.

The Grapes of Spain

White Grapes

Airén: The fifth most planted wine grape globally, and second among white grapes (according to the International Organisation of Vine and Wine’s 2017 report), Airén is better recognized for its quantity than its potential quality. Suggested to be indigenous to Cuenca in Castilla-La Mancha, Airén is extremely vigorous, in addition to being both drought and disease resistant. As a result, the variety allows for extensive plantings, in 2017 covering more than 22% of Spain’s vineyard area. Airén is, however, on the decline, as vine-pull incentives have reduced its hectarage. Historically, it has been used as a blending component to soften Tempranillo in various appellations. When fermented on its own, Airén delivers inoffensive but indistinctive white wines. Today, it is widely distilled into brandy, drawing parallels to Cognac’s rather neutral Ugni Blanc.

A 200-year-old Albariño vine in Rías Baixas (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak)

Albariño: Considered one of Iberia’s finest white grapes, Albariño is most notably cultivated in Galicia and primarily Rías Baixas, whose appellation name was once simply Albariño. Just south of Galicia is the Portuguese region of Minho, where the grape—there referred to as Alvarinho—is often a key quality component in Vinho Verde production. Formerly misidentified as Savagnin, Albariño displays a degree of genetic diversity in northwestern Iberia that suggests it is quite ancient. Its offspring include Caíño Blanco, a crossing with Amaral. In the vineyard, Albariño is susceptible to mildew, but its thicker skins make it less prone to botrytis, allowing it to succeed in the damp climate of Rías Baixas. It proves particularly well adapted to granite soils and ripens early to mid-season. In Rías Baixas, some Albariño vines as old as 300 years remain in production.

Wines vinified from Albariño are often identified by their elevated acidity and saline, peachy flavors. Also typical are gentle floral aromatics and bitterness on the palate. Depending on style, Albariño can be crafted into lighter, crisp white wines intended for immediate consumption, as well as more structured renditions, with extended lees contact and capacity to age. A few producers ferment and mature in oak. While Albariño is most recognized in monovarietal bottlings, it was historically only blended. Today, the grape can still be used in blends, both in Rías Baixas and elsewhere in Galicia.

Godello: Though less well known than Albariño, Godello is Galicia’s other exemplary white variety and can yield wines of equal pedigree. While the grape faced the possibility of extinction in the 1970s, it soon after experienced a resurgence in Valdeorras, its most noted region. It is also found in all other Galician appellations, as well as Bierzo.

The early-ripening Godello offers small-berried, compact clusters with thick skins but is more vigorous than Albariño. It shows susceptibility to botrytis and powdery mildew. Godello is widely praised for its freshness and stony, savory character, which is matched with a medium-full body. The grape also has the potential for longevity.

Macabeo: Also known as Viura in Rioja and Macabeu in Catalonia, Macabeo is believed to originate near Penedès. Research has identified obscure varieties Hebén and Brustiano Faux as Macabeo’s parents and a possible genetic relationship to common blending partner Xarel·lo.

Producing large, compact, and late-ripening bunches, Macabeo can readily be infected by botrytis, especially in less-suitable, wetter environments. Macabeo’s adaptability to an array of winemaking techniques allows it to be grown in a number of appellations. However, when bottled as a simple white wine, either alone or in blends, it can lack distinction. In Rioja, it provides the backbone to traditional oak-aged, semi-oxidative white wines; though scarce, these are extremely long lived. There are also examples of fresher, more modern white Riojas crafted by a new generation. Macabeo is a traditional ingredient in the Cava blend, along with Xarel·lo and Parellada.

Palomino Fino: Palomino Fino, or simply Palomino, is most recognized for its contributions to Sherry. The ancient variety is native to Andalucía and has been documented in the Canary Islands, where it is called Listán Blanco (no relation to Listán Prieto), since the 15^th century. It purportedly earns its name from the knight Fernán Yáñez Palomino, who first brought the grape there. Palomino can also be found in France, albeit in declining hectarage, where it historically has been distilled into Armagnac.

Palomino is a vigorous variety, amassing high yields of large clusters with large, thin-skinned berries. The grape performs best in hot, dry climates, such as those found in the Jerez triangle, but can suffer from low acidity. As a still table wine, Palomino results in a rather flavorless white with diminished alcohol. Yet it can accomplish great complexity in dry generoso styles of Sherry and provides the core of blended sweet Sherry, mixed with Pedro Ximénez, Moscatel, or other grape-derived sweetening agents. Producers in Andalucía continue to experiment with unfortified styles, with or without the influence of flor. On the Canary Islands, Palomino can yield white table wines of higher quality.

Parellada: Though almost entirely confined to Catalonia, the vigorous, late-ripening Parellada is native to Aragon. It may be related to Albillo Real. Parellada is one of the three primary Cava varieties and is appreciated as a softening agent. Its more moderate acidity, as well as its apple flavors and delicate floral aromas, can add delicacy to the more muscular Xarel·lo and Macabeo. Parellada is also harvested for still wines intended for early consumption in several Catalan DOs, and small plantings are found in Mallorca, where it is permitted for still and sparkling wines.

Verdejo: While Albariño carries broader international recognition, Verdejo is one of the most popular white varieties in Spain, with plantings increasing tremendously over recent decades. It is believed to be indigenous to Rueda, its most famous appellation, and has been shown to share a sibling relationship with Godello. Verdejo’s name comes from verde, referencing its green hue. Verdejo should not be mistaken for Verdelho, the noble Madeira variety.

Verdejo yields small-to-medium clusters, and its berries are thin skinned. While it demonstrates resistance to drought, it is prone to powdery mildew. Its wines show a juicy mid-palate with flavors of ripe orchard fruits, complemented by an almond skin-like bitterness. Verdejo is often bottled on its own but can be blended with Sauvignon Blanc. Most Verdejo bottlings are made using stainless steel, selected yeast, and minimal time on lees, but some winemakers are incorporating new oak, skin contact, and more lees work to explore the grape’s range of expression. Verdejo is also vinified into sparkling wines and can still be found in its original incarnation as a fortified rancio-style wine. The variety was better associated with this historic product until more modern winemaking techniques introduced by Émile Peynaud gave way to a new dry table wine style that has become the preferred expression among consumers.

Xarel·lo: Thought to be indigenous to Catalonia, Xarel·lo is most widely utilized as a key grape in the production of Cava. It is employed to add structure and increase aging capacity, as well as for its persistent acidity. With richer fruit flavors, Xarel·lo can add body to Cava’s mid-palate. Such attributes are also enjoyed in Xarel·lo’s still wines; for these, it is generally considered one of the most distinguished white varieties of Catalonia. With thick-skinned berries, Xarel·lo is relatively botrytis resistant but prone to coulure and mildew. Xarel·lo Vermell is a pigmented mutation cultivated in Alella.

Other Varieties: Classic white varieties of other origins play a minor role in Spain, with Sauvignon Blanc among the most successful. It is planted in Castilla-La Mancha and Castilla y Léon, where it can be bottled monovarietally in Rueda or blended with Verdejo. Sauvignon Blanc is now authorized as a principle white grape in Rioja, as is Chardonnay. Somontano cultivates Chardonnay and Gewürztraminer. Both Muscat Blanc à Petit Grains, here called Moscatel de Grano Menudo, and Moscatel de Alejandría (Muscat of Alexandria) are grown in Spain. The latter produces the better-known wines, with exceptional sweet bottlings found in the Sherry region, particularly around Chipiona, and in Málaga.

Red Grapes

Bobal: Tied with Garnacha as Spain’s third most planted variety (behind Airén and Tempranillo), Bobal is slowly repairing a poor reputation of lower-quality wines. It is native to Utiel-Requena in Valencia, which leads in terms of top examples of the grape. Bobal is high yielding, has large clusters, and often ripens unevenly. It has long been consigned to cooperative and bulk wine production, especially for rosado, but at its best, particularly when harvested from old bush vines at higher-elevation sites, Bobal can offer deep wines with a firm tannic structure.

Cariñena: Cariñena, or Carignan in France and elsewhere, is known as Carinyena or Mazuelo in various Spanish regions and also has the less-often used regional names of Mazuela, Crujillón, and Samsó. Widespread plantings across Europe suggest it is an ancient variety. Ironically, in the Aragon DO Cariñena, Garnacha is the primary grape, although Cariñena is planted there. Cariñena can be found in various pockets throughout Spain but has gained traction in Catalonia, including in Priorat, where it can offer serious monovarietal wines and contribute to blends. It serves as a minor blending variety in Rioja.

Cariñena achieves high yields, elevated acidity, and elevated tannins. Accordingly, it has been used as a workhouse grape around the globe. Ripening late, Cariñena requires a warm climate. In cooler vintages or climates, it can struggle to ripen and result in overly acidic wines. Its best examples, harvested from old bush vines, show great depth and ability to age.

Garnacha: While the variety might be more recognized as Grenache in Mediterranean France and the New World, it appears to be indigenous to Spain (likely Aragon or Catalonia), where it is known as Garnacha. Though Italian researchers have argued for Sardinia as its origin (there, it is known as Cannonau), Spain contains the greatest degree of genetic diversity for the grape, which typically connotes the true source. Debate is also given to Garnacha’s etymology, with some believing it is a derivation of Vernaccia, a family of Italian varieties, while others contest it comes from garnaxa, the Catalan word for a historic red gown worn by legal officials.

Garnacha is the eighth most planted grape in the world. It is cultivated throughout Aragon and Catalonia, where it is called Garnatxa, and finds prestige in Priorat and Montsant, as well as such regions as Navarra, Galicia, and La Mancha. In Rioja, specifically Rioja Oriental, Garnacha is an important blending grape for Tempranillo, for which it supplies alcohol, body, and fruitiness. Across Spain, an abundance of old vine, head-trained material can be found.

Garnacha requires a long growing season, budding early and ripening late. It is prone to a number of diseases, as well as millerandage, but shows good resistance to wood diseases—one factor accounting for the longevity of many of its vines. By the time Garnacha reaches phenological ripeness, it will potentially have accumulated a significant amount of sugar, leading to elevated alcohol levels, though often reduced acidity. In the cellar, Garnacha is susceptible to oxidation.

Like Pinot Noir, Blanc, and Gris, Garnacha involves various color mutations (the red grape more precisely referred to as Garnacha Tinta), though technically all constitute a single variety. Garnacha Blanca (Grenache Blanc) is a significant contributor to Spanish whites and yields high-quality wines in Aragon and Catalonia. The pink-skinned variant, Garnacha Roja (Grenache Gris), is also grown, though it is less prevalent in Spain than in France. The red Garnacha Peluda (Garnatxa Peluda or Lladoner Pelut in Catalonia), another mutation of the same variety, features hairy undersides to its leaves and finds favor for its thicker skins and higher acidity as compared to Garnacha Tinta.

As a monovarietal red table wine, Garnacha tends to show a low to moderate level of tannins, as well as an array of fruit characters that can vary from crunchy to jammy depending on ripeness. It is also blended with a range of partners, both in Spain and abroad. Garnacha carries a long history of quality fortified sweet wines, in Catalonia and across the border in Roussillon and southern France. It is a common choice for rosado production.

Garnacha Tintorera: Garnacha Tintorera, also known as Alicante Bouschet, is the offspring of Garnacha and Petit Bouschet. It was first crossed by Henri Bouschet at Domaine de la Calmette, just north of Nîmes, between 1855 and 1865. Technically, plantings include two sibling varieties. Still grown in southern France, it has found tremendous success in Spain. Its most significant Spanish strongholds stretch from Valencia to Castilla-La Mancha to Galicia.

Garnacha Tintorera is a teinturier variety, meaning both its skins and flesh are red. As a result, its wines can be deeply pigmented, to the point of inkiness, and very tannic. Its yields are high; the best examples result from severe crop management or older, less-productive vines. With an early budbreak, the grape is vulnerable to spring frosts and a variety of maladies throughout the growing season, in particular bacterial threats.

Listán Negro: Though often mistakenly believed to be related to Listán Prieto (also known as País, Mission, and Criolla Chica) or to be a pigmented mutation of Listán Blanco, Listán Negro is not related to either, nor has a genetic relationship to any other variety been discovered. In contrast to both Listán Blanco and Prieto, Listán Negro is native to the Canary Islands, where it is the most planted red grape and produces its most noteworthy red wines. A highly productive variety, Listán Negro is vinified using a number of practices, including carbonic maceration and oak aging, and results in perfumed wines.

Mencía: Mencía has attracted recent attention for its medium-bodied red wines. The grape likely originates in Bierzo, the appellation in northwestern Castilla y León where it continues to be cultivated. Mencía is successful in all of Galicia’s DO regions and particularly in Ribeira Sacra, where it grows on steeply terraced vineyards. In Portugal, it is known as Jaen.

Mencía clusters are small, though the berries of average size. Finicky in the vineyard, Mencía faces challenges with wind, mildew, and botrytis. Its wines typically pair fresh, precise red fruit flavors with stonier, savory qualities. Although new oak is occasionally employed, several of Mencía’s most complex, longest-lived wines are aged in neutral barrels or other inert vessels. The most celebrated examples regularly come from century-old vineyards such as Las Lamas and Moncerbal in Bierzo and Pombeiras in Ribera Sacra.

Old vine Monastrell in Alicante (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak)

Monastrell: Monastrell is believed to be indigenous to the Valencian town Sagunto. Its historic Catalan name Morvedre gave way to its more recognized French moniker, Mourvèdre. The Spanish name, however, derives from monasteriellu, Latin for “small monastery.” Genetic studies have shown a potential sibling relationship to Graciano, also a blending grape in Rioja. In Spain, Monastrell plantings are most concentrated to the southeast, in Valencia, Murcia, and Castilla-La Mancha. It finds particular success in the appellations Jumilla and Alicante, where many old vine plantings can be found.

Monastrell ripens quite late and features thick-skinned, small- to average-size berries, in compact bunches that are also small to average in size. While the grape resists botrytis, it is difficult to cultivate due to its need for heat later in the growing season and its susceptibility to drought. During vinification, Monastrell demonstrates strong reductive tendencies. When bottled alone, it can yield full-bodied, intense wines with elevated tannins, alcohol, ripe fruit flavors (both red and black), and, often, a spicy herbaceous character—one of its important contributions in blends. Monastrell is also used in Fondillón, the historic oxidative and off-dry late-harvest wine of Alicante.

Tempranillo: Tempranillo is generally regarded as Spain’s signature grape and it is the country's most planted grape. Globally, Tempranillo is the fourth most planted variety among wine grapes, trailing only Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot among reds. It can be found across Spain under many aliases, but it is believed to reach the apex of its expression in Rioja and Ribera del Duero.

Tempranillo Synonyms

Cencibel (Valdepeñas)

Tinto del País (Ribera del Duero)

Tinta de Toro (Toro)

Tinto Fino (Ribera del Duero)

Tinto Roriz/Aragonez (Portugal)

Ull de Llebre (Catalonia)

Genetic profiling has suggested that Tempranillo shares a parent-offspring relationship with Albillo Mayor, a white variety cultivated in Ribera del Duero and sometimes blended with Tempranillo. It is believed to originate in either Rioja or Navarra. Tempranillo means “little early one,” likely a reference to its small berry size and its early budding and ripening. Across Spain, Tempranillo enjoys broad clonal diversity, with morphological differences adapted to specific locations. The variety is capable of average to higher yields but can be prone to various vine maladies, including Eutypa dieback and powdery mildew. Clusters are average to large in size, consisting of small, compact berries with thick skins. Tempranillo also has a white mutation, Tempranillo Blanco, which is authorized and harvested in Rioja.

Depending on style, Tempranillo can produce a broad array of red to black fruit notes, though its more savory flavors, including leather, earth, and dried herbs, are most often identified. It is responsive to a variety of winemaking techniques, and top-flight examples might be aged in century-old or new American or European oak barrels, among other vessels. Simpler, unoaked examples are abundant as well, as are traditions of carbonic maceration. Tempranillo can be bottled monovarietally but is sometimes blended with various French and Spanish grapes.

Other Varieties: A selection of non-native red grapes is also grown in Spain. Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Malbec are all blending partners for Tempranillo, most famously in Ribera del Duero. Cabernet can frequently be found in varietal bottlings as well. Spanish investment in Syrah grew exponentially in the 2000s, with most plantings concentrated in Castilla-La Mancha. Pinot Noir is poorly suited to Spain’s hotter climate, though some exists, especially for Cava production.

Rosado

Spain produces roughly 25% of rosé globally, ranking second behind France. It is also the world’s largest exporter of rosé, though more than 60% is sold in bulk. The tradition of Spanish rosado stretches back several centuries. The light-bodied red wines enjoyed by pilgrims traveling the Camino de Santiago during the Middle Ages were likely akin to what is considered a dark-hued rosado today. They’re often referred to as claretes, analogous to the clairets of France. Several DOs carry longstanding histories of rosado production, namely Cigales, Navarra, and Valdepeñas, where the wines were known as aloques. Garnacha is an important grape for rosado, though varieties vary throughout the country.

Expressions of rosado in Spain, though diverse, show marked distinction from the Provençal examples that have popularized global rosé consumption in the 21^st century. The most traditional rosados are aged for long periods in American oak and are higher in alcohol and deeper in pigment than more contemporary bottlings. They might also employ the crianza, reserva, and gran reserva quality labels. These wines usually blend both red and white varieties and implement a period of skin maceration. Spanish cooperatives during the Franco regime transitioned to the saignée method, not necessarily with additional barrel age, for rosado production, while more recent examples have chased the Provençal style, with direct-to-press techniques and an aim for more lightly colored wines.

Atlantic Coast

Galicia

Galicia juts out like a handle from the rest of Spain, occupying the country’s northwestern corner, just above Portugal. Its culture, like its wines, carries a strong regional identity, combining many Portuguese traditions with Celtic foundations derived from its first inhabitants. Celtic religions once largely coexisted with Catholicism, but today, Galicia might be best known as the end of the Camino de Santiago, a pilgrimage route to the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, where Saint James is said to be buried. Many of Galicia’s wines resemble those grown across the border, such as the Vinho Verdes of Portugal’s Minho region (also the name for the river separating the two countries). Galicia is often referred to as Green Spain for its vibrant landscape, a vast departure from the arid oranges and browns that define much of the rest of Iberia.

Galicia's DOs (Click to enlarge and zoom in)

Rías Baixas

Many Galician wines have attracted recent attention, but Rías Baixas was the first to come to modern prominence. Its Albariño wines helped redefine the global perception of Spanish winemaking. While the country was primarily perceived as an incubator for big, oaked red wines, Rías Baixas delivered a snappy white, as refreshing as it could be serious.

While Albariño is believed to be indigenous to the general area (Galicia or northern Portugal), quality winemaking in Rías Baixas was initiated by the Cistercian monks, arriving from Burgundy either during their pilgrimage to Santiago or for the wedding of Queen Urraca of León to Raymond of Burgundy. The many monasteries that were subsequently set up in the area were dissolved starting in the early 1800s, leading to the privatization of Rías Baixas’ vineyard area. Pazos, as local estates are called, were established, many giving name to the producers who occupy their structures today. Each pazo was outfitted with an hórreo, a granary hoisted above ground by stone pillars. Palacio de Fefiñanes was Rías Baixas’ first commercial winery, founded in 1904, though the palace itself dates to the 17^th century. The DO was not created until the 1980s, first called Denominación Específica Albariño and later Rías Baixas DO upon Spain’s admission into the European Union, as varietal appellation names were forbidden by EU law. In 1987, just 14 wineries existed in the DO. Since that time, the region has received global attention and grown tremendously—it is now home to more than 180 producers. Significant investment has come from other major players in Spanish wine, namely those growing reds in other key regions who seek a quality white for their portfolios.

Rías Baixas takes its names from the “low estuaries” that flow through the region before eventually reaching the ocean. Lush and green, the area is very humid, with between 1,200 and 1,800 millimeters of precipitation annually. Disease pressure is lowered due to Albariño’s thick-skinned nature, and climate change has purportedly mitigated some of the appellation’s more extreme Atlantic influences in recent vintages. Much of the region is planted on decomposed granite, called xabre, with low water retention that serves the rainy environment well.

The subzones of Rias Baixas (Click to enlarge and zoom in)

A non-contiguous region, Rías Baixas is separated into five subzones: Val do Salnés, Ribeira do Ulla, Soutomaior, O Rosal, and Condado do Tea. Val do Salnés is the most historic as well as the largest, containing more than half of the region’s planted hectarage and the majority of its most heralded estates. It is the coldest and wettest area of the appellation, situated on the Atlantic coast north of Pontevedra, and yields wines often identified by a marked salinity. Ribeira do Ulla sits northeast, between Val do Salnés and Santiago de Compostela along the Ulla River. Though it occupies a large swath of land, this is the youngest subzone and only a small contributor to Rías Baixas’ total output. Some, however, posit its northerly positioning may prove advantageous with the progression of climate change. Soutomaior is smallest in both production and size, lying just beneath the Verdugo River near the beginning of the wide Ría de Vigo. O Rosal and Condado do Tea both border Portugal, separated by the Miño River and settling its northern banks. O Rosal reaches the Atlantic Ocean, while Condado do Tea goes further inland. O Rosal is regarded for a broader, richer style of Albariño. Condado do Tea is the warmest and driest subzone, as well as the largest contributor to red wine production (though still minimal).

Rías Baixas, like much of Galicia, is a region of minifundios, small plots of vineyard, on average 0.6 hectares split into approximately four parcels, owned by independent growers. Largescale operations are challenging here, as stitching together substantial patches of land is difficult. Vines are historically trained to a parral, or “pergola,” system. Granite posts hold up the pergolas, and the overhead canopy provides grapes with shelter from the region’s marginal weather and the opportunity to cultivate other crops between vines. This training system also enables greater airflow to combat mildew and rot, encourages greater photosynthesis and ripening by maximizing leaf surface, and protects grapes from sunburn. Younger plantings, however, might be trellised instead. While Rías Baixas has seen a recent boom in development, several old vine Albariño parcels remain, some over 200 or 300 years in age and still in production.

The parral system in Val do Salnés (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak)

Albariño accounts for more than 96% of Rías Baixas’ total plantings, with Loureira, Treixadura, Caíño Blanco, Torrontés, and Godello also cultivated. A wine must be composed exclusively of Albariño to be varietally labeled. While blended white wines are authorized and demonstrate high quality, the marketing advantages of listing Albariño on labels has inhibited the growth of white blends.

On its own, Albariño can produce varied wines. For an entry-level Albariño, Rías Baixas producers will typically employ exclusively stainless steel before bottling, usually the spring after harvest. These wines are crisp, fruity, and meant for early consumption. A step above will see a more textured Albariño with noted lees impact, from extended sur lie aging and possible bâtonnage. Top Albariños will likely come from older vines and experience lees aging. They may be barrel fermented or aged. These will be the most structured and longest lived Albariños. Some producers may also let their Albariño undergo full malolactic conversion.

Rías Baixas wines can be labeled by subzone. Val do Salnés and Ribeira do Ulla wines must be composed of at minimum 70% Albariño, Loureira, Treixadura, and Caíño Blanco. Those labeled O Rosal must be at least 70% Albariño and Loureira, while Condado do Tea must contain a minimum 70% Albariño and Treixadura. An exceptionally small amount of sparkling and red wine is made from any combination of Caíño Tinto, Espadeiro, Loureira Tinta, Sousón, Mencía, and Brancellao.

Vino Tostado

Vino tostado is a historic style, highly sought after by the English until their defeat of the Spanish Armada and gaining traction once again in the 19^th century. Translating to “toasted wine” or “roasted wine,” vino tostado is a dried grape wine similar to Tuscan vin santo. Red or white grapes are left to dry for a minimum of three months following harvest in covered rooms with consistent ventilation to avoid rot. They must be dried to a minimum must weight of 350 grams per liter. Drying can be performed using various tactics, from hanging the clusters to resting them on shelves or in plastic bins. The wines are then fermented and aged in oak or cherry casks for at minimum six months, followed by a minimum three in bottle before release.

Ribeiro

Ribeiro’s reputation for quality wines dates back to Roman rule and was later continued by the Benedictine and Cistercian monks who tended to its vines. The region’s focal point is the town of Ribadavia, where the rivers Miño and Avia converge, and the Arnoia joins just south. Heavily fragmented vineyard parcels, rooted mostly in decomposed granite, are harvested in these three rivers’ valleys at various elevations. With high humidity and elevated levels of precipitation, Ribeiro is also dangerously susceptible to spring frost; it lost nearly a third of its crop in 2017. Ribeiro’s southwestern border connects to Rías Baixas’ Condado do Tea.

Production in Ribeiro is almost entirely focused upon white wine, with 9 of 10 bottles being white. Though the region was largely replanted to Palomino in the years following the oidium and phylloxera crises, the best whites today come from various local grapes, most importantly the semi-aromatic Treixadura, but also Albariño, Loureiro, Godello, Caíño Blanco, Lado, and Torrontés (of no relation to the Argentine varieties), blended in various combinations. Most of the remaining output is dedicated to red wine from an array of native and Spanish varieties. A final single percent of Ribeiro’s wines is either sparkling or vino tostado.

Ribeira Sacra

Ribeira Sacra forms a crescent shape through the nexus of Galicia’s two major rivers, the Sil and the Miño. The region’s name translates to “sacred riverbanks,” an allusion to the many monasteries once housed here that established the region’s winegrowing traditions in the Middle Ages. The landscape is dramatic, with ancient terraces carved into the steeply descending hillside plantings, resulting in viticultural challenges on par with those of the Mosel, Douro, and Northern Rhône. A young appellation only officially recognized in 1996, Ribeira Sacra has also been responsible for much of Galicia’s recent attention, with producers such as Guímaro, Algueira, and Dominio do Bibei giving a face to the region’s red wine capabilities in addition to its long-admired whites.

Ribeira Sacra is further divided into five subzones: Chantada, Ribeiras do Miño, Amandi, Ribeiras do Sil, and Quiroga-Bibei. Amandi, which sits at the appellation’s center on the steep northern slopes of the Sil, is most historic and most often viewed as highest in quality. Chantada is located on the Miño’s right bank, opposite Ribeiras do Miño. Ribeiras do Sil lies on the left bank of the Sil until just after its confluence with the Miño around the town of Los Peares. Quiroga-Bibei occupies the region’s eastern sector and is carved in half by the Sil. Vineyards along the Sil and near its lower sections tend to be grounded in granitic soils, while the Upper Sil has more slate. The Sil Valley is drier and slightly cooler than the Miño.

The Amandi subzone in Ribeira Sacra (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak)

Wines produced in Ribeira Sacra are predominately red, with Mencía as the most important grape, covering 90% of vineyards. Here, Mencía can achieve wines perceived as crunchier and lighter in body than those from Bierzo—but often just as complex. Many additional varieties are permitted and can yield exciting wines under the renewed enthusiasm of local producers. Bastardo, locally called Merenzao, has a few varietal examples, typically very floral. Sousón (Vinhão in Portugal) is more deeply pigmented and tannic, while Brancellao (Alvarelhão in Portugal) is more elegant. Caíño Tinto and Tempranillo are also recommended by the consejo, as are Galicia’s three great whites, Albariño, Godello, and Treixadura. The rare labeling term Summum identifies the use of at least 85% principal grapes for both whites and reds. Many are monovarietal, and there are no strict rules surrounding ripeness levels, oak aging, length of aging, or specific quality.

Valdeorras

Valdeorras, Galicia’s easternmost appellation, bridges Ribeira Sacra with Castilla y León’s Bierzo. While it concentrates its red production on Mencía like its neighbors, the region is most praised for its white wines made from Godello. Valdeorras’s name translates to “valley of Gigguri” a nod to the pre-latin tribe of the area. The Sil River flows through the appellation, but the region has a more continental climate than elsewhere in Galicia—less humid, and with drier, hotter summers. Valdeorras is composed of thousands of small vineyard plots, scattered at various elevations from high hillside plantings to lower parcels closer to the riverbanks. Yet it is home to relatively few wineries, which assemble fruit from the many growers operating here. Though various soils can be found in Valdeorras, the region is largely associated with slate, not only in terms of winegrowing but also for roof tiles, an important export.

Godello produces Valdeorras’s most heralded wines, which for some critics can compete with Rías Baixas as Galicia’s finest whites. Often described as mineral, for lack of a better term, Godello wines can achieve marked concentration and complexity both with and without barrel fermentation and aging. Godello might be blended with Doña Blanca (called Dona Branca in Galicia) and Palomino or bottled monovarietally. Reds from Mencía are also produced, as are wines from other Galician and Spanish varieties. Only Mencía (min. 85%) and Godello (min. 100%) can be varietally labeled. In addition to white and red wines, sparkling wine based on Godello and vino tostado (from Godello or red varieties) are also permitted, though the latter style is less associated with Valdeorras than with Ribeiro.

Monterrei

Monterrei lies south of Ribeira Sacra, hugging the Portuguese border. Its river, the Támega, runs south toward the Douro (as the Duero is called once it enters Portugal). Like Valdeorras, the appellation experiences both Atlantic and Continental influences, resulting in hot, dry summers and cold winters. The region contains diverse soils, but the best soil for white wines is granitic sand, and clay and slate are preferable for reds. Despite its ancient tradition of viticulture (Galicia’s oldest winemaking evidence is found here), only a very small number of wineries operate within Monterrei today. However, recent investment in the area suggests future growth for the DO. Monterrei exclusively makes white and red wines, its whites produced from Dona Branca, Godello, and Treixadura, among other regional varieties, and its reds primarily from Mencía and Bastardo, with blending grapes.

Cantabria & Asturias

Cantabria and Asturias do not contain DO regions but both cultivate vines. In the southwestern corner of Asturias, Cangas VCIG (which has its own PDO under European law) borders Galicia and Castilla y León. Though it only has six wineries, the region was once more bountiful, before oidium, phylloxera, and 20^th-century challenges such as a burgeoning coal mining industry (with palates favoring more robust drinks) and catastrophic hailstorms in 1959. Whites are harvested from Albarín Blanco, Albillo, and Moscatel de Grano Menudo. Mencía is used for reds, as are the more obscure varieties Carrasquín, Verdejo Negro, and Albarín Negro.

There are two VdlT regions in Cantabria. One is the Costa de Cantabria, which climbs from the Atlantic Coast to elevations of 600 meters but doesn’t include those municipalities covered in Liébana, a separate VdlT that borders Asturias. Costa de Cantabria permits Albariño, Chardonnay, Godello, Hondarrabi Zuri, Riesling, Gewürztraminer, and Treixadura for whites, while reds are made from Hondarrabi Beltza. Liébana veers more toward standard Spanish and international varieties, with Palomino, Godello, Chardonnay, Gewürztraminer, Mencía, Tempranillo, Garnacha, Graciano, Syrah, and Cabernet Sauvignon. Like neighboring Galicia and the Basque Country, both Cantabria and Asturias have vibrant cider cultures. Spanish sidra is often cited as more sour than other European examples, distinguished by flavor contributions of Brettanomyces, though varied styles exist.

Basque Country

Tucked into the western Pyrenees and Iberia’s northern Atlantic Coast, the Basque Country was first inhabited by the Vascones during the Stone Age and remained relatively separate from Roman, Visigoth, and Moorish forces as they dominated the peninsula. The Basque Country remained independent throughout the Spanish Civil War, until Franco, with Hitler’s aid, bombed Guernica in 1937. The Basques maintain a strong sense of cultural identity, and their language, Basque (Euskara), bears no relation to any other. The Basque Country (País Vasco in Spanish and Euskadi in Basque) also holds one of Spain’s most admired culinary heritages. Particularly revered for their seafood, the Basques have made gastronomic destinations out of Michelin-heavy San Sebastián (Donostia) and Bilbao, while also enjoying more casual traditions, namely pintxos, skewered Basque snacks similar to tapas.

In addition to Rioja Alavesa DOCa, the Basque Country contains three DO regions that focus on Chacolí, here called Txakoli, all of them impacted by proximity to the Atlantic. The name translates to "farm wine," a reference to the home winemaking practices prevalent throughout the region’s history. Yet Txakoli, traditionally a fresh, sometimes spritzy white wine, has attracted more commercial interest in recent years. Hondarrabi Zuri (or Ondarrabi Zuri) dominates white plantings, though some have theorized that this name represents three different grape varieties. The DOs of Basque Country also employ various international white grapes for blending, including Folle Blanche, Petit Manseng, Gros Manseng, Riesling, Chardonnay, and Sauvignon Blanc, depending on the appellation. The indigenous red grape Hondarrabi Beltza (Ondarrabi Beltza, of no relation to Hondarrabi Zuri) is grown to a smaller extent, yielding fresh, light-bodied reds. Sparkling and rosado Txakoli also exist, though in the shadow of the region’s white wines.

While all share commonalities, there are distinguishing traits to the three Txakoli DOs: Txakoli de Bizkaia (Bizkaiko Txakolina), Txakoli de Getaria (Getariako Txakolina), and Txakoli de Álava (Arabako Txakolina). Getaria and Bizkaia are more humid, influenced heavily by the Bay of Biscay, requiring careful viticulture to avoid moisture-related disease and to achieve ripeness. Vineyards are planted on sandy, alluvial soils and lie at lower elevations, often close to sea level, though certain sites are planted on well-drained slopes. Getaria was the first established Txakoli DO and remains the most traditional. Bizkaia, centered to the west around Bilbao, has amassed a concentration of many of the Basque Country’s leading producers, benefiting from looser regulations and greater varietal diversity. Established in 2001, Txakoli de Álava is the newest and smallest appellation, its winegrowing area once nearing extinction despite historic significance. Further inland, the DO experiences less coastal influence and humidity pressure.

Duero River Valley

Castilla y León

Castilla y León is still colloquially referred to as Old Castile, as it once comprised the heart of that powerful kingdom. While many of Castilla y León’s wine regions have ancient origins, most have only recently come to prominence as sources of fine wine. In fact, several appellations—Arlanza, Arribes, León, and Tierra del Vino de Zamora—only earned DO status in 2007. Castilla y León sits on the upper portion of the Meseta, a higher plateau than neighboring Castilla-La Mancha, from which it is separated by the mountains of the Sistema Central. Elevations are high (700 to 1,000 meters), and most regions are concentrated along the banks of the Duero River, before it crosses into Portugal. Much of Castilla y León is susceptible to a dramatic continental climate, matching scorching summers with frigid winters. Frost can be a challenge at both the beginning of the growing season and harvest, as can drought in the hotter months.

The DOs of Castilla y León (Click to enlarge and zoom in)

Bierzo

Bierzo DO has little resemblance to the rest of Castilla y León. Lying just opposite Valdeorras on the Galician border, Bierzo might be considered a transitional appellation into Castilla y León’s more continental climate, and the wines have much more in common with its neighbors to the west. Romans first settled in the area to mine for gold, and with them began the region’s longstanding history of winemaking. Both Pliny the Elder and Greek historian-geographer Strabo document the ancient wines grown here. The region continued as an important source of wine through the Middle Ages for pilgrims making their way to Santiago, and the habitation of the Cistercian order helped advance viticulture.

Mining continues in Bierzo, namely for coal and iron, though only recently has the region realized its capacity for excellence. The phylloxera crisis resulted in increased plantings of Palomino (here, as in many regions, innocuous in character), and cooperatives dominated for much of the 20^th century. The DO was officially established in 1989, largely due to the efforts of José Luis Prada, whose winery Prada a Tope was an early leader in the new quality wave. The movement gained traction in the 1990s with acclaimed winemaker Raúl Pérez, who later lent winery space to Álvaro Palacios (of Rioja and Priorat) and his nephew Ricardo Pérez Palacios for their first vintages of Descendientes de José Palacios. Today, Bierzo’s wines, primarily made from Mencía, help redefine the image of Spanish reds by providing a light-bodied foil to premium examples made from Tempranillo.

Climatically, Bierzo experiences a degree of the humidity and rainfall from Green Spain, as well as the continental conditions of the Duero River Valley, but is more moderate. The Sierra de los Ancares shields much of the Atlantic’s effects, but cold springs can still lead to challenges with frost. Running through the region is the Sil River, as well as several tributaries. The landscape of Bierzo forms an amphitheater, stretching from around 450 to 800 meters in elevation and dividing the region into two general unofficial zones: the low-lying, flatter Bajo Bierzo at the base and the mountainside plantings of Alto Bierzo. Quality winegrowing is favored in the latter’s higher, sloped sites, often composed of quartz and slate. Vines in Bajo Bierzo are typically planted in deeper, clay-alluvial soils. Old vines can be found throughout the region, though are mostly owned in small plots, requiring producers to piece together sources from many growers.

Bierzo announced its own village wine category in 2017 and created a full vineyard quality pyramid. Above the Vino de Villa (village wine) category, Vino de Paraje is seen as analogous to Burgundy’s lieux-dits, designated to specific parcels. Those parajes might further be deemed to produce either Vino de Viña Clasificada (essentially a classified cru wine) or Gran Vino de Viña Clasificada (or grand cru). It is not yet clear exactly how these schemes will play out.

Bierzo’s vineyard quality pyramid (Credit: Brandon Lee Wise)

Mencía fills roughly three-quarters of Bierzo’s planted area and here, along with Ribeira Sacra, finds its highest expression. The variety, along with Garnacha Tintorera, Estaldiña, and Merenzao, must contribute a minimum 85% to Bierzo’s red wines. Mencía must also compose at least half of any rosado. White wines of quality are also bottled in Bierzo, most successfully from Godello and Doña Blanca, though Malvasía and Palomino are permitted, too.

Rueda

Further west along the river from Ribera del Duero, Rueda DO has witnessed one of Spain’s most significant success stories for white wine. Today, the region boasts the most consumed white in Spain, though that was certainly not always the case. The Moors incinerated the area that is today Rueda upon their retreat, leading to a long fallow period. Once fertility was restored, in the 11^th century, King Alfonso VI issued an edict incentivizing a return to that land. Eventually, the region came to specialize in oxidative white wines, and following the phylloxera crisis, much of the vineyard area was replanted to the vigorous Palomino, further likening Rueda’s wines to Sherry.

By the 20^th century, Rueda’s dorado (literally “golden”) wines, fortified and sometimes flor-affected rancios aged in a solera system or demijohns, fell far out of fashion, and their lack of export market gave little hope for the region’s future. That changed in 1970, when Rioja bodega Marqués de Riscal and its director Francisco Hurtado de Amézaga y Dolagaray sought to add a white to its portfolio. Inexperienced and uninterested in the traditional white wines of Rioja, the estate enlisted Bordeaux professor and consultant Émile Peynaud to search for alternatives. Peynaud predicted the aptitude of Verdejo grown in Rueda for producing contemporary white wines of commercial appeal and also recommended the cultivation of Sauvignon Blanc. Peynaud’s instincts proved correct, bringing Rueda several decades of investment and expansion. Between 1996 and 2012 alone, vineyard hectarage grew nearly sixfold, and the proportion dedicated to Palomino dwindled, overtaken by more favorable varieties.

Rueda’s vineyards, though mainly flat, benefit from elevations around 600 to 700 meters. The Duero just runs through the very north of the region, but its tributaries extend throughout Rueda. The soil has a high portion of limestone and is famously gravelly, allowing for good drainage. Rueda has the same extreme continental climate as its neighbors, often requiring irrigation. Old vine material is available, though a large portion of the new plantings is mechanically harvested.

The flat landscape of Rueda (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak)

Rueda’s wines are most often juicy, boisterous white Verdejos, bountiful in orchard fruit flavor and a refreshing stoniness. White wines are bottled as Rueda, and may also include a mention of one or more varieties. They must be composed of a minimum 75% principal varieties with producers typically leaning on Verdejo and Sauvignon Blanc, the latter capable of adding acidity and an herbaceous quality. Palomino, Viura, Chardonnay, and Viognier are also authorized for blending. Sparkling wines of various sweetness levels, each requiring different percentages of Verdejo, are produced, and those aged 36 months or longer sur lie can be titled gran añada. Though rare, a few dorado wines can be found, from producers eager to reclaim that part of the region’s heritage. Pálido references a heritage style of biologically aged and fortified Rueda wine, only recently recognized again by the consejo. The region’s red wines, first permitted in 2001, are vinified from Tempranillo, alongside the permitted Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, and Garnacha. Rosado wines can also be bottled. As of the 2019 vintage, two additional categories of Rueda have been created: Gran vino de Rueda must come from vines at least 30 years old and adhering to stricter yields; Vino de Pueblo is a new village wine classification, where 85% of grapes must be harvested for nearly 70 permitted municipalities.

Ribera del Duero

Much more emblematic of wines from Castilla y Léon is Ribera del Duero. Evidence of viticulture in Ribera del Duero dates back to the Roman period, though there is reason to believe that earlier Celtic settlers grew vines as well. Ancient Roman and medieval wineries and lagares can still be visited throughout the region. For much of its history, Ribera del Duero was a winegrowing area of little prestige. Monasteries would tend to grapes, and locals would cultivate small patches of vineyard for home winemaking—making rustic, light-hued claretes of little semblance to the wines the appellation is known for today.

The first to recognize the potential of Ribera del Duero was Don Eloy Lecanda y Chaves, who founded in 1864 what would later be named Vega Sicilia, an estate many cite as the finest in Spain. In that year, he brought all the traditional red grapes of Bordeaux as well as Pinot Noir to be planted alongside Tempranillo. Carmenère and Pinot Noir are no longer cultivated at Vega Sicilia, though Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Malbec remain for various programs. Vega Sicilia did not achieve instant success, but under the stewardship of cellar master Domingo Garramiola Txomin, who conceived the winery’s flagship Unico, the estate began to demonstrate excellence.

Tall oak fermenters at Vega Sicilia (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak)

Still, Vega Sicilia remained an anomaly in what was an otherwise unremarkable region. Ribera del Duero did not enjoy the same bolster to its industry as Rioja did during the French phylloxera crisis. Once phylloxera reached Ribera del Duero, and following its recovery, only Vega Sicilia and the local cooperative (now the winery Protos) bottled wine until the Spanish Civil War. The number of cooperatives then exploded to more than 30 during the Franco regime. In 1972, Alejandro Fernández established Tinto Pesquera, where he helped return focus to Tempranillo and produced acclaimed monovarietal renditions. The region, however, wasn’t granted DO status until 1982. But beginning in that decade, Ribera del Duero began growing rapidly, expanding from 24 wineries in 1982 to more than 300 today. In addition to its growth in vineyard area and producers, the region gained global esteem, with projects like Peter Sisseck’s Pingus in 1995 solidifying a set of new top-shelf wines for Spain.

Ribera del Duero’s borders span four provinces: Soria, Segovia, Burgos, and Valladolid (from east to west). The Duero River runs west through the center of the roughly 110-kilometer-long region. Soils are heterogeneous, with more than 30 types identified. More limestone can be found in the eastern reaches of the appellation, with a significant portion on the opposite side as well, but less in middle zones. Ribera del Duero generally grows warmer moving west, and the western portion also finds denser clay, while the rest of the region has sandy or silty-sandy earth. The elevation is more uniform, with vineyards planted between 700 and 1,000 meters above sea level, with an average of 800 to 850 meters. This amplifies the region’s diurnal swing, allowing grapes to preserve freshness and acidity through the hottest months.

Ribera del Duero has one of the most extreme continental climates in Spain—its summers swelteringly hot, its winters icy cold. Grapegrowing can prove challenging, with the risk of frost both in spring and near harvest threatening grapes that demand a long growing season. Hail, too, is not uncommon. A small majority of Ribera del Duero is planted to bush vines, with trellising and mechanical harvesting more prevalent in flatter western areas.

Tempranillo bush vine in Ribera del Duero (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak)

Tempranillo covers approximately 95% of Ribera del Duero’s vineyards and locally is referred to as Tinto Fino or Tinta del País. Such names can also connote the genetic distinction between the selection of clones found here as compared to other parts of Spain. Following Vega Sicilia’s lead, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Malbec are also permitted and cultivated by many producers. Among additional Spanish red varieties, only Garnacha is authorized, though Bobal can still be found throughout the region. Albillo Mayor, genetically distinct from other Albillos, is the sole white grape permitted in Ribera del Duero. Only since 2019 has the consejo allowed white wine to carry the name Ribera del Duero. Previously, Albillo Mayor was only allowed in red wine blends, though many producers have long bottled Albillo Mayor wines. The grape is believed to share a parent-offspring relationship with Tempranillo (as well as with Doradilla, an esoteric grape from Málaga).

In addition to the new white wines, rosado and clarete wines can be made employing a minimum 50% of authorized red varieties. Red wines must be composed of a minimum of 95% authorized red grapes, with a minimum of 75% devoted to Tempranillo. Albillo must comprise a minimum 75% of whites. Ribera del Duero has enacted strict minimum requirements for its aging designations. Most wines, however, don't carry these aging designations, and many producers have adjusted their style to be less informed by extended maturation in oak.

Ribera del Duero often conjures comparisons to Rioja, as the two are the world’s most notable regions for Tempranillo. Organoleptically, Ribera del Duero tends to be considered darker fruited and more austerely tannic. This character is said to come not only from the land and the complementary Bordeaux varieties but also from the specific biotypes of Tinto Fino cultivated here. One exception might be near the province of Soria, where wines can often show a brighter, redder, and more acidic profile. Still, Ribera del Duero offers stylistic breadth, despite language often used to refer to “traditional” or “modern” winemaking. Both French and American oak have historically been used in the region, each long a part of Vega Sicilia’s formula, and many wines are amplified by a high dosage of new wood. More “modern” wineries might eschew the aging designations and veer toward monovarietal Tempranillo, but stereotyping proves difficult in this relatively young region.

Other DOs

Just north of Ribera del Duero, the Arlanza DO was only created in 2007, though its winemaking history originates with monastic traditions in the 12^th century, if not earlier. As with much of Spain, phylloxera devastated the region. Labor was lost in the 1950s as workers emigrated to larger industrial centers. The Arlanza River passes through the region of the same name, before joining the Arlanzón (which will later join the Pisuerga, and ultimately the Duero). Climatically, Arlanza shares the continental extremes of Ribera del Duero, and its soils are mostly sandy, with more of a clay structure near the center. White wines can be made from Albillo Mayor and Macabeo, while rosado and red wine must be composed of at least half Tempranillo. Other permitted red varieties include Garnacha, Mencía, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Petit Verdot.

Further down the Pisuerga River, before it meets the Duero, is the Cigales DO. Cigales’s wine origins are believed to be just as old as Ribera del Duero’s, though historically it has been most associated with rosados and claretes. Vineyards are high in elevation, between 700 and 800 meters, planted to soils that often have significant limestone content. As with Châteauneuf-du-Pape and its galets roulés, large rounded stones dot the vineyards here, reflecting heat and benefiting ripening. A vast network of underground cellars sits beneath the region, and visitors can spot the cellars' luceras, tall air vents that help light the facilities below.

Rosado remains an important product for Cigales, though the trend toward Provençal-style pale rosés has proven a challenge for these darker-hued pink wines, and some producers have moved toward lighter-colored wines. White, red, sparkling, and sweet wines are also permitted. Grapes include Verdejo, Sauvignon Blanc, Albillo Mayor, and Viura among whites, and for reds, Garnacha, Garnacha Gris, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, and, most importantly, Tempranillo.

The large León DO, roughly halfway between Cigales and Bierzo, held 14,000 hectares of vineyard as recently as the mid-1980s, but just over 1,400 remain. The vineyards sit around 800 to 900 meters in elevation, planted on brownish alluvial terraces with limestone influence. León, known as Tierra de León until 2019, is most distinguished for its cultivation of the indigenous red Prieto Picudo, which makes up roughly 70% of vineyards. The variety, recognized by its oval-shaped berries, produces lighter-colored, aromatic red wines with high acidity. Mencía is also recommended and Garnacha and Tempranillo authorized. For white grapes, Verdejo, Albarín Blanco (distinct from Albariño and all Albillos), Godello, Malvasía Castellana (also known as Síria or Doña Blanca, unrelated to Dona Branca), and Palomino (though not in new plantings) are authorized. Red, white, and rosado wines are all produced.

Along the Duero, Toro sits adjacent to Rueda, with a small section overlapping at the town of Villafranca de Duero. Toro’s reputation of quality winegrowing precedes that of Ribera del Duero, its wines exported to both the Americas following colonization and France during the phylloxera epidemic. Until the end of the 20^th century, much of Toro’s wine was also sent elsewhere in Spain to give muscle to cheaper blends. A pivot in quality occurred in the 1980s, reflected in investment from top Spanish estates, including Vega Sicilia with its project Pintia, and the emergence of new bodegas.

Toro sits at around 620 to 840 meters above sea level, and its cold continental nights prove critical to preserving balance in the region’s ripe wines. Vines are usually bush-trained and widely spaced, in part due to the drought conditions common here. Soils are inconsistent, though brown limestone can frequently be found atop both sandy and clay structures.

Tempranillo earns the local name Tinta de Toro, also a reference to the regional clonal types of the variety, which contribute to a full-throttle, rustic nature in the wines. Toro can be comparatively massive in flavor and alcohol when juxtaposed with Rioja or even Ribera del Duero, earning the moniker “bull’s blood” (toro translates to “bull”). Reds must contain at least 75% Tempranillo or 85% Garnacha, with the balance of the blend coming from those two grapes. Rosado and white wine also come from Toro, the latter from Verdejo, Malvasía Castellana, Albillo Real, and/or Muscat à Petit Grains. As of 2024, the DO also allows for quality sparkling wines vinified as red, white, or rosé.

Tierra del Vino de Zamora DO forms an L-shape around Toro, just touching Rueda at its eastern edge. The Duero flows through the northern sector of the appellation, and many other rivers traverse the region. As with the rest of the area, vineyards are planted high at an average of 750 meters above sea level, and soils are predominately alluvial. Tempranillo is the most planted grape variety and must constitute 75% of all red wines, 60% of rosados, and 30% of claretes. Cabernet Sauvignon and Garnacha are also grown, as are Malvasía Castellana, Verdejo, Moscatel de Grano Menudo, Albillo Mayor, Palomino, and Godello.

Arribes DO follows the path of the Duero River along the northeastern Portuguese border. The appellation is partially opposite the Douro Superior subzone of the Douro, an area of increasing significance in both Port and dry wine production. Vineyards range in elevation between 550 and 820 meters, and the soils are a mixture of sandy quartz and granite, as well as slate. The star grapes are reds Bruñal and its progeny Juan García. Bruñal yields ample-bodied wines with intense berry flavors, while Juan García veers more herbal and aromatic. Tempranillo, Rufete, Garnacha, and Mencía are permitted as well, along with Malvasía Castellana (a minimum 60% required for white wines), Verdejo, Albillo Mayor, and Albillo Real. Red, white, and rosado are bottled.

Ebro River Valley

Rioja

Winegrowing in Rioja is believed to predate the Roman conquest. The Celtiberians (Celtic tribes settled in Iberia) likely had already established a viticultural tradition, one that proved attractive to the newly arrived Romans who would bring their own knowledge and improve upon the local industry. Some even postulate that the Romans came to Rioja a century before reaching Bordeaux, and it is from Riojano cuttings that Bordeaux was first planted.

The name, Rioja (or Rioxa, as it was originally written), didn’t appear until 1092. Many speculate that Rioja is a portmanteau of Río Oja, a river that joins with the Tirón and later the Ebro. Others believe it might come from the Basque erriotxa, “land of bread,” or arrioxa, “land of rocks.” Regardless, by the time the region’s name emerged, Rioja had gained monastic importance, allowing an ongoing commitment to its vineyards.

Winemaking, however, remained crude during this early history, and for much of the second millennium, white wines were prized over the reds and more widely grown. A pivot toward Tempranillo and Cariñena (called Mazuelo here) began in the 18^th century, at the end of which growers established the Real Sociedad Económica de Cosecheros de Rioja in 1787, an association that allowed them to jointly market the region and seek other advancements.

The disasters of oidium and phylloxera in France were the catalysts for change in Rioja. The devastation of French vineyards pushed its vignerons south, looking for sources of wine. Not only did the French bring barrels, their investment in the region also provided the financial capital for much-needed infrastructure. An inland area, Rioja had been quite inaccessible, isolated from larger economic centers by lack of major road access. In 1880, Rioja completed its railway, connecting Logroño to Haro and ultimately Bilbao, providing its wines a route out of the region and to France. Wineries were established around the train station in Haro. The town’s Barrio de la Estación (train station district) still serves as the brain center for the region, housing such centenary wineries as López de Heredia, Compañía Vinícola del Norte de España (CVNE), and La Rioja Alta. The wines, too, continued to modernize. The Spanish crown established Haro’s Estación Enológica in 1888, a wine research facility that continues in operation. In 1890, Haro became only the second electrified city in Spain, following Jerez.

Yet Rioja’s reign was short lived. Bordeaux’s vineyards began to recover by the end of the century, replanted onto American rootstocks. Exports reached a record nine million liters in 1891, but just three years later receded to two million. And while it was better armed with the antidote, Rioja also suffered from phylloxera beginning in 1899, losing more than two-thirds of its vine area. The region had begun to experience fraud as well, prompting the application of wire cages (or mallas) to bottles to guarantee authenticity. In 1925, Rioja established its consejo regulador, the first in Spain, to govern and protect the region’s wine industry.

Subzones, cities, and key wineries in Rioja (Click to enlarge and zoom in)

Following the hardships of the Civil War and World War II, Rioja formed a second consejo to more success than the first. The region recovered its markets during the 1950s and 1960s, and by the 1970s, France’s wines became prohibitively expensive for many. Rioja provided a popular alternative and one that was ready to drink upon release (after many years of cellaring at the winery), in contrast to many French counterparts. The latter half of the 20^th century would also bring about several new wine styles in Rioja. In the 1960s, Enrique Forner of Marqués de Cáceres had hired Émile Peynaud, who advocated for the use of new French oak in Rioja. Michel Rolland arrived in 1987, hired by Bodegas Palacio, where he created a new flagship, Cosme Palacio y Hermanos Reserva Especial, matured for a shorter duration in new French barrels. Several producers would go on to craft similar vinos de autor, wines more internationally styled to the palate of critics like Robert Parker. In short, the image of a “typical” Rioja diversified. Following Spain’s entrance into the European Union, Rioja was declared the country’s first DOCa region in 1991.

While Rioja takes its name from La Rioja, the DOCa in fact traverses four autonomous communities: La Rioja, Basque Country, Navarra, and Castilla y Léon. (The inclusion of territory from Castilla y Léon results from the fact that two small areas within La Rioja belong to Castilla y Léon; a single estate sits in the DOCa.) Across its expanse, approximately 100 kilometers long and 40 wide, the appellation is rather heterogeneous. The Sierra de Cantabria range barricades the northern areas of Rioja from Atlantic winds, while the Ebro River splits the region. Vintages are often described as Atlantic or Mediterranean, the former years being cooler and wetter and the latter warmer and drier. The climate can vary dramatically across the region, with eastern areas experiencing more continental conditions with Mediterranean influences and the west a more maritime effect.

In part based on these climatic differences, Rioja is divided into three subzones: Rioja Alta, Rioja Alavesa, and Rioja Oriental. Rioja Alta sits the furthest west, with its two production hubs, Haro and Logroño, nearly bookending the area. The largest subzone in terms of area planted (over 40% of Rioja’s vineyards, with more than 27,000 hectares), Rioja Alta is also home to many of Rioja’s most well-recognized names, including López de Heredia, Muga, CVNE, and La Rioja Alta S.A. The Oja and Najerilla Rivers, both tributaries of the Ebro, form valleys where many of Rioja Alta’s grapes are harvested. Vineyards in the Oja Valley feature a higher concentration of chalky, alluvial soils, while those further east in the Najerilla Valley lie on iron-rich clay.

A non-contiguous subzone, Rioja Alavesa sandwiches a small section of Rioja Alta north of the Ebro River, surrounding the town of San Vicente de la Sonsierra. Rioja Alavesa is located entirely along the northern bank of the Ebro, as well as within Basque Country, and the subzones’ differences are as much cultural as they are geographical. Rioja Alavesa has more limestone in its soils and is also home to Rioja’s highest elevation vineyards on average, found near Labastida. The subzone relies most heavily on Tempranillo, with lower production of its blending partners. While bottling some of Rioja’s most expensive wines, Rioja Alavesa also has a tradition for carbonic-macerated Tempranillo that predates the introduction of Bordelais techniques.

The most easterly subzone, Rioja Oriental, has long been associated with Garnacha, which achieves more consistent ripeness in its warmer climes. Both drier and hotter than Rioja Alta and Alavesa, Rioja Oriental, renamed from Rioja Baja in 2018, will typically be the first subzone to harvest grapes. Stretching into the autonomous community of Navarra, many of Rioja Oriental’s vineyards sit at higher elevations in the Yerga Mountains.

Varietal breakdown in icon Rioja wines; click to enlarge and zoom in (Credit: Mike Ryan)

Tempranillo is Rioja’s dominant grape variety, and here, along with Ribera del Duero, it accomplishes its most recognized expressions. While increasingly vinified into monovarietal wines, Tempranillo was traditionally blended with several other varieties. In 1973, Garnacha was more widely planted in Rioja than Tempranillo; the varieties covered 39% and 31% of the landscape, respectively. Producers in Rioja Alta will still source Garnacha—used to add alcohol, body, and fruitiness—from Rioja Oriental as a sort of insurance policy should Tempranillo not ripen correctly. Today, it is also admired for its contributions to quality, with several Garnacha-dominant Rioja wines being bottled. A grape that once neared extinction, Graciano has found champions in recent decades as well. It supplies acidity, tannin, and exotic spice flavors, and in a select few cellars, it is bottled on its own into characterful yet serious wines. Mazuelo (Cariñena) is similarly employed in small quantities for acid and tannin, while Maturana Tinta (Jura's Trousseau) is also allowed.

Rioja might best be known for Tempranillo, but the appellation allows for other varietal red wines, as well as rosados, whites, and traditional method espumosos (which must be aged a minimum 15 months sur lie). Viura (Macabeo) is most prevalent among white varieties and can achieve tremendous structure balanced by acidity. It is commonly blended with Malvasía for its floral aromas, and together these yield the great, traditional white Riojas, of which only a couple stewards remain. Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Verdejo, Garnacha Blanca, Maturana Blanca, Tempranillo Blanco, and Turruntés are also permitted.

The wines of Rioja have long been typified by aging in American oak barrels, partly due to Spain’s longstanding trade ties with North America, but also because these could be sourced more cheaply than expensive French barrels. Several Rioja wineries, particularly those in Haro, house cooperages on-site to either fashion new barrels or to repair their ancient casks, often nearing a century in age. The wines tend to be distinguished less by the flavors of American oak than they are with the oxidative effects of long-term aging in barrel. According to Rioja regulations, barrels must hold approximately 225 liters, the same as Bordeaux barriques. Many producers today have shifted toward newer European oaks and blends of French and American oak.

Rioja’s minimum requirements for its age-designated wines are stricter than those of general Spain. Top producers might far exceed these minimums, on occasion longer than an additional decade. Further, many producers, particularly those favoring new French oak, have abandoned the labeling of these aging terms outright, in favor of simple cosecha or genérico classification. This allows them the freedom to use larger wooden vessels, and occasionally amphorae, further expanding Rioja’s stylistic diversity.

Rioja’s consejo regulador passed new regulations in 2017 allowing village names to appear on its bottles, a concept first pioneered in Spain by Priorat in 2009. Rioja features 144 different villages, but only the village of the vineyard and cellar can be written on the bottle, meaning that wineries cannot feature a full portfolio of different village wines unless they have production facilities in each. The consejo regulador also created a Viñedo Singular, or “single vineyard,” category for wines coming from hand-harvested individual sites where vines are at least 35 years old. These wines must achieve nearly 30% lower yields, with whites dropping from 63 to 45 hectoliters per hectare and reds moving from 45.5 to 32.5 hectoliters per hectare. They must also pass approval by the consejo tasting committee. Such efforts have been lauded by the global wine community, though many producers question if they go far enough to ensure quality.

In 2017, the consejo authorized the production of Vino Espumoso de Calidad de Rioja, a new Rioja DOCa category for traditional method sparkling wines. The designation applies to both white wines and rosados, and grapes must be manually harvested. Those wines labeled crianza must age a minimum 15 months sur lie prior to disgorgement, reserva must age 24 months, and gran añada, 36 months. Dosage levels must be consistent with brut, extra brut, and brut nature styles. Yet even with the addition of this new category, there are still authorized villages that instead choose to produce Cava.

As with Ribera del Duero, Rioja wines are often generalized as either “traditional” or “modern” in style. Wineries considered traditional will typically adhere to practices made popular in the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries, with a high concentration located in Haro’s Barrio de la Estación. Modernist-leaning wineries can be found throughout the Rioja region (including Haro). Yet the schism between traditional and modern wineries has grown more blurred in recent years, and certain wineries bottle both wines seen as traditional and others deemed modern. Practices often considered traditional include blending from multiple subregions (often dominated by Tempranillo from Rioja Alta), varietal blending, adherence to the aging classification system, open-top fermentation, and, most significantly, the reliance on older 225-liter American oak casks for long, semi-oxidative maturation. Modernist techniques might refer to monovarietal Tempranillo wines, single-subregion and single-vineyard wines, avoidance of the aging classification system, cold soaking, temperature-controlled fermentation in stainless steel, and shorter élevage in newer, often European oak vessels.

Navarra

Winegrowing in Navarra is first documented in Roman history, though its early inhabitants, the Vascones, also provided the area with cultural Basque influence. The region has a long tradition of bullfighting, and for nine days each July, in celebration of San Fermín, a daily encierro, or running of the bulls, takes place in Pamplona. Residents and tourists, dressed in white clothing and red scarves, sprint through the streets in front of the bulls to be fought that evening.

Navarra existed as an independent kingdom until 1512, when it joined with King Ferdinand and his dominion. Its wines had already found commercial success, popular with annual pilgrims traveling to Santiago de Compostela. The region later gained an export market, both in France and the New World. It fell under French rule in 1791, in the early years of France’s long revolution, and French kings enjoyed the title of King of France and Navarre. Such a relationship proved beneficial upon the arrival of oidium and phylloxera in France, and like Rioja, Navarra flourished in the mid- to late 1800s when selling vast quantities of its wines across the Pyrenees. When phylloxera finally reached Navarra at the end of that century, its vineyards were decimated as well, falling to less than 2% of pre-phylloxera plantings in just a half decade.

The 20^th century saw some recovery of Navarra’s vineyard area, though the World Wars and Civil War led to an association with cooperative and bulk wine production during the Franco era. Continued plantings of Tempranillo, an attempt to bank on Rioja’s success despite less suitable conditions, only resulted in less impressive wines and poor comparisons to its neighbor. The 1970s and ’80s observed heavy investment in French varieties, especially Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Chardonnay, often at the expense of old vine Garnacha—a decision many lament today. The shift pitted Navarra’s modern, internationally styled wines against New World countries working with the same varieties, and interest accelerated for the region. More recently, a young generation has begun to revive Navarra’s local varieties and styles. However, the international rosé boom of the 2000s in favor of pale Provençal styles has threatened consumer interest in Navarra’s long tradition of rosado, a deeply pigmented pink wine.

With the exception of its small share of DOCa Rioja, Navarra only holds one appellation, DO Navarra. The large and heterogeneous DO is divided into five distinct zones: Baja Montaña, Tierra Estella, Valdizarbe, Ribera Alta, and Ribera Baja. Ribera Alta and Baja comprise nearly two-thirds of Navarra’s grapegrowing area. The region grows drier toward the south, while the Ebro River bisects Ribera Baja. In the northwestern corner of the appellation, the hilly Tierra Estella cultivates vines at elevations around 560 meters, as does the adjacent Valdizarbe subzone, which lies just beneath Pamplona. Baja Montaña, in the northeast, concentrates almost entirely on red wine production, with treasured old vine Garnacha vineyards.

Navarra permits red, white, rosado, and sweet wine production. White wine constitutes the smallest percentage, vinified from Garnacha Blanca, Macabeo, and Malvasía, as well as Moscatel de Grano Menudo, Chardonnay, and Sauvignon Blanc. Moscatel de Grano Menudo is also utilized for sweet and fortified wines, notably from Ribera Baja. The appellation’s most distinct product is its deeply colored rosados, a centuries-old delicacy best fermented from Garnacha. The DO mandates that rosados are produced using the saignée method and forbids direct pressing, arguing that it reduces complexity.

Serious red wines are also bottled in Navarra, also most successfully from old vine Garnacha, though Tempranillo, Cariñena, Graciano, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, and Pinot Noir are all authorized as well. While the rest of Navarra’s minimum aging requirements match those of Spain overall, its red crianzas must be aged for at least two years, with a minimum nine months in barrel.

Aragon

Aragon (in Spanish, Aragón) was first declared its own kingdom in 1035 and absorbed Navarra later that century. It ascended as a political powerhouse in 1469, upon the marriage of its Prince Ferdinand to Isabella of Castile. Aragon’s early political advantages helped establish export markets for its wines from Renaissance times. By the time phylloxera struck France, however, the area had not adapted to more contemporary styles, and the wines lost favor to those of nearby areas, namely Rioja and Navarra. During the 20^th century, the region experienced further decline in quality, as production was largely relegated to cooperatives. Recent years have brought new energy to Aragon, including revitalized attention to its old vine Garnacha.

Four DOs are housed within Aragon: Calatayud, Cariñena, Campo de Borja, and Somontano. The first three are located south and west of Zaragoza, Aragon’s capital. Calatayud is largest, split by the Jalón River that flows north to meet the Ebro. The river does little to alleviate the region’s arid climate, but vineyards are usually planted at higher elevations, above 500 meters, on a variety of soils. Garnacha occupies nearly two-thirds of the vineyard area, followed by Tempranillo and Syrah. Numerous other French and Spanish red grapes are permitted, as are Macabeo, Malvasía, Garnacha Blanca, and international white varieties. While 92% of plantings are dedicated to red grapes, white, red, sparkling, semi-sparkling, sweet, and fortified wines are all permitted. Calatayud also necessitates a minimum 35 years for wines designated Viñas Viejas, or “old vines.” Those deemed Calatayud Superior must be composed of at least 85% Garnacha from vines that surpass 50 years in age.

Garnacha harvest in Calatayud (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak)

East of Calatayud, Cariñena’s landscape is divided by the Huerva River, which also joins the Ebro. This is perhaps Aragon’s most historic appellation, established in 1932, the first year of DOs, and with winegrowing standards enacted as early as 1696. It is also the namesake for Cariñena, and while that grape is still cultivated within its bounds, there is far more production of Garnacha (at 27%) and Tempranillo (at 22%). The rest of the vineyard area is dedicated to mostly typical white and red grapes, both Spanish and foreign. Red, white, rosado, sparkling, semi-sparkling, sweet, and fortified are permitted.

Due west of Zaragoza, Campo de Borja shares its name with the Italian Borgias; Alfonso de Borgia, named pope in 1455, is the namesake for both. The appellation extends from southern Navarra, sitting in the Ebro River Valley, before scaling to the foothills of the Moncayo Massif. Garnacha reigns supreme, planted in approximately three-quarters of the vine space, as do cooperatives, nearly monopolizing all production. Tempranillo and Macabeo see sizeable cultivation, while a number of white and red accessory varieties are also allowed. The appellation has recently built a reputation for quality, good-value young reds. Rosado, white, sparkling, fortified Moscatel, and late-harvest wines can also be crafted.

Somontano has the least in common with Aragon’s other DOs. Far removed in the north of the autonomous community, located between the Ebro River Valley and the Pyrenees, Somontano housed a cluster of monasteries in the Middle Ages, allowing winegrowing to prosper. Proximity to France offered preferential trade opportunities as well as stylistic influence. The appellation is less arid than the rest of Aragon, but well-drained soils help balance the increased rainfall. The youngest of Aragon’s DOs, Somontano is also the least bound to Garnacha, although the grape does grow here in both red and white forms. Instead, some of Somontano’s most successful wines come from Gewürztraminer, Riesling, and Chardonnay, as well as Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot. Several additional French and Spanish grapes are cultivated, including the local white Alcañón, and reds Parraleta (not to be confused with the white Parellada) and Moristel. The consejo allows white, red, sparkling, fortified, and sweet wines.

Mediterranean Coast

Catalonia

The DOs of Catalonia (Click to enlarge and zoom in)

Catalonia’s history has often diverged from that of the rest of Spain. Upon being relinquished from Moorish rule by Charlemagne, the region was joined to the Frankish Kingdom, and it still shares many similarities with neighboring Roussillon. In 1137, the Kingdom of Aragon was created as Catalonia was joined with Aragon through the marriage of Count Berenguer IV of Barcelona to Petronilla, future Queen of Aragon. (Spain's formation would come later, with the marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon.) Catalan separatist movements have continued throughout the centuries, the most recent uprising in 2017.

The spirit of independence extends into many Catalan institutions. The local Catalan language is spoken by many in favor of Spanish, and several hallmarks of national culture are either not present or, as is the case with bullfighting, forbidden by law. With Barcelona as its capital, Catalonia is a popular tourist destination, with visitors flocking to Gaudí’s modernist architecture and the beaches of the Costa Brava and Costa Daurada. In addition to its local cuisine, Catalonia has been at the forefront of the global molecular gastronomy movement, with Michelin-starred restaurants such as El Celler de Can Roca and El Bulli (now closed) leading the charge. Such cultural distinctiveness extends to Catalonia’s winemaking traditions, which are often different from those of the rest of Spain and more influenced by France.

Cava, Penedès, & Catalan Sparkling Wines

Catalonia crafts a wide assortment of wines, but its most globally significant is Cava. Spain’s history of sparkling wine production began in 1851, when Antoni Galí Comas entered his bottle of sparkling to a competition in Madrid. Luis Justo I Villanueva, a laboratory director at Catalonia’s Agricultural Institute of Sant Isidre, taught the first generation of sparkling winemakers, three of whom entered a Barcelona wine competition in 1872. In that same year, Josep Raventós i Fatjó of Codorníu Raventós, upon returning from France, made the first traditional method sparkling wine using Macabeo, Xarel·lo, and Parellada, widely considered to be the forerunner of all Cava. He made his wine in Sant Sadurní d’Anoia, the town that continues to serve as the industrial center of Spain’s sparkling wine industry.

Cava is Spain’s answer to Champagne and in its earlier iterations would even bear the name Champán or Xampany (in Catalan). Champaña briefly benefited from France’s phylloxera crisis, before the louse reached the young category’s soils in the 1880s. Much later, this terminology was forbidden on labels, at French insistence and as part of global efforts to recognize designations of origin. Instead, the wines were redubbed in 1970 as Cava, which simply translates to “cellar,” more specifically one below ground. As is true with the crayères beneath Reims, the Spanish recognized the advantages of an underground environment and its consistent temperatures for the maturation of sparkling wines experiencing extended lees contact. All Cava is made in the traditional method, and disgorgement is widely carried out via a gyropalette, or girasol. A mechanized riddling system that Catalonia was first to use in the 1970s, the gyropalette can perform remuage in as fast as three days, a task that would take hand-riddlers six weeks.

To call Cava a Catalan wine requires some annotation, as the DO is administered at the Spanish, not Catalan, level. Approximately 95% of Cava originates within Catalonia, and roughly three-quarters of Catalonia’s Cava near Sant Sadurní d’Anoia, where many of the larger production houses—including the largest, Freixenet and Codorníu Raventós—can be found. The identity of Cava has been significantly shaped by such houses. Yet Cava can be vinified in various patches across Spain and in seven of its autonomous communities: Catalonia, Valencia, Aragon, Basque Country, La Rioja, Navarra, and Extremadura. The typical varietal composition of Cava might also change depending on region: Monastrell, for example, is used in Valencia, and Chardonnay and Pinot Noir have been widely adopted by many. The traditional Cava blend, however, is comprised of Macabeu (Macabeo), Xarel·lo, and Parellada. Macabeo is the most planted and typically serves as Cava’s foundation and its largest component, contributing fruity breadth and structure. Xarel·lo will further strengthen the wine, adding earthy flavors, broadening the mid-palate, and extending its aging potential. Parellada is used to soften a Cava with its more moderate acidity, favored for its floral finesse. Though styles of Cava will differ, the bubbles are generally considered angular and savory in character. Cava can sell at very low prices, though more premium examples are also available.

All three of Cava’s classic grapes are white, and so most Cava is as well. However, some rosado (or rosat in Catalan) is produced employing the region’s red grapes, Garnacha Tinta, Monastrell, Pinot Noir, and Trepat, with these red grapes comprising a minimum of 25% of the blend. Rosado Cava can be produced through brief maceration of red skins, saignée, or blending red and white base wines. Though the color spectrum varies, rosado Cava is often darker hued and more tannic in style than most rosé Champagne.

Sweetness levels in Cava (Credit: Brandon Lee Wise)

Basic Cava must age a minimum of nine months from the date of tirage until disgorgement, a requirement that echoes that of French Crémant sur lie aging. Reserva Cava extends that period to a minimum 18 months, while gran reserva requires at least 30 months of aging. As a result, autolytic character becomes more prevalent moving up Cava’s quality pyramid. In 2014, the consejo regulador introduced a new category, Cava de Paraje Calificado, with its first crop of wines arriving in 2017 on the market. Cava de Paraje must originate from a single parcel whose vines are at least 10 years old. Wines must be vintage dated, unacidified, and aged in bottle for a minimum 36 months before being disgorged. They must also adhere to stricter yields, hand-harvesting, and quality control. The Cava de Paraje category applies exclusively to brut, extra brut, and brut nature wines.

Despite the addition of this higher-quality tier, Cava has long come under scrutiny for its largescale production. In 2013, a number of high-profile producers abandoned the Cava DO to bottle their wines under Penedès DO, where sparkling wine is now also permitted under the label Clàssic Penedès. This subclassification was authorized shortly after Raventós i Blanc departed in 2012, stating its intention to establish a DO (as yet unrealized) for the small Conca del Riu Anoia subzone of Penedès. An additional exodus of top wineries occurred in 2019 through the Corpinnat association, its name a portmanteau that roughly translates to “heart of Penedès.” This abandonment of the Cava label has meant the loss of nearly half of the existing Cavas de Paraje Calificado. Corpinnat wines adhere to more stringent regulations than those of Cava, vinified from hand-harvested, organically grown grapes, of which at least 90% are indigenous, within a delineated zone. Minimum bottle aging is 18 months prior to disgorgement.

The center of Cava production lies within the Penedès DO, established in 1960. Its landscape is extraordinarily diverse in microclimates, yielding an equally varied portfolio of wines. The region can be divided into three narrower areas. Penedès Marítim, also referred to as Baix- (low) Penedès, rises from sea level to 250 meters. Monastrell, Garnacha, and Cariñena perform well, moderated by the proximity to the Mediterranean, while Macabeo, Xarel·lo, and Parellada will often produce simpler white wines. In the transitional sector of Penedès Central, or Mitja- (middle) Penedès, Cava’s trio of grapes, as well as Tempranillo and red Bordeaux varieties, are successful. Here, vineyards lie between 250 and 500 meters. The highest elevation plots are found in Penedès Superior, or Alt- (high) Penedès, between 500 and 850 meters as the vineyards ascend into the Montserrat mountain range. With increased precipitation and a more dramatic diurnal swing, Penedès Superior grows an assortment of cooler-climate international grapes, including Pinot Noir, Cabernet Franc, Chardonnay, Riesling, and Gewürztraminer. Also permitted are a number of other grape varieties, such as Chenin Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc, Garnacha Blanca, and Moscatel de Alejandría and de Grano Menudo—though examples are few. Many wine styles are produced: white, red, rosado, sparkling, semi-sparkling, late harvest, and fortified wines.

Priorat

Priorat, or the rarely seen Priorato in Spanish, derives its name from priory, a reference to the monastery founded there in the 12^th century. A Provençal Carthusian order migrated to the region, purportedly after word reached them of a young local shepherd’s vision of a ladder used by angels to ascend to heaven. The monks settled at the supposed site of the Scala Dei, or “Stairway of God,” and there made wine. Wine is still produced near the site of the original monastery, at Cellers de Scala Dei. The vineyards were purchased by four families in the 19^th century, a union that was known as the Societat Agrícola la Unió; the Codorníu Raventós group acquired a 25% share in 2000.

Cellers de Scala Dei in Priorat (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak)

The region at large has continually produced wine since the Middle Ages. Yet while approximately 10,000 hectares were harvested before phylloxera, only about 500 remained in use by the end of the 1970s. The region’s steep slopes demanded skilled and expensive labor, making revival appear unlikely. But a group of vintners committed to Priorat’s survival and optimistic about the region’s quality achieved just that. René Barbier (Clos Mogador) and his recruits Álvaro Palacios (Clos Dofí, now Finca Dofí), Daphne Glorian (Clos Erasmus), José Luis Pérez (Clos Martinet, now Mas Martinet), and Carlos Pastrana and Mariona Jarque (Clos de l’Obac) produced a set of red wines that were structured, modern, and ultimately unrecognizable from the more oxidatively oaked prestige bottlings typically identified with Spain. This group of five, who beginning in 1989 shared a facility in the town of Gratallops, worked to refurbish esteemed sites and very quickly received high marks from critics, placing Priorat back on the world map.

After the 1991 vintage, the original Gratallops producers moved into separate facilities, and following their lead, Priorat received an influx of both local and foreign investment, with younger winemakers devoting themselves to the region. In 2000, the Catalan government upgraded Priorat to the status of Denominació d'Origen Qualificada. The Spanish government recognized the region in 2009, making it the country’s second DOQ or DOCa after Rioja, a title the two regions still exclusively share. Priorat’s reds firmly count among Spain’s most expensive, and bottlings such as Álvaro Palacios' L’Ermita can regularly fetch four digits.

Even beyond its Carthusian monastic origins, Priorat has been influenced by French winemaking. The use of terminology such as clos serves as a clear nod to Burgundy (despite no analogous walls separating vineyard sites), and Palacios and Barbier, along with other pioneering winemakers, have long championed specificity of site as a key component to Priorat’s future. In 2009, the consejo introduced the Vi de Vila, or “village wine” category, comparable to the various villages in Burgundy whose names can be featured on labels. Currently, 12 villages are recognized: La Morera de Montsant, Gratallops, Bellmunt del Priorat, Escaladei, Porrera, Poboleda, La Vilella Baixa, La Vilella Alta, El Lloar, Masos del Terme de Falset, Solanes del Terme de El Molar, and Torroja del Priorat. Though the concept might be considered decidedly un-Spanish in philosophy (assemblage across large swaths of land has been fundamental to many of Spain’s most successful regions), Bierzo, Rioja, and Rueda have all followed in Priorat’s path with their own village classifications.

Priorat’s vineyards are planted on steep hillsides, carved with narrow terraces that typically fit only a row or two. The region is bordered to its northwest by the taller Serra de Montsant, protecting this inland Mediterranean area from fierce winds. The appellation experiences wide diurnal swings and low annual rainfall. The Siurana River cuts diagonally through the landscape before meeting the Ebro, though it mostly runs dry, as water is redirected to a nearby reservoir—to many growers’ dismay. Priorat’s distinctive llicorella soil, composed of schistose mica and quartzite, allows roots to stretch deep to find water, and its reflective black-red surface radiates heat back onto the vines, similar to the Mosel’s blue slate. Yields are very low, leading to incredibly concentrated wines.

Priorat’s steep hillsides (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak)

Garnacha (Garnatxa) arguably performs best in this part of Spain, and Cariñena (here Carinyena) also occupies significant hectarage. There are old vine examples of both grapes, and the two are often blended together, with Garnacha offering body, alcohol, and complexity and Cariñena amplifying brightness and acidity. Tempranillo, Syrah, and Bordeaux varieties, among others, are also permitted, though grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon are being regrafted to Garnacha. Vi de Vila wines must hold 60% Garnacha and Cariñena, or 50% if only one is included in the blend.

In 2019, Priorat announced a new vineyard classification pyramid. This is in addition to the Vi de Finca scheme that already exists for Catalonia more broadly. Established in 2002, Vi de Finca recognizes specific growing zones and single vineyards. (Priorat's first two Vi de Finca wines were Clos Mogador and Vall Llach’s Mas de la Rosa.) Similar to Burgundy’s lieux-dits, Vi de Paratge refers to wines from 459 named delimited zones. Additional Vi de Vinya categories, yet to be enacted, refer primarily to age and will essentially replicate Burgundian premier cru and grand cru tiers. Vi de Vinya Classificada will recognize single vineyards with minimum 20-year-old vines, and Vi de Gran Vinya Classificada will identify minimum 35-year-old vines. Priorat has also defined the term velles vinyes, or “old vines,” to mean those planted before 1945 or vines at least 75 years of age.

White wines of complexity can also be achieved in Priorat, particularly those grounded in Garnacha Blanca. Macabeo, Pedro Ximénez, and a variety of Spanish and French whites are also permitted. Rosado wines are also bottled, as are the typical fortified vi dolç natural (usually sweet reds with added grape spirit), rancio, and mistela wines.

Monstant

Montsant DO forms a near-complete ring around Priorat. The region is frequently, if unfairly, acknowledged as a source for high-quality but cheaper wines made in the same style as those found to its interior. Montsant has seen investment from high-profile Priorat producers seeking land at reduced costs. But while Montsant can present value comparatively to Priorat, the region deserves recognition on its own merits. Formerly the Falset subzone of Tarragona, Montsant was awarded its separate appellation in 2001. It is shaped by a series of adjoining mountain ranges, with the one named Montsant at the north of the circle. The southwestern corridor descends nearly to the Ebro River Valley and enjoys the warmest temperatures of the region, with portions planted in the same llicorella soils as Priorat. The northern areas have cooler conditions, as well as more limestone, while vineyards in the south around Falset, the appellation’s main town, are sandier. Like Priorat, Montsant is largely identified for its Garnacha and Cariñena blends. Other Spanish and French red grapes are vinified, as are whites with increasing promise. Montsant bottles an array of fortified sweet wines, in both oxidative and reductive styles.

Other DOs

Tarragona lies south of Penedès, surrounding the ancient Roman port city of the same name. It is divided into the Camp de Tarragona and Comarca Ribera d’Ebre subzones. The Camp de Tarragona subzone sits along the Mediterranean, in the plains and at lower elevations. Ribera d’Ebre surrounds the Ebro River near its mouth. Here, there is more continental influence, and vineyards are planted at various elevations from the river’s banks to higher up the hillsides. Tarragona enjoys just as wide a set of grapes to work with as Penedès, and similarly is not associated with a single style or variety (though many grapes are shipped north to Sant Sadurní for Cava production). Additionally, Tarragona bottles a number of sweet wines. These include mistelas; rancio-style wines; Moscatel de Tarragona, a fortified wine from Moscatel de Grano Menudo or de Alejandría; Garnatxa de Tarragona, a fortified Garnacha (white or red); and Vimblanc, a non-fortified wine made from overripe berries.

North of Tarragona, though inland from Penedès, Conca de Barberà historically earned praise for the quality of its grapes destined for Cava. Today, roughly two-thirds of its plantings are white grapes—predominately Macabeo and Parellada, along with Chardonnay, among others. Likewise, among red varieties, there is a similar mix of Spanish and French, though pride is taken in the local Trepat, used for Cava, rosados, and lighter-bodied, slightly spicy reds. The region rests on mainly calcareous, alluvial soils alongside the Francolí River and its tributary, the Anguera, and is surrounded by a series of mountains. Red, white, rosado, and various sweet and sparkling styles are permitted.

To Conca de Barberà’s northwest continues one section of the non-contiguous Costers del Segre DO, which is scattered across much of Catalonia’s central western reaches. It contains seven subzones: Urgell, Garrigues, Pallars Jussà, Raimat, Artesa de Segre, Segrià, and Vall del Riucorb. Raimat is most historic. In 1914, Manuel Raventós of Codorníu purchased a 2,245-hectare estate, what would become Raimat, and launched the region’s industry by way of advanced viticultural technologies that rehabilitated the landscape as well as identifying grapes best suited for quality winegrowing. Here, these were Tempranillo and international grapes, as opposed to those native to Catalonia. Raimat sits at the foot of the Pyrenees, not far from the Segre River, which feeds into the Ebro River to the south. Soils are generally sandy limestone, while elevations extend between 200 and 1,000 meters. Many grapes are authorized within Costers del Segre, made into all major styles.

At Tarragona DO’s western boundary, along the Aragon border and nearly touching Valencia at Catalonia’s bottom corner, Terra Alta is an exciting area for Garnacha Blanca. Cooperatives still play an important role in the local industry, as do traditional styles of sweet and fortified wines, such as rancios and mistelas. But in recent years, there has been renewed interest in Terra Alta’s dry whites, some of exceptional quality, as well as Garnacha’s other shades. Terra Alta’s soils are rich in limestone and have good drainage; as the name suggests, elevations are relatively high, between 350 and 800 meters above sea level. Many varieties are allowed, as are essentially all wine styles.

Just northeast of Barcelona on the coast, the small Alella DO, once a fairly established winegrowing region, has steadily succumbed to the encroachment of suburban development. Despite its size, the appellation contains diverse winegrowing conditions and can be considered in three subareas. From east to west, and ascending in elevation as the vineyards approach the Sierra de Montseny, they are comprised of a coastal sector, favored for Garnacha Blanca; a transitional zone, where Xarel·lo (known locally as Pansa Blanca), Garnacha, and Tempranillo perform well; and the schistose limestone-rich Vallés area, coolest of the three and revered for Xarel·lo as well as non-Spanish varieties. Historically, Alella was associated with a style of semi-sweet white wines, but today, while still a prominently white-wine appellation, its wines are most often fermented dry. The region is known for its sauló soils, a sandy granite topsoil.

The vineyards of Pla de Bages DO, located northwest and further inland, are predominately alongside the Llobregat River and in the surrounding area. Experiencing a wider diurnal swing than regions closer to the coast, Pla de Bages is most known for Macabeo and Picapoll Blanco, often mistaken for but distinct from Piquepoul Blanc. Picapoll Blanco does, however, show close genetic ties to Clairette, another variety from southern France. Its wines are often soft, floral, and slightly herbal. Beyond these whites, a selection of additional foreign and local grapes (such as the red Sumoll) can also be grown for a wide variety of wine styles.

Empordà DO occupies Catalonia’s northeast, flanked on one side by the Mediterranean and on another by the Pyrenees and the French border. The appellation is deeply impacted by the fierce and cold Tramontana wind coming from the Massif Central. Empordà is sliced into two non-contiguous halves: the windswept Alt Empordà, along the Albera and Rodes ranges, and Baix Empordà, along the coast, more tranquil, and denser with clay. Just opposite the DO is Roussillon, specifically the overlapping Banyuls and Collioure AOPs; Empordà shares much of its winemaking ethos with these regions. For one, vi de licor, from Garnacha (Blanca, Negra, or Roja) or Moscatel, resembles the vins doux naturels of Banyuls and Rivesaltes. Old vines, too, abound here, though the total vineyard area is less than one-tenth its pre-phylloxera size (roughly 2,000 hectares today). Among still wines, Cariñena (here Carinyena) and Garnacha can produce quality reds, as can Garnacha Blanca, Macabeo, and Cariñena Blanca (here Carinyena Blanca), among whites. Several additional varieties are permitted, as are most wine styles.

The Catalunya DO (as Catalonia is spelled in Catalan) also serves as a catch-all region both for Catalan vineyards existing outside of established appellations and wines from existing DOs whose practices diverge from consejo requirements. The concept is similar to the Sicilia DOC in Italy but remained unique within Spain until the recent arrival of the Islas Canarias DO. Regulations in the Catalunya DO are rather loose, allowing for a wide array of Spanish and foreign grape varieties and a degree of experimentation. Red, white, rosado, fortified, and semi-sparkling wines are permitted, though fully espumoso wines are not. Several Cava producers use the Catalunya DO designation for their still wines.

Valencia

South of Catalonia is Valencia. Key elements of Spain’s gastronomic image derive from this region, with the famed paella originating here. Three DOs can be found within Valencia’s boundaries: Valencia, Alicante, and Utiel-Requena.

Valencia

The Valencia DO surrounds the city of the same name, the third largest city in Spain. The appellation can be further divided into four distinct subzones, forming the shape of a diamond. The northern tip, Alto Turia, cultivates predominately white varieties, namely Merseguera and Macabeo, at elevations between 700 and 1,100 meters. To the south, the Moscatel subregion takes its name from the family of grapes it utilizes for the production of sweet mistelas and fortified wines (Moscatel de Alejandría being the most significant). Merseguera and Macabeo similarly find success closer to the coast in the Valentino subzone, as do Sémillon, Chardonnay, Garnacha Tintorera, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Tempranillo. Clariano, the unattached most southerly winegrowing area, sees diverse styles and varieties. Garnacha Tintorera, Monastrell, and Tempranillo offer noteworthy wines, as can international grapes.

Alicante

Alicante is Valencia’s most southerly appellation. As in Andalucía, the Phoenicians likely introduced viticulture to Alicante sometime within the first millennium BCE. The region achieved commercial success shortly after the end of the Spanish Reconquista, with a 1510 decree by King Ferdinand forbidding the importation of other wines into the region. Such privileges for the local wine industry were not fully rescinded until 1834, and Alicante’s wines earned acclaim throughout the Renaissance era. Phylloxera came late to Valencia, allowing wine production to flourish in the latter half of the 19^th century. With France’s vineyards decimated, large quantities of Alicante wine were shipped north across the Pyrenees, and plantings grew to 93,000 hectares. Phylloxera eventually arrived in the early 20^th century, leaving Alicante little time to recover before Spain and Europe’s tumultuous decades. Today, there are just 10,000 planted hectares left. While the region spent much of the 1900s associated with the production of bulk wine, recent years have seen the rise of a new generation of winemakers that has redrawn attention to the area.

Valencia's DOs (Click to enlarge and zoom in)

Alicante faces a more arid, continental climate in its western winegrowing areas. Alicante has eight distinct subregions. Most wineries are concentrated in the inland subzone of Vinalopó, which is further divided into the Medio, Alto, and Baja areas. Vines grown closer to the coast, in the La Marina subzone north of the city of Alicante, face higher humidity. La Marina is divided into two more specific subregions, Alta and Baja. El Comtat and L’Alcoia are home to mountains that scale to elevations of over 1,500 meters, the highest in the province, though vineyards are planted in the valleys. Alicante is most often associated with full-bodied red wines made from Monastrell, accounting for roughly 75% of the vineyard area. The wide availability of old vine material allows for concentrated, deeply colored red wines with marked complexity when in the right hands.

The region does, however, yield a variety of other wines. Red wines vinified from Garnacha, Garnacha Tintorera, and Tempranillo can all be found, as can examples from mainstream international varieties. Alicante also produces white wines from Airén, Moscatel de Alejandría, Macabeo, and the local grape Merseguera, among others. Beyond table wines, the coastal sector of La Marina specializes in sweet Moscatel wines.

The region’s most unique wine is Fondillón, which France’s King Louis XIV is said to have requested, soaked into cakes, on his deathbed. Its production declined drastically upon the arrival of phylloxera in France, when large quantities of red wine were demanded from Alicante, leaving the long-aged Fondillón a less viable product. Today, only a handful of producers continue the tradition, centered around the town of Monóvar at the most inland area of the DO. Monastrell grapes for Fondillón are harvested in early to mid-November, by which point the berries will naturally experience significant dehydration (although no botrytis or additional post-harvest drying will inform the wine’s character). Fermentation naturally halts off-dry, with roughly 20 to 50 grams per liter of residual sugar. Similar to Sherry production, but without fortification, the wines will eventually enter a modified solera system in large oak barrels, wherein wines are fractionally blended and bottled over time but lack an orderly criadera system. With barrel age, Fondillón develops a distinctive rancio character due to the long wood maturation. The wines are bottled with a minimum average age of 10 years (the name Fondillón likely originates with al fondo, or “at the bottom,” a reference to drawing out the wines at the end of this fractional blending system). Yet bodegas might keep wines much longer, with the historic producer Primitivo Quiles maintaining a solera founded in the late 19^th century. Fondillón demonstrates a marked Oloroso-like character, although with faint sweetness and without the heft of fortification.

Utiel-Requena

At approximately 72%, Bobal dominates plantings in Utiel-Requena, a DO adjacent to the northern subzones of Valencia DO and the Castilla-La Mancha border. With plentiful old vineyards (the average age being 40 years), Bobal can produce full-bodied red wines with a rustic, earthy tannic structure complemented by a bright acidity. The DO is split between the towns of Utiel and Requena. Requena produces the higher volume of wine and also contains a portion of the Cava DO. In addition to Bobal, Garnacha and Tempranillo are grown, as are several international varieties.

Murcia

Small in comparison to its neighbors Valencia, Castilla-La Mancha, and Andalucía, Murcia can be seen as a transitional autonomous community between the Catalan-influenced Mediterranean Coast and Southern Spain. Murcia has long enjoyed a rich agricultural heritage. The Moors, who settled there in the ninth century, grew not only grapes for table and raisin consumption but also a variety of fruits, vegetables, and rice. A strong fruit industry continues in the area today, and almonds, olives, and flowers are also important crops.

There are three DOs within Murcia’s boundaries: Yecla, Jumilla, and Bullas. Yecla and Jumilla are adjacent to Alicante’s western edge and share similar winegrowing cultures. Yecla, named for the city at its center, is the smaller of the two. Vines are planted at relatively high elevation, between 400 and 800 meters above sea level, and the loamy, well-drained soil sits atop limestone bedrock. As with the general area, red wine is the major focus and Monastrell the most prominent grape. Regulations additionally permit Garnacha, Garnacha Tintorera, Tempranillo, and a selection of international varieties, in addition to Macabeo, Airén, and Merseguera, among others. White wine, rosado, sparkling, and fortified sweet wines are also allowed.

Jumilla surrounds Yecla to the west, with similar elevations, 400 to 800 meters, albeit sandier soils above limestone. Phylloxera didn’t infect Jumilla until extremely late, arriving in the late 1980s and decimating the local industry to one-third its previous vineyard size. The consejo regulador, along with a few ambitious producers, saw replanting as an opportunity to modernize the appellation, too long associated with bulk and cooperative wine production. Vines were replaced with material uninfected by virus, and new technologies were installed. Winemakers also enacted strategies such as carbonic maceration, earlier harvests, and longer bottle aging to craft more contemporary wines.

Monastrell is by far Jumilla’s most important grape, and varietally labeled reds and rosados are permitted when Monastrell comprises a minimum 85%. Monastrell is the sole grape used to make the appellation’s vinos de licor. Jumilla also authorizes numerous other red and white grape varieties, both Spanish and international, to make red, white, and rosado wines, as well as sweet wines of all three shades.

The youngest of Murcia’s DOs, Bullas is also principally known for Monastrell. The appellation is divided into three subzones—northeast, central, and western—that decrease in elevation, 600 to 900 meters, moving east. Plantings are most heavily concentrated in the higher vineyards in Bullas’s western sector, and wines grown here are generally of better quality. While once associated with cheaper rosados, Bullas has set an example for other Monastrell appellations of how to create more acid-driven, fresh red wines. Monastrell must still compose at least 60% of Bullas’s rosado and red wines, though Tempranillo, Garnacha, Syrah, and Bordeaux varieties are also permitted. Macabeo is the only recommended white grape, but others are authorized. Sparkling and fortified sweet wines are also produced.

Central Plateau

Madrid

Madrid gives its name not only to the autonomous community that surrounds the nation’s capital, but also to the area’s sole DO, Vinos de Madrid. Vines can be found as close as 11 kilometers to the city proper, and the appellation has skyrocketed in quality, quantity, and global recognition in recent years. Madrid’s documented viticultural history begins in the 1200s, and within two centuries, its wines had become well regarded. The phylloxera crisis arrived around the onset of World War I. Just as Madrid’s vineyards began to recover, focus shifted under Franco’s regime toward grapes that would provide quantity and high alcohol, namely Garnacha and Airén, over quality and over grapes more historically associated with the area. The Vinos de Madrid DO was officially established in 1990, and since that time, innovative producers have shifted the region’s reputation.

Vinos de Madrid is comprised of four subzones: Arganda, Navalcarnero, San Martín de Valdeiglesias, and El Molar. Arganda is the largest in terms of both size and plantings, with just over 50% of the region’s vineyards and 60% of total production. Here, Tempranillo is suggested over Garnacha. The subzone lies southeast of the city, and its landscape features varied soils and a few coveted limestone plateaus. To the southwest, Navalcarnero is flat and loamy, while further west, San Martín is more granitic. San Martín is protected from cold northern winds by the Sierra de Gredos range and has a less arid climate and more verdant landscape than the rest of the appellation. El Molar is the newest subzone, designated in 2019.

While Garnacha’s origins in Madrid may not have focused on quality, today the appellation yields some of Spain’s most exciting examples. The Albillos y Garnachas de Gredos association imposes stricter standards than appellation regulations, and its members have become leaders for the variety, and for the white Albillo Real, in the area. Among reds, Tempranillo, Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Syrah are also cultivated; Malvar, Airén, Viura, Torrontés, Parellada, and Moscatel de Grano Menudo are other whites. White, red, rosado, and sparkling wines are all produced, as are sobremadre wines—a traditional style for both red and effectively orange wines, where skin contact is permitted without racking for up to 180 days.

Castilla-La Mancha

Castilla-La Mancha takes its name from manxa, an epithet given to its land by the Moors, meaning “parched earth.” It’s an appropriate descriptor for the region’s dramatic continental climate, as summers can reach excruciatingly high temperatures, with an extreme lack of rainfall. Winters, in contrast, can be freezing. As a result, disease pressure is very low. Castilla-La Mancha’s vines sit atop the Meseta Central. Cervantes set Spain’s most canonical literary masterwork Don Quixote in this region, and the novel’s fabled windmills still dot the landscape. In addition to abundant viticulture, sheep farming is the largest industry in Castilla-La Mancha, with Manchego cheese an important product.

Though Castilla-La Mancha’s wines have only recently earned praise for their rising quality, the autonomous community has long been a considerable contributor to Spain’s wine production. Eight DO appellations are located here: La Mancha, Almansa, Ribera del Júcar, Manchuela, Méntrida, Mondéjar, Uclés, and Valdepeñas. La Mancha DO is one of the largest continuous winegrowing areas in the world, with more than 160,000 hectares under vine. A large portion of its wine, however, is ultimately distilled into spirits for either brandy or use as fortifying agents. Over the course of the past half-century, several efforts have been made to further partition the vast La Mancha DO. It was, in fact, once larger; Almansa, Méntrida, and Ribera del Júcar are all carved from territory formerly belonging to the appellation. Vines are mostly head trained and planted in the traditional system called marco real, where each vine is spaced 2.5 meters from the next to reduce competition for water. La Mancha has achieved commercial success through its supply of affordable, consistent, basic-quality wines. Airén is its most prevalent white, and while not the most complex grape, it can be fashioned into enjoyable, fruity wines meant for immediate consumption. Tempranillo, here called Cencibel, is most important among reds and will be vinified into supermarket wines without the influence of oak, as well as more serious examples. A laundry list of permitted varieties, both foreign and Spanish, can also be used to make DO wine in every style.

Ribera del Júcar was created from land at La Mancha’s eastern edge in the early 21^st century, decades after Méntrida and Almansa were established. It experiences more Mediterranean influence than its western neighbor and approximately 20% higher rainfall. Tempranillo makes the appellation’s most notable wines, though Syrah and Bordeaux grapes are also permitted for reds and rosados. Only Sauvignon Blanc and Moscatel de Grano Menudo are utilized for white wine production.

To the east, on the opposite side of the Júcar River, Manchuela also borders Utiel-Requena, with which it shares Bobal as a dominant variety. Sitting between the Júcar and Cabriel river valleys, Manchuela has a more Mediterranean climate, with greater humidity and rain than both La Mancha and Ribera del Júcar. While Bobal dominates vineyard plantings at more than two-thirds, Macabeo can also yield quality whites, while a collection of additional grapes is permitted for white, red, rosado, and sparkling wines.

Further east, Almansa similarly offers a middle ground between the Meseta and the Levant. Almansa is semi-arid, with limestone soils, and spans a series of hills at an average of 700 meters elevation. Its primary variety is Monastrell, followed by Garnacha Tintorera. Tempranillo and Cabernet Sauvignon are also grown, among others, and production is heavily weighted toward red wine over white and rosado.

Tucked within a southern enclave of La Mancha DO, Valdepeñas achieved explosive growth in the 1800s due to the construction of a railway linking the region to Madrid and the French phylloxera crisis. During recovery from phylloxera, which reached Valdepeñas in the early 20^th century, winegrowers placed a heavy emphasis on Airén due to its productivity. But the region is best associated with its easy-drinking Tempranillo-based wines. Historically, the variety was vinified into aloques or claretes, light-bodied reds in line with traditional clairet from Bordeaux, and frequently blended with both white and red varieties. Today, more robust Tempranillo takes precedence, though white, rosado, and sparkling wines are also bottled and a number of French and Spanish grapes harvested. The region itself occupies a plain and its surrounding mountains, with the finest grapes said to derive from the Los Llanos (literally “the flats”) western sector, or in the north on the sloped plantings of Las Aberturas (meaning “the passes”).

To La Mancha DO’s northwest, Méntrida has long suffered a poor reputation for its bulk Garnacha. However, there are promising wines now emerging from the region, particularly from the area near the Gredos range, to the northwest. The appellation, dominated by sandy granitic soils, experiences extreme continental conditions, though the Gredos Mountains will guard from colder winds. While Garnacha remains the face of the region, Tempranillo and international varieties are also permitted for both red and rosado wines, and as of 2000, several white grapes are approved.

Established in 2005, the Uclés DO sits within a crevice of La Mancha DO’s northern edge. The region is separated in half by the Sierra de Altomira range, with the western sector, which surpasses 1,000 meters, higher in elevation than the east. Tempranillo is most important to production, though Bordeaux varieties have also found success. Garnacha, Syrah, and staple white varieties are grown as well, collectively allowing for white, red, rosado, and sparkling production. With the Tagus River flowing through, Mondéjar rests between Uclés to its south and Vinos de Madrid to its west, though it has never achieved the prestige of the latter. Like Uclés, Mondéjar is most associated with Tempranillo, but Malvar, Macabeo, Sauvignon Blanc, and Torrontés have yielded successful whites. A handful of additional varieties, including Cabernet Sauvignon, are permitted for white, red, and rosado wines.

Extremadura

As its name implies, Extremadura is a place of extremes—a hard, punishing climate with resilient inhabitants, including the conquistadors who sailed to the New World. Also facing economic challenges, it is less famous for winegrowing than the other autonomous communities. It does, however, boast a rich agricultural heritage. Much land is also dedicated to sheep grazing, as well as black-legged pigs, whose jamón serrano is one of Spain’s gastronomic treasures. The area is also home to most of Spain’s cork production. The name Extremadura translates to “extreme limit of the land beyond the Duero,” and the region sits south of the Duero’s greater river valley. The Guadiana River cuts through Extremadura and gives its name to the sole DO, Ribera del Guadiana. To the west lies Portugal’s Alentejo, another important hub for cork production.

Ribera del Guadiana DO comprises six former Vino de la Tierra winegrowing areas, now subzones united and elevated under a single umbrella appellation. Tierra de Barros is located in the middle of the region, south of the Guadiana, and is the largest subzone with approximately four-fifths of all vineyard space. It has dry conditions and sits at high elevations—though not as high as Montánchez and Cañamero, the most elevated subzones and the only two north of the river. The Ribera Baja and Ribera Alta subzones line the appellation south of the Guadiana to the west and east, respectively, while Matanegra sits furthest south.

Red, white, and rosado wines are all crafted in Ribera del Guadiana. The appellation grows classic Spanish varieties, such as Macabeo, Verdejo, Parellada, Tempranillo, Bobal, Garnacha, Monastrell, and Alicante, as well as Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Syrah, Cabernet Sauvignon, and other French staples. Several indigenous grapes grow within the DO, including whites Alarije, Eva, and Montúa, among Portuguese and other more regional varieties. Ribera del Guadiana permits a diversity of wines and styles, but an Extremadura Vino de la Tierra designation allows for more experimental practices. Beyond commercial wine, Extremadura has long been a source of base wines to be distilled into brandy.

Andalucía

Iberia’s winegrowing origins lie in Andalucía, with the arrival of the Phoenicians and the founding of Gadir (today Cádiz) in 1100 BCE. The wines were already celebrated in ancient times, as was the region’s distinctive albariza (chalk soil). Due to Islamic conquest in 711 CE, Andalucía demonstrates Spain’s Moorish influence at its most opulent, visible today in the grandiose architecture of Seville, Córdoba, and Granada. After the Reconquista, it was also here that Spain revitalized its wine industry, as the sack from Jerez and Málaga reached global markets. The distinctive fortified wine styles of the Jerez triangle still dominate Andalucía, despite their dramatic fall from popularity in the late 20^th century. (This guide will not cover Sherry and Montilla-Moriles, extensive topics on their own.)

Andalucía (often Anglicized to Andalusia) occupies the bottom tip of the Iberian Peninsula, the southern extreme of Western Europe. It is only separated from Morocco by the Strait of Gibraltar (though technically Gibraltar itself is a British overseas territory). Andalucía finds a variety of climatic influences, merging the Mediterranean’s warmth with the colder winds from the Atlantic. Moving inland, Andalucía transitions to more continental conditions, especially as it scales in elevation to its various mountainous zones.

Condado de Huelva

Beyond Jerez-Xérès-Sherry and Montilla-Moriles, Andalucía has four additional DO regions. Condado de Huelva DO sits just northwest of the Jerez triangle along the Atlantic coastline. Its history is intertwined with that of Sherry, and wines from the two regions were frequently blended together in the soleras of Jerez before appellation boundaries were drawn and the practice forbidden. Yet Condado de Huelva profited from the global demand for sack in the 16^th and 17^th centuries. Even earlier, Christopher Columbus is said to have stocked his ships with Condado wines before setting sail for the Americas. More recent times, however, have brought little attention to Condado de Huelva, and any decline that devastates Sherry is only amplified in this region that lacks name recognition and healthy export markets.

The name condado translates to “county,” and the wines here come from the municipality of Huelva. Vineyards are hardly above sea level and mostly planted on sand and clay, though the best grapes are harvested from the albariza soils so prized for Sherry.

The traditional wines resemble Sherry as well. There are two major styles of Condado: pálido and viejo. Condado Pálido (or “pale”) is the lighter of the two, aged biologically under flor like a Fino Sherry, and similarly fortified to approximately 15.5% alcohol. Condado Viejo (or “old”) is the more distinctive. Fortified between 17 and 22% alcohol, the wines are aged oxidatively and better resemble Oloroso Sherry at their finest. Sweetened versions, such as “cream” and “medium,” analogous to those in Jerez are also bottled. These styles, too, are aged in American oak butts (up to 650 liters in capacity) for at least two years, though the best far exceed the required minimum.

Palomino is cultivated for Condado de Huelva, as are Moscatel de Alejandría and Pedro Ximénez. But the most prominent grape for generoso wines is the local Zalema, a white variety that, like Palomino, is rather neutral when vinified as an unfortified wine. Condado de Huelva nonetheless has proceeded to experiment with dry table winemaking. Both white and red wines are permitted, and among them, international varieties such as Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, Syrah, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, and Merlot are authorized, as is Tempranillo.

Málaga & Sierras de Málaga

On the opposite side of the Strait of Gibraltar, Málaga DO, a non-contiguous appellation, stands between the Mediterranean and Montilla-Moriles. Málaga DO is designated for sweet wines, while Sierras de Málaga DO refers to dry table white, rosado, and red wines made in the same area. Málaga’s fortified wines once competed with those of Jerez in terms of prestige—prized during the Renaissance era as Málaga sack. The region benefited from declining Sherry sales in the 18^th century, at which time Málaga’s greatest wines were called mountain, named for the terrain surrounding the town of Cuevas de San Marcos, from which the most pedigreed wines were born. Phylloxera first reached Spain by way of Málaga in 1876. The damage was catastrophic, wiping out nearly all of the region’s vineyard area. By the time Málaga established its DO in 1933, many of its export markets had been lost, including the once-important Russia. Málaga has yet to recover its former glory, especially as resorts and development prevail, but a handful of stalwart producers and new arrivals maintain its traditions.

Málaga’s bodegas are concentrated in the city itself, which is nestled right against the beach. The vineyards, however, can be divided into several subareas. Closest to the city proper is Montes de Málaga, while the vines surrounding Estepona, a seaside town closer to Gibraltar than to Málaga, are predominately Moscatel in the Manilva subzone. Axarquía, a coastal sector between Málaga and the town of Nerja reaching inland toward Granada, also dedicates itself to Moscatel. The so-called mountain vineyards, including those of Cuevas de San Marcos, lie north of the city, a subzone simply called Norte, and have more limestone. This area is best known for the cultivation of Pedro Ximénez, unsurprising given the proximity to Montilla. Finally, north of Estepona, Serranía de Ronda is the primary source for Sierras de Málaga DO wines, dry wines of less than 12 grams per liter residual sugar aged for a minimum of two years (six months in oak). These vineyards sit at the highest elevations, at 750 meters above sea level. Soils throughout the region are diverse, though Norte has more limestone content and Axarquía gravelly chalk. The climate, too, shifts from Mediterranean nearer the water to continental at higher sites, where there is a wider diurnal shift.

Many varieties thrive in Málaga. Its most traditional sweet wines are harvested from Pedro Ximénez, but both Moscatel de Alejandría and Moscatel Morisco (Moscatel de Grano Menudo) can produce high-quality wines as well. For example, Telmo Rodríguez and US importer Jorge Ordóñez, in a collaboration with Austrian sweet wine producer Kracher, bottle Málaga wines from Moscatel de Alejandría. Rare local varieties Lairén, Doradilla, and the sole red Romé are also permitted. Sierras de Málaga DO adds a number of major French and Spanish grapes to the mix, including Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Macabeo, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, and Tempranillo.

While Sierras de Málaga yields a dynamic portfolio of red, white, and rosado styles, traditional Málaga DO wines are more complicated. The most famous sweet wines are made via the soleo process from sun-dried grapes, with clusters left to raisinate outdoors on grass mats, or espartos. These highly concentrated wines can either be unfortified, as is the case with vino de uvas pasificadas dulce, or fortified, as with vino de licor, made in both dry and sweet styles. Of the sweet vinos de licor, those made with sun-dried grapes can be labeled vino tierno, while those fortified before fermentation (mistelas) from fresh grapes can be called vino maestro and those from partially fermented fresh grapes, vino dulce natural. The latter should not be confused with vino naturalmente dulce, which comes from overripe Pedro Ximénez or the Moscatels and is unfortified. More broadly, late harvest wine, vino de uvas sobremaduradas, can also be made from overripe grapes left to dehydrate on the vine. Dry white wines can also be produced under the Málaga DO, so long as they are comprised of 70% Pedro Ximénez, Moscatel de Alejandría, or Moscatel de Grano Menudo.

For vinos de licor, Málaga DO has a set of additional aging designations. All wines must spend a minimum six months in cask unless labeled pálido (a separate style from that of the same name for Condado de Huelva with no aging requirement); noble must be aged two to three years; añejo, three to five years; and transañejo, five years or longer. The wines will grow more oxidative in barrel, but a full solera system is only in place for the oldest of Málaga wines. A variety of additional terms for sugar level and color indications are given to sweetened or blended Málaga wines, such as those that see the addition of arrope, syrupy boiled-down must; pantomima, further concentrated arrope; and vino borracho, or “drunk wine,” a fortifying agent consisting of both wine and spirit.

Granada

Granada was promoted from VCIG to DO in 2021. The delimited area encompasses the entire province of Granada, which is located just east of Málàga. Granada produces white, rosé, and red wines, and may be still or sparkling, and dry or sweet. A single subregion, Contraviesa-Alpujarra, is located along the Mediterranean Coast. Sparkling wine from the subregion must include at least 70% of the white grape Vijiriego.

Solera system (Credit: Brandon Lee Wise)

The Islands

Balearic Islands

The Balearics (or Baleares) are a group of islands forming an archipelago off the coast of Valencia in the western Mediterranean Sea. The four primary islands, from west to east, are Ibiza, Formentera, Mallorca, and Menorca. Culturally, the Balearic Islands most identify with Catalonia, and they speak a Balearic dialect of Catalan that originated in Empordà. Historically, however, the Kingdom of Mallorca (often Anglicized as Majorca) paid fealty to the Kingdom of Aragon, despite a brief period of independence at its inception during the Reconquista, at which time it was tied to Montpellier and Roussillon.

While larger Vino de la Tierra zones grow grapes across the islands, DO production is limited to Mallorca. Two appellations exist there, Binissalem and Pla i Llevant. Both enjoy a Mediterranean climate, though with generally cooler summers than mainland Spain. Binissalem was the first DO to be established, in 1991, and houses the oldest winery on the island, Hereus de Ribas, founded in 1711. Mallorca, at that time, had already cemented a reputation of quality wine for those traveling through but struggled to find an export market. Binissalem’s vineyards are confined to the center of the island, northeast of the capital, Palma de Mallorca. The Serra de Tramuntana range shields Binissalem’s vines from cold northerly winds.

Red, white, rosado, and sparkling wines are made from a series of classic Spanish and international varieties. Most prized, however, are the indigenous red Manto Negro and white Moll (also called Prensal Blanc) and, to a lesser extent, red grapes Gorgollosa and Callet. Manto Negro must constitute at least 30% of a red wine’s blend. Its wines are often low in pigment and high in alcohol, inviting the addition of more structured varieties. White wines must be comprised of a minimum 50% Moll or 50% Moscatel (either de Grano Menudo or de Alejandría). Moll’s naturally low acidity similarly mandates the contributions of other grapes.

Pla i Llevant covers a larger area, roughly the entire southeastern half of Mallorca, though plantings are fewer. The landscape is rather flat (pla translates to “plain”), and elevations hardly rise above sea level. In comparison to Binissalem, Pla i Llevant’s soils are more fertile and its vines more exposed to wind and frost damage. French grapes, such as Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Chardonnay, dominate the appellation, though Moll, Manto Negro, Callet, and the red native Fogoneu are also authorized. Like Binissalem, Pla i Llevant can produce red, white, rosado, and sparkling wines, as well as sweet fortifieds. While challenging to find outside the area, Mallorcan wine can command relatively high prices in its local market.

Canary Islands

Both physically and stylistically, the Canary Islands are an outlier in the tradition of Spanish wine. Though politically European, the Canary Islands are much closer to Northern Africa, just 100 kilometers west of Morocco. They’re also due south of Madeira, making the Canaries one of the most southerly major winegrowing region in the Northern Hemisphere. European discovery of the Canaries can be documented from the second century CE, when, according to legend, Romans found packs of wild dogs inhabiting the island of Fuerteventura. Accordingly, one translation of Islas Canarias is “islands of dogs.” Visitors occasionally passed through the archipelago in the following millennium, but it wasn’t until 1402 that French explorer Jean de Béthencourt claimed the area for Castile. The conquest over the Canaries’ native people, the Guanches, lasted until 1496, and winegrowing here began around this time. The Canary Islands provided a valuable stopping point during the triangular trade, en route from Western Africa or Europe to the American colonies or elsewhere. Ships passing through were stocked with sweet wine styles that were able to withstand long sea travel. Canary sack, as the British called the islands’ fortified Malvasía, achieved popularity, particularly in Northern Europe.

DOs of the Canary Islands (Click to enlarge and zoom in)

Traversing the 28^th parallel, the Canary Islands fall just outside the range considered optimal for quality viticulture, making elevation an important asset (some vineyards are as high as 1,500 meters). Such positioning also allows for less seasonal variation, as well as narrower oscillation in daylight hours throughout the year. As the islands were created by a series of volcanoes, several still active, much of the area is covered in volcanic-derived soils. Mostly, these are very fertile, leading to many additional crops and a lush topography. Seven major islands comprise the Canary Islands, each carrying its own DO or DOs, with the exception of Fuerteventura. The overarching Islas Canarias DO spreads across the autonomous community.

On the Canary Islands, Listán Blanco (Palomino) achieves unfortified, fresh wines of complexity—rare for the grape on the Spanish mainland. Its history in the Canaries began in the late 1400s and, unsurprisingly, it was first recommended for the production of sack, to be made in the image of Sherry. Today, it is the Canary Islands’ most planted variety and yields semi-aromatic dry whites of medium body, with a subtle nutty, savory profile. Marmajuelo, also called Bermejuela, is likely native to the region and offers richer, more tropical-leaning whites.

Several grapes called Malvasía have found their way to the Canaries. The one simply referred to as Malvasía is identical to Malvasia di Lipari, named after the Sicilian islands, where it is also cultivated. The grape also served as the original “Malmsey” of Madeira, though it is nearly extinct there in favor of Malvasia Branca de São Jorge. It is similarly revered for sweet wines in the Canary Islands, as well as dry styles, and favored for its exuberant fragrance and stone fruit and citrus aromas. A pink-skinned mutation of Malvasía, Malvasía Rosada, is also grown across the Canaries. In addition, Malvasía Volcánica (or Malvasía de Lanzarote) is an autochthonous cross of Malvasia di Lipari and Marmajuelo. It’s less floral than its parent Malvasia di Lipari. Other Canary white varieties include Moscatel de Alejandría, Albillo Real, Gual (Madeira’s Bual), Verdello (Madeira’s Verdelho), Forastera Blanca, and Vijariego Blanco (called Diego on Lanzarote), a high-acid grape first introduced around the 15^th or 16^th century and used for both still and sparkling wines.

Listán Negro is native to the Canary Islands and covers the most vineyard area of all reds. It is unrelated to Listán Prieto, a highly vigorous variety that also grows in the Canaries, arriving from the Spanish mainland later than it did in the Americas. Listán Prieto produces wines that are often rather humble and rustic. Negramoll, native to Andalucía, is the same as Madeira’s Tinta Negra. Its wines are light, fruity, aromatic, and slightly herbal. The Canaries also cultivate the red varieties Bastardo (Trousseau, and also called Tintilla on the Canary Islands), Baboso Negro (the same as Bruñal in Arribes and Alfrocheiro in Portugal), Vijariego Negro (Sumoll), and Castella Negra.

The Canary Islands yield a diversity of wine styles, including red, white, and rosé table wines, as well as sparkling. Due to the area’s long tradition of sweet winemaking, with wines vinified from sun-dried grapes and bottled in both fortified and unfortified expressions, most Canary DOs permit the majority of these options, although some regional specialties are noted.

Tenerife

The largest of the Canary Islands is Tenerife, which rests in the middle of the archipelago. Mount Teide stands at the island’s center, an active volcano and Spain’s tallest peak at 3,718 meters. Teide and its foothills have proven critical to Tenerife’s quality winegrowing, allowing for high-elevation, slope-side plantings at cooler sites. Wind patterns usually blow from north to south, creating a sort of rain shadow effect on the island. Teide traps the humid air on the north side of the island, leaving hotter, more arid conditions to the south. Rather than owning large swaths of land, most wineries source from numerous small family growers, whose tiny plots, called suertes, were historically cultivated for home winemaking and today risk abandonment from less-invested younger generations.

Tenerife is also the only Canary Island to hold multiple DOs. It has five: Tacoronte-Acentejo, Valle de la Orotava, and Ycoden-Daute-Isora in the north, and Abona and Valle de Güímar in the south. Tacoronte-Acentejo DO is Tenerife’s oldest and largest DO, occupying the northeastern stretch of the island. Vines are cultivated up to 1,000 meters, with the layer of reddish, loamy topsoil thinning with increased elevation and exposing more of the volcanic subsoil. Reds are heavily favored, with particular attention to Listán Negro and Negramoll, among other staples. To the southwest, Valle de la Orotava DO’s vineyards rise between 200 and 800 meters. Here, vines are historically trained in the dramatic trenzado or cordón system. The method involves braiding vines for several meters—often more than 10—and raising the cordons at regular intervals with small sticks so that grape clusters don’t touch the earth. Several of these vines exceed one or two centuries in age. During dormancy, the braided vines can be moved to the side to allow for additional crops. Most planted in Valle de la Orotava are Listán Blanco and Listán Negro; here, soils have higher proportions of clay. The Ycoden-Daute-Isora DO also gives preference to Listán Blanco, which covers approximately 70% of the DO. Elevations can reach 1,000 meters, though the appellation is overall hotter, wetter, and sandier, especially vineyards near the coast.

The Valle de Güímar DO, which follows the coastline south of Tacoronte-Acentejo, experiences much drier conditions than vineyards on the opposite side of Teide. Elevation proves vital for quality viticulture, with the top sites ranging between 800 and 1,400 meters. White wine dominates, with Listán Blanco as the most planted variety. The Abona DO creates a u-shape on the southern half of Tenerife. Europe’s highest vineyards are here, scaling beyond 1,600 meters. White wine and Listán Blanco are again most important, though Listán Negro enjoys significant plantings as well.

Lanzarote

The furthest east of the Canary Islands, Lanzarote is also perhaps the most distinctive. The entire landscape is blanketed in striking black volcanic topsoil, or ceniza, a sandy substance derived from the ash and lava of a six-year eruption from the 1730s. The catastrophic event marks the commencement of Lanzarote’s viticultural heritage; previously, its topography largely resembled the rest of the Canaries and yielded other crops—grapes not among them. Today, however, the island is inhospitable to almost all plants other than grapes, save a few pockets where fig or palm trees might be grown. There are over 30 active volcanoes.

Winegrowers have developed creative practices for cultivating grapes on Lanzarote’s otherwise barren grounds. Vines are rooted in hoyos, pits deep enough to penetrate a layer of subsoil that can carry sufficient moisture for the plants. The hoyos are quite wide, measuring as large as 10 meters in diameter to 5 meters in depth, and each hoyo houses just one or two vines. The shallow basins also help shelter the vines from fiercely hot and humid winds from the west that would shrivel their berries and coat them in the ash. To amplify protection, each hoyo is outlined by a semi-circular cairn. Younger vineyards might opt instead for the linear zanjas, a series of trenches similarly protected by rows of stone mounds. Lanzarote’s surreal vineyard is frequently likened to a moonscape.

A hoyo in Lanzarote (Photo credit: Kelli White)

The Timanfaya National Park occupies the center west of Lanzarote, while its winegrowing area can be divided into three subzones. La Geria is furthest south, bordering Masdache, which is split between Tinajo and Masdache proper. Ye-Lajares is unconnected to the other winegrowing areas at the far north of the island. Hoyos are most often found in La Geria, which also sees the widest spacing and lowest densities. Zanjas can be observed in the other zones. Lanzarote is known for its historic sweet wines, both fortified and unfortified, but it also produces a full palette of Canary grapes as dry wines, most notably from Listán Blanco, Malvasía, Listán Negro (Negro Común), and Negramoll.

Other DOs

El Hierro DO is the westernmost of the Canary Islands. Its landscape emerges as the above-surface fragment of a much larger subaquatic volcanic rim. Unsurprisingly, soils are volcanic of various consistencies. Vineyards are carved into terraces, reaching up to 700 meters in elevation. Historically, El Hierro’s sweet wines were celebrated during the Renaissance era, its first vines purportedly planted by Englishman John Hill in 1526. Today, the island still enjoys an important export market in Central and South America, particularly Venezuela. Of its many grapes, Listán Blanco, both red and white Verijadiego, Listán Negro, and Baboso Negro are most important.

To El Hierro’s north is the La Palma DO, referred to as La Isla Bonita or “the beautiful island” due to its lush topography. Vines are said to have been first planted in 1505; today, La Palma’s other major crop is bananas. Many producers will not accept grapes grown at banana farms, as the banana palms cause nearby vines to suffer and yield poor fruit. The island is still actively volcanic, with its last major eruption in 2021. Three subzones comprise La Palma. Fuencaliente, in the south and center east, is home to some of the island’s best whites, especially Malvasía Volcánica. Hoyo de Mazo in the center west is better known for reds, and Norte de la Palma is located in the north. Vineyards here can reach as high as 1,100 meters. La Palma’s most distinctive product is vino de tea, a rancio style in any hue aged in 500-liter pine casks. Botrytized wines are also bottled on La Palma, and the island’s most widely planted grapes are Listán Blanco and Negramoll, among whites and reds, respectively. Other varieties, beyond the local specialty Malvasía, include Sabro, a grape used for sweet wines and believed to be harvested nowhere else in the world.

La Gomera DO follows to La Palma’s east. The mountainous landscape, with plunging cliffs and deep ravines, renders viticulture challenging, and the island’s output remains small. It is best recognized for Forastera Blanca, La Gomera’s most cultivated grape variety and an indigenous specialty (unrelated to what is called Forastera in Italy’s Campania). Listán Blanco, Marmajuelo, Listán Negro, Tintilla, Tempranillo, and Negramoll are also well represented, along with many other varieties grown in limited quantities.

Gran Canaria DO was established in 2005, after absorbing the former DO Monte Lentiscal, which existed only for a handful of years around the town of Santa Brígada. As in Tenerife, a central volcano effectively divides the island in two, with poorer-quality wines coming from the hotter southern half and better examples coming from the more northern vineyards, particularly at higher elevations. As with each of the islands, myriad styles and varieties abound on Gran Canaria. Among reds, Listán Negro, here called Negro Común, remains the dominant variety, where it is used to make what is locally called tinto del monte, or “mountain wine.” Negramoll, Tintilla, and Malvasía Rosada also see significant plantings. Listán Blanco is the most important of white varieties, with contributions from Malvasía, Moscatel de Alejandría, Albillo, Marmajuelo, and Vijariego. Gran Canaria is also recognized for its sweet and often fortified wines, predominately from Malvasía and Moscatel.

Bibliography

Barnes, Amanda. “Corpinnat—an Emerging Category of Spanish Sparkling Wine.” SevenFifty Daily. March 1, 2019. https://daily.sevenfifty.com/corpinnat-an-emerging-category-of-spanish-sparkling-wine.

Barquín, Jesús, et al. The Finest Wines of Rioja and Northwest Spain: A Regional Guide to the Best Producers and Their Wines. Oakland: University of California Press, 2015.

Brook, Stephen. “Priorat.” Decanter. May 30, 2007. https://www.decanter.com/features/priorat-247387.

Cervera, Amaya. “Bierzo approves a Burgundy-inspired classification.” Spanish Wine Lover. July 10, 2017. https://www.spanishwinelover.com/learn-259-bierzo-approves-a-burgundy-inspired-classification.

Evans, Sarah Jane. The Wines of Northern Spain: From Galicia to the Pyrenees and Rioja to the Basque Country. Oxford: Infinite Ideas, 2018.

Fabiano, Ana. The Wine Region of Rioja. New York: Sterling Epicure, 2012.

Foods and Wines from Spain. Accessed May 18, 2020. https://www.foodswinesfromspain.com/spanishfoodwine/foot/site-map/index.html.

Gabay, Elizabeth. Rosé: Understanding the pink wine revolution. Oxford: Infinite Ideas, 2018.

Hudin, Miquel. “Priorat’s new structure.” Meininger’s Wine Business International. May 22, 2017. https://www.wine-business-international.com/wine/general/priorats-new-structure.

Hudin, Miquel. “The release of the ‘Paratge’. DOQ Priorat’s newest step up the Burgundian pyramid.” Hudin.com. May 13, 2019. https://www.hudin.com/the-release-of-the-paratge-doq-priorats-newest-step-up-the-burgundian-pyramid.

Hudin, Miquel. “Velles Vinyes: DOQ Priorat releases the most stringent ‘old vines’ definition in Spain & maybe the world.” Hudin.com. May 30, 2019. https://www.hudin.com/velles-vinyes-doq-priorat-releases-the-most-stringent-old-vines-definition-in-spain-maybe-the-world.

Hudin, Miquel. “What the new DO Rueda classifications mean.” Hudin,com. December 12, 2019. https://www.hudin.com/what-the-new-do-rueda-classifications-mean.

Jefford, Andrew. “Jefford on Monday: Montsant – silence and beyond.” Decanter. December 11, 2017. https://www.decanter.com/wine-news/opinion/jefford-on-monday/montsant-wines-profile-spain-381352.

Jefford, Andrew. “Jefford on Monday: The white question.” Decanter. November 20, 2017. https://www.decanter.com/wine-news/opinion/jefford-on-monday/priorat-white-wines-380008.

Jefford, Andrew. “Jefford on Monday: ‘Wind, stone . . .’” Decanter. March 12, 2018. https://www.decanter.com/wine-news/opinion/jefford-on-monday/emporda-wine-catalonia-385922-385922.

Jeffs, Julian. The Wines of Spain. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2006.

Johnson, Hugh and Jancis Robinson, eds. The World Atlas of Wine. 8th ed. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2019.

Liem, Peter, and Jesús Barquín. Sherry, Manzanilla & Montilla: A Guide to the Traditional Wines of Andalucía. New York: Manutius, 2012.

Lukacs, Paul. Inventing Wine: A New History of One of the World’s Most Ancient Pleasures. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2012.

McGovern, Patrick E. Ancient Wine: The Search for the Origins of Viniculture. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2003.

Phillips, Jr., William D., and Carla Rahn Phillips. A Concise History of Spain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

Radford, John. The New Spain: A Complete Guide to Contemporary Spanish Wine. 2nd ed. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2006.

Robinson, Jancis. “Castilla-La Mancha.” Jancis Robinson. Accessed May 18, 2020. https://www.jancisrobinson.com/learn/wine-regions/spain/castilla-la-mancha.

Robinson, Jancis, ed. The Oxford Companion to Wine. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.

Robinson, Jancis, Julia Harding, and José Vouillamoz. Wine Grapes. New York: Harper Collins, 2012.

“2019 Statistical Report on World Vitiviniculture.” International Organisation of Vine and Wine. 2019. http://www.oiv.int/public/medias/6782/oiv-2019-statistical-report-on-world-vitiviniculture.pdf.

White, Kelli. “Considering the Canaries.” GuildSomm. February 15, 2018. https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/kelli-white/posts/canary-islands.

White, Kelli. “Forgotten Spain: Valencia.” GuildSomm. October 19, 2017. https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/kelli-white/posts/forgotten-spain-valencia.

White, Kelli. “The Devastator: Phylloxera Vastatrix & The Remaking of the World of Wine.” GuildSomm. December 29, 2017. https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/kelli-white/posts/phylloxera-vastatrix.

Wiatrak, Bryce. “Tempranillo Wars: Rethinking the Traditional-Modern Schism in Rioja & Ribera del Duero.” GuildSomm. May 11, 2018. https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/bryce-wiatrak/posts/tempranillo-wars.

Yoshida, David. “Rías Baixas and Ribeira Sacra.” Lecture. GuildSomm Masterclass Series. May 2019.

Special thanks to Sarah Jane Evans and Miquel Hudin for their help in reviewing this guide.

Compiled by Bryce Wiatrak MW (June 2020)

Edited by Stacy Ladenburger

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Italy Part III: Northern Italy

Sandra Ban — Sat, 06 Jun 2026 16:28:29 GMT

Current Revision posted to Expert Guides by Sandra Ban on 6/6/2026 4:28:29 PM

The Grapes and Grape Families of Northern Italy
Piedmont
Valle d'Aosta
Liguria
Lombardy
Veneto
Trentino-Alto Adige
Friuli-Venezia Giulia
Bibliography

Northern Italy is considered the financial and economic hub of the country, generally more industrialized than the agrarian south, with historic centers of wealth and influence, such as Milan and Venice. After the unification of most of the peninsula in 1861, Rome was designated as the capital, but Italy’s first leaders came from the north: King Vittorio Emanuele II was from Turin, and Italy’s first prime minister, Count Camillo Benso, from Barolo.

Northern Italy borders France, Switzerland, Austria, and Slovenia, and the area has a history of trade and cultural exchange with various European kingdoms and d duchies. The rich cuisine tends toward heavier meats, butter, and cream, reflecting northern Italy’s history of wealth and French and Germanic influences—in contrast to the olive oil, pasta, and red sauce of the south.

Some parts of northern Italy did not become annexed to the country until the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire following World War I, and the regions across the north remain culturally and linguistically diverse. German, French, and local dialects are as likely as Italian to be heard on the streets and seen on signs. Three of Italy’s five autonomous regions—granted a greater degree of local governance by the Italian Constitution to help preserve regional and cultural identity—are in the north: Aosta Valley, Trentino-Alto Adige, and Friuli-Venezia Giulia.

Northern Italy’s diversity extends to its land and climate. The topography ranges from the high elevations of the Alps and Dolomites to the flat plains of the Po River valley, and from the rivers and glacial freshwater lakes to the coastline of the Ligurian and Adriatic Seas. Dramatic differences in elevation, temperature, and soil types lead to an exciting range of grape varieties and wine styles produced across the top of Italy’s boot.

The Grapes and Grape Families of Northern Italy

Many of the key grape varieties of northern Italy—Pinot Grigio, Glera, Vermentino, Barbera, Nebbiolo, and several international ones—are covered in the Introduction to Italy Expert Guide. Below are additional grapes and families that are important to northern Italy, while others are discussed in the regional sections below.

White Grapes

Arneis: From the Piedmontese dialect meaning “rascal,” the name Arneis likely refers to the challenges the grape presents in the vineyard, or to its characteristic early ripening, which makes it the first grape sweet enough to attract birds—sparing the more expensive, later-ripening Nebbiolo often planted alongside it. Arneis has low and irregular yields and is sensitive to disease and pests. Its vines grow tall and erect like those of Nebbiolo, and it has also been called Nebbiolo Bianco and Barolo Bianco. Arneis has always had an association with producers more famous for their Nebbiolo; it was resurrected in the 1960s by winemakers including Vietti and Bruno Giacosa, and it became Italy’s most popular white wine in the 1980s largely because of Ceretto’s Blangé bottling.

Arneis has a round, creamy texture. The grape performs well in the sandy soils of Roero DOCG and needs to be harvested early to retain its acidity. Some producers blend wine from multiple pickings to ensure a range of acidity levels. Arneis oxidizes easily and requires care in the cellar for freshness to be retained.

Garganega: One of the oldest and most important white grapes of Veneto, Garganega is the principal grape of Soave and Gambellara. Despite being grown almost exclusively in Veneto, it is the 12^th most planted grape in Italy. It is also one of Italy’s most ancient varieties and a parent of many others, including Trebbiano Toscano, Albana, Malvasia Bianca di Candia, and Catarratto. Garganega has many clones and biotypes, some of which have loosely packed bunches that are suitable for air-drying and sweet recioto wines.

Garganega is thick skinned and very late ripening, and it produces reliable and generous yields. Garganega can be a varietal wine in Soave and is also often blended with Trebbiano di Soave (Verdicchio) or Chardonnay. The sweet recioto wines based on Garganega are rich, honeyed, and floral, usually without any botrytis.

Ribolla Gialla: Ribolla wines have a long history of trade along the Adriatic, but, as with Malvasia, there is confusion around the many Ribollas. Historically, the name likely referred to a generic brand or blended wine rather than a grape variety, and its popularity spawned many imitators. Ribolla Gialla, believed to be of central European origin, is a high-quality and important grape grown primarily in Friuli-Venezia Giulia; it has the name Rebula across the Slovenian border. It is not the same as the lesser-quality Ribolla Verde and is unrelated to Ribolla Nera (Schioppettino); Ribolla Spizade (Prosecco Lungo); Rèbola (Pignoletto) of Emilia-Romagna; and Robola of Cephalonia, Greece.

Gialla, Italian for “yellow,” refers to the deep yellow color of the berries. The highest-quality wines come from old vines planted on hillsides. In the glass, Ribolla Gialla has very high acidity and flavors of white pepper, lemon, and tangerine. It is made in a wide range of styles but is often associated with orange wines produced using extended skin contact and oxidative winemaking practices. Because of its high acidity, some winemakers are experimenting with sparkling Ribolla Gialla.

Timorasso: Once one of the most planted white grapes of Piedmont, Timorasso was nearly abandoned because of viticultural challenges. Its berries ripen unevenly, its thin skins make it susceptible to gray rot, and it is subject to coulure. It is very late ripening and can struggle to achieve full ripeness. Today, however, there is a Timorasso renaissance among quality producers. It is an ageworthy white, characterized by very high acidity, a rich and powerful body, and an intensely herbal and mineral character, exhibiting TDN-based flavors of petrol and kerosene, similar to those of some dry Rieslings.

Red Grapes

Corvina: Found in Veneto and Lombardy, Corvina means “little raven,” a reference either to the dark color of the berries or to the birds’ attraction to the ripe grapes. It is best known as the principal grape in the blend for Amarone and other red wines from Valpolicella. Corvina is thick skinned with small berries, making it suitable for air-drying and the appassimento process. In the vineyard, it is vigorous, high yielding, and sensitive to botrytis and sunburn. Corvina brings elevated acidity, fine tannins, and flavors of red cherry, violets, and herbs to blends.

Corvina is an offspring of Refosco dal Peduncolo Rosso, a parent of Rondinella, and related to Oseleta and Marzemino. But it shares no relation with Corvinone, its frequent blending partner. Corvinone was given its name, meaning “big Corvina,” because it was once thought to be a Corvina clone with larger berries and bunches.v

Croatina: Rarely seen on labels but widely planted across northern Italy, Croatina is usually in a supporting role, as a blending partner with a range of grapes, including Barbera, Nebbiolo, and Corvina. It is grown in several regions but is the top-planted grape (with 17% of plantings) in Lombardy and among the top 15 red grapes in Italy overall. It is confusingly called Bonarda in some regions but is not the same as other Bonarda-named grapes, such as Bonarda Piemontese or Argentina’s Bonarda. It is also called Nebbiolo di Gattinara and Spanna di Ghemme but should not be confused with the Nebbiolo (Spanna) found in Alto Piemonte.

The thick-skinned Croatina is an irregular producer, buds later, and is resistant to frost and powdery mildew. It succeeds best in clay soils, where it can achieve higher quality, with smaller bunches and more concentration. Croatina can lighten the sharp acidity of Barbera and add soft tannins and a round, creamy texture to Amarone wines. Some producers use shorter macerations and barrel aging to soften Croatina’s tannins.

Dolcetto: Meaning “little sweet one,” Dolcetto is the everyday wine of Piedmont, often overshadowed by the more famous Nebbiolo and Barbera. Although the wines are dry, the grapes are sweet and, historically, were often eaten as table grapes. Dolcetto is the earliest ripening of the three main Langhe red varieties and difficult to work with in both the vineyard and the cellar. It is sensitive to frost, storms, and cold temperatures and grows close to the ground, making picking difficult. It can also be reductive. Given these challenges, Dolcetto plantings have steadily decreased in recent years, as more vineyard space has been planted to Nebbiolo, and to Chardonnay and Pinot Nero for sparkling wines made in the traditional method (metodo classico). Dolcetto plantings decreased by 18% between 2000 and 2010.

Dolcetto yields medium-bodied wines with a purple hue that tend to be relatively low in acidity and high in tannin. They have “grapey” flavors, with notes of lavender, orange peel, and black tea. When harvested earlier, Dolcetto retains acidity and is more floral. The wines are usually monovarietal.

Dolcetto is called Dosset in the Piedmontese dialect and Ormeasco in Liguria. It is not the same as Douce Noire of Savoie (called Charbono in California and Bonarda in Argentina), though once believed to be identical. Although on the decline in Italy, Dolcetto is being grown in the United States, Australia, and other New World countries.

Schiava: Schiava, Italian for “slave,” references vines that were “enslaved” on trellises in ancient Rome, rather than supported by trees or other crops as other vines were. The Schiava group includes several similar but genetically unrelated varieties that are often blended and, when combined, represent the most planted grape in Alto Adige. The DOC regulations do not specify which Schiava variety must be used, so the wines are usually a blend of two or three of the main varieties.

Schiava Gentile, also called Schiava Piccola because of its small bunches, is the lightest bodied and most perfumed of the Schiava varieties, and it is especially prized for rosato. Schiava Grigia, referring to the gray bloom on its berries, is the most refined. Schiava Grossa, with large berries and bunches, has the most delicate aromas and is a parent of Kerner and Malvasia del Lazio. In addition to these three main Schiavas, there is Schiava Nera. The Schiava varieties are also found in Lombardy, where Schiava Nera is called Schiava Lombarda. The Schiava group is also known as Vernatsch in Alto Adige and Trollinger in Austria and Germany.

These wines are typically light colored and light bodied, with high acidity and fragrant strawberry, violet, and sweet almond flavors.

Source: Italian Wine Central, 2022 data

Piedmont

Piedmont, or Piemonte in Italian, meaning “foot of the mountain,” is surrounded on three sides by the Alps and Apennines. The Po River valley extends to the east, with many tributaries of the Po River and lakes nestled in the foothills. Piedmont is one of the most mountainous regions in Italy, with 43% of its land covered in mountains and another 30% in hills.

Click to enlarge and zoom in

Piedmont’s climate is largely continental. The warm air from the Po River valley meets the humid air from the Mediterranean Sea, creating precipitation and fog. The central band of foothills is protected from the most extreme weather by the Alpine and Apennine ranges. The hilly terrain provides a wide range of slopes and aspects for grape ripening.

What is today Piedmont was originally settled by Celtic tribes and was part of the Cisalpine Gaul territory. The Taurini people likely dominated this area until their capital city, Taurasia, was destroyed by Hannibal during the march of his Carthaginian army in 218 BCE. The city was reestablished by the Romans in 25 BCE as Augusta Taurinorum, which is today Piedmont’s capital city of Turin.

The region was important during ancient Rome as a trade route with the Gallic provinces. In contrast to the Greeks and Etruscans, who used ceramic pottery and amphorae to store wine, the Gauls used barrels, and the Gallic influence helped facilitate the transport of wine beyond alpine areas. The Etruscan viticultural influence reached this area as well, particularly the maritata or alberata system of training vines high on trees or other live supports to provide protection from humidity.

In the Middle Ages, Piedmont was an important stronghold of the House of Savoy. The Holy Roman Empire awarded the House of Savoy ducal status in the 15^th century, and the region’s role in commerce led to increased prosperity as well as exposure to new ideas of the European Enlightenment. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, with its capital in Turin, was influential in the 19^th-century campaign for Italian unification, with Vittorio Emanuele II, who was born in Piedmont, becoming the first king of Italy.

Piedmont has 19 DOCGs, the most of any Italian region, and 41 DOCs, tying with Tuscany for the most. Many of these denominations are overlapping, with multiple names referring to the same places, such as Alba, Asti, Acqui, and Monferrato. Perhaps owing to its cultural relationship with eastern France, Piedmont is often divided into many subzones and single-vineyard sites with fractured ownership. Piedmont has no IGT for less strictly controlled wines, although its large regional denominations, such as Piemonte DOC and Langhe DOC, are broad enough to allow for a wide range of wine styles as well as international varieties.

Piedmont’s wine production is at a very high quality level overall: nearly all (94%) of its wine is DOC or higher, the highest percentage of any Italian region, compared with the national average of 45%. About 60% of Piedmont’s production is red wine, but the region is known for high-quality examples of red, white, sparkling, and sweet wines. Its most planted grape varieties are Barbera (31%), Moscato Bianco (22%), Dolcetto (13%), and Nebbiolo (10%).

Nebbiolo: What's in a Name?

An ancient grape most likely originating in Lombardy or northern Piedmont, Nebbiolo has great clonal diversity, with at least 30 documented biotypes. It has adapted to different terroirs in northwestern Italy and is distinguished for its ability to reflect the sites in which it is grown.

Nebbiolo is believed to take its name from nebbia, the Italian word for “fog,” either because it is traditionally harvested in the late autumn, when thick fog engulfs the Langhe, or because of the fog-like bloom that appears on the dark berries. Synonyms for Nebbiolo date back centuries. Here are some of the most important biotypes and synonyms to know.

Chiavennasca: The name for Nebbiolo used in Lombardy’s Valtellina region and dating to 1595. Thought to come from ciù venasca in the local dialect, referring to a grape of great vigor.

Nebbiolo Lampia: The most common Nebbiolo and most dependable producer.

Nebbiolo Michet: A virused form of Lampia that causes the vine’s canes to fork, producing smaller berries, lower yields, and a higher concentration of aromas and flavors.

Nebbiolo Rosé: A separate but closely related variety once thought to be a clone of Nebbiolo. Prized for its aromatic perfume and pale color.

Picoutener/Picotendro: The French and Italian names for the smaller-bunched and darker-berried Nebbiolo in Valle d’Aosta and Carema.

Spanna: The local name for Nebbiolo in Ghemme, Gattinara, and other parts of Alto Piemonte, first documented here in 1466. It is possibly the grape Pliny the Elder referred to as Spionia or Spinea.

Barolo and Barbaresco

Located in the Cuneo province in the Langhe hills, on opposite sides of the city of Alba along the Tanaro River, Barolo DOCG and Barbaresco DOCG are two of the most respected wine regions in the world, renowned for their powerful, complex, ageworthy Nebbiolo wines.

The Celtic-Ligurian Statielli tribe settled in the Barolo area in the fifth century BCE. The Romans conquered the Statielli in the first century BCE and established Alba Pompeia, which is today modern Alba. There is documentation of Nebbiolo in this area since the Middle Ages. The wealthy Falletti family is credited with promoting Barolo wine in the courts of Napoleon Bonaparte in Paris and the House of Savoy in Turin—earning Barolo the nickname “the king of wines and the wine of kings.”

Piedmont’s vineyards in autumn (Photo credit: Adobe Stock)

Nebbiolo from the Barolo region was historically known as a sweet wine. It would often stop fermenting in the cold Piedmont winters, refermenting in the spring to make a slightly sparkling wine. The first dry Barolo wines are often credited to either French enologist Louis Oudart or Italian General Paolo Francesco Staglieno in the 1840s. The first Barbaresco wine appeared in 1894; before that time, grapes grown in Barbaresco were likely sold to nearby Barolo houses.

In the Langhe, unlike many other Italian wine regions, a large number of small farmers owned tiny parcels of land (as compared with Tuscany, for example, which was dominated by wealthy landowners and sharecropping). After the French Revolution, Napoleon marched his army over the Alps, and Piedmont came under Napoleonic rule. Napoleon’s government confiscated and sold church property, ended primogeniture rights, and implemented reforms similar to those taking place in France. By the time Piedmont was once again ruled by the House of Savoy, there was a new class of landowners and entrepreneurs, with continued vineyard fragmentation as new generations inherited land.

With some exceptions, most small farmers and grapegrowers did not produce wine themselves but sold grapes to large négociant houses in Alba. They were hindered by the poverty in rural areas after World War II and a lack of accessible water. This began to change in the 1970s when several young grapegrowers, including Elio Altare and Enrico Scavino, traveled to Burgundy, searching for new ideas on cellar hygiene, vineyard management, and the production of fine wine.

In the decades that followed, two camps were sharply pitted against each another in what is known as the Barolo wars. The “traditionalists” generally favored long macerations in large, old barrels of chestnut or acacia that were often passed down for generations, using practices such as stem inclusion, open-vat fermentation, foot trodding, and no temperature control. The “modernists” sought to create more accessible and less aggressive wines that didn’t need decades to soften before they could be enjoyed. Through exposure to other regions, these winemakers introduced new practices into both the cellar and vineyard, most famously using new French barriques for aging, using rotary fermenters, and lowering yields to increase concentration and focus on physiological ripeness and tannin management.

This riper, more concentrated, approachable style was popular with the public and wine critics, but it was highly controversial. Green harvesting to reduce yields was an affront to farmers who had been focused on quantity and selling grapes to earn a living. Elio Altare famously took a chainsaw to his father’s old barrels in 1983 and, after being disowned by his father, bought new French barriques and eventually bought back vineyard land from his family. In neighboring Barbaresco, producers such as Angelo Gaja were also experimenting with green harvesting and new French barriques.

The Soils of Barolo

The Langhe is generally composed of marine sedimentary soils in alternating layers of calcareous marls and sandstone, with varied percentages of clay and sand. The soils of Barolo are typically defined by their ages. The oldest, from the Serravallian era (formerly called Helvetian), are found in the south and east of the denomination and were formed 11–13 million years ago. Soils from the Tortonian era, in the western part of the denomination, were formed 7–11 million years ago. The youngest soils, from the Messinian era, are in the far northwest and were formed 5–7 million years ago.

During these ages, there were several principal geological formations. The Formazione di Lequio consists of gray marl and light yellow sandstone and is found primarily in Monforte d’Alba and Serralunga d’Alba. The soils here are higher in calcium carbonate, restraining vigor and yielding wines that are more austere, powerful, and structured. The Marne di Sant’Agata Fossili formation is found primarily in the communes of Barolo and La Morra as well as in Barbaresco. This formation consists of bluish-gray marls and is higher in clay content, resulting in wines that are more perfumed, rounder, and more elegant. The Arenarie di Diano d’Alba formation is found primarily in Castiglione Falletto, where the wines occupy a middle ground between structure and elegance. The youngest formations consist of gypsum-sulfur and are higher in sand content. They are found in parts of La Morra, Verduno, and Cherasco and yield the softest and most approachable Barolos for early drinking.

Today, the divisions have softened, and many producers use a blend of practices associated with the traditional and modern approaches. New barriques may be used in moderation or in combination with used, untoasted, or larger barrels. Large Slavonian casks may be changed every 10 or 15 years and may be smaller in size than those used in previous generations. Fermentation and maceration times are generally about 25 days, balancing short-term approachability with long-term aging capability, although some still prefer to extend aging. Cellar hygiene and improved vineyard management are the norm. Many producers use the historic Albeisa bottle, which has shoulders that fall between those of Burgundy and Bordeaux bottles.

Barolo and Barbaresco were among the first DOCs in Italy, established in 1966, and part of the first group to be elevated to DOCG status in 1980. Both require 100% Nebbiolo. Barbaresco requires a minimum of 9 months in barrel, with 26 months total aging for Normale and 50 months for Riserva. Barolo mandates a minimum of 18 months in barrel, with 38 months total aging for Normale and 62 months for Riserva, making the aging for Riserva bottlings among the longest required for any dry wine in the world.

The Langhe has marine sedimentary soils of calcareous marl and sandstone, with varying percentages of clay, sand, and calcium carbonate. Approximately 90% of Barolo DOCG is in the six core communes of Barolo, Castiglione Falletto, La Morra, Monforte d’Alba, Serralunga d’Alba, and Novello, with small parts of the denomination in five other communes: Diano d’Alba, Verduno, Grinzane Cavour, Cherasco, and Roddi. Barbaresco DOCG primarily includes the three communes of Barbaresco, Neive, and Treiso, with a smaller piece in a fourth, San Rocco Seno d’Elvio.

Barolo is the larger of the two denominations, with 1,980 hectares (4,900 acres) of vineyard area (2019), compared with Barbaresco’s 680 hectares (1,670 acres). The southeastern part of the Barolo denomination is cooler, as the narrow Serralunga valley funnels cool air from the Apennines, and the warmest crus are situated on south-facing ridges. The northwestern part is warmer, with a low-lying amphitheater in the village of Barolo and the highest altitudes in the commune of La Morra. The slopes are generally steep, with hand-harvesting the norm and erosion a constant issue for growers. Barbaresco’s hills generally have gentler slopes and are lower lying, with the exception of the higher-altitude commune of Treiso. Barbaresco is closer to the Tanaro River and receives more of its moderating influence, resulting in a warmer climate where grapes are generally harvested two weeks earlier than in Barolo. In both denominations, classic Guyot training is the norm; with Nebbiolo, longer canes with more buds are needed for production, as the buds closest to the plant are typically sterile.

The Langhe has long designated exceptional specific vineyard sites, or crus. The oldest surviving bottle from the region is simply labeled Cannubi 1752. Nebbiolo, early budding and very late ripening, was typically planted on hillside vineyard plots where the snow melted first, indicating to growers that these areas would receive the most sun. The sites called sorí, Piedmontese dialect for a hillside vineyard with full southern exposure, were most desirable.

In the 1970s, Renato Ratti produced the first detailed maps of Barolo and Barbaresco. As the regions’ popularity soared and Nebbiolo plantings expanded to some less-desirable sites, efforts were initiated to codify the concepts of crus or subzones. In 2007, Barbaresco unveiled its menzioni geografiche aggiuntive (MGAs), or “additional geographical mentions,” now totaling 66. Barolo unveiled its 181 MGAs in 2010, including 170 geographic sites and 11 commune designations. (Interestingly, Barbaresco does not include designations for its four communes.) This dizzying array of named sites, some of which never appear on labels, can be confusing. Further, fantasy names are still allowed, as are vigna designations of specific vineyard names found within the larger subzones. (To use the vigna designation in either denomination, yields must be lower and vineyards must be at least seven years old.) Find lists of Barolo’s MGAs and Barbaresco's MGAs in the Compendium.

Because the designation of the MGAs was also left up to the individual communes, there is a lack of consistency. Some remained faithful to the historic boundaries of famous crus, while others expanded them to huge proportions, and there have been contested legal battles over boundaries. Some MGAs are monopoles, such as Francia, owned by Giacomo Conterno, and Falletto, owned by Bruno Giacosa.

In modifying the DOCG disciplinari to allow MGAs, Barbaresco and Barolo also took the opportunity to prohibit plantings on valley floors and areas with northern exposures. Barolo vineyards must be planted between 170 and 540 meters (560 and 1,770 feet); there is no minimum altitude for Barbaresco vineyards, but they cannot be higher than 550 meters (1,800 feet). Expansion and new plantings are also limited in both denominations. The measures aim to ensure that Nebbiolo is planted on the most appropriate hillsides, with adequate sun exposure, limiting soil erosion and other challenges in the vineyard.

Classic Barolo and Barbaresco wines are firmly structured, with elevated tannins and acidity, and complex flavors, such as tart red fruit, tar, and roses. Barbaresco can be slightly softer than Barolo, owing to its closer proximity to the Tanaro River, as well as soils that tend to be more fertile and sandier, with less calcium carbonate. Even so, these lines are blurring, and the differences in both denominations vary by commune, vineyard, and producer style.

Roero and Terra Alfieri

Le rocche (Photo credit: LoveLanghe)

Also in the Cuneo province but north of the Langhe, Roero DOCG is on the left bank of the Tanaro River. The climate is semiarid and slightly warmer, and the region is farther inland. Harvest usually takes place one or two weeks earlier than in Barolo. The Roero is marked by le rocche, steep sandy cliffs formed by slow erosion from the Tanaro River. The soils here are sandier compared with those of the Langhe and much lower in calcium carbonate.

Roero’s red wines must be a minimum of 95% Nebbiolo, while the denomination also allows white and sparkling wines of a minimum 95% Arneis. The red wines require shorter aging than Barolo and Barbaresco—20 months and 32 months for Normale and Riserva, respectively, including 6 months in barrel. White wines must be aged a minimum of 4 months for Normale and 16 months for Riserva. Roero has a vigna designation for single-vineyard wines with lower mandated yields, and there are 153 MGAs, including the 19 village designations. Arneis thrives in Roero, and several Barolo and Barbaresco producers bottle a white wine from this region. Though rare, sparkling versions are authorized in a range of sweetness levels.

Just east of Roero, extending into the Asti province, is Terre Alfieri DOCG, awarded in 2020, with just 40 hectares (100 acres) of vineyards. Its rules are similar to Roero’s, making these the only two Piedmont DOCGs that produce both red and white wine. Terre Alfieri requires a minimum of 85% for both Nebbiolo-based reds and Arneis-based whites, with superiore, riserva, and vigna designations.

Nebbiolo d’Alba DOC is a larger denomination covering much of the Roero and Langhe areas. Wines must be 100% Nebbiolo and can be made into still red, sparkling red, or sparkling rosato.

Barbera-Based Denominations

Piedmont has five denominations dedicated to Barbera, many of them overlapping, throughout the Langhe, Asti, and Monferrato areas. Barbera is the most planted grape variety in Piedmont (31% of plantings), and although it is found in other regions of Italy, it most likely originated in the Monferrato province of Alessandria.

Barbera is generally characterized by its deep color, high acidity, and very low tannins. It is vigorous and can produce quality wine at relatively high yields. Some producers argue that Barbera needs to have high alcohol to express its complexity, and bottlings of 15% ABV are not uncommon. Barbera is drought resistant and favors heat and warmer sites, such as those in Asti. Vintages that are challenging for Nebbiolo (such as 2003 and 2011) can yield excellent Barbera.

Barbera is subject to a range of stylistic interpretations and expresses itself differently depending on the site. Grown in sandier soils, the wine can have higher acidity, lower alcohol and tannin, and deeper color. Grown in soils with more clay, the converse is true. The grape’s stylistic diversity is exacerbated by the very large sizes of the Barbera denominations. Barbera d’Asti DOCG covers about 200,000 hectares (500,000 acres) of land, across more than 160 communes in the provinces of Asti and Alessandria.

Barbera d’Asti DOCG requires a minimum of 90% Barbera, and the remainder can be Dolcetto, Freisa, and/or Grignolino. The wines must be aged four months before release. To qualify as Superiore, the wines must be aged a total of 14 months, including at least 6 months in oak. There are two official subzones, Tinella and Colli Astiani, both south of the Tanaro River. Superiore with the addition of either subzone requires 24 months total aging, including 6 months each in barrel and bottle.

Nizza DOCG, formerly a subzone of Barbera d’Asti, was elevated to its own denomination in 2014. Its wines come from 18 communes, and there is a prevalence of old vines of 50 years or more in this district. Unlike the other denominations, Nizza requires 100% Barbera. Nizza wines must be aged at least 18 months, with a minimum of 6 months in barrel. The Riserva level requires 30 months total aging, with at least 12 months in wood. Nizza has diverse soils, with the northern part of the zone characterized by sandy and silty soils and the southern part by marl and sandstone.

Like Barbera d’Asti, Barbera del Monferrato DOC is a large area in the Asti and Alessandria provinces. It requires a minimum of 85% Barbera and has no aging requirements, generally reserved for lighter, fruitier, youthful Barberas that can even be frizzante. Its superiore designation was elevated in 2008 to become the separate Barbera del Monferrato Superiore DOCG, requiring a higher minimum alcohol as well as a minimum of 14 months total aging, including 6 months in barrel. There is overlap between Barbera del Monferrato, Barbera d’Asti, and Nizza, giving producers labeling options.

Barbera d’Alba DOC, in the Cuneo province, overlaps the more famous Langhe denominations of Barolo and Barbaresco. It benefits from the association with the name Alba but also suffers, because the best sites in this area are often planted to Nebbiolo, not Barbera. The DOC requires a minimum of 85% Barbera, with the remainder Nebbiolo. The Superiore designation requires a minimum aging of 12 months, with at least 4 months in wood. Barbera d’Alba wines tends to be richer, rounder, and fleshier than those from Asti.

Dolcetto-Based Denominations

Although its plantings are declining, Dolcetto has a long history in southern Piedmont, and there are seven Piedmontese denominations dedicated to the grape. All but one require 100% Dolcetto.

Dogliani DOCG, south of Barolo, extends to the south of the regional Langhe DOC. Dolcetto has been planted in some of the best vineyard sites here. It must be aged for a minimum of 12 months. A Superiore designation requires a higher minimum alcohol of 13% ABV, compared with 12% for Normale. Dogliani has vigna designations as well as 76 MGAs, including 21 commune names. It became a DOC in 1974 and a DOCG in 2005, and it absorbed the former Dolcetto delle Langhe Monregalesi DOC in 2011.

Dolcetto d’Alba DOC covers 25 communes surrounding the town of Alba, overlapping the Barolo and Barbaresco areas. Superiore wines require a slightly higher minimum alcohol and at least 12 months of aging. Diano d’Alba DOCG, also known as Dolcetto di Diano d’Alba DOCG, is based in the commune of the same name on the northeastern edge of Barolo. In 1974, Diano d’Alba was one of the first denominations in Italy to undertake a serious study and mapping of its geological subzones and terroirs; it now has 75 MGAs, which must meet the same requirements as Superiore wines. The Normale wines must be aged 2–3 months, while the Superiore requires a minimum of 10 months.

Moving east, Dolcetto d’Asti DOC, in the Asti province, and Dolcetto d’Acqui DOC, in the Alessandria province, have no minimum aging for Normale but require a minimum of 12 months for the Superiore designation, which also requires a slightly higher minimum alcohol of 12.5% ABV. Farther east in the Alessandria province, Dolcetto di Ovada DOC requires a minimum of 97% Dolcetto and has no minimum aging requirement. The overlapping Ovada DOCG was formerly part of Dolcetto di Ovada but was elevated to a separate DOCG in 2008. It requires 100% Dolcetto and a minimum aging of 12 months for Normale wines, 20 months with a vigna designation, and 24 months for Riserva.

Sparkling Wine Denominations

In Piedmont, sparkling wines are produced in a wide range of styles. The region’s largest denomination in total production volume is Asti DOCG, with 770,000 hectoliters, or 8.56 million cases, in 2022. Of the two principal styles, the fully sparkling Asti, also called Asti spumante, accounted for 65% of production, and the semi-sparkling, or frizzante, Moscato d’Asti accounted for 35%. The large Asti DOCG spans 52 communes not only in the province of Asti but also in Cuneo and Alessandria. It requires a minimum of 97% Moscato Bianco, known outside Italy as Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains, which has been planted here since at least the 14^th century.

Unlike the tank method (also known as the Charmat method or the metodo Martinotti) and the traditional method, both of which use the fermentation of a still wine followed by a second fermentation into sparkling wine, the Asti method has a single fermentation phase. The grape must is chilled and stored at low temperatures to prevent fermentation from starting. It is then used in batches as needed, warmed up in autoclaves to ferment and create its sparkle at the same time. The fermentation is stopped when the desired alcohol and sweetness levels are reached, allowing for different styles.

Asti spumante is typically between 4.5 and 5 atmospheres of pressure, and the traditional muselet wire cage and cork are used for fully sparkling wines. The minimum alcohol is 6% ABV. Prior to 2017, all Asti spumante was required to be dolce, but today all sweetness levels, including secco, are permitted, and there is no maximum alcohol requirement. Traditional method versions are rare but authorized with a minimum of nine months on the lees.

Moscato d’Asti is typically regarded as higher quality, and the better selection of grapes is reserved for this frizzante version. It cannot exceed 2.5 atmospheres of pressure and is typically topped with a regular cork or Stelvin closure. The alcohol must be between 4.5% and 6.5% ABV, and it tends to be sweeter, requiring a minimum of 4.5% potential alcohol, or about 80 grams of residual sugar per liter. Vendemmia tardiva versions are also authorized, requiring a minimum of 11% acquired alcohol and at least one year of aging.

Vineyard at La Spinetta, in the province of Asti (Photo Credit: Michael Markarian)

Until recently, there were three subzones of Asti DOCG. The most famous subzone, Canelli, split away from Asti in 2023 to become a DOCG. The wines of Canelli DOCG must be 100% Moscato Bianco, hand-harvested, and in the Moscato d’Asti style only. Vineyard elevation must be between 165 and 500 meters (540 and 1,635 feet) above sea level. A Riserva level with vigna designation requires a minimum 30 months of aging, including at least 20 months in bottle. Asti DOCG’s remaining two subzones, Strevi and Santa Vittoria d’Alba, are also authorized for the Moscato d’Asti style and, like Canelli, require a higher potential alcohol and lower maximum yields. Santa Vittoria d’Alba has the additional category of vendemmia tardiva, which requires a longer minimum aging of two years.

One of Moscato Bianco’s many offspring is the highly aromatic red grape Brachetto, which is featured in the wines of Brachetto d’Acqui DOCG. The DOCG is centered around the town of Acqui Terme, in the Alessandria province. The wines can be made in still, sparkling, and passito styles, all of which require a minimum 97% Brachetto. The off-dry sparkling red wines have boosted the variety’s popularity and helped it survive. Brachetto d’Acqui is typically frizzante and light in alcohol, with residual sugar and flavors of candied strawberries and roses. A less sweet rosato version is also authorized, but production is minimal.

Although Italy’s first traditional method sparkling wine originated in Piedmont, more modern efforts took hold in the 1990s when producers planted experimental vineyards of Pinot Nero and Chardonnay in an effort to distinguish a Piedmontese sparkling wine from the sweeter, aromatic styles based on Moscato and Brachetto. Alta Langa DOCG, awarded in 2011, after becoming a DOC in 2002, is dedicated to traditional method sparkling wines made from a minimum of 90% Pinot Nero and/or Chardonnay, with the balance from other nonaromatic grape varieties.

Alta Langa DOCG wines must be made in the traditional method and vintage dated. They can be white or rosato, range from zero dosage to extra dry, and require a minimum 30 months of aging, or 36 months for the Riserva level. All vineyard plantings must be 250 meters (820 feet) above sea level or higher. While Alta Langa can be made in 146 communes, only 180 hectares (450 acres) are currently planted.

Other Wines of the Langhe and Monferrato

Southern Piedmont has an array of native grape varieties and denominations. Gavi, based on the white grape Cortese, was one of the most famous wines of Italy in the 1960s and 1970s but diminished in popularity when the market was flooded with inexpensive, neutral white wine. Today Gavi is reemerging, as young producers are focused on quality and lower yields. Gavi DOCG, also called Cortese di Gavi DOCG, must be 100% Cortese and can be still or sparkling.

Cortese is nonaromatic and very high in acidity. The Gavi area is cool, rainy, and close to the Ligurian coast. The best quality expressions are labeled Gavi di Gavi or Gavi di Tassarolo, coming from those two communes, or from the frazione of Rovereto within Gavi, which is known for especially powerful and concentrated wines. The chalky soils around the town of Gavi help produce more structured and ageworthy wines.

The white grape Timorasso was saved from the brink of extinction in the 1980s, primarily thanks to Walter Massa, and plantings have dramatically increased in recent years. Many compare its very high acidity, rich and powerful body, and intensely herbal and mineral character to those of a dry German Riesling. Found primarily in Colli Tortonesi DOC, in the Alessandria province, the best examples are those labeled Derthona, the ancient Roman name for the town of Tortona. Colli Tortonesi DOC allows a range of styles and varieties and has two recognized subzones: Monleale (for Barbera only) and Terre di Libarna.

Nascetta, also called Anascetta or Nas-cëtta, is another white grape saved from the brink of extinction, credited mainly to the efforts of the Barolo producer Elvio Cogno. Only about 21 hectares (52 acres) are currently planted. Nascetta is a semiaromatic grape with an herbal and saline character. Though it is challenging in the vineyard, many producers see great promise in the variety. Wines labeled Langhe DOC must be a minimum of 85% Nascetta, like other varietal wines; but with the subzone Nascetta (or Nas-cëtta) del Comune di Novello, the still or passito wines must be 100% Nascetta and exclusively grown in the classic Novello zone.

Beyond the big three of Nebbiolo, Barbera, and Dolcetto, there are several other important red grapes in Piedmont. Like its parent Nebbiolo, Freisa is light in color and high in acidity and tannin. It has a rustic character and, true to its name, flavors of strawberries along with roses, violets, and tobacco. Freisa was historically a key part of Piedmont blends but today occupies only about 2% of Piedmont’s vineyard area. Freisa di Chieri DOC, in the Torino province, requires a minimum of 90% Freisa, while Freisa d’Asti DOC requires 100% Freisa, both allowing still and sparkling wines in a range of sweetness levels.

Grignolino is a red variety with three or more pips per berry, giving its wines high tannin even by Piedmont standards. Grignolino is typically a very pale red or pink color and light in body and alcohol, but it has powerful acidity and structure, along with delicate fragrance. Grignolino d’Asti DOC, with sandier soils, and Grignolino del Monferrato Casalese DOC, with more calcareous clay, both require a minimum of 90% Grignolino.

Ruchè is one of the few examples of an aromatic red variety. It used to be made into sweet wines or added to Piedmont blends to enhance the perfume, but, in the 1960s, a local parish priest, Don Giacomo Cauda, saw its potential for making dry wines. He resurrected a church vineyard and made Vigna del Parroco (“the priest’s vineyard”), long considered a top Ruchè bottling. Most Ruchè production is centered around the commune of Castagnole Monferrato, in the province of Asti. Ruchè di Castagnole Monferrato DOCG requires a minimum of 90% Ruchè, with the remaining balance from Barbera and/or Brachetto.

Pelaverga is a name used for two distinct Piedmont red grapes. Pelaverga Grosso is found near the towns of Saluzzo and Chieri. It is used in varietal wines and red blends in Colline Saluzzesi DOC and Collina Torinese DOC, as well as rosato wines in the former. The variety receiving more recent attention is Pelaverga Piccolo, which is grown primarily around the communes of Verduno and Roddi. It makes up a minimum of 85% of Verduno Pelaverga DOC. It is a light-colored red with freshness, high acidity, and herbal flavors. Currently 19 hectares (47 acres) are planted.

Northern Piedmont

Northern Piedmont, or Alto Piemonte, is generally cooler, with more alpine influence and higher rainfall than the south. The Sesia River begins in the Alps near the Swiss border and flows south through the region into the Po River. The wine regions to the west of the Sesia, such as Gattinara, have soils that are volcanic in origin, while those east of the Sesia, such as Ghemme, are on gravelly alluvial soils.

The Romans first planted grapevines in Gattinara in the second century BCE. At the end of the 19^th century, the Alto Piemonte region had more than 40,000 hectares (99,000 acres) of Nebbiolo (here called Spanna), but phylloxera and economic challenges drastically reduced plantings. There are fewer than 1,000 hectares (2,500 acres) today, but visibility and investment are growing.

Here, Spanna was historically blended with grapes such as Uva Rara, Croatina, and Vespolina to balance unripe Nebbiolo in cooler vintages. Vespolina, an offspring of Nebbiolo, brings spice and pepper to the blend. Croatina is rounder and fleshier and can soften Nebbiolo’s sharp structure. Uva Rara, also called Bonarda Novarese, brings deep color, freshness, and softening as well. Alto Piemonte denominations still allow this historic blending, although many examples of 100% Spanna can be found.

Gattinara DOCG, in the Vercelli province, on the west bank of the Sesia River, is perhaps the best known of the Alto Piemonte regions. Its soils are mostly volcanic, with iron and granite. The denomination requires a minimum of 90% Spanna, allowing up to 10% Uva Rara and a maximum of 4% Vespolina. The Normale wines must be aged for a minimum of 35 months, including 24 months in barrel, while the Riserva level requires a minimum of 47 months of aging, including 36 months in barrel, and a slightly higher minimum alcohol of 13% ABV. Single-vineyard bottlings are common, and many Gattinaras are 100% Spanna.

Directly across the Sesia River on the eastern side is Ghemme DOCG, in the Novara province. Its soils are alluvial, with clay, gravel, and decomposed granite. Ghemme is slightly cooler than Gattinara. The denomination requires a minimum of 85% Spanna, with the remainder from Vespolina and/or Uva Rara. The minimum aging for Normale is 34 months, with at least 18 months in wood and 6 months in bottle. For Riserva, the minimum aging is 46 months, including 24 months in barrel and 6 in bottle.

There are several smaller denominations for Spanna-based varietal wines and blends. On the western side of the Sesia are Bramaterra DOC, which has volcanic soils, and Lessona DOC, which has sandier soils. On the eastern side of the Sesia are Fara DOC and Sizzano DOC. The region farthest north is Boca DOC. Two overarching denominations, Coste della Sesia DOC, in the west, and Colline Novaresi DOC, in the east, encompass the smaller ones and allow for red, rosato, and white wines.

Much farther west, in the alpine area near the border of Valle d’Aosta, is Carema DOC, which is within the overarching Canavese DOC; the latter allows red, white, rosato, and sparkling wines.

The main white grape of Alto Piemonte is Erbaluce. It’s a lean and very high-acid grape with thick skins, making it suitable for both sparkling and passito wines. Erbaluce di Caluso DOCG, also called Caluso DOCG, sits near Carema, in the Canavese hills, and extends across the provinces of Torino, Vercelli, and Biella. Lake Viverone is an important natural feature of the area, and the humidity of the lake is key to the appassimento process, as Caluso’s passito wines are among the few Italian examples to show the character of botrytis.

Erbaluce di Caluso was Piedmont’s first DOC for white wines, in 1967, and was elevated to a DOCG in 2010. It requires 100% Erbaluce for still, sparkling, or passito wines. The spumante wines are traditional method only, requiring a minimum of 15 months on the lees, and are dry, with no more than 12 grams of residual sugar per liter. The passito wines have a minimum of 70 grams of residual sugar per liter and must be aged a minimum of 36 months, or 48 months for Riserva. Erbaluce is the only white grape authorized in the overarching Canavese DOC, Coste della Sesia DOC, and Colline Novaresi DOC.

Valle d’Aosta

Nestled between Piedmont, France, and Switzerland is Italy’s smallest and least populated region, Valle d’Aosta. Much of the region is too mountainous for viticulture, and Valle d’Aosta has the smallest wine production of any Italian region, with only 450 hectares (1,100 acres) planted, producing 19,000 hectoliters, or 208,000 cases, annually. Much of the production is by co-ops, such as Cave Mont Blanc and Caves Cooperative de Donnas. Wine labels may be written in Italian or French, and the region is known as Vallée d’Aoste by its French-speaking population.

At the crossroads of several European countries, Valle d’Aosta has a surprising array of French, Swiss, and Italian grape varieties for a region so small, and the wines are usually varietally labeled. There are three unofficial growing areas: Alta Valle, Media Valle, and Bassa Valle. The vineyards in the Alta Valle are at some of the highest vineyard elevations in Europe, up to 1,300 meters (4,300 feet) above sea level, with steep stone terraces. There is also a prevalence of old, ungrafted vines, as phylloxera never reached the high-altitude, cold mountain environment.

Valle d’Aosta has glacial morainic soils and deposits of granite, sand, and large stones. It has a continental climate, with a very large diurnal shift and significant luminosity, making ripening possible for red grapes, which make up nearly 60% of production. In the rain shadow of the Alps, the region is relatively dry, with low rainfall that is supplemented by snowmelt to provide water for viticulture. Low pergola training, locally called the topia system, is often used to protect grapes from hail and to absorb heat from the ground.

The region’s single DOC, Valle d’Aosta, follows the narrow valley of the Dora Baltea River as it flows through the mountains. There are no DOCGs or IGTs. The DOC authorizes many varietal wines and styles, and wines can be white, red, rosato, novello, spumante, vendemmia tardiva, and flétri, the local name for passito. There are seven official subzones. In the Alta Valle, in the northwest, in the high-elevation foothills of Monte Bianco, the subzone of Blanc de Morgex et de la Salle is for white wines of 100% Prié Blanc, or simply Prié, made in still, sparkling, and vendemmia tardiva styles. Prié Blanc is the oldest variety and the most planted white in Valle d’Aosta. It is able to tolerate the cold weather of the Alta Valle and yields light-bodied wines with high acidity and delicate floral flavors. Spumante wines must be traditional method, with a minimum of nine months on the lees.

Vineyards and mountains in Valle d’Aosta (Photo credit: Adobe Stock)

To the southeast, in the Media Valle, the subzones of Enfer d’Arvier and Torrette are both focused on red wines of Petit Rouge, requiring a minimum 85% in the former and 70% in the latter. Petit Rouge is the most planted grape in Valle d’Aosta, with 20% of all plantings, and it tends to be planted at lower elevations because it is sensitive to sunburn. The wines are fruity and easy drinking, with flavors of red berries, alpine herbs, and wildflowers.

The subzone of Nus is known for white wines of 100% Malvoisie, the local name for Pinot Grigio. Passito wines of Malvoisie, as well as red blends of Petit Rouge and its offspring, Vien de Nus, are also authorized. Next to Nus, the subzone of Chambave also allows reds based on Petit Rouge but is more renowned for its Chambave Muscat, white wines made of 100% Moscato Bianco, which can be dry or flétri.

In the Bassa Valle, closest to Carema, in Piedmont, the final two subzones of Arnad-Montjovet and Donnas are focused on Nebbiolo. The former requires a minimum 70% and the latter 85% of the grape, which is here called Picoutener. Donnas also has a stricter aging requirement, with a minimum of 24 months, including 10 months in wood; for Superiore, it is a minimum of 30 months, with 12 in barrel.

Beyond the seven official subzones, many other grapes and varietal wines are authorized by Valle d’Aosta DOC.

Liguria

The boomerang-shaped, narrow region of Liguria hugs the coast between Provence, France, and the main part of the Italian peninsula. It’s a mountainous landscape, where the Alps and the Apennines meet, and the land suitable for agriculture is sparse. Ligurians developed their industry around ports and the ocean, and the Republic of Genoa was a merchant marine powerhouse from the 11th through 18th centuries. It was a political rival to Venice and Pisa, influential in shaping commerce around the Mediterranean and Black Seas.

View of the coastline from Punta Crena (Photo credit: Stacy Ladenburger)

The name Vernaccia was first used to describe a wine in Liguria in 1276. It likely came from either the Latin vernaculum, meaning “local,” or the village of Vernazza, in the Cinque Terre. Vernaccia was a popular Genovese wine in the Middle Ages, probably referring to a brand or style of wine rather than a grape variety, competing with the Malvasias of the Venetians. The name eventually spawned many imitators and was applied to many unrelated Italian grape varieties. (For the most common Vernaccias, see the Central Italy Expert Guide.)

Today, Liguria is second last in wine production among all Italian regions, with about 1,900 planted hectares (4,700 acres), producing 73,000 hectoliters, or 807,000 cases, of wine. Much of that wine is consumed by tourists in the seaside resorts of the Cinque Terre and the Italian Riviera. Liguria has eight DOCs and four IGTs but no DOCGs. The capital city of Genoa essentially divides Liguria in half, with the Ponente in the west and the Levante in the east. The climate is Mediterranean, with the mountainous backdrop protecting vineyard areas from the cold northern winds and exposing grapes to the warm breezes of the sea.

Vermentino and Pigato

White grapes dominate in Liguria, and the most important is Vermentino, a variety that may have been part of the original Vernaccia blend. Vermentino and Pigato collectively make up 42% of the plantings in Liguria. While they are genetically identical grape varieties, they are two different biotypes that are generally planted in different areas. Pigato is typically planted in the higher hills of the western Ponente, and Vermentino is planted in the eastern Levante, which tends to be lower in elevation and closer to the coast. Some producers insist that they are two distinct grape varieties, despite identical DNA, as they perform differently in the vineyard and in the glass.

Vermentino’s origin is unknown, but it most likely spread to Liguria from Piedmont in the Middle Ages, as pilgrims traveled south along the Via Francigena and brought vines with them. The area with the greatest Vermentino plantings today is Sardinia, perhaps through its link with Liguria, as the island was once controlled by the Republic of Genoa.

Late ripening and tolerant to drought and salty winds, Vermentino performs best in seaside and coastal areas. Its wines are semiaromatic, herbal, and saline. It can be found in the varietal wines and white blends of most of the DOCs in the eastern half of Liguria, including Val Polcèvera, Golfo del Tigullio-Portofino, Colline di Levanto, Cinque Terre, and Colli di Luni, the latter of which straddles the border between Liguria and the Tuscan coast.

Pigato is derived from pigau, meaning “spotted” in the local Ligurian dialect. Planted in the western hills, it is generally impacted by a larger diurnal shift that enhances its aromatics. The wines can be creamier, waxier, and more textural than Vermentino but with the same salinity. Pigato is most commonly found in Riviera Ligure di Ponente DOC, which requires a minimum of 95% for varietally labeled wines.

Other Grape Varieties

The most planted red grape of Liguria, with 12% of vineyard area, is Rossese. It is found only in the western part of the region and is known by the name Tibouren across the border in Provence. It performs best on steep, mountainous slopes and in the marly-clay soils known locally as sgruttu. Rossese di Dolceacqua DOC requires a minimum of 95% of the grape, and its Superiore version requires a minimum of one year of aging. Rossese can also be found as a varietal wine and in the red blends of Riviera Ligure di Ponente DOC. The best examples of Rossese are light to medium bodied but have depth and concentration, with flavors of red currants, violets, and graphite.

Also in the western Ponente is Ormeasco di Pornassio DOC (Pornassio DOC), which authorizes red, rosato, and passito wines made of a minimum 95% Ormeasco, the local name for Dolcetto. Pornassio is recognized as a top site for Dolcetto, and the examples in Liguria tend to be more herbal and saline than the fruitier wines of the Piedmont. The rosato version is a local specialty known as sciactrà.

Sciacchetrà, not to be confused with sciactrà, is a sweet passito wine found in the Cinque Terre DOC of the Levante. It is a specialty of the Spezia province that is made by air-drying a blend of white grapes, including a minimum of 80% Bosco, Albarola, and/or Vermentino. Bosco is a rich, full-bodied, and phenolic variety, while Albarola, also known as Bianchetta Genovese, is lean, with high acidity.

International varieties in Liguria include Moscato Bianco and Grenache, known locally as Granaccia. Moscato is made into still, sparkling, and sweet passito or vendemmia tardiva wines in Riviera Ligure di Ponente DOC and especially its subzone of Taggia. Granaccia is found in the same DOC and is the main variety authorized in the subzone of Quiliano.

Lombardy

Lombardy, or Lombardia in Italian, is Italy’s most populous region. Its capital city of Milan is one of the commercial and economic centers of Europe. Lombardy, where the mountains and foothills turn into flatter plains, was historically less isolated and more connected to commercial trade and cultural exchange. A mix of populations moved through the Po River valley, including the Etruscans, Celtic tribes, and Romans, and it was part of a key trade route between the Mediterranean Sea and the alpine areas.

Lombardy is a large region with varied topography, including the mountainous alpine band in the north, the central foothills, and the flat plains across the south. Its climate is moderated by a series of glacier-carved lakes and tributaries of the Po River, with morainic soils and pebbly alluvial deposits from the mountains and rivers. It has a mix of native and international varieties, reflecting its history of cultural exchange, with Croatina the most planted grape at 17% of plantings, while Pinot Nero and Chardonnay come in second and third, respectively. Much of the region’s Pinot Nero and Chardonnay is used for traditional method sparkling wines. Lombardy has 5 DOCGs, 21 DOCs, and 15 IGPs, and the region produces 1.2 million hectoliters, or 13.4 million cases, of wine from approximately 23,400 hectares (57,800 acres) of vineyard area.

Valtellina

Farthest north in the mountains along the Swiss border, the Valtellina region, in the province of Sondrio, is home to famous ski resorts and spas. Some believe it is the place where Nebbiolo originated, as the grape was grown by Benedictine monks here as early as the 10^th century. The variety is known locally as Chiavennasca, and it makes up most of the wines of Valtellina’s overlapping denominations.

Valtellina’s vineyards are planted along the north bank of the Adda River, which begins in the Swiss Alps and flows from east to west before emptying into Lake Como. The rare east-west valley allows for southern exposures that are important for grape ripening. This is steep, mountainous terrain, and the vineyards are generally planted between 300 and 800 meters (1,000 and 2,600 feet) above sea level, with altitude a key factor in the luminosity and phenolic ripening of the grapes. The slope in some areas is as high as 70%, and Valtellina’s network of 2,500 meters (8,200 feet) of walled stone terraces allow for planting and harvesting. The large stones also capture and radiate heat, warming the vineyards and protecting them from frost.

The soils of Valtellina are schist, sandy-loam, alluvial deposits from the Adda River, with good drainage. They are low in nutrients and extremely acidic, with a low pH, compared with the alkaline soils of the Langhe. The topsoil is extremely thin, and, in some cases, soils need to be transported up hillsides by mule, small truck, or even helicopter. The low yields resulting from the content of the soil and the prevalence of old vines, averaging 50 years old, provide depth and complexity for this Nebbiolo of the Alps.

All three denominations require a minimum of 90% Chiavennasca. The wines of Valtellina Rosso DOC (Rosso di Valtellina DOC) are youthful, fresh, and intended for early consumption, requiring a minimum of six months of aging before release. The best selection of grapes generally composes the more austere, structured, and ageworthy wines of Valtellina Superiore DOCG, which became independent from the DOC in 1998. Superiore wines require a minimum of two years of aging, or three years if labeled Riserva, including a minimum of one year in wood.

Wines from the Superiore DOCG can be labeled with the name of one of five official subzones if the vineyards and bottling both occur there. From west to east, they are Maroggia, Sassella, Grumello, Inferno, and Valgella. The rare labeling term Stagafassli is for Valtellina Superiore wines that are bottled across the border in Switzerland; the wines can also be aged there but cannot qualify for Riserva or list a subzone.

Sforzato di Valtellina DOCG (or Sfursat di Valtellina in local dialect) is a dry passito wine in the style of Amarone. It became a DOCG in 2003, before its famous counterpart. The Nebbiolo grapes are dried on straw mats for about two months or more, and vinification cannot begin until December 1. The wine must reach a minimum alcohol of 14% ABV and must be aged for at least 20 months from April 1, with at least 12 months in barrel. Some producers choose to use a portion of partially air-dried grapes in their Valtellina Superiore wines as well, leading to a range of styles in the region.

Franciacorta

In the softer hillsides of central Lombardy near the city of Brescia, Franciacorta DOCG is Italy’s most famous denomination for traditional method sparkling wines. The name is derived from francae curtes, or “free courts,” as the Cluny monks declared this area free of taxation in the 11^th century. Although there are references to sparkling wine production in Franciacorta dating back to 1570, the region’s modern era began when Guido Berlucchi experimented with traditional method sparkling wines in the 1950s. He released the first Pinot di Franciacorta, a traditional method sparkling wine from Pinot Bianco, in 1961. Franciacorta became a DOC in 1967 and Italy’s first DOCG for traditional method sparkling wines in 1995. Its popularity has undoubtedly been helped by its proximity to Milan.

Franciacorta is an amphitheater of morainic hills bordered by Lake Iseo to the north, the Oglio River on the west, and Mount Orfano to the south. The sand and silt soils are deep and well draining, formed by the withdrawal of glaciers and deposits from the Alps. The area has a continental climate moderated by the proximity to the lake, and it has less of a diurnal variation and a milder climate than might be expected in a sparkling wine region. Franciacorta lies at about the 45th parallel—compared with Champagne, which is between the 48th and 49th—but the presence of Mediterranean vegetation, such as olive trees, underscores the climatic difference. The western side of the Franciacorta zone is generally warmer, as it is more protected from the cool winds that come from the Alps in the northeast.

Vineyards at Barone Pizzini (Photo credit: Stacy Ladenburger)

Franciacorta has about 3,000 planted hectares (7,400 acres), and the wines can be made in 19 communes, the most important of which is Erbusco, where many of the major sparkling houses are based. Franciacorta is relatively small, with less than 9% of the vineyard area of Champagne. Like Champagne, the wines are based primarily on Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, with Chardonnay making up more than three-quarters of plantings in Franciacorta and Pinot Nero about 17%. The third most planted grape here is not Champagne’s Meunier but Pinot Bianco, with about 3% of total plantings.

Until recently, these were the only three grape varieties authorized. As Franciacorta is a relatively warm region for sparkling wine production, the producers were among the first to consider how to adapt to a warming climate. Since 2017, the little-known white grape Erbamat has been authorized for up to 10% of the assemblage in most Franciacorta styles. Erbamat is very late ripening and maintains a laser-like acidity, contributing freshness and texture to a blend, but its neutral character does not disrupt the aromatics. It currently represents less than 1% of plantings, but producers believe it will be an important part of Franciacorta blends in the future.

The milder climate, relative to other sparkling wine regions, also has an impact on wine style and viticulture. Because of the ripe fruit character, in general less dosage is used. Zero dosage wines represented less than 3% of Franciacorta production in 2017 but increased to more than 5% in 2021. With less risk of rot and moisture, there is also an emphasis on organic practices. Barone Pizzini became the first certified organic Franciacorta producer in the early 2000s, and today the Consorzio Franciacorta estimates that more than 66% of vineyard area is either certified organic or currently in conversion to organic farming.

Franciacorta can include any amounts of Chardonnay and/or Pinot Nero, with a maximum of 50% Pinot Bianco and 10% Erbamat. It must be aged on the lees for a minimum of 18 months, with 25 months total aging. The rosé version must include a minimum of 35% Pinot Nero and requires a minimum of 24 months lees aging and 31 months total. Wines labeled with a single vintage, or millesimato, must be aged on the lees for at least 30 months, with 37 months total aging. Franciacorta Riserva wines require 60 months of lees aging, the longest of any sparkling wine denomination, with 67 months total aging. Some iconic bottlings are aged for much longer, such as Ca’ del Bosco’s Annamaria Clementi, which spends eight years on the lees before disgorgement.

Satèn is a style that distinguishes Franciacorta from other sparkling wine regions. It is a blanc de blancs, made of Chardonnay and a maximum of 50% Pinot Bianco. It is slightly less sparkling, with a maximum pressure of five atmospheres, and it can only be brut in style. The name comes from the Italian seta, meaning “silk,” referring to the silky texture. This style used to be known as crémant, but the name was changed to avoid confusion with the French sparkling wine category. Like the rosé, Franciacorta Satèn must be aged on the lees for a minimum of 24 months, with 31 months total aging.

Still red and white wines in the Franciacorta area are bottled as Curtefranca DOC, previously known as Terre di Franciacorta. The assemblage includes nearly the same set of grapes as the sparkling wines, with the addition of Bordeaux varieties. Whites must be a minimum of 50% Chardonnay and a maximum of 50% Pinot Bianco and/or Pinot Nero. Reds are blends based on a minimum of 25% Merlot, a minimum of 20% Cabernet Franc and/or Carmenère, and 10%–35% Cabernet Sauvignon. The wines can include the name of a single vineyard if they meet additional requirements for lower yields, higher minimum alcohol, and longer aging.

Other Sparkling Wine Regions

The Pavia province, in the triangle-shaped, southwestern tip of Lombardy, is nestled between Piedmont and Emilia-Romagna, nearly reaching Liguria. South of the Po River is a large viticultural area called Oltrepò Pavese. It was part of Piedmont in the 18th and 19th centuries and historically was a source for grapes destined for the sparkling houses in Piedmont and bulk wines in Milan. It is the largest volume area of Lombardy, with much of the production by co-ops. Though the region is farther south than Franciacorta, it is in the higher foothills of the Apennines and marked by a great diurnal variation. There are six DOCs that include the name Oltrepò Pavese, for a wide range of varieties and styles, but, most importantly, one DOCG for traditional method sparkling wine focused on Pinot Nero.

This is Italy’s largest vineyard area for Pinot Nero, with 3,000 of Oltrepò Pavese’s 13,800 hectares (7,400 of 34,100 acres) planted to the grape. Although a less well-known region, it has more Pinot Noir plantings than Alsace, Central Otago, or the Russian River Valley. Count Giorgi di Vistarino planted the first Pinot Noir in the Oltrepò Pavese after bringing vines from France in the mid-19^th century, and he made the area’s first traditional method sparkling Pinot Nero with the help of his friend Carlo Gancia, who had been making spumante in neighboring Piedmont. Pinot Nero is typically planted at the higher altitudes in the hills, while Croatina and other workhorse grapes are planted at lower elevations.

Oltrepò Pavese Metodo Classico DOCG requires a minimum 70% Pinot Nero, with the balance made up of Chardonnay, Pinot Bianco, and Pinot Grigio, for both white and rosé sparkling wines. Pinot Nero can appear on the label if it makes up at least 85% of the wine. The wines must be aged on the lees for a minimum of 15 months, or 24 months for vintage-dated wines. The additional labeling term Cruasé is a brand trademarked by the Consorzio Tutela Vini Oltrepò Pavese that can be used by association members for traditional method sparkling rosé with a minimum of 85% Pinot Nero.

Oltrepò Pavese DOC is an overarching denomination for a wide range of varietal wines and blends, including still, sparkling, and sweet styles. The whites include Riesling and Riesling Italico, while the reds and rosatos are based on Croatina and Barbera, along with other grapes, such as Uva Rara, Vespolina, and Pinot Nero. Five new DOCs were established in 2010 as independent denominations from Oltrepò Pavese for varietal Pinot Grigio, Pinot Nero, and Bonarda (the local name for Croatina), and for Buttafuoco and Sangue di Giuda, dry and sweet wines, respectively, based on Barbera, Croatina, and other red grapes. The region has not necessarily benefited from its proximity to Milan in the same way that Franciacorta has, but it has added to Italy’s dizzying number of DOCs, regardless of market relevance.

In the southeastern corner of Lombardy, Lambrusco Mantovano DOC is a continuation of the Lambrusco denominations for sparkling red wines just over the border in Emilia-Romagna. The DOC allows all the main Lambrusco varieties as well as several less familiar ones, including Lambrusco Viadanese, also called Lambrusco Mantovano, thought to originate here in the province of Mantova. The DOC has two official subzones: Oltrepò Mantovano and Viadanese-Sabbionetano. (For more on the Lambruscos, see the Central Italy Expert Guide.)

Amaro

Amaro is a category with no official definition, but the term generally refers to the aromatic, herbal, bittersweet Italian liqueurs traditionally served as digestifs. Although amaro is made throughout every region of the country, there are several brands and styles particularly associated with northern Italy.

Milanese café culture played a role in popularizing bitters, aperitifs, and amari in the 19^th century. Zucca Rabarbaro, an amaro with a signature ingredient of rhubarb, was created in 1845 by Ettore Zucca, who served it at his Caffè Zucca, near the Piazza del Duomo. In 1867, also in the piazza, Gaspare Campari opened his Caffè Campari, where the bitter orange Campari caught on as an aperitif. Today, Gruppo Campari is headquartered in Milan and owns such iconic amaro brands as Aperol, Cynar (based on artichoke), Averna (from Sicily), and Bràulio.

Amaro Bràulio is from the Valtellina region in northern Lombardy and was created by Francesco Peloni in 1875. Its après-ski character reflects the alpine terroir in which it was born, with flavors such as pine, spearmint, and chamomile. It is aged for two years in Slavonian oak barrels, and a Riserva Speciale bottling is aged in smaller barrels and has a higher proof.

Amaro Nonino Quintessentia, made in Friuli, uses the Nonino family’s famous grappa as a base spirit. It is aged for five years in French barriques and used Sherry barrels. The amaro has softer flavors, such as orange peel and burnt caramel, and is a key ingredient in several modern cocktails, including the Paper Plane.

The category of vino amaro uses wine as a base for the infusion of herbs instead of spirits. Cardamaro, from Canelli, Piedmont, has been made by the Bosca family, using Moscato wine, since 1820. This lighter amaro is based on cardoon, a thistle related to the artichoke and one of the principal ingredients. Cappelletti, from Trentino-Alto Adige, is based on a recipe from the 1920s, using dry marsala wine. The brand’s Elisir Novasalus is bold and bracing, while its Pasubio is rich with notes of mountain blueberries, and its Amaro Sfumato gets its smokiness from rhubarb.

Fernet is a style of amaro that is typically higher in alcohol, with less sweetness and more aggressive bitterness, including medicinal flavors, such as aloe, myrrh, and mint. The most iconic brand, Fernet-Branca, was founded in Milan by Bernardino Branca in 1845. It was prescribed as an anti-choleric at hospitals in Milan and sold at pharmacies in Italy until the 1930s, and it was available for medicinal purposes during Prohibition in the United States.

Lake Garda Area

The largest lake in Italy, Lake Garda, straddles the border of Lombardy and Veneto and is a popular holiday resort destination, given its location halfway between Milan and Venice. It was formed by glaciers during the last ice age, and the areas surrounding it have morainic soils and a temperate Mediterranean climate mitigated by the lake. There are several DOCs around the lake that are shared by Lombardy and Veneto.

Garda DOC is a large denomination on both sides of the lake for white, red, chiaretto (rosato), spumante, and passito wines made from a wide range of native and international varieties. It has a Classico subzone on the Lombardy side.

On the southern end of Lake Garda, also straddling Lombardy and Veneto, is Lugana DOC. It was the first DOC awarded in Lombardy, in 1967, and is focused on white wines of Turbiana, also known as Trebbiano di Lugana. The grape was long considered genetically identical to Trebbiano di Soave and Verdicchio, and it was recently renamed to avoid confusion with the other Trebbianos.

Lugana DOC covers five communes—four in Lombardy and one in Veneto. The Brescia province on the Lombardy side has more than 90% of the vineyard area, but the Verona province on the Veneto side has some of the largest commercial producers and the high-quality cru of San Benedetto di Lugana. The soils are clays of morainic origin, rich in calcareous materials, such as the local sea fossils. The area is influenced by mild, temperate breezes and the moderating impact of Lake Garda.

Dry, still white wines make up more than 95% of production. They can be more full bodied and have riper fruit than Verdicchio, perhaps owing to the Mediterranean climate of the lake area, but they have a similar freshness, crisp acidity, and green character of mint and fennel. Spumante and vendemmia tardiva versions are also allowed, and all styles require a minimum of 90% Turbiana. There are Superiore and Riserva levels, with higher minimum alcohol and longer minimum aging of one and two years, respectively, and some barrel-fermented examples with lees and oak aging are made.

Veneto

Veneto, in northeastern Italy, is at the top of the Adriatic Sea, and its history is shaped by its proximity to water. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the Lombard invasions in northern Italy pushed many people to flee the mainland and take refuge on the small islands in the Venetian lagoon, which could be better protected. This led to the founding of the Republic of Venice—La Serenissima, “the most serene”—which lasted from the late 7^th century through the 18^th century. Venice was an economic and military powerhouse in the Middle Ages, with important commercial trading rights in the eastern Mediterranean, and, as its industries became successful, a wealthy merchant class was established.

The Genoans had Vernaccia, while the Venetians promoted Malvasia. Referring to a brand or style of wine rather than a single grape variety, Malvasia became incredibly popular for centuries and spawned many imitators. The name is most likely a corruption of Monemvasia, the port in the Peloponnese that was controlled by Venice and a major trading post for the wine industry. Eventually the wines of Monemvasia could not keep up with the increased demand in northern Europe, and the Venetians began producing wines on Crete as well. This commercial trade in the “Greek style” of sweet wine—air-drying the grapes, concentrating the musts by cooking, and using other methods that would help the wines withstand a long sea journey—was a predecessor to the passito, recioto, and torcolato styles of Italy.

Today, Veneto maintains its dominance in the wine trade and is Italy’s top-producing region, driven by the popularity of Prosecco and Pinot Grigio in global markets. Veneto has about 97,500 hectares (240,800 acres) of vineyard land, producing 11.9 million hectoliters, or 132 million cases, of wine annually—more than South Africa, Germany, or Portugal. It has 14 DOCGs, 29 DOCs, and 10 IGPs. More than three-quarters of Veneto’s wine is at the DOC/G level.

Valpolicella

Just north of the city of Verona and the Adige River is the wine region of Valpolicella, home to several of Veneto’s most important denominations for Corvina-based red wines. Winemaking in the area likely dates back more than 2,000 years and is attributed to the Rhaetian people, an alpine tribe whose wines were praised by ancient Greeks and Romans. A recent archeological discovery revealed that mosaic tiles underneath a vineyard in the village of Negrar are likely from a Roman villa where wine was produced in the second or third century CE.

Valpolicella’s vineyards are grown on the slopes of the pre-alpine Lessini Mountains, generally planted between 150 and 500 meters (490 and 1,640 feet) above sea level. Small rivers, or progni, start high in the mountains and flow in a north-south direction, creating parallel valleys with various microclimates. The soils are composed of red and brown calcareous material and volcanic tuff outcrops, known as toar, on the hillsides, and alluvial deposits from the Adige River and Lessini Mountains in the lower areas. The foothills are dotted with marogne, the stone walls used to mark vineyard boundaries.

When Valpolicella DOC was established, in 1968, its boundaries were greatly expanded. There is now a Classico subzone in the historic Valpolicella growing area on the western side of the denomination, covering the five communes of Sant’Ambrogio di Valpolicella, Fumane, San Pietro in Cariano, Marano, and Negrar. The subzone in the center of the denomination is called Valpantena, and the eastern side of the denomination is known as Valpolicella Est or allargata (meaning “widened” or “expanded”) where it partially overlaps Soave. While the Classico subzone is home to most of the major producers—such as Allegrini, Masi, Quintarelli, and Bussola—Valpolicella Est has become famous largely because of Dal Forno Romano, in the eastern Illasi valley.

There are climatic differences throughout the large growing area. The Lessini Mountains form a natural barrier sheltering the Classico subzone from cold winds blowing from the north, creating a warmer microclimate. The Classico subzone is farthest west and closest to Lake Garda. Even within the region, the relative proximity to the lake is a major factor, with temperatures in western communes, such as Sant’Ambrogio di Valpolicella, as much as 4 degrees Celsius (7 degrees Fahrenheit) higher than those in eastern parts of the Classico subzone, such as Negrar.

While the dry Valpolicella reds are generally fresh and lively, there are several other styles that originated within the DOC but were elevated to their own separate denominations in 2010. These include the famous Amarone della Valpolicella, the sweet wine Recioto della Valpolicella, and the extremely popular category of Valpolicella Ripasso, all of which benefit from Corvina’s suitability for air-drying in the dry breezes and humidity of the Lake Garda environment.

All four of the Valpolicella denominations must include 45%–95% Corvina and/or Corvinone, along with 5%–30% Rondinella. Up to 25% of other red grapes can be used, with no single variety exceeding 10%. Traditional blending partners, although not required, include Molinara, Oseleta, Croatina, Dindarella, Spigamonti, and international varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot.

Corvina, the main grape of Valpolicella, has a thick, resistant skin that not only makes it suitable for air-drying but, according to Ian D’Agata, makes air-drying “an absolute necessity” for it to reach adequate sugar and alcohol levels. Corvina is sensitive to humidity, botrytis, and sunburn, so it is typically trained in the pergola veronese system, a horizontal canopy that shades the grapes and raises them high off the ground, providing good aeration and sun protection. Corvina is a reliable producer and performs best in dry, well-exposed hillside sites. It contributes the signature red cherry flavor to Valpolicella blends.

Corvinone is adaptive in the vineyard and can be grown on both hillsides and flatter land. It has larger clusters and brings tannin and structure, which Corvina can lack, to a blend. It can perform better in warmer vintages than Corvina and may play an increasing role with climate change; since 2019 it has been authorized to make up to 95% of the blend (the same amount as Corvina) in all Valpolicella-based wines, up from a previous maximum of 50%.

Rondinella, required in the blends, is an offspring of Corvina. It adds an herbal character to Valpolicella wines and is especially important in the sweet Recioto della Valpolicella wines, as it accumulates sugars very easily. Molinara is a lighter red grape that can add freshness, salinity, and lively acidity, and it can help soften heavier wines. Oseleta is a scarce grape that was resurrected by Masi in the 1980s; even in very small amounts, it can add tannic power and structure to a blend.

The fruttaio at Serego Alighieri (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak)

Recioto has its roots in either retico, an ancient wine of the Rhaetian people produced around the hills of Verona, or acinaticum, a sweet wine from raisinated grapes that was praised by the Roman statesman Cassiodorus in the sixth century CE as “a meaty liquid, a beverage to be eaten rather than drunk.” By the 16th and 17th centuries, the Republic of Venice lost control of many of its ports in what is today Greece through a series of wars with the Ottoman Empire, and it could no longer dominate the trade in sweet wines from the eastern Mediterranean. Unable to rely exclusively on imports, the Venetians began looking inland to make their own sweet wine.

For both Recioto della Valpolicella and Amarone (a style developed much later), the grapes are harvested earlier than for regular Valpolicella so that they maintain their acidity throughout the appassimento process. The grapes are set to dry in a room called a fruttaio for several months before fermentation, concentrating the sugars and flavors. The grapes may be on traditional bamboo racks, stacked in wooden crates, or hung from the ceiling, all of which permit airflow and ventilation for drying. Both the location of the fruttaio and the length of the appassimento process can influence whether the grapes are infected by botrytis, as grapes in higher elevations farther away from humidity and those dried more quickly are more likely to avoid the noble rot. Some facilities use fans to increase ventilation, and others rely on more modern technology, such as temperature and humidity controls. The vinification cannot occur before December 1, but in practice the drying period typically lasts between 100 and 120 days, during which time the grapes can lose between 40% and 50% of their original weight before they are pressed.

Recioto della Valpolicella DOCG requires that grapes achieve at least 14% potential alcohol through drying, and the minimum acquired alcohol in the final wine is 12%. At least 2.8% potential alcohol must remain, translating to approximately 50 grams of residual sugar per liter, while some bottlings are considerably sweeter.

Amarone, meaning “big bitter,” originated in the mid-20^th century and is essentially a less sweet version of Recioto della Valpolicella. The legend is that it was developed accidentally when barrels of recioto were left unattended and allowed to ferment all the way to dryness. The style can be traced back to the Cantina Valpolicella Negrar in the 1930s. The first to purposefully make a dry “recioto Amarone” was Bolla, with a bottling of the 1950 vintage in 1953. Bertani, Masi, and others released Amarone wines in the late 1950s, and this new category became a commercial success and one of Italy’s most popular luxury wines.

Like Recioto della Valpolicella, Amarone della Valpolicella DOCG stipulates that dried grapes must achieve a minimum of 14% potential alcohol, but, in this case, the wines are fermented to complete or near dryness and the final alcohol must also be a minimum of 14% ABV—not difficult to achieve, as bottlings reaching 16% and 17% are not uncommon. There is a maximum of 9 grams of residual sugar per liter for 14% alcohol wines (reduced from 12 grams per liter in 2019) and a sliding scale that allows slightly more residual sugar in increments as alcohol increases: an additional 0.1% grams per liter of sugar for each 0.1% increase in alcohol up to 16%, and 0.15% grams per liter for every 0.1% in alcohol above 16%. The Normale wines must be aged a minimum of two years and the Riserva wines a minimum of four years before release. No barrel aging is specified, but producers use a wide range of vessels, from large Slavonian botti to new French barriques.

Amarone styles vary greatly by producer, based on the assemblage, oak usage, amount of residual sugar, length of the appassimento process, development of botrytis, and other factors. Like Champagne, Amarone is a wine of process, and winemaking choices make an imprint. Some producers emphasize structure and acid, while others emphasize opulence and richness. Botrytis, which can reduce acidity and increase the levels of glycerol in the wine, might be avoided or encouraged. The Amarone category has benefited from the wide range of available options, from artisanal, ageworthy bottlings to inexpensive, commercial examples in grocery stores.

After Amarone or Recioto della Valpolicella has finished fermentation and is racked into a new container, the remaining grape skins can be used for an additional style of wine: ripasso, meaning “repassed.” The leftover pomace, which has some remaining sugars, is added to a young Valpolicella wine to start refermentation—something akin to the traditional governo in Tuscany. The ripasso process provides additional body, tannin, and alcohol as well as some of the richness, complexity, and raisinated fruit character of Amarone but at a lower price point for the consumer.

Masi launched its Campofiorin wine in 1967 and was the first to include the word ripasso on the label, eventually registering the term as a trademark in 1988. Other Valpolicella producers protested and used other labeling terms to describe the process, such as rigoverno and doppia fermentazione. In 2006, the right to use the ripasso term was granted, and a separate DOC for the style became independent from the Valpolicella DOC in 2010. The Valpolicella Ripasso category became a huge success, and production more than tripled in just six years, from 7.5 million bottles in 2007 to 25 million in 2013.

Several techniques emerged as Valpolicella producers sought to meet the surging demand for ripasso, especially as this style was dependent on the limited production of Amarone and Recioto della Valpolicella. When Amarone grape pomace is used to make Valpolicella Ripasso, it still contains a portion of Amarone wine that can be blended in (up to 15%) when used for the second fermentation. In some cases, the grapes are not previously used, and they are partially dried for about a month—essentially a shortened version of Amarone’s appassimento process. Or, the wine is made using a combination of fresh and dried grapes, with about 70% crushed and fermented normally and about 30% dried and added to the base wine to start a second fermentation. As long as the wine is put in the same tank with Amarone pomace for a few days, it meets the requirement for Valpolicella Ripasso.

Valpolicella Ripasso DOC mandates that the used grape skins have a remaining potential alcohol of at least 0.5% and contribute between 10% and 15% of the volume of the final wine. The refermentation must last a minimum of three days, the wine and pomace must belong to the same producer, and the volume of ripasso created by the process cannot be more than twice the volume of the Amarone or Recioto della Valpolicella obtained from the same must. The final minimum alcohol is 12.5% for Valpolicella Ripasso wines and 13% for Superiore. All Valpolicella Ripasso wines must be aged for a minimum of one year before release.

Additional updates made to the various disciplinari in 2019 require that the vines intended for Amarone and Recioto della Valpolicella must be a minimum of four years old and allow basic Valpolicella wines to be bottled under screw cap.

The Veneto Side of Lake Garda

Just west of Valpolicella on the shore of Lake Garda is the Bardolino region, which sits on glacial morainic soils. The red wines, made using a blend of grapes similar to that of Valpolicella, are generally lighter and fruitier. In addition to red wines, Bardolino DOC allows novello wines using carbonic maceration (in the style of Beaujolais nouveau), spumante wines, and rosato wines labeled as chiaretto. Meaning “the little light one,” chiaretto has been a hit for Bardolino and other producers around Lake Garda.

All Bardolino styles require 40%–95% Corvina (locally called Cruina) and/or Corvinone, including a maximum of 20% Corvinone, an obligatory 5%–40% Rondinella, and a maximum of 20% other grapes, including up to 15% of Molinara and up to 10% of any other single variety. Like Valpolicella, Bardolino’s original boundaries were expanded, and there is a Classico subzone that includes the historic lakeside growing area. For red wines only, three new subzones were approved in 2021, retroactive to the 2018 vintage: wines can be designated from the crus of La Rocca, Montebaldo, and Sommacampagna. Wines labeled with one of the three new subzones require a minimum of one year of aging—the same aging requirement as the separate Bardolino Superiore DOCG, which has been all but forgotten by producers.

Just south of Bardolino is the white wine denomination of Custoza DOC, whose name was changed in 2022 from Bianco di Custoza. Still, spumante, and passito wines are made. They must be blends featuring a minimum of 70% combined Cortese, Friulano, Garganega, and/or Trebbiano Toscano, with no single variety composing more than 45%. The remaining 30% can include Pinot Bianco, Chardonnay, Riesling, Riesling Italico, Malvasia, or Manzoni Bianco. The wines are not very well known, but Custoza is a source of pleasant white wines for Lake Garda tourist resorts and European export markets.

Soave

East of Verona and overlapping the eastern portion of Valpolicella is Soave, home to one of Italy’s most famous white wines. The Garganega grape, among Italy’s oldest, represents 88% of the plantings in the region. Grapes have historically been cultivated in the hillsides between and to the north of the two villages of Soave and Monteforte d’Alpone, where a volcanic outcropping rises to 400 meters (1,300 feet) above sea level. Like the familiar story in Valpolicella and Chianti, when Soave DOC was established, in 1968, its boundaries were significantly expanded to include flatter plains and more fertile soils. Soave’s reputation suffered; the region was perceived as emphasizing quantity over quality and flooding export markets with inexpensive white wine. Most Soave wines are still exported, with only 16% consumed in Italy.

Soave DOC requires a minimum of 70% Garganega, a maximum of 30% combined Trebbiano di Soave (the local biotype of Verdicchio) and Chardonnay, and a maximum of 5% other white grapes. Many top bottlings are monovarietal Garganega or use Trebbiano di Soave as the only blending partner. Sparkling versions are authorized but rare.

Quality-minded producers are primarily focused on the DOC’s Classico subzone, which includes the historic growing area of lower volcanic hillsides around the towns of Soave and Monteforte d’Alpone. A second subzone, Colli Scaligeri, includes hillside areas throughout the DOC but outside the Classico subzone and is hardly used in practice. The creation of a separate Soave Superiore DOCG, in 2001, was ostensibly an attempt to improve quality, and while it mandated slightly higher minimum alcohol and lower maximum yields, it did not limit production to the Classico subzone and has been largely ignored by producers.

Garganega vines are typically trained in the traditional pergola veronese system, its shaded canopy allowing grapes to ripen more slowly, with lower sugars and higher acids, and to retain the compounds that are important to the aromatic expression of Garganega.

Soil type is especially important in the Soave Classico subzone. The western part, in the commune of Soave, includes more calcareous marls with higher limestone content, producing wines that are more refined, delicate, and intensely floral. The eastern part, in the commune of Monteforte d’Alpone, contains volcanic soils rich in basalt and tuff, and its wines tend to be more powerful, structured, and spicy. The different elevations and aspects of steep hillside vineyards give producers many options.

Pieropan released one of the first single-vineyard Soave wines, Calvarino, in 1971, and it helped restore the reputation of Soave as a region capable of serious, ageworthy wines. Beginning with the 2019 vintage, Soave DOC has instituted 33 unità geografiche aggiuntive (UGAs), or “additional geographical units,” placing an even greater emphasis on crus and terroir-driven wines. The best Soaves are steely and ageworthy, with flavors of cherry blossoms, almonds, ripe fruit, and hay.

Recioto di Soave DOCG is a denomination for sweet passito wines within the same boundaries and with the same assemblage as Soave. It was formerly part of Soave DOC but elevated to its own separate DOCG in 1998. Like Recioto della Valpolicella, the grapes must be dried to a minimum potential alcohol of 14% and producers often use grapes infected with noble rot, but Soave has a higher minimum residual sugar of 70 grams per liter. A sparkling version of the sweet wine is also authorized.

Other Wines of Central and Eastern Veneto

On the eastern border of Soave in the Vicenza province is the smaller region of Gambellara, which produces Garganega-based wines in styles similar to those of its neighbor. With only about 200 hectares (500 acres) planted, compared with Soave’s 5,300 (13,000 acres), most of the Garganega vines in Gambellara are planted on the volcanic hillsides, as the flatter plains overlap with the Prosecco region and tend to be used for the commercially popular Glera instead.

Gambellara DOC requires a minimum of 80% Garganega, along with a maximum of 20% Chardonnay, Pinot Bianco, and/or Trebbiano di Soave. A Classico subzone covers nearly the entire denomination, with slightly lower yields and higher minimum alcohol, and is broken up into the subzones of Faldeo, Taibane, Monti di Mezzo, San Marco, Creari, and Selva. Spumante and vin santo styles are also authorized, and the sparkling versions are the only ones to include Durella as an authorized grape. Recioto di Gambellara DOCG is for passito wines based on 100% Garganega. For recioto wines, a spumante version is also authorized, and classico here refers to the classic style of recioto, not a historic subzone.

In addition to the many recioto wines, the other famous sweet, dried-grape wine of the Veneto region is torcolato, and it can be found primarily in the Vicenza province around the commune of Breganze. Torcolato comes from the Italian torcolare, meaning “to twist,” as the grape clusters are wound together with twine and suspended to dry. Breganze DOC torcolato wines must be made of 100% Vespaiola (locally called Vespaiolo), which has high acidity to balance the sweetness. The wines are delicately floral, with flavors of honey and ripe tropical fruit. Maculan is the key producer. Breganze DOC also allows a wide range of red, white, and sparkling wines from native and international varieties.

Two neighboring denominations focus on the white Durella grape, the “toughness” of the name (duro/dura) referring to either its thick skins or high acidity. Lessini Durello DOC takes advantage of that high acidity for sparkling wines, which must be a minimum of 85% Durella and can be made either with the tank method or, if labeled Riserva, with the traditional method. Monti Lessini DOC allows varietal Durella dry or passito wines, white blends featuring a minimum of 50% Chardonnay, and varietal Pinot Nero. Note that Durella is the grape variety and Durello is the wine.

The Raboso family of grapes is featured in Friularo di Bagnoli DOCG, also called Bagnoli Friularo DOCG, south of Padua, and Piave Malanotte DOCG, east of Treviso. Both wines are a majority Raboso Piave, also called Friularo, blended with its offspring Raboso Veronese. The Raboso varieties are aromatic, with flavors of black fruits, and Raboso Piave has especially high acidity and aggressive tannins. Piave Malanotte requires that the wine contain 15%–30% dried grapes, which help soften the tannins, and Bagnoli Friularo allows vendemmia tardiva and passito versions. Piave Malanotte DOCG became separate from the overarching Piave DOC in 2010 and Bagnoli Friularo DOCG from Bagnoli di Sopra DOC in 2011.

Also south of Padua, Colli Euganei Fior d’Arancio DOCG was elevated to a separate denomination from Colli Euganei DOC in 2010 for wines based on Moscato Giallo, which can be dry, sweet, sparkling, or passito. Varietal Moscato wines from Colli Euganei DOC are based not on Moscato Giallo but on its parent, Moscato Bianco.

International Grape Varieties

After the end of the Republic of Venice, Veneto was part of the Austrian Empire under Habsburg rule for the first half of the 19^th century. Given its location at the crossroads of trade and various European cultures, it is not surprising that international grape varieties have long been important in this part of northeastern Italy. Bordeaux varieties were first planted in Veneto in the 1830s, and after phylloxera struck they began to take on more importance, especially in the central and eastern parts of Veneto. Merlot is the top-planted red grape in Veneto, which has more than a third of Italy’s total Merlot plantings.

Among red grapes, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Malbec, Carmenère, Pinot Nero, and other varieties can be found here in varietal wines or blends. More than 80% of Veneto’s production is white wine, including Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, and the ubiquitous Pinot Grigio. Veneto has 38% of Italy’s Pinot Grigio, much of it destined for exports and grocery stores. For a long time, these were bottled as delle Venezie IGT, coming from anywhere in a large swath of northeastern Italy, covering all of Veneto and Friuli-Venezia Giulia and the Trentino province of Trentino-Alto Adige. The designation was upgraded in 2017 to delle Venezie DOC, which is Italy’s second largest producing DOC behind Prosecco. While other styles are authorized, virtually all the wine is varietal Pinot Grigio delle Venezie, blended from the flatter lands across the Po River valley.

Veneto has several other denominations that focus on international varieties, such as Colli Berici DOC, near Vicenza; Colli Euganei DOC, near Padua; and Montello Asolo DOC, near Treviso, all for red, white, and sparkling wines. Wines simply labeled Cabernet are often blends of Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet Franc and can also contain Carmenère. Montello Rosso DOCG was carved out from Montello Asolo in 2011 and is specifically for Bordeaux blends based on 40%–70% Cabernet Sauvignon; 30%–60% Cabernet Franc, Carmenère, and/or Merlot; and up to 15% other red grapes. It has yet to gain popularity, producing about 210 hectoliters annually from 6 planted hectares (15 acres).

As in Tuscany, many Veneto producers making premium red wines using international grape varieties choose to bottle them under the IGT banner instead. Some of the most renowned “Super Venetians” bottled as Veneto IGT include Giuseppe Quintarelli’s Alzero, a blend of Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, and Merlot, aged in a combination of French and Slavonian oak; and Maculan’s Palazzotto Cabernet Sauvignon and Crosara Merlot, both aged in French barriques. Several Valpolicella producers use Veronese IGT to make wines that are more experimental than the Valpolicella DOCs allow, such as Allegrini’s La Poja, which is made of 100% Corvina.

Prosecco

The behemoth of Veneto, in both vineyard area and production, is Prosecco. Covering all of central and northeastern Veneto, and all of Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Prosecco is Italy’s top-producing DOC by far, and the world’s top-selling sparkling wine by volume, bypassing Champagne in 2013 and continuing to surge since then.

Until recently, Prosecco was the name of both the region and the grape, most likely taking its name from the town of Prosecco, on the Friulian coast near Trieste. The earliest documented written reference is in a 1382 petition by the people of Trieste asking to become part of the Habsburg domain, seeking protection in exchange for promising their local Prosecco wine to the duke of Austria. The grape variety has been named Glera since 2009 to comply with European Union rules allowing Prosecco to be protected as a named geographic appellation. Two related varieties, Glera Lunga and the more common Glera Tondo are often co-planted and blended together in Prosecco wines.

The earliest modern sparkling Prosecco wine was produced in 1873 by Antonio Carpenè, who also established Italy’s first enology school, in Conegliano, in 1876. These early Proseccos were made using the traditional method, a style that likely persisted until the 1930s. The French chemist Edme-Jules Maumené designed the first rudimentary autoclave, in 1852, and the method was refined for commercial use and patented by the Asti winemaker Federico Martinotti, in 1895, using wooden tanks. It was later adapted by the French agronomist Jean-Eugène Charmat, who first used newly available stainless-steel tanks in 1907. This Charmat method, known by Italians as the metodo Martinotti (Martinotti method), is the most common one used in Prosecco today.

Unlike Champagne and traditional method sparkling wines that use neutral grape varieties and obtain much of their character through yeast autolysis and the winemaking process, wines made using the tank method retain more of the base wine’s flavor. Wines in tank spend less time on the lees, and there is a greater ratio of wine to lees in a tank than in a bottle, which leads to an emphasis on the fruity and floral character of the lightly aromatic Glera rather than an emphasis on autolytic character. It is also less labor intensive to manage one large tank than multiple bottles, without steps such as riddling and disgorgement, allowing a lower cost that has helped Prosecco’s rise in popularity.

Prosecco DOC requires a minimum of 85% Glera, and the remaining 15% can be Verdiso, Bianchetta Trevigiana, Chardonnay, Perera, Glera Lunga, Pinot Bianco, Pinot Grigio, and/or Pinot Nero. Verdiso is prized for its high acidity and Perera for its fruit-forward, pear-flavored aromatics. Still (tranquillo) wines are rare but authorized. Nearly all Prosecco is frizzante or spumante and made with the Martinotti method. Sweetness levels can range from brut nature to demi-sec, but most wines have some residual sugar and fall into extra dry and dry categories.

Additional styles are allowed, such as rifermentazione in bottiglia, and a bottle-fermented wine may have a velatura, or a veil of haziness. Wines labeled with the phrase sui lieviti (on yeasts) or col fondo (with the bottom) are made in a style similar to a pét-nat, in which the lees remain in the bottle without riddling or disgorgement, producing a rustic, cloudy, more autolytic style of Prosecco.

A new category debuted in 2020 and has helped Prosecco cement its domination in the world of bubbles: rosé Prosecco. These wines must be spumante and contain 10%–15% Pinot Nero vinified as a red wine and added to the base of a minimum of 85% Glera. All rosé Prosecco must be vintage-dated, and sweetness levels can range from brut nature to extra dry. Prior to 2020, many Prosecco producers made pink sparkling wines, but they could not carry the Prosecco name and were labeled as vino spumante.

The new style helped increase the output of Prosecco DOC from about 3.5 million hectoliters in 2018 to nearly 4.8 million hectoliters in 2022. Of the more than 53.2 million cases produced in 2022, 11% of them were rosé. So far, sparkling rosé is only allowed in the basic Prosecco DOC.

The Prosecco DOC area is so large—covering 556 communes in nine provinces—that it is difficult to generalize about climate or quality level. It is mostly continental, with some influence from the Alps and the Adriatic Sea. Most of the land is flat and fertile, producing high-yielding, simple, quaffable wines. There are two official subzones for wines from the municipality of Trieste and the province of Treviso—which are also large areas, with Treviso alone covering 95 communes—and wines from these areas can be labeled with the names Trieste and Treviso, respectively.

Prosecco wines begin to have more specificity at the DOCG level. In the hills rising from the flatlands in the northwestern portion of the Treviso province are two separate denominations: Asolo Prosecco DOCG and Conegliano Valdobbiadene Prosecco DOCG. In both, still and frizzante wines are authorized, but the spumante wines—the vast majority of what is produced—all qualify for the Superiore designation. Of the two DOCGs, Asolo Prosecco is the smaller contributor for sparkling wines, and it overlaps the part of Treviso that is better known for red wine production. But sparkling wine production here is increasing, and Asolo may become more significant in the future.

The most important denomination for quality production is Conegliano Valdobbiadene Prosecco DOCG, which covers the most historic Prosecco growing area, first delineated in the 1930s. It surrounds the towns of Valdobbiadene in the west and Conegliano in the east and is bounded by the Piave River to the southwest. It is the sixth largest producing DOC/G in all of Italy, the second largest for sparkling wine, behind Prosecco itself, and the second largest DOCG behind Chianti. It was responsible for about 8.7 million cases of DOCG-level Prosecco in 2022. The labeling can be confusing, as the use of the words Superiore and Prosecco are optional for sparkling wines, as is the name of the full denomination, since wines may be labeled simply Valdobbiadene or Conegliano if they come from within one of those two communes.

The historic growing area around these two towns is in a series of hills running east-west, ranging from 50 to 550 meters (160 to 1,800 feet) in altitude, in some cases dramatically steep, with a gradation of up to 60%. The foothills have formed a hogback ridge through erosion of one side over time, and the unique geological formation allows airflow that is important for preventing moisture and rot as well as thickening grape skins through wind influence. The Dolomites block cold winds from the north and help prevent spring frosts, and the flat plains and Venice lagoon bring warmer breezes from the south. There is an inversion layer, as cool air from the top of the hills drains down into the valleys, and the midslopes of the hills retain warmth. This heat and sun exposure is important for grape ripening and enhances the expression of aromatic compounds in Glera.

The western side of the region, near Valdobbiadene, is cooler and steeper at higher altitudes, where the wines tend to be more floral and perfumed, while the eastern side near Conegliano is warmer and lower, and the wines tend to be fuller bodied and spicier. The soils in Valdobbiadene are mostly marls and conglomerates, with excellent drainage on the steep slopes, while those in Conegliano are mainly morainic or clay. The two towns have been linked together historically, as producers often blended Prosecco from these zones to achieve balance. The hills were designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2019.

Within the DOCG, there are 43 rive, or geographic designations, that can appear on labels for spumante wines (but not sui lieviti). Rive refers to hillside vineyards or riverbank slopes, but these are larger areas or districts—more like contrade or MGAs. Of the 43 rive, 12 are for entire communes and 31 are for frazioni, which are neighborhoods or hamlets within a commune. To qualify for the rive designation, the wine must be hand-harvested and vintage-dated, with lower maximum yields of 13 tons per hectare (5.3 tons per acre) and a higher minimum alcohol of 11.5% ABV. Machine harvesting would be impossible even if it were not prohibited, as these slopes are typically among the steepest and most labor intensive, requiring 700 or more hours of work per hectare, compared with 120 hours or less for flatter vineyard land. Some of the highly regarded rive include Col San Martino, Colbertaldo di Vidor, Farra di Soligo, Ogliano, Pieve di Soligo, and Soligo.

Bisol’s portion of Cartizze Alto (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak)

The most famous and exceptional site of the Prosecco area is Cartizze, covering 107-hectare (265-acre) site near the town of Valdobbiadene, first mentioned in writings as the ancient winegrowing locality of Caurige as early as 1362. Cartizze is highly regarded and until recently was the most expensive vineyard land in Italy, surpassed only by Barolo in 2017. The slope here is extremely steep, with an average gradation of 35% and the steepest areas at a gradation of more than 60%. Cartizze faces directly south, with a great amount of warmth and sun exposure. The grapes are typically harvested two weeks later here than in the rest of the appellation to maximize ripeness and sugar accumulation. Cartizze can be divided into three unofficial subzones: Cartizze Alto, with the highest and steepest vineyards, at about 230 to 320 meters (750 to 1,050 feet) above sea level; and Cartizze Est (east) and Cartizze Ovest (west) below, at between 180 and 230 meters (590 and 750 feet). Cartizze Alto receives more wind exposure and more direct sunlight. Because of the inversion layer, it is slightly warmer, as the cold air sinks to the bottom of the slopes, with buds breaking earlier in Cartizze Alto than they do in the lower portions. Even with such high ripeness levels, the grapes still maintain high acidity because of the vineyards’ elevation and diurnal shift.

The Cartizze wines are especially powerful and full bodied, and they are usually in the dry range, with 17 to 32 grams of residual sugar per liter. This sweetness is well balanced by the richness of fruit and perfume. They have the lowest maximum yields of 12 tons per hectare (4.9 tons per acre), and the same minimum alcohol of 11.5% ABV as the rive wines. Superiore di Cartizze must appear on the label. There are more than 100 growers with small plots averaging about 1 hectare (2.5 acres) each in Cartizze. Bisol owns the largest share of Cartizze, and other key producers are Adami, Col Vetoraz, Le Colture, and Villa Sandi. Of all 2020 Conegliano Valdobbiadene DOCG production, about 1.4% was Superiore di Cartizze and 2.6% from the rive.

Trentino Alto Adige

The northernmost Italian region, bordering Austria, is the autonomous alpine region of Trentino-Alto Adige. The area was part of the Habsburg monarchy and Austro-Hungarian Empire through World War I and was not annexed by Italy until 1919. The region still has close cultural ties to Austria, especially in its northern province, Alto Adige, also known as Südtirol (South Tyrol), where German is the primary language. The southern province, Trentino, is wedged between Lombardy and Veneto, and the population here largely speaks Italian.

The alpine region was one of the early centers of winegrowing for the Rhaetians and the Etruscans, and the Adige River allowed for the expansion of viticulture as people moved across the valley. Archeological findings indicate that the wine culture began at least 2,400 years ago. Wine was culturally important in the Middle Ages, as vineyards in the area supplied wine to monasteries and the nobility in what is now southern Germany. Trento, the regional capital, was an important center for Christianity at this time, as leaders of the Catholic Church converged here from across Europe in the 16^th century for the Council of Trent, in response to the Reformation.

Vineyards in this mountainous area are planted at elevations of up to 1,000 meters (3,300 feet) above sea level, and the climate is continental, with both alpine and Mediterranean influences. The Alps block the cold winds from the north, and the Adige valley opens in the south to the warmer breezes from Lake Garda and the Mediterranean Sea. Even at a northern latitude, the summers are among the hottest in Italy during the daytime, with wide diurnal shifts and cool nighttime temperatures. The high altitudes, south-facing slopes, large diurnal shifts, and long growing season provide freshness, acidity, and phenolic grape ripening.

The soils are extremely diverse, with calcareous chalk and limestone soils near the Dolomites and volcanic porphyry, glacial moraines, quartz, slate, and mica in other sections. While more than 70% of the region’s output is white wine, the range of soils, luminosity, and warmth allows for a diversity of grapes, from fresh whites to bold reds.

Compared with other Italian regions, Trentino-Alto Adige has a relatively simple DOC system, with no DOCGs, nine DOCs, and four IGTs. It is known for high-quality, varietally labeled wines made from a wide range of native and international varieties, 84% of which is at the DOC level (the third highest percentage in Italy, following Piedmont and Valle d'Aosta). Trentino-Alto Adige produces 1.3 million hectoliters, or 14.7 million cases, of wine annually, from about 15,800 planted hectares (39,000 acres).

The top-planted grape variety is Chardonnay, with 22% of plantings, followed by Pinot Grigio (19%) and Schiava (9%). Other varieties that have been planted in the region since at least the 19^th century include Pinot Nero, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Merlot, Carmenère, Pinot Bianco, Riesling, Sauvignon Blanc, Müller-Thurgau, Sylvaner, and others. Kerner is a high-quality cross of Riesling and Schiava Grossa. Grüner Veltliner is known here simply as Veltliner. Gewürztraminer is called Traminer Aromatico, but it is not necessarily from the local town of Tramin (Termeno).

More than 70% of the wine produced in Alto Adige and more than 90% in Trentino is from co-ops, many of which are very high quality, such as the well-regarded Cantina Terlano, established in 1893. The region’s vineyards are extremely fragmented, with many growers owning very small plots passed down through generations, and co-ops have made winemaking at scale possible.

There are two large, overarching DOCs for white, rosato, red, sparkling, and sweet wines: Alto Adige DOC, or Südtirol DOC, in the north and Trentino DOC in the south. Many varietally labeled wines and dual-variety blends fall into these two denominations, and each has several subzones.

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Alto Adige

Alto Adige DOC covers the winemaking areas of the northern province, surrounding the provincial capital of Bolzano (Bozen). The three subzones of Colli di Bolzano, Meranese, and Santa Maddelena specialize in varietal Schiava, also known locally as Vernatsch, and require a minimum of 85% of the Schiava varieties. The light-bodied, light-colored wines have high acidity, flavors of red berries and sweet almond, and savory qualities. The Santa Maddelena subzone, in the hillsides northeast of Bolzano, is especially renowned for Schiava, and the wines are typically blended with a small percentage of Lagrein, providing a more full-bodied expression.

The additional subzones of Alto Adige DOC are Terlano, Valle Isarco, and Valle Venosta. German names are often used here; for example, Valle Isarco becomes Eisacktal (the German suffix -tal means “valley”). The northern Valle Isarco is one of the coolest areas of the region and is known for white wines, including Kerner, Sylvaner, and Müller-Thurgau. Four of its communes are allowed to produce Klausner Laitacher, a red blend featuring any proportions of Schiava, Pinot Nero, Lagrein, and/or Portoghese (Portugieser). The valley is home to the Abbazia di Novacella (Kloster Neustift in German), a historic monastery producing wine since 1142 and one of the world’s oldest active wineries.

Pinot Grigio in Alto Adige (Photo credit: Adobe Stock)

Lago di Caldaro DOC, or Kalterersee DOC, is another well-known area for varietal Schiava, just south of the town of Bolzano. Like the Alto Adige subzones, it requires a minimum of 85% of any of the Schiava varieties. The DOC was expanded to cover additional lands farther south in Trentino and has a Classico subzone covering the historic growing area closest to the lake.

After Schiava, the second most planted native red grape in Alto Adige is Lagrein. Compared with the lighter reds of the region, it is deeply colored, full-bodied, and tannic, with a darker black fruit profile. The grape is late ripening and thrives in the warmer areas around Bolzano, where the gravelly soils store and radiate heat and allow it to ripen effectively. Lagrein may appear as a varietal wine in several DOCs in both Alto Adige and Trentino, and blends can be labeled with dual-variety names, such as Cabernet-Lagrein or Lagrein-Merlot. It comes in a range of styles, with the reds often labeled dunkel or scuro and the rosato version called kretzer. New oak is used for some premium examples. Like Barbera, Lagrein does extremely well in warmer vintages.

Trentino

Farther south, in Trentino DOC, the subzone Castel Beseno is for varietal Moscato Giallo, which can be made in dry, passito, or vendemmia tardiva styles. The subzones of Isera and Ziresi are for varietal Marzemino, a medium-bodied, high-acid red with herbal and bitter flavors. Isera has soils of tufa and basaltic rocks rich in manganese, while Ziresi is rich in calcareous clay and alluvial deposits, in an area where the Adige River makes a sharp turn and exposes the vineyards to intense sunlight. The remaining subzones of Sorni and Valle di Cembra are for a range of white and red wines.

The entire province of Trentino is included in the massive, multiregional delle Venezie DOC, shared with Veneto and Friuli. Valdadige DOC, or Etschtaler DOC, is another wide-ranging, multiregional DOC for white, rosato, red, and frizzante wines; it extends through the Adige valley in Alto Adige, Trentino, and a northwestern section of Veneto. It is more often used by producers in Trentino for varietal wines and blends, as producers farther north would be more likely to use the brand of Alto Adige DOC instead.

Among Trentino’s most important grapes is the native red grape Teroldego. It’s an ancient variety most likely present in vineyards in Trentino since the 15^th century, and it is the parent of Lagrein and Marzemino. Teroldego is deeply colored and fruity. Its soft tannins and fruity aromas are suited to novello wines, and Trentino producers are focused on complex, ageworthy wines, with flavors of pomegranate, licorice, and fresh herbs. Elisabetta Foradori is the most well-known specialist in Teroldego, and her powerful Granato bottling, from 70-year-old vines, helped spotlight the variety.

The most renowned site for Teroldego is Campo Rotaliano, a flat plain with alluvial deposits of sand, gravel, and pebbles. It is backed by steep, vertical walls of Dolomitic limestone, which absorb and radiate heat from the sun during the day and funnel cool breezes at night. Teroldego Rotaliano DOC requires 100% Teroldego, and the wines can be made in rosé (kretzer) or red (rubino) styles. Superiore wines have a minimum alcohol of 12% ABV, and Riserva wines require a minimum aging of two years.

The native white grape Nosiola takes its name from nocciola (“hazelnut”), likely because of the color of the grapes when dried and the variety's nutty aromas. It is grown primarily in the picturesque Valle dei Laghi, between Lake Garda and Trento, where the warm breezes and humidity from the lakes are ideal for air-drying grapes. Trentino vino santo (note the vino rather than vin) requires a minimum of 85% Nosiola and must be aged for a minimum of three years, or four years for Superiore.

Trento DOC

International grapes are used for the traditional method sparkling wine denomination Trento DOC, usually written as Trentodoc for marketing purposes and to distinguish it from Trentino DOC. It is the only traditional method region high in the mountains, with vineyards planted at up to 900 meters (3,000 feet) above sea level. The soils of the Dolomites are rich in limestone and silica and have excellent drainage. The high elevation provides a wide diurnal shift, with the mountains releasing cold air into the valleys at night.

Giulio Ferrari made the first traditional method sparkling wine in Trentino, in 1902, and was the first to plant substantial Chardonnay vineyards in the area. The Trento DOC Institute was formed in 1984, and the DOC was established in 1993. The wine can be made with any proportions of Chardonnay, Pinot Bianco, Pinot Nero, and/or Pinot Meunier. It must spend a minimum of 15 months on the lees for spumante and rosato, 24 months for millesimato, and 36 months for Riserva. Except for the Riserva wines, which can be only brut nature or brut, the wines can be at any sweetness level up to dolce. The region is cooler than Franciacorta, and a bit more dosage is typically used to balance the grapes’ high acidity.

Friuli-Venezia Giulia

In the northeastern corner of Italy, bordering Austria and Slovenia at the top of the Adriatic Sea, is the autonomous region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia, often called simply Friuli. At a crossroads of Europe, it was a historic part of the Roman Empire—“Giulia” refers to Julius Caesar—and later the Republic of Venice and the Habsburg monarchy. This has been a border area throughout history and has a mix of Latin, Germanic, and Slavic influences. Central Friuli became part of Italy with unification in 1866, but the area around the Gulf of Trieste remained the subject of military conflicts and border disputes for nearly another century. The region’s capital city of Trieste, one of the most important commercial ports of Europe, did not become part of Italy until 1954.

After the fall of fascism and World War II, it took nearly a decade to decide on the border between Italy and Yugoslavia—a border so arbitrary that it reportedly split some farms and vineyards in half, with one side Italian and the other side Yugoslav. Today, many producers have vineyards on both the Italian side and the Slovenian side. The regions often have parallel names on the two sides of the border: Collio Goriziano becomes Goriška Brda (collio and brda both mean “hills”), and Carso becomes Kras.

In the 1960s, winemaker Mario Schiopetto traveled throughout Europe and brought German innovations in vinification and viticulture back to Friuli. He was at the forefront of Friuli’s modern white wine revolution, employing techniques such as cold fermentation, selected yeasts, stainless-steel tanks, and a focus on cellar hygiene for a style of clean and fruity wines. Other producers took a Burgundian approach in the 1980s and used new French barriques for richer wines that gained international acclaim.

Given Friuli’s proximity to Eastern Europe, it is not surprising that, at the turn of the century, producers such as Josko Gravner and Stanislao “Stanko” Radikon looked to the ancient winemaking practices of the Caucasus. Through their efforts, Friuli became known as a leader in amphora-aged, skin-contact orange wines. Today, Friuli offers a wide range of wines and styles, with many international varieties as well as native grapes unique to the region and rescued from near extinction by dedicated producers.

Viticulture is restricted to the southern half of Friuli, as the northern portion is generally too cold and mountainous. Wine regions are in the alpine foothills and the flatter plains, with many rivers providing moderating influences. The region receives a combination of cool mountain air and warm Adriatic currents. Friuli has the highest precipitation of any Italian region, with more than 1,000 millimeters (39 inches) of rainfall annually. Viticulture is made possible by the region’s gravelly and well-draining soils. On the hillside slopes, the most prized soil is ponca, a friable sedimentary rock with alternating layers of marl and sandstone.

Friuli-Venezia Giulia has 4 DOCGs, 12 DOCs, and 3 IGPs. It produces 2.2 million hectoliters, or 24.5 million cases, of wine from about 28,500 hectares (70,400 acres) of planted vineyards. It contributes to the large quantities of wine in the multiregional Prosecco and delle Venezie DOCs but is also known for varietal wines and blends from international and native grape varieties. The region has the highest proportion of white wine (86%), recently surpassing the neighboring Veneto, and its top-planted grape varieties are Pinot Grigio, Glera, Merlot, and Friulano.

Seven of the DOCs include the name Friuli, including the overarching regional denomination Friuli (Friuli-Venezia Giulia) DOC, which was approved in 2016 with the aim of raising the region’s profile. Friuli DOC allows white and red blends and varietal wines that are also authorized in other denominations, but it uniquely allows for sparkling Ribolla Gialla. It covers the entire southern half of Friuli where viticulture takes place and encompasses the other denominations.

Friuli Colli Orientali

The most important quality wine denominations are in the hills near the Slovenian border, on both sides of the Judrio River (the former border between Austria and Italy). Northwest of the river in the Udine province, Friuli Colli Orientali DOC allows white, red, and sweet wines from a wide range of native and international grape varieties and blends, with several official subzones for more specific styles.

Friuli Colli Orientali DOC from the i Clivi property (Photo credit: Stacy Ladenburger)

The northernmost subzone is Refosco di Faedis, which requires a minimum of 85% Refosco Nostrano, also called Refosco di Faedis. This red grape is the softer, more refined of the Refosco-named varieties. At the southern end of the denomination is the subzone of Rosazzo, featuring two varietal wines: Ribolla Gialla di Rosazzo and Pignolo di Rosazzo. Ribolla Gialla performs well in the heat and in the well-draining ponca soils, and, with its thick skins, can be harvested later in the season and withstand threats from weather. The red grape Pignolo is closely associated with its “grand cru” of Rosazzo. Pignolo is the most full bodied of the Friuli reds and one of the most tannic reds in all of Italy, often needing years of bottle age.

The Rosazzo subzone of Friuli Colli Orientali should not be confused with Rosazzo DOCG, which was elevated to its own denomination in 2011. The DOCG is for white blends featuring a mandatory 50%–60% Friulano, 20%–30% Sauvignon Blanc, and 20%–30% Pinot Bianco and/or Chardonnay, along with up to 10% Ribolla Gialla and 5% other white grapes. The wines must be aged a minimum of 18 months. The “Super Whites” are often barrel fermented.

The easternmost part of Friuli Colli Orientali is the subzone of Prepotto, which features the varietal red wine Schioppettino di Prepotto. The wines are medium bodied, with high acidity and a rotundone character, offering refined flavors of black fruits and pepper. Schioppettino had nearly disappeared in the 1970s and was brought back through the work of Dina and Paolo Rapuzzi, the founders of the Ronchi di Cialla estate, who planted Schioppettino even though it was not an officially recognized grape variety at the time.

The subzone of Cialla is a hamlet within Prepotto and is a monopole of Ronchi di Cialla. It is an east-west valley that is the coolest, windiest, rainiest part of Friuli Colli Orientali, and grapes here are generally harvested about two weeks later than in the rest of the denomination. Ronchi di Cialla is known for not only Schioppettino but also Picolit, Ribolla Gialla, and other native varieties. Ronchi in Friulian dialect is the plural of ronco (hillside, terraced vineyard), a word commonly seen on Friulian wine labels.

Picolit is a white grape variety historically associated with the areas of Rosazzo and Cialla, but its passito wines now fall under Colli Orientali del Friuli Picolit DOCG, established in 2006, with the same boundaries as the entire Friuli Colli Orientali DOC. A fashionable sweet wine centuries ago, the style was resurrected through the work of the Perusini family at Rocca Bernarda. Picolit is one of Italy’s most ancient grapes, closer to a wild vine, as it is unable to self-pollinate. It has small (piccolo) clusters and few berries, and through the appassimento process it becomes even more concentrated. The DOCG wines must be a minimum of 85% Picolit, unless coming from the subzone of Cialla, which requires 100%. They are aged for a minimum of one year, or two years for Cialla and four years for Cialla Riserva.

At the northern tip of Friuli Colli Orientali is Ramandolo DOCG, another former subzone for sweet white wines elevated to DOCG status in 2001. This is one of the coldest parts of Friuli, but the town of Ramandolo is sheltered by the rocky walls of Mount Bernadia, which radiate heat and reflect sunlight, helping ripen the grapes. The passito wines must be 100% Verduzzo Friulano, known here as Verduzzo Giallo, a tannic white variety suitable for air-drying, producing rich wines with flavors of sweet almond, honey, and tropical fruit.

Collio Goriziano

To the southeast, across the Judrio River from Friuli Colli Orientali, in the Gorizia province along the Slovenian border, is Collio Goriziano (Collio) DOC. It allows a wide range of white and red wines from native and international varieties, but three-quarters of its production comes from four white grapes: Pinot Grigio, Sauvignon Blanc (here called Sauvignon), Ribolla Gialla, and Friulano. Influenced by its ties to Austria on this side of the river, Collio has a longer history of quality winemaking than Colli Orientali and is where some of Friuli’s best-known producers—such as Venica & Venica, Schiopetto, Gravner, and Radikon—are based.

Grappa to the Rescue

The Nonino family has been distilling grappa in Udine, a province of Friuli, for more than a century. In the 1960s, Benito and Giannola Nonino began experimenting with monovitigno (single variety) grappa, releasing the first Picolit bottling in 1973 and the first Ribolla Gialla bottling the following year. They wanted to purchase the pomace of other native varieties, but few plantings existed.

The Noninos launched a major award in 1975 called Premio Nonino Risit d’Âur (Gold Vine Shoot) to honor and encourage those who were working to preserve Friuli’s native grape varieties and culture. The first award was given to Dina and Paolo Rapuzzi for their efforts with Schioppettino. The prestigious award helped spotlight Friuli’s unique native grape varieties, incentivize growers to preserve them, and establish the necessary bureaucratic procedures to have them officially recognized under the law.

The territory is nearly all hills, arranged in a semicircle, and the DOC has a minimum elevation of 85 meters (280 feet). It is generally sunnier than Colli Orientali, with wines showing more weight and extract, but there is great variability in slopes, aspects, exposures, and wind currents, creating numerous microclimates. While there are no official subzones, numerous communes and unofficial subzones of Collio are recognized for their differences.

Oslavia, in the far eastern part of Collio bordering Slovenia, is the sunniest part of the denomination, with vineyards at about 150 to 180 meters (490 to 590 feet) above sea level and dry winds from Slovenia and the Adriatic Sea. It is a region especially known for Ribolla Gialla, and the higher elevation and large diurnal shift produce wines with strong aromatics and perfume. Oslavia is where the orange wine movement was born. When hail hit Oslavia in 1996 and destroyed entire vineyards, Gravner experimented with his limited crop. He was pleased with the skin-macerated wines and was soon joined by Radikon and La Castellada in developing a unique style associated with this small corner of Friuli.

The commune of San Floriano del Collio is just north of Oslavia in the higher hills, at about 250 meters (820 feet) above sea level, the highest elevation in Collio. It is known for Ribolla Gialla, Friulano, and Sauvignon, and the wines are livelier and fresher than elsewhere in the denomination.

Cormons is the largest town in Collio and sits at the base of Mount Quarin, at a lower altitude where the foothills meet the plains. Although Friulano is grown throughout Friuli and Veneto, it thrives in the wetter, richer soils of the Cormons area. Once known as Tocai Friulano, its name has been shortened because of the protected status of Hungary’s Tokaj region. The grape variety is identical to Sauvignonasse and Sauvignon Vert of South America and is known as Tai elsewhere. The wines are rounder and fatter than other Friuli whites, with lower acidity and savory flavors of almonds, herbs, and white flowers. It’s the most common house wine of the osterias and trattorias in Friuli. Mario Schiopetto, based in the commune of Capriva, bottled the first varietal Tocai, as he labeled it at the time, in 1965.

Dolegna del Collio is the northernmost commune of Collio and closest to the Alps. It is the coolest and rainiest part of the denomination and most suited to aromatic white grape varieties, such as Sauvignon, Pinot Bianco, and Ribolla Gialla.

Other Regions

Sandi Skerk’s Glera vineyard in Carso (Photo credit: Stacy Ladenburger)

South of Collio DOC and across the Isonzo River, in the Trieste province, is Carso (Kras) DOC, which sits on a narrow limestone plateau between the Adriatic Sea and the Slovenian border. The red clay soils of Carso are iron rich and nutrient poor, and the DOC allows white and red wines from a wide range of native and international varieties. Whites include Malvasia Istriana, an intensely aromatic and mineral grape made in a dry style, and Vitovska, a light-bodied, zippy white wine that is grown primarily in Carso.

The signature red grape of Carso is Terrano, and wines from the Classico subzone must include a minimum of 85% of the variety. Terrano is a relative of Refosco dal Peduncolo Rosso and does well on Carso’s iron-rich soils. It is known for searingly high acidity, strong minerality, and flavors of violets and black fruit.

The flatter alluvial plains include the rainy and gravelly Friuli Grave DOC, which is responsible for more than half of all Friuli wine production, much of it table wine. Farther south is the warmer, drier, and sunnier Friuli Isonzo DOC, shielded from the cold northern winds and rain; the wines produced here are rich and powerful. The coastal Friuli Aquileia DOC, on the Adriatic Sea, is less well known today but was an important wine center of ancient Rome.

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Rhône Valley

Stacy Ladenburger — Fri, 08 May 2026 21:36:30 GMT

Current Revision posted to Expert Guides by Stacy Ladenburger on 5/8/2026 9:36:30 PM

History of the Rhône Valley
Rhône Valley Wine in Context
Land and Climate
Rhône Valley Wine Law
The Grapes of the Rhône Valley
Northern Rhône
Southern Rhône
Bibliography

The Rhône Valley has a very long history of viticulture and today produces some of the most characterful and impressive red, white, and rosé wines in the world.

The topography of the region is key to understanding the distinctions between the Northern Rhône and the Southern Rhône, with dramatically steep slopes in the north that give way to the rolling plains of the south. These distinct features dictate the grapes grown, the styles of winemaking practiced, and the differences in the resulting wines.

The Northern Rhône is home to four local grape varieties (Syrah, Viognier, Marsanne, and Roussanne) and small, terroir-driven appellations. Most of the vineyards are planted on ancient igneous rock. The climate is continental. The Southern Rhône appellations, in contrast, are much more expansive regions where winemaking traditions are based on blending. Soils are younger, more varied, and largely sedimentary, and the climate is Mediterranean.

History of the Rhône Valley

The history of winemaking in France dates to approximately 600 BCE, when Greek settlers from Phocaea, in Anatolia, arrived and founded the city of Massalia (modern-day Marseilles), close to where the Rhône River flows into the Mediterranean. This settlement came under the control of the Romans in the second century BCE and was an important stop on their trading route to Spain. The Rhône River enabled the Romans to expand viticulture northward, and fragments of clay amphorae and other Roman artifacts have been found along the river.

When the Romans reached the Northern Rhône, they found that they were not the first to consider making wine there. The Allobroges, a Gallic tribe whose capital was Vienna (modern Vienne, near the vineyards of Côte-Rôtie), were producing wine and trading it with their neighbors, as reported by Pliny the Elder in Natural History, written in roughly 77 CE. These wines were likely flavored with resin, so they would have tasted very different from the wines produced there today.

In 476 CE, the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire was deposed. Grapes continued to be cultivated, though documentary evidence until the Middle Ages is scarce.

In 1274, a large portion of land known as Comtat-Venaissin (roughly comparable to France’s Vaucluse department) was granted to the Holy See. The papacy moved the seat of the pope to Avignon, where it remained from 1309 to 1376, during the reign of seven popes. The death of the last Avignon pope, Gregory XI, led to the Western Schism in the Catholic Church, the period from 1378 to 1417, when there were two, then later three, rival popes, each with his own following. In the era of the Avignon papacy, Châteauneuf-du-Pape was much more dedicated to viticulture than other regions of France, with 45% of agricultural land planted to wine grapes instead of the far more popular cereal grains. Also during this period, the second Avignon pope, Jean XXII, oversaw the building of a summer palace 12 kilometers (7.5 miles) north of Avignon in the village that is today Châteauneuf-du-Pape. This led to the planting of significant vineyards around the village to cater to Roman households. Even after the return of the papal residence to Rome, the Vatican continued to receive shipments from the Rhône Valley, suggesting that quality was high even then.

Rhône wines reached more markets with the 1681 opening of the Canal du Midi, which provided trade routes to Bordeaux, Paris, and beyond. During the 18^th century, the port of Roquemaure, close to Lirac, became an important base for shipping goods, including wine, up and down the Rhône River. In this era, barrels were emblazoned with the letters CDP to prevent fraud, and Château La Nerthe began shipping in glass bottles in the 1770s. The wines of the west bank—around Lirac, Tavel, and Laudun—were held in particularly high esteem at this time. Domaine de la Solitude, in Châteauneuf-du-Pape, has export documentation dating back to 1826, reflecting sales to the Austrian empire and England.

In 1862, just as the Rhône Valley was beginning to gain international renown, phylloxera struck. The aphid arrived in a shipment of vines from a Mr. Carle to his friend M. Borty in Lirac. When he planted the vines in his garden, M. Borty unwittingly unleashed a vineyard pest that spread throughout France, destroying over two million hectares (five million acres) of vines. It was not until 1868 that growers understood that the roots of their vines were being attacked by the insect. Eventually, a cure was formulated: grafting French vines onto American rootstocks, which were immune.

By the mid-1880s, local vineyards were being replanted, and wines such as Châteauneuf-du-Pape were once again in high demand. But there was nothing to stop winemakers from other regions passing off their own, often inferior, wines as Châteauneuf-du-Pape. Local winemakers appealed to the owner of Château Fortia, the baron Pierre Le Roy de Boiseaumarié, who had trained as a lawyer, for help. He eventually agreed, and in 1923 he began producing a document that laid out the unique combination of growing area, soil types, grape varieties, and winemaking traditions that resulted in an authentic Châteauneuf-du-Pape wine. He stipulated that irrigation should be banned and set minimum alcohol at 12.5%. On May 15, 1936, Châteauneuf-du-Pape became the first wine appellation in France (ratified a day before four other pioneering appellations: Arbois, Tavel, Monbazillac, and Cassis).

Le Roy’s approach became the blueprint for the Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée (AOC) system, also known as Appellation d’Origine Protégée (AOP), which has since been adopted throughout Europe. Le Roy was also instrumental in establishing the Institut national de l’origine et de la qualité (National Institute of Origin and Quality, or INAO), the body responsible for granting AOC status in France, which he presided over from 1947 to 1967.

Both world wars had huge impacts on the wines of France. Many wine professionals lost their lives. Some vineyards abandoned in the aftermath are being rediscovered only today.

The next important event in the Rhône Valley’s history was the record-cold February of 1956, when temperatures dropped to minus 20 degrees Celsius (minus 4 degrees Fahrenheit). This extreme cold, combined with a north wind of 180 kilometers (110 miles) per hour, arrived just after an unseasonable warm snap. The sap in the olive trees had started to rise, and it froze in the branches, cracking the trunks and decimating the plantings. Since young olive trees take longer than vines to bear fruit, it was more efficient for growers to replant their farms with the latter, which can yield a crop after three years. Until this point, the Southern Rhône was largely a land of polyculture smallholdings. The 1956 freeze marked the transition to a more monocultural vineyard landscape.

There were other developments that enabled large-scale viticulture to spread in the Southern Rhône. One was the growth of cooperative wineries. By 1946, 50% of Côtes du Rhône wines were made by co-ops, and, by 1981, that figure had risen to 68%. When grapegrowers don’t need to invest in their own production facilities, they can purchase more land.

Another factor that encouraged estates to expand in size was the increased availability of heavy machinery and agrochemicals after World War II. By the 1970s, however, a contingent of winemakers had begun to reject synthetic chemicals and work either organically or biodynamically. This trend has been growing ever since. By the 2024 harvest, 24% of the vineyard area producing AOC wines in the Rhône Valley was certified organic.

Barrels in a Rhône cellar (Credit: Jeff Habourdin for Inter Rhône)

Great and reputed domaines have waxed and waned under different ownership. Many estates, once well known, have been sold off, often parcel by parcel, to other producers. Raymond Trollat, famed for the quality of his Saint-Joseph, passed away in 2023; some of his old vines (planted by Trollat’s grandfather in 1920) were sold to Domaine Gonon, and these are now bottled as Gonon’s highly sought-after cuvée Vieilles Vignes. Another respected local vigneron, Jean-Louis Grippat, sold his holdings of Saint-Joseph and Hermitage to Domaine E. Guigal in 2001. The Hermitage parcels now go into Guigal’s white and red Hermitage Ex-Voto, and Guigal bottles the Saint-Joseph as Vignes de l’Hospice.

In Côte-Rôtie, Domaine Dervieux-Thaize and Domaine Gentaz-Dervieux were inherited by René Rostaing, and these estates are now part of Domaine Rostaing, led by René’s son Pierre. In Cornas, Guillaume Gilles bought an old vine parcel of the lieu-dit Chaillot from his mentor, Robert Michel, when he retired. Franck Balthazar bought his old vine Chaillot from the lauded Noël Verset. Wines from masters such as these are very hard to find, but, when they do appear at auction, they tend to fetch the highest prices of any auctioned Rhône wines.

Rhône Valley Wine in Context

Credit: Inter Rhône

In 2024, France was the second biggest producer of wine in the world, behind Italy, producing 36.9 million hectoliters (all figures in this section are for the 2024 harvest unless otherwise stated). The Rhône Valley is the third largest AOC wine region by volume in France, after Bordeaux and Champagne, producing over 2,165,000 hectoliters (57,190,000 gallons) from roughly 63,300 hectares (156,400 acres) and representing around 3% of global wine production.

Of the volume of Rhône Valley AOC wine sold in 2024, 36% was exported, 38% was sold in French supermarkets, and 26% was sold in France through other channels (including on premise, off premise, and direct to consumer). The Rhône Valley sells a higher percentage of organic still French wine in French supermarkets than any other region.

The top five export markets by volume for Rhône Valley AOC wine in 2024 were Belgium (19%), the UK (16%), the US (13%), Canada (10%), and Germany (8%).

Although the global fine-wine market is dominated by Bordeaux and Burgundy, Rhône wines are gradually making inroads. Akin to these other top regions, since the 1990s, the Rhône Valley has been increasingly focused on single-vineyard wines. From the geologically diverse slopes of Côte-Rôtie to the varied elevations of Châteauneuf-du-Pape, producers are excited to highlight these differences in the wines, which are also commanding higher price points in the market.

The 21^st-century success of these wines is reflected in their progressively favorable status in the auction market, especially in the 2020s. Many top auction houses report greater than 10% increases year over year in the number of Rhône-themed lots. Names from the Northern Rhône are most common, including Domaine Jean-Louis Chave, Domaine E. Guigal, Domaine Jamet, M. Chapoutier, Domaine Mathilde et Yves Gangloff, and Thierry Allemand. Southern Rhône producers are seen more rarely, but the wines of the late Emmanuel Reynaud (Château Rayas, Pignan, Château de Fonsalette, and Château des Tours) fetch the highest prices. Wines from the late Henri Bonneau and Château de Beaucastel (especially its cuvée Hommage à Jacques Perrin) are also highly sought after. Overall, the top three performers at auction are Rayas, Chave, and Guigal.

Rhône Valley vineyards stretch over six French departments: Rhône, Loire, Ardèche, Drôme, Gard, and Vaucluse. Perhaps surprisingly, given the fame of appellations such as Côte-Rôtie and Hermitage, approximately 92% of all wine produced in the Rhône Valley is from the Southern Rhône. The Southern Rhône’s more forgiving topography and its population centers provide the opportunity for larger-scale wine production, while the Northern Rhône, with just 8% of the Rhône Valley’s total production, is a much more challenging place for viticulture.

Of the Rhône wine produced, 75% is red, 13% is rosé, and 12% is white. Red and rosé production have been decreasing since 2021, which reflects the significant drop in consumption of red wine in the local market during this period. Meanwhile, white-wine production has increased.

In the hot, dry, windy climate of the Rhône Valley, organic viticulture is relatively easy compared with more northerly French wine regions, and this approach has been steadily growing. In 2024, 22% of the total harvest volume was certified organic, another 1% was biodynamic, and 37% was HVE3 (Haute Valeur Environnementale, a French agricultural certification that recognizes environmentally conscious farming practices).

Land and Climate

Geology and Topography of the Northern Rhône

The Rhône River emerges from the Rhône Glacier, in the canton of Valais, in Switzerland. From Geneva, it flows south into France, then west toward Lyon. In Lyon, the Saône River feeds into and enlarges the Rhône River, which then starts its journey south toward the Mediterranean Sea. This is where the wine regions known as the Rhône Valley begin: just south of Lyon, where the Rhône River follows the eastern edge of the Massif Central. This granite outcrop was formed by volcanic activity between 380 million and 280 million years ago and covers around 86,000 square kilometers (33,000 square miles), which equates to 16% of mainland France. Hemmed in by the Massif Central, this section of the Rhône River flows fast and deep.

The Northern Rhône refers to the vineyards grown on both sides of the Rhône River between Givors (just south of Lyon) and Montélimar. The AOC vineyards of the west bank begin at Côte-Rôtie AOC and run all the way to Saint-Péray AOC (with some small outcrops of Côtes du Rhône AOC land farther south in La Voulte-sur-Rhône). There are some patches of woodland between vineyards on this side of the river, but the steep west bank is heavily planted with vineyards, which overlook the Rhône River itself. The six AOCs on this side of the river, from north to south, are Côte-Rôtie, Condrieu, Château-Grillet, Saint-Joseph, Cornas, and Saint-Péray. The most prevalent rock is granite, but, in the far north, there is schist and gneiss in Côte-Rôtie; there is also limestone in the far south, most notably in Saint-Péray.

There is a small outcrop of granite on the east bank, too, sheared off the Massif Central long ago by the action of the river. This piece of granite forms the western flank of the hill of Hermitage, and, on the eastern side of the hill, glacial sedimentary soils dominate. This piece of granite extends northward, at a lower elevation, into the far northern reaches of Crozes-Hermitage AOC. Most of this appellation, however, is south of Hermitage and composed of much younger alluvial soils. As on the west bank, there are small areas of Côtes du Rhône AOC vineyard land much farther south, around the historically important hillside terroir of Brézème, near Livron-sur-Drôme.

Along the Drôme River past Brézème, there is a separate alpine vineyard area that belongs in the Rhône Valley family: Diois, named after the village of Die, at this region’s heart. In this steep river valley, there are 1,700 hectares (4,200 acres) of highly dispersed and parcellated vineyards that climb to an elevation of 700 meters (2,300 feet). Soils here are essentially clay-limestone (some containing colluvial limestone scree), with alluvial terraces lower down, toward the valley floor.

Apart from the most easterly and southerly parts of Crozes-Hermitage AOC, all the cru vineyards of the Northern Rhône, both west and east bank, overlook the river. Much of the vineyard area is located on steep slopes, which often must be terraced.

Because Syrah and Viognier are both very productive in terms of their foliage, they must be held up on long stakes (traditionally made of wood, though some are fashioned from plastic or metal), known locally as échalas. Compared with training vines on wires, this training method is expensive and labor intensive; it also has a striking impact on the appearance of the local landscape. The steep slopes make mechanization very difficult. These factors increase labor costs, resulting in higher prices for Northern Rhône wines compared with those from the Southern Rhône.

The movement of tectonic plates has had a fracturing effect on the Massif Central. Rivers and streams running down from the Ardèche plateau to the west have naturally exploited these cracks and created valleys that run west to east. Over time, these have deepened, creating some south-facing terroirs (historically these were the most favorable sites); most of the vineyards of the Northern Rhône, however, face southeast and east, at an elevation between 100 meters (330 feet) and 350 meters (1,150 feet).

Geology and Topography of the Southern Rhône

Montélimar marks the informal boundary between the Northern Rhône and the Southern Rhône. The flora, including fields of lavender and olive groves, reflects the warmer temperatures toward the south. The rock on which the vineyards are grown also changes. The shelf of granite ends, and softer, younger sedimentary soils proliferate. No longer directed by the Massif Central, the Rhône River has frequently changed course from here on its way to the Mediterranean, and, in places, there is more than one branch of the river.

The Southern Rhône covers a much larger area than the Northern Rhône, and its geological history is correspondingly more varied and complex. The main soil types here are clay-limestone, sand, and alluvial deposits. Most appellations contain a mix of different types.

The Southern Rhône region was under the Tethys Sea 230 million years ago. Eventually, the sea evaporated, leaving behind layers of salt and gypsum. Water returned to the region during the Jurassic period, and with it came ammonites and reptiles. During this era, huge bands of clay and limestone were deposited. In the Paleogene period, the movements of tectonic plates created the Pyrenees; these forces also created folds in the Southern Rhône, such as the Luberon mountain range and Diois. The action of the Nîmes fault pushed up the Dentelles de Montmirail massif and is responsible for the complex soils around Gigondas.

The Mediterranean Sea entered the Southern Rhône during the Miocene and Pliocene periods, laying down significant banks of sand. There are large deposits in the far north of the Southern Rhône around Rousset-les-Vignes; around the base of the Dentelles de Montmirail, in Gigondas, Sablet, Séguret, and Beaumes-de-Venise; to the east of Châteauneuf-du-Pape; and on the west bank in Lirac and Tavel. At the end of the Miocene period, the Cairanne-Rasteau hills and the Visan-Valréas hills—both consisting of clay-limestone soils and pebbles—were created by the actions of lakes and rivers.

At the start of the Quaternary period, the Rhône River was still being fed by the Rhine, so the former was larger and more powerful than it is today. It transported huge amounts of pebbles and other alluvial deposits from the Alps into the Southern Rhône, laying down the pudding stones, or galets roulés, that are a feature of Châteauneuf-du-Pape and other AOCs, such as Lirac, Tavel, Costières de Nîmes, and Côtes du Rhône Villages Gadagne. Younger terraces of smaller galets have been laid down by successive periods of glaciation, such as the garrigues of Vacqueyras, Plan de Dieu, and Crozes-Hermitage in the north.

The Southern Rhône, though it does have hills and mountainous areas, is flat compared with the Northern Rhône. Some vineyards, including parts of Châteauneuf-du-Pape, overlook the river, but tributaries often play a more important role.

The central Côtes du Rhône growing area is essentially a large bowl, bordered to the east and west by mountains. As such, the west-bank vineyards are more commonly east facing; the east bank is essentially west facing. But because of the diversity of terroir, hills, and mountains within this huge area, vineyards face every direction. The best terroirs were historically south facing, but, with a warming climate, some winemakers now prefer east- or even north-facing terroirs, especially for white wines.

Most vineyards are at an elevation between 80 meters (260 feet) and 350 meters (1,150 feet); some vineyards in Beaumes-de-Venise and Ventoux are even higher, up to 550 meters (1,800 feet). The lower, flatter vineyards have allowed for much more mechanization in the Southern Rhône than in the Northern Rhône. Although some grape varieties, such as Grenache, Carignan, and Counoise, grow well as self-supporting bush vines, all varieties are often trained on wires to better enable harvesting and other actions by machine. Many growers prefer bush vines when they are an option, though, as they have benefits, such as providing shade to the grapes in hot weather.

The suitability of much of the Southern Rhône to mechanization has shaped the wine industry here. It enabled growers to develop large estates with fewer employees, which gave rise to numerous cooperative wineries in the Southern Rhône—comparatively rare in the north, where négociant houses are more common.

Climate of the Rhône Valley

The climates of the Northern Rhône and the Southern Rhône are very different. Côte-Rôtie is equidistant from Châteauneuf-du-Pape and Beaune, and its climate lies between the two.

The Southern Rhône has a Mediterranean climate, with hot summers and mild winters. The Northern Rhône has a continental climate, marked by very warm summers and cold winters. Conditions are wetter in the Northern Rhône, with around 710 millimeters (28 inches) of rainfall annually in Orange, compared with 830 millimeters (33 inches) annually in Lyon. Rain is also more frequent in the north than the south.

If there is one element of terroir that the Northern Rhône and the Southern Rhône share, it’s the powerful wind known as the mistral (occasionally referred to as la bise in the north). It’s a cold, dry wind, caused by a combination of high pressure in the Bay of Biscay and low pressure in the Gulf of Genoa, bringing cold air from the north. It’s channeled down the Rhône Valley toward the Mediterranean and can reach speeds of over 100 kilometers (60 miles) per hour. The Southern Rhône has around 100 days of mistral winds. The wind events peak in November through April, but the mistral is very impactful during the summer. During the growing season, there is a 20% chance of gale-force winds. Overall, the mistral is considered beneficial, as it usually blows after rainfall, drying out the vineyards and helping prevent vineyard diseases. One downside (apart from brutal conditions for vignerons during winter pruning) is that it can be powerful enough to break vines and their échalas.

The climate has changed in the Rhône Valley over the past 50 years. Data collected since 1970 shows that all major stages of the cycle of the vine (budbreak, flowering, veraison, and harvest) are starting increasingly earlier. Budbreak for Grenache in the Southern Rhône, for example, now occurs 15 days earlier than it did in 1970. This can cause problems because of frost (in 2021, for example) as vines awake from their winter dormancy early, caused by warm snaps in early spring, followed by a return to cold weather. Additionally, there is less rain during the growing season, and there are more very hot days (over 35 degrees Celsius, or 95 degrees Fahrenheit). The overall effect is lower acidity, higher potential alcohol levels at harvest, and smaller berries.

In the short term, vignerons react by irrigating their vines or adding tartaric acid to their wines, though these strategies are generally avoided by those who favor a noninterventionist approach. Longer-term strategies include growing experimental varieties, planting on north-facing slopes, adding strategic cover crops, and planting at higher elevation. Arguably, the Rhône Valley is better positioned to withstand the effects of climate change than many other wine regions, as it has numerous grape varieties and is already known for its powerful styles of wine. But many winemakers are openly apprehensive about the future.

Rhône Valley Wine Law

The Rhône Valley is beholden to classic French wine law, which in turn follows the structures required by the European Union. This includes three tiers of requirements for wine labeling: Vin de France, Indication Géographique Protégée (IGP), and AOC. The ways that the Rhône Valley expresses these tiers are detailed below. Côtes du Rhône AOC is the most common label designation, with by far the largest volume produced. At a higher level of specificity of place and variety are 29 appellations that highlight specific communes, varieties, and growing areas; all of these will be detailed in the regional sections of this guide.

Vin de France

Wines from vineyards that are not within IGP or AOC growing areas must use the classification Vin de France. Certain producers opt out of IGP and AOC certification even if their wines could use them. Some feel that their creativity is stifled by having to adhere to so many rules; others wish to reject a system in which they do not trust or believe.

When labeling wines as Vin de France, producers can state the grape variety or varieties used, the vintage, the name of the estate, and any cuvée name, but no geographic statement is allowed. The category is popular with natural wine producers and used for a handful of excellent wines from rebel Rhône winemakers.

Indication Géographique Protégée

IGP was known (and is still referred to sometimes) as Vin de Pays until the name was updated in 2009. Like AOC wines, those classified as IGP must adhere to a cahier des charges, but IGP rules are more flexible, with a longer list of permissible grape varieties and wine styles, higher maximum yields, and much larger growing areas.

IGPs are divided into three types: regional, departmental, and zonal. Some are further delimited with territorial references, such as Méditerranée Coteaux de Montélimar IGP. Many of them overlap the AOC growing areas of the Rhône Valley, and producers frequently bottle AOC wines and IGP wines, the latter usually less expensive and often varietal.

The following IGPs can be used by some Rhône Valley estates.

Regional IGPs

Méditerranée IGP, including the territorial references Comté de Grignan and Coteaux de Montélimar
Comtés Rhodaniens IGP

Departmental IGPs

Gard IGP
Ardèche IGP, including the territorial reference Coteaux de l’Ardèche
Vaucluse IGP, including the territorial references Principauté d’Orange and Aigues
Drôme IGP, including the territorial references Comté de Grignan and Coteaux de Montélimar

Zonal IGPs

Coteaux des Baronnies IGP
Cévennes IGP
Coteaux du Pont du Gard IGP
Collines Rhodaniennes IGP

Of all the IGPs in the Rhône Valley, Collines Rhodaniennes is worthy of particular attention. The grapes grown for this classification come from an area that roughly corresponds to the Northern Rhône and Diois; as such, it’s the only IGP that reliably produces wines in a Northern Rhône style. Compared with most other IGPs, the growing area is relatively small, as are the maximum yields, at 80 hectoliters per hectare. Since many Northern Rhône winemakers believe Côtes du Rhône AOC is strongly associated with Southern Rhône wines, they often prefer to bottle under Collines Rhodaniennes IGP instead. Reds are often 100% Syrah, and whites are usually single-variety Viognier, Marsanne, or Roussanne. This category often features entry-level bottles from top producers, and the wines can be a great value.

Côtes du Rhône AOC

Planted hectares: 28,462
Hectoliters produced: 974,144
Average yield (hl/ha): 34
Volume by color: 83% red, 9% rosé, 8% white

All figures are 2024 unless otherwise noted.

Côtes du Rhône AOC covers 172 communes from Vienne in the north to beyond Avignon in the south, but the appellation is used almost exclusively for wines grown in Southern Rhône terroirs. There are 27 permitted grape varieties, including some VIFA varieties (Variétés d’Intérêt à Fins d’Adaptation, or Varieties of Interest for Adaptation Purposes), newly introduced experimental varieties. The minimum alcohol content for all wines is 11% ABV (10.5% ABV for wines grown north of Montélimar). The maximum yield is 51 hectoliters per hectare.

Permitted grape varieties for red and rosé wines:

Principal varieties: Grenache, Mourvèdre, Syrah
Accessory varieties: Bourboulenc, Caladoc, Carignan, Cinsault, Clairette, Clairette Rose, Counoise, Couston, Grenache Blanc, Grenache Gris, Marsanne, Marselan, Muscardin, Piquepoul Blanc, Piquepoul Noir, Roussanne, Terret Noir, Ugni Blanc, Vaccarèse, Viognier
VIFA varieties: Carignan Blanc, Floréal, Rolle, Vidoc

Reds and rosés must contain Grenache and either Syrah or Mourvèdre. Principal and complementary varieties must account for at least 60% of the blend. VIFA varieties can compose no more than 10% of the blend.

Permitted grape varieties for white wines:

Principal varieties: Bourboulenc, Clairette, Grenache Blanc, Marsanne, Roussanne, Viognier
Accessory varieties: Piquepoul Blanc, Ugni Blanc
VIFA varieties: Carignan Blanc, Floréal, Rolle

Whites must contain mostly principal varieties, with VIFA varieties composing no more than 10% of the blend.

Côtes du Rhône Villages AOC without Geographic Name

Planted hectares: 2,672
Hectoliters produced: 82,740
Average yield (hl/ha): 31
Volume by color: 96% red, 1% rosé, 3% white

The next level up in the appellation pyramid is Côtes du Rhône Villages AOC, which may be used by 95 of the 172 communes allowed by Côtes du Rhône AOC. All of them are in the Southern Rhône.

The rules of production are slightly stricter compared with those of Côtes du Rhône AOC. The crossings Caladoc, Couston, and Marselan are not permitted at this level, though VIFA varieties are still permitted. The minimum alcohol content for all wines is 12% ABV, and the maximum yield is 44 hectoliters per hectare. Otherwise, the rules around grape varieties and blending are the same.

Côtes du Rhône Villages AOC with Geographic Name

Planted hectares: 5,335
Hectoliters produced: 165,258
Average yield (hl/ha): 31
Volume by color: 96% red, 1% rosé, 3% white

Another step up the pyramid, this category, which is sometimes referred to as named village, tightens the production criteria further. Most requirements mirror those of the standard Côtes du Rhône Villages AOC. Allowed grape varieties are the same, as are blending rules. The minimum alcohol content for all whites and rosés is still 12% ABV, but the minimum for reds rises to 12.5%. The maximum yield is reduced to 41 hectoliters per hectare.

When this layer of the pyramid was established, all the vineyards of a given commune were generally allowed to use the appellation. Today, most often, only the best vineyards of a commune will be allowed to do so. It’s also possible that a discrete terroir, which is usually demarcated along soil lines and spread across several communes, can be promoted to this level, as with Côtes du Rhône Villages Plan de Dieu AOC.

There are 21 villages or terroirs that can use this designation and append the name of their village to the appellation. (Laudun is still pending so not included in this total.) More are likely to be added in the future. When new crus are established, they tend to be taken from this group, causing the number to fluctuate.

Most named villages are permitted to make wine in all three colors, though the tendency more recently has been to restrict color variations to those considered most traditional or typical.

The list below contains all current named villages. If colors are restricted, this is noted in parentheses.

Chusclan (red and rosé)
Gadagne (red)
Massif d’Uchaux (red)
Nyons (red)
Plan de Dieu (red)
Puyméras (red)
Roaix
Rochegude
Rousset-les-Vignes
Sablet
Saint-Andéol (red)
Saint-Gervais
Saint-Maurice
Saint-Pantaléon-les-Vignes
Sainte-Cécile (red)
Séguret
Signargues (red)
Suze-la-Rousse (red)
Vaison-la-Romaine (red)
Valréas
Visan

Some of these named villages have a more discernible terroir expression than others. The sandy soils of Sablet, for example, yield reds and whites with relative lightness, finesse, and fine tannins. The banks of galets roulés in Gadagne and Signargues produce potent, muscular reds. Plan de Dieu is an alluvial terroir in the central Vaucluse that also produces reds with heft and power. The reds of Massif d’Uchaux, a vast, wooded hill just north of Châteauneuf-du-Pape, are medium-bodied, with piquant red-berry flavors.

The Grapes of the Rhône Valley

The Rhône Valley is driven by its diversity of planted varieties, especially in the south. Plantings of reds are dominated by Grenache and Syrah, which amount to 85% of the total of all red grapes, but other cultivars can be useful in a blend and contribute to the wines’ unique sense of place.

Red Grapes

Grenache (35,671 ha): By far the most prevalent red grape in the Rhône Valley is Grenache, accounting for over 50% of total red plantings. It’s only planted in the Southern Rhône, and, like so many grapes here, it originated elsewhere—possibly Sardinia (it is the same grape as Cannonau, which is widely planted there) or, more likely, Spain. Grenache was established in the Southern Rhône by the 19^th century and is well suited to the region’s hot, dry conditions. The grape is planted throughout the Southern Rhône but is especially important in Châteauneuf-du-Pape. It is mostly grown for dry wines but is also used for sweet Rasteau Vin Doux Naturel.

Grenache is traditionally grown as a self-supporting bush vine, but it is also trained on wires (Guyot or cordon de Royat) to aid mechanization. It’s resistant to trunk diseases and can be very long-lived; centenarian vines are not uncommon. Grenache is prone to coulure, however, which can severely affect yields. It’s also sensitive to downy mildew and botrytis.

Grenache has naturally low levels of polyphenolic compounds, which in greater amounts help prevent oxidation. Winemakers must be careful in the cellar—minimizing racking, for example—to protect Grenache wines against contact with air. Otherwise, the grape’s already pale color can take on a brownish tinge and the wines can lose freshness.

Grenache wines are rarely deep in color. Acidity levels are moderate, and tannic structures vary depending on the terroir, but Grenache is not a very tannic variety. One challenge of Rhône Valley Grenache is that, by the time the grapes are physiologically ripe, they often have high levels of sugar, resulting in elevated alcohol levels. Blending with lower-alcohol varieties, such as Cinsault, can counteract this tendency. While Grenache does not always produce the most structured wines, they can be very long-lived.

Bush vine in Gigondas (Credit: Christophe Grilhé for Inter Rhône)

Syrah (23,518 ha): Syrah is the dominant red grape variety of the Northern Rhône. Although rare in practice, Saint-Joseph, Crozes-Hermitage, and Hermitage can include a small amount of Marsanne or Roussanne, or both. Côte-Rôtie can include up to 20% Viognier, and this addition is more commonly practiced. Syrah, a natural crossing between Mondeuse Blanche and Dureza, likely originated in the Northern Rhône. An unusually adaptable variety, it has since spread around the world. It arrived in Châteauneuf-du-Pape in 1830, gradually reached the rest of the Southern Rhône, and went farther afield from there.

A vigorous variety, Syrah needs physical supports. In the north, échalas are used; in the south, vines are more commonly trained on wires. Syrah is prone to botrytis, but the main concern today is Syrah decline (dépérissement de la Syrah). This disease, first noticed in Languedoc in the 1990s, is a fatal ailment that causes reddening of the leaves, followed by swelling and splitting of the trunk, typically around the graft union. There is currently no cure, but it appears that certain clones are considerably more susceptible than others, underlining the importance of careful clonal selection when establishing new vineyards.

Syrah vs. Serine

Northern Rhône winemakers occasionally refer not to Syrah but to Serine or Petite Serine. This is an ancient, preclonal Syrah that developed in and around Côte-Rôtie. Genetically, Serine and Syrah are the same, but Serine has a distinctive physiology after centuries of selection by growers. Some winemakers, such as Agnès Levet, say that their vineyards are exclusively planted with Serine rather than Syrah; she says that the bunches are longer, the olive-shaped berries are less tightly packed than those of Syrah, and the wines have a spicier flavor. But there is no consensus, even in Côte-Rôtie, as to whether Serine is really any different from normal Syrah. Other winemakers say that it’s simply the local name for Syrah.

In the winery, Syrah is prone to reduction, the production of sulfur compounds during fermentation that can lead to off-aromas. In small amounts, reduction can add smoky notes and complexity, but larger amounts of sulfur compounds can smell rubbery or tarry and can dominate a wine’s expression. To minimize reduction, it is crucial to ensure adequate contact with air during or after fermentation, or both, typically through délestage (rack and return) and racking during maturation in barrel. This is one reason Syrah is usually aged in small- and medium-sized oak barrels, which provide some oxygen ingress.

Syrah wines are darkly colored, with a purple tint. In the Northern Rhône, Syrah usually produces wines with moderate to high acidity and strong, sometimes rigid, tannic structures. The wines can be aromatically complex, with notes of wood smoke, black olive, blackberry, violet, and smoky bacon.

Another aromatic marker commonly associated with Syrah is black pepper, resulting from the naturally occurring compound rotundone, which is highly prevalent in Syrah grapes. Rotundone is in all “peppery” plants, including black peppercorns, oregano, and rosemary, as well as other grape varieties, in differing concentrations, such as Durif, Gamay, Vespolina, and Grüner Veltliner—but it is by far most prevalent in Syrah. It is likely that the buildup of rotundone in grapes results from a combination of factors, including length of time between veraison and harvest, bunch exposure to sunlight, specific clone type, and vine age. As a result, it is difficult for growers and winemakers to control it. Since the onset of climate change, however, pepperiness in Northern Rhône Syrah has become less common, as the buildup and retention of rotundone in Syrah are minimized by warmer growing conditions.

In the Southern Rhône, while Syrah produces wines with fewer floral and spice notes, the grape brings welcome tannin, acidity, and color to Grenache. But as the Southern Rhône warms, Syrah is falling out of favor.

Carignan Noir (4,104 ha): The Rhône Valley might be famous for the GSM blend (composed of Grenache, Syrah, Mourvèdre), but Carignan is the third most widely planted red grape. It’s another import from Spain, most likely Aragon. Carignan is widespread throughout the Southern Rhône, especially Cairanne and Rasteau, but it is not permitted in certain AOCs, including Gigondas and Châteauneuf-du-Pape.

Because Carignan can be very productive, its yields must be tightly controlled. In blends, it provides intense color, strong acidity, and bold tannins—all of which can be lacking in Grenache. Old vines are prized, as they result in naturally lower yields. Resistant to heat and drought, Carignan is increasingly well suited to the Southern Rhône.

Mourvèdre (2,871 ha): Mourvèdre was originally introduced to Provence from the Camp de Morvedre [sic] area of Valencia in the 16^th century; there, it is called Monastrell. Mourvèdre’s heartland is still Bandol, on the Provence coast, but it has been rapidly embraced by the Southern Rhône, where it performs brilliantly, enjoying the extended periods of heat and sun that the area provides. Because Mourvèdre needs access to water, it’s less forgiving than Grenache when it comes to site selection. As vignerons plan for climate change, Mourvèdre is gaining significant popularity.

Late budding and late ripening, Mourvèdre produces wines with deep color, firm acidity, and a strong tannic base. Alcohol levels are typically generous but lower than those of Grenache. Aromas tend toward blue and black fruits, with notes of blackberry, blueberry, violet, and fresh earth, becoming complex and gamy with age. Varietal Mourvèdre wines remain very rare in the Rhône Valley.

Cinsault (2,215 ha): Cinsault was once considered lacking in complexity and power, but it is increasingly admired for its juiciness, finesse, and low alcohol. It hails from the South of France (either Languedoc or the Rhône Valley) and is at home in hot, dry conditions. Cinsault is often used for rosés as well as reds, and it is particularly widely planted in Tavel.

The variety produces big bunches of large berries with thin skins and lots of juice, resulting in wines with relatively pale colors and subtle, tealike tannins. Because Cinsault can suffer from esca, old vines are relatively rare compared with Grenache. The best examples of pure Cinsault currently hail from South Africa, whose winemakers are, for now at least, more adept than those of France at bringing out its full potential.

Marselan (1,025 ha): By far the most popular of the three crossings permitted in Côtes du Rhône AOC wines (the others are Caladoc and Couston, discussed below), Marselan is a crossing of Grenache and Cabernet Sauvignon. It was produced in Montpellier, France, in 1961 by Paul Truel, an ampelographer who worked at Domaine de Vassal, a viticultural research post belonging to the Institut national de recherche agronomique. Truel worked here from 1954 to 1985, creating over a dozen new grape varieties.

Marselan is appreciated by growers for its resistance to botrytis, coulure, and powdery mildew. It produces wines with a very dark color, marked acidity, and concentrated red and black berry flavors. It’s late to ripen and prone to green, herbal notes if not fully ripe. Marselan has been enthusiastically adopted by the Chinese wine industry and is prevalent in Ningxia.

Caladoc (237 ha): Caladoc is another crossing with Grenache, this time with Côt (Malbec), developed in Montpellier by Truel in 1958. With Caladoc, Truel intended to create a grape variety resistant to coulure, and he was successful. Caladoc is also resistant to drought, botrytis, and powdery mildew. It produces wines that are dark in color, full-bodied, and powerfully tannic, and it is used for both red and rosé production.

Counoise (140 ha): Counoise is cultivated in small amounts throughout the Southern Rhône, mostly in Châteauneuf-du-Pape, where it’s gaining in popularity, notably at Château de Beaucastel, which has made examples with strong aging potential.

Counoise has been grown in the Southern Rhône for at least four centuries. It is well adapted to hot and stony terroirs, where it produces wines that are relatively pale in color, with a peppery note and subtle tannins. Good acidity and moderate alcohol make it a useful blending component with Grenache. Plantings are likely to increase.

Muscat à Petits Grains Noirs (101 ha): There are two areas that grow plentiful Muscat in the Rhône Valley: Beaumes-de-Venise and Diois, where it is used in sparkling Clairette de Die. Most of this is Muscat à Petits Grains Blancs, but the grape readily mutates in the vineyard from white to red, into Muscat à Petits Grains Noirs. Given that Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise can be produced in all three colors, the Noirs variant is not discouraged (there’s less in Diois). The red grape has grapey aromatics similar to those of its white counterpart, with some additional red-fruit flavors and light tannins.

Couston (20 ha): The least prevalent of the three crossings permitted in Côtes du Rhône AOC, Couston is a natural crossing of Grenache and Aubun that was discovered by Julien Couston in the early 1970s. It’s resistant to coulure but needs abundant water during the growing season. Wines from Couston tend to be dark in color, full-bodied, and very tannic, and they are often very high in alcohol.

Other Red Grapes: Gamay, at 20 hectares (50 acres), and Pinot Noir, at 9 hectares (22 acres), are used only in Diois. The Southern Rhône grows even more red varieties that assist in its long-standing tradition of blending. These grapes are rarely used in monovarietal examples. Piquepoul (16 hectares, or 40 acres) comes in three colors: blanc, gris, and noir. It produces relatively pale wines with good acidity. Muscardin (14 hectares, or 35 acres) is grown almost exclusively in Châteauneuf-du-Pape, where it yields fairly pale wines with strong tannic structure and acidity, with musky spice and floral notes. Vaccarèse (14 hectares, or 35 acres) produces midweight, structured wines with juniper and violet notes. Terret Noir (5 hectares, or 12 acres), originally from Languedoc, was once valued for its high yields. It is pale in color, with notable structure but often rustic tannins.

As Rhône Valley producers consider their future in a rapidly changing climate, there’s an increasing interest in VIFA varieties. Vidoc is being introduced for its resistance to powdery mildew, downy mildew, and botrytis. It demonstrates spicy aromas and high alcohol and is more commonly used for rosé than for red wine. Montepulciano is being trialed in Costières de Nîmes AOC for its resistance to spring frost (it’s late budding) and suitability to hot climates. Morrastel (Graciano) was once widespread in Languedoc. Experiments with the grape are happening in Costières de Nîmes AOC, where it has been selected for its drought resistance and low alcohol.

White and Pink Grapes

Among white varieties, six grapes (Grenache Blanc, Viognier, Muscat à Petits Grains Blancs, Clairette Blanche, Roussanne, and Marsanne) make up 84% of plantings—contrasting with just two (Grenache and Syrah) composing the same percentage of red plantings.

Grenache Blanc (2,060 ha): Grenache Blanc is the most planted of all white and pink grapes in the Rhône Valley, with 21% of all plantings, and it’s widely dispersed throughout the south. This is by far its most important growing region worldwide. Some Grenache Blanc is cultivated in Spain (where it originated) and Roussillon, and a small amount in California and South Africa. There is very little elsewhere.

Alone, Grenache Blanc produces wines that are full-bodied and rich in glycerol, with high alcohol and moderate acidity. It is a texture-driven grape variety, with a neutrality that allows more characterful varieties in the blend to shine. Grenache Blanc is mostly used to produce still, dry wines in the Rhône Valley, but it is also used to make sweet Rasteau Vin Doux Naturel.

Viognier (1,549 ha): The next most planted white grape in the Rhône Valley is Viognier. It likely originated in Condrieu or nearby. It is a parent of Mondeuse Blanche, which means that it is either a half-sibling or grandparent of Syrah, and it is also related to Nebbiolo, reflected by its close genetic relationship to Freisa.

Viognier is early budding and early ripening. It’s aromatically distinctive, producing wines with exuberant peach and apricot scents. In Condrieu, jasmine, violet, almond, and ginger are also common. It is typically full-bodied, with mild acidity and generous alcohol. Identifying the picking date with precision is the key to retaining Viognier’s freshness and drinkability. With these characteristics in mind, winemakers are increasingly reducing lees stirring and maturation in new oak barriques when working with the grape.

In the Southern Rhône, where Viognier can be richer, it is typically used as a blending component, adding aromatics and textural richness.

Viognier is mostly used in the production of still, dry wines, but a very small amount of sweet Condrieu is still made (permitted under the rules of the AOC). Up to 20% Viognier can be used in the reds of Côte-Rôtie AOC, but in practice more than 10% is unusual. Historically, Viognier was blended into Syrah in Côte-Rôtie to bolster body and alcohol levels in weak vintages, add aromatic complexity, and stabilize color.

Muscat à Petits Grains Blancs (1,480 ha): There are many grapes whose names include Muscat, but Muscat à Petits Grains Blancs is considered one of the best. It’s early ripening, with smaller berries than most other Muscats. It likely originated in Italy or Greece, but it has been grown in Beaumes-de-Venise AOC for over two millennia. Here, it creates full-bodied, still, sweet wines. They are usually white, but rosé and red Muscats are also allowed under the appellation Beaumes-de-Venise. Although delicious when young, thanks to flavors of fresh grape, orange-flower water, honeysuckle, and apricot, the best examples can last for decades, taking on butterscotch and dried-fruit aromas as they develop.

The majority of Muscat à Petits Grains Blancs in the Rhône Valley is grown for sparkling wine, mostly the low-alcohol, sweet white Clairette de Die (it makes up a minimum of 75% of the blend) and dry Crémant de Die (maximum 10% of the blend).

Clairette Blanche (1,336 ha): In the Southern Rhône, where blending dominates, there is only one white grape that is often bottled varietally, and that is Clairette Blanche, usually referred to simply as Clairette. There are two appellations, albeit small, that require varietal Clairette: Clairette de Bellegarde and Coteaux de Die. Gigondas AOC blanc can also be 100% Clairette (a minimum of 70% is stipulated).

Although likely to originate in Languedoc, Clairette thrives in the hot, dry Southern Rhône. Its name refers to the tiny white hairs on the undersides of its leaves that reflect the light. Many winemakers appreciate the grape for its innate freshness, which tends to present itself in an aromatic, floral lift. Clairette yields full-bodied wines, and its acidity is moderate at best. Even so, wines made from Clairette can age remarkably well.

Mostly used for dry, still whites, Clairette is also grown in Diois for sparkling wines. Crémant de Die must contain at least 55%; Clairette de Die is limited (somewhat confusingly) to a maximum of 25% Clairette Blanche or Clairette Rose, or both.

Roussanne (1,164 ha): Roussanne is among the few white grape varieties that produce excellent wines in cool, moderate, and hot climates. It originated in the Northern Rhône and spread to the hotter Southern Rhône and the cooler Savoie (where it’s known as Bergeron), and it can make excellent wines in all three. Roussanne is also grown in small amounts in South Africa, Australia, and the US.

In the Northern Rhône, all crus south of Condrieu that produce white wine use Marsanne, Roussanne, or a blend of both. Roussanne is planted across the Southern Rhône, with large quantities in Costières de Nîmes, Ventoux, and Luberon. It is usually blended but sometimes bottled varietally, especially in Châteauneuf-du-Pape (where Marsanne is not permitted). Like Marsanne, Roussanne thrives on poor, stony soils and is susceptible to powdery mildew and botrytis. Its yields are inconsistent compared with those of Marsanne, however, and Roussanne is also more prone to fungal diseases, perhaps explaining Marsanne’s prevalence in the Northern Rhône.

The name Roussanne refers to the red- or russet-colored freckles that the grapes develop as they ripen. Roussanne is genetically related to Marsanne, and both grapes produce medium- to full-bodied, texturally rich, medium-acidity wines. Roussanne tends to yield white fruit flavors (pear, lychee) and white flower aromas, while Marsanne produces yellow fruit flavors (apricot, peach, mango) and yellow flower aromas (honeysuckle) and becomes nuttier with age.

Roussanne is mostly used for still, dry wines, but it also appears either with or without Marsanne in sparkling Saint-Péray. It is used for sweet white Hermitage Vin de Paille as well.

Marsanne (872 ha): While Roussanne spread far and wide from its Northern Rhône heartland, Marsanne is more of a homebody. Although it grows in the Southern Rhône, it doesn’t thrive in the warmer climate, and varietal Marsanne wines in the south are rare. Marsanne is mostly planted in Costières de Nîmes, Grignan-les-Adhémar, and Côtes du Vivarais. Elsewhere, there are limited Marsanne plantings in Switzerland (where the grape is known as Hermitage or Ermitage), and even smaller amounts in California and Australia.

Like Roussanne, Marsanne is mostly used for still, dry wines, but it can appear with or without Roussanne in sparkling Saint-Péray. It is also used for sweet white Hermitage Vin de Paille.

Rolle (619 ha): Rolle (otherwise known as Vermentino, though the EU gave ownership of that name to the Italians in 2022) is a white grape that’s grown widely around the Mediterranean, particularly southern France, northern Italy, Corsica, and Sardinia.

Until 2023, only four Rhône Valley appellations—Luberon, Costières de Nîmes, Ventoux, and Duché d’Uzès—were permitted to use Rolle, and, of these four, Luberon had embraced it most closely. In 2024, Rolle was also listed as a VIFA variety permitted for limited use in Côtes du Rhône AOC and Côtes du Rhône Villages AOC.

Rolle crops inconsistently, but it’s popular for the style of wine it creates. While most Rhône whites are medium- to full-bodied, with low to moderate acidity and high alcohol, Rolle is different. Although it can be made successfully in a richer style, it can also produce a lighter, brisker, fresher style. Flavor-wise, Rolle offers plentiful citrus, pineapple, and pear. It takes well to oak aging, which adds body and spice. It is a very promising grape that could in time be more broadly accepted in other Rhône Valley appellations.

Ugni Blanc (458 ha): Ugni Blanc, also known as Trebbiano Toscano, is mostly planted in Luberon, where up to 50% is allowed in white wines. Elsewhere in the Rhône Valley, its use is more restricted. Ugni Blanc is a rot-resistant, vigorous variety that produces large bunches of small berries and ripens late. Although its aromatics are subtle, it is valued for its acidity and freshness.

Bourboulenc (244 ha): While it composes only 2% of plantings of white and pink grape varieties in the Rhône Valley, Bourboulenc is an important grape to know. It appears to originate in Vaucluse. Its name likely comes from Barbolenquiera, the name of an old vineyard in Aubignan, near Beaumes-de-Venise. Bourboulenc is rarely seen outside the Rhône Valley.

Bourboulenc ripens late but is resistant to botrytis because of its thick skins. Since it retains its acidity and has an energetic profile, it is well suited to blends. It’s rarely made as a varietal wine. Domaine de Saint-Siffrein Châteauneuf-du-Pape Le Berlou is one Rhône Valley example; Tablas Creek in Paso Robles also makes a varietal Bourboulenc. Both are excellent, showing the potential of this little-known variety.

Clairette Rose (87 ha): Clairette Rose is a pink-skinned natural mutation of Clairette Blanche. Small parcels are dotted around Côtes du Rhône, with the majority in the appellations of Châteauneuf-du Pape, Ventoux, Tavel, and Lirac. It is also permitted in Clairette de Die in small quantities. Clairette Rose is stylistically similar to Clairette Blanche but has a more pronounced floral aroma.

Grenache Gris (34 ha): Grenache Gris is the pink-skinned version of Grenache Noir and is minimally planted in the Rhône Valley, mostly around Côtes du Rhône and in Costières de Nîmes. It’s vinified primarily for rosé, as use in white-wine appellations is inexplicably restricted. Grenache Gris shares many viticultural characteristics with Grenache Noir: drought and wind resistant, prone to coulure. It produces wines with breadth and fullness, generous alcohol, and low acidity but a good sense of tension, which Grenache Blanc can lack. It is mostly used for dry wines but permitted in all three colors of Rasteau Vin Doux Naturel.

Piquepoul Blanc (34 ha): Piquepoul Blanc is mostly planted in Châteauneuf-du-Pape, Lirac, and Tavel, but it might be poised for renewed interest following selection as a VIFA grape in April 2025 for trial in Costières de Nîmes AOC. Of the three colors of Piquepoul (blanc, gris, and noir), the white version is the most prevalent. It is planted around Côtes du Rhône, where it’s allowed only as a minor blending component, but most plantings are centered around the west bank in the AOCs of Tavel, Lirac, and Laudun. Because Piquepoul Blanc thrives in hot climates, ripens late, and retains its acidity, it is a valuable blending component.

The grape is more commonly grown in Languedoc, most notably in Picpoul de Pinet AOC. It’s garnering interest in South Australia, which produces several good varietal examples that are now commercially available.

Other White Grapes: Chardonnay (32 hectares, or 79 acres) and Aligoté (28 hectares, or 69 acres) are cultivated along the Drôme River in the Northern Rhône. A color mutation of Carignan Noir, Carignan Blanc (3 hectares, or 7.5 acres) is gaining traction as a variety adapted to climate change. Macabeu (3 hectares, or 7.5 acres) is grown in small amounts in Costières de Nîmes, where it produces neutral wines with high alcohol and low acidity. Picardan (3 hectares, or 7.5 acres) is an ancient variety with large bunches and big berries that is indigenous to the South of France but now nearly extinct.

White VIFA varieties include Floréal, a hybrid selected for its resistance to downy mildew, powdery mildew, and black rot; it requires ample water. Floréal produces aromatic, floral whites. Souvignier Gris, a crossing of Seyval Blanc and Zähringer, is a pink-berried VIFA variety from Germany, created by Norbert Becker in 1983. It was selected for its resistance to downy and powdery mildew and is being trialed in Costières de Nîmes.

Northern Rhône

Harvest at Domaine Pierre Gaillard (Credit: Christophe Grilhé for Inter Rhône)

Côte-Rôtie AOC

Planted hectares: 343
Hectoliters produced: 11,752
Average yield (hl/ha): 34
Volume by color: 100% red

Côte-Rôtie, the northernmost AOC in the Northern Rhône, produces some of the finest, most transparent, and most complex renditions of the Syrah grape. The appellation contains three communes: Saint-Cyr-sur-Rhône to the north, and Ampuis and Tupin-Semons to the south. It follows the west bank of the Rhône River as it flows southwest between Vienne and Condrieu.

The vineyards of Côte-Rôtie occupy a slope between 180 meters (590 feet) and 325 meters (1,070 feet) above sea level that’s dramatically folded and corrugated, resulting in vineyards that have multiple expositions but largely face south or southeast. Because of the steepness of the slopes, the vineyards are grown on terraces that follow the contours of the hills, requiring much of the vineyard work to be done by hand, leading to some of the highest bottle prices in the Rhône.

Granite dominates in the Northern Rhône but not in Côte-Rôtie. The region contains some granite soils at its southernmost point, where it shares a border with Condrieu, but most of the appellation is composed of schist, particularly in the northern part, with significant outcrops of gneiss to the south (there is gneiss and schist on the opposite sides as well). The main meeting point of the schist to the north and the gneiss to the south is around the lieu-dit La Côte Blonde. The main granite lieux-dits are Corps de Loup, Coteaux de Bassenon, Maisons Blanches, and part of Maison Rouge.

These soil types impact the resulting wines. The more southerly gneiss soils (and the granite section, too, in practice) are locally referred to as blonde soils because of their pale color. Wines produced from these sites are described as highly aromatic, with notes of rose, cedar, incense, and tobacco, and with lighter tannic structures, making them ready to drink sooner. The darker schistose soils are called brune (brown or brunette) soils. These yield more robust wines, with firmer tannins that take longer to develop, and contain flavors of darker fruit.

The slopes of Côte-Rôtie have been cultivated for at least two millennia. The wines of Vienne were mentioned by Pliny the Elder, who wrote in Natural History, in roughly 77 CE, that wines were already being made here by a tribe called the Allobroges. The slopes were slow to be replanted after phylloxera, and by 1973 there were just 72 hectares (178 acres) in production. Since then, the wines have once again gained renown, in part thanks to the driving force of the Guigal family.

The impact and significance of the négociant house E. Guigal is hard to overstate. Located in the heart of Ampuis, it was founded in 1946 by Étienne Guigal. When he became temporarily blind in 1961, his son Marcel took over the management of the company. Unusually for a business of this size, the family remains directly involved in the winemaking process. Marcel’s son, Philippe, is the chief winemaker, and Marcel is still involved in day-to-day operations. Today, the house produces 8.5 million bottles annually and owns 152 hectares (376 acres) of vineyards, 40 hectares (99 acres) of which are in Côte-Rôtie. Its success has allowed it to acquire numerous other properties, including the neighboring négociant house Vidal-Fleury; Domaine de Bonserine, in Côte-Rôtie; Château de Nalys, in Châteauneuf-du-Pape; and Château d’Aqueria, in Tavel.

Domaine E. Guigal is best known for its role in catapulting the wines of the Northern Rhône toward luxury territory. Beginning in the 1960s, Guigal introduced the La-Las, single-site wines aged for around 42 months in 100% new French oak: La Mouline (the first vintage was 1966), La Landonne (1978), and La Turque (1985). La Reynarde will join the famed La-Las starting with the 2022 vintage.

Côte-Rôtie is an exclusively red-wine appellation, and the only red variety permitted is Syrah. Up to 20% Viognier can be co-planted in the vineyards. Historically, Viognier’s generous alcohol levels helped bolster weak vintages, and its floral notes combine well with those of the Syrah grown here, which often has aromas of violet. Viognier also plays an important role in color stabilization.

Côte-Rôtie is almost always aged in barrel, typically for between 12 and 24 months, sometimes longer. The new oak barriques that were fashionable from the 1990s to 2010s are increasingly making way for more traditional demi-muids of either 500 or 600 liters, and less new oak is being used than in the past. Whole-bunch fermentation, which can add structure, increase freshness, and reduce alcohol levels, is also increasing in popularity.

The wines of Côte-Rôtie can be very long-lived; 15 to 20 years is common, and some continue to drink well at 50 years. They can also be delicious young, around 4 years of age, and are often in a sweet spot between 10 and 20 years. The best examples are among the finest wines in the world.

There are 73 official lieux-dits in the appellation, and, while it has long been traditional to blend across different parcels to create a unified vision of the terroir, many producers also create single-vineyard expressions. There are benefits to both approaches. Not all single vineyards excel every year, so creating a blend can lead to a more balanced, complete wine. But single-vineyard wines are more limited in production, creating scarcity and justifying higher prices. These, in turn, can elevate prices of other wines in a producer’s range.

Although there is no official classification of Côte-Rôtie lieux-dits, some are considered better than others. The following are broadly considered among the most desirable:

La Côte Brune: While the entire northern, schistose side of the appellation is sometimes referred to as La Côte Brune, and the southern gneiss half as La Côte Blonde, there are also individual lieux-dits with these names in the heart of Ampuis. La Côte Brune is a large, steep lieu-dit, much of which is south facing, composed of schist. It is the source of reliably complete and harmonious Côte-Rôtie wines of the highest quality. Single-vineyard expressions include Domaine Jean-Paul Jamet, Domaine Rostaing, and Domaine E. Guigal’s La Turque.

La Côte Blonde: Just south of the lieu-dit La Côte Brune is the lieu-dit La Côte Blonde. It’s a steep slope comprising intricate terraces built on both gneiss and schist, facing south and southeast. The typical style is highly fragrant and very fine and lithe. Top single-vineyard bottlings include Domaine Stéphane Ogier, Domaine Rostaing, and Domaine E. Guigal’s La Mouline.

Lancement: Lancement is situated high above the lieu-dit La Côte Blonde, with similar soils. Its wines offer perfume and depth. Top examples are made by Domaine Stéphane Ogier and Domaine Garon.

La Landonne: North of Ampuis, this well-known lieu-dit is a triangular slice of hillside that faces southeast. La Landonne is vertiginously sloping and has schist soils with red stains from iron deposits. Its assertive, strongly tannic wines aren’t always well balanced by themselves. Excellent examples are made by Domaine Xavier Gérard, Domaine Rostaing, and Domaine E. Guigal.

La Viallière: Farther north than La Landonne is La Viallière, a schistous, midslope lieu-dit that produces wines with aromas of violet and ink, and with very fine tannins. Top examples include those from Domaine Rostaing and Domaine Clusel-Roch.

Les Grandes Places: This rocky site consists of steep outcrops of mica and schist with inflections of iron. Notable wind, a result of elevation and position, is a unique characteristic of this lieu-dit. The wines of Domaine Clusel-Roch and Jean-Michel Gerin are the standard-bearers of the vineyard.

Other notable lieux-dits include Côte Rozier, Chavaroche, Fongeant, and Coteaux de Tupin.

Condrieu AOC

Planted hectares: 221
Hectoliters produced: 7,167
Average yield (hl/ha): 32
Volume by color: 100% white

Directly south of Côte-Rôtie is Condrieu. The two share a border, and, to the naked eye, the terrain is similar from one to the next: steep, often terraced slopes of vines grown on stakes. Condrieu, however, is 100% white and always pure Viognier.

The original appellation, established in 1940, covered just three villages: Condrieu, Vérin, and Saint-Michel-sur-Rhône. Here, the bedrock is composed of dark biotite granite with some lighter muscovite granite at each end. Many of the best parcels, such as the lieu-dit Vernon, have a coarse, sandy topsoil known locally as arzelle that is made of decomposed granite and mica. In 1967, multiple small islands of land to the south were added to the appellation, in the communes of Chavanay, Saint-Pierre-de-Boeuf, Malleval, and Limony. These are more geologically diverse, largely featuring types of granite and migmatite with some outcrops of gneiss and loess.

Whether these additional terroirs are the equal of the original slopes is debatable, but, during this period of expansion, the appellation was struggling following the ravages of phylloxera and two world wars. Although today Viognier is planted around the world, it had nearly become extinct by 1965, with just 8 hectares (20 acres) remaining in the village of Condrieu—at this point, it wasn’t found anywhere else. Thanks to the hard work of Condrieu winemakers, spearheaded by the indefatigable Georges Vernay, the hillsides of Condrieu were replanted and the variety rescued from the brink.

Today, Condrieu is almost exclusively dry. Sweet Condrieu, typically with 60 to 80 grams of residual sugar per liter, is permitted in the AOC, but very few producers make it. Notable examples include those of Xavier Gérard and Yves Cuilleron.

Condrieu shows the exuberant, heady aromatics of Viognier in youth, but the best examples demonstrate a freshness and a salinity that bring balance. These elements, when present, also give the wine its ability to develop in bottle, with toasty gingerbread notes emerging over time. In a warming climate, most winemakers are doing what they can to accentuate freshness and acidity. As such, lees stirring and new oak barriques are falling out of favor, though some degree of oak aging remains commonplace. Blocking malolactic fermentation is still relatively rare.

Château-Grillet AOC

Château-Grillet AOC (Credit: Christophe Grilhé for Inter Rhône)

Planted hectares: 3.5
Hectoliters produced: 96
Average yield (hl/ha): 26
Volume by color: 100% white

The tiny domaine of Château-Grillet, straddling the communes of Saint-Michel-sur-Rhône and Vérin, at the heart of Condrieu AOC, was awarded its own appellation in 1936. At the time, if an estate had a property designated as a château (a building with at least two turrets) and vineyards in one single block around the property, it could apply for its own appellation. The owners did exactly that, and thus this monopole was created.

Château-Grillet owns just 3.5 hectares (8.5 acres) of Viognier grapes, which are grown in a south-facing amphitheater of biotite granite, with 104 tight terraces that begin at 150 meters (490 feet) above sea level and end at 250 meters (820 feet). The estate itself is ancient, with château records dating it to the early 1600s. Its historic fame was such that in 1787 it attracted a visit by Thomas Jefferson, the future US president. From 1827 to 2011, it was owned by the Neyret-Gachet family. It was then sold to the French businessman François Pinault, and it is now part of his Artémis Domaines portfolio of wineries. On purchasing the estate, Pinault converted it to biodynamics and introduced two cuvées, a declassified Côtes du Rhône AOC and a Condrieu named La Carthery, made from a newly purchased 0.25-hectare (0.6-acre) parcel of Condrieu that borders Château-Grillet at the top of the amphitheater.

The rules of production for Château-Grillet AOC are similar to those of Condrieu AOC, with 100% Viognier required for the wines. Some rules are tighter, however. For example, Château-Grillet has slightly lower maximum yields (37 hectoliters per hectare versus 41 hectoliters per hectare). Also, it must be vinified dry and sold in a fluted Alsace-style bottle known as vin du Rhin.

Compared with typical Condrieu wines, those of Château-Grillet display a marked tension and salinity—perhaps because of the estate’s south-facing slope—and they have a rare longevity.

Saint-Joseph AOC

Planted hectares: 1,415
Hectoliters produced: 50,689
Average yield (hl/ha): 36
Volume by color: 86% red, 14% white

While some Northern Rhône appellations represent a single village or terroir, such as Cornas or Hermitage, Saint-Joseph covers a thin, 50-kilometer (30-mile) stretch of the west bank, from Condrieu to Saint-Péray. It encompasses many of the small but high-quality south- and southeast-facing slopes on this immense block of Massif Central granite. (There are small outcrops of limestone, gneiss, loess, and alluvial soils, too, in the appellation.)

Like Condrieu, Saint-Joseph started small but was extended. When the appellation was established, in 1956, it included six communes (Glun, Mauves, Tournon-sur-Rhône, Lemps, Saint-Jean-de-Muzols, and Vion) just over the river from the hill of Hermitage. Mauves and Tournon-sur-Rhône, their vineyards grown on an atypically coarse-grained type of granite called granite de Tournon, had long been famous for the quality of their wines. In the Middle Ages, vin de Tournon was praiseworthy enough to be supplied to King François I. The appellation was extended, mostly northward, in 1969, adding another 20 communes.

Mauves, Saint-Jean-de-Muzols, and Tournon-sur-Rhône contain the top terroirs in the AOC. Mauves is known for tension-driven Syrah wines grown on its firm granite soils, and Saint-Jean-de-Muzols’s decomposed granites and vineyard aspects create structured and savory wines. Tournon-sur-Rhône’s inflections of clay and galets yield powerful expressions of Saint-Joseph that are among the best Syrah wines of the Rhône Valley.

Saint-Joseph reds are usually pure Syrah (they can include up to 10% Marsanne or Roussanne, or both, but in practice the reds are monovarietal). Whites can be made with Marsanne, Roussanne, or both; in 2024, 67% of white plantings were Marsanne.

The grapes grown at the northern end of the appellation take about a week longer to ripen than those on the southern side, and stylistically the wines of the north are lighter and more fragrant than the robust wines of the south.

The best slopes are as difficult to work as those of Côte-Rôtie and Hermitage, but, because of its size and relatively varied terroir, Saint-Joseph doesn’t have the same reputation; as a result, these wines are considerably less expensive. There are some exceptional terroirs in the appellation, though, resulting in the best Saint-Joseph wines often representing excellent value for money.

Cornas AOC

Planted hectares: 164
Hectoliters produced: 4,938
Average yield (hl/ha): 30
Volume by color: 100% red

Although considered through much of the late 1900s as a more rustic alternative to Côte-Rôtie and Hermitage, Cornas has largely been freed of this image and taken its rightful place as the equal of these other great Northern Rhône crus.

Like many of the most challenging terroirs in the Rhône Valley, Cornas was slowly rebuilt after phylloxera and both world wars. Because the Cornas hillside is so hard to work—it’s rumpled, steep, and difficult—most holdings were, and still are, under 10 hectares (25 acres). When prices were low, families couldn’t rely on selling wine alone to make a living. Because most estates were run on a part-time, semiprofessional basis alongside other jobs, modern winemaking techniques arrived here slightly later, hence the reputation for rusticity.

Most of Cornas is situated on heavily weathered, coarse-grained granite called gore. Geologically, the appellation can be viewed as three zones: granite interspersed with limestone in the north; gneiss, clay, and gore in the center; and decomposed, sandy granite in the south. Wines must be 100% Syrah. The best terroirs are on the slope that rises immediately behind the little village of Cornas, between 120 meters (390 feet) and 400 meters (1,310 feet) in elevation. It faces mainly east, with some south- and southeast-facing parcels.

Cornas wines are known for their powerful, assertive nature. They can have chiseled, serrated tannins that need time to soften. Although they don’t develop as predictably as most Hermitage wines, they tend to show well between 8 and 20 years in bottle and can take on a thrilling complexity with time. Those who enjoy Syrah wines with dramatic textures will also appreciate these within four years of bottling.

Single-vineyard wines are relatively rare in Cornas, compared with Hermitage and Côte-Rôtie, but this may change as certain top lieux-dits are increasingly appearing on labels. The greatest lieu-dit is Reynard, a south-facing amphitheater at the heart of the appellation, with parcels owned by the domaines of Clape, Farge, A & E Verset, Allemand, and Paul Jaboulet Aîné. A subsection called La Geynale is vinified by Vincent Paris. Other important lieux-dits include Chaillot, Les Mazards, La Côte, and Patou.

Chaillot: Known for producing the most powerful wines in the appellation, this hillside features a range of exposures, from east to southwest, with myriad granite expressions. Protected by trees on the northern side, the site soaks up the sun, with the higher elevations famous for the tannins of their wines.

Les Mazards: This vineyard is home to two distinct terroirs: its higher-elevation, steep granite and its flatter, lower-slope clay-limestone soils. The wines are known for their fruitiness and rounder tannins compared with those from nearby sites. Franck Balthazar, Matthieu Barret, and Vincent Paris are key producers.

Reynard: Hard gneiss and granite, with some clay, define Reynard. The site sits around 260 meters (850 feet) in elevation, with southern and southeastern exposures. Clay soils facilitate its success in drought vintages. The hillside is subdivided into multiple climats, including La Geynale, La Côte, and Tézier.

Since the original slope on which these great lieux-dits are located is now fully planted, an increasing number of winemakers are establishing vineyards high on the plateau above. This cooler, windswept, rolling landscape can produce very good wines but without the intensity and concentration of those grown on the slope.

Saint-Péray AOC

Planted hectares: 116
Hectoliters produced: 3,075
Average yield (hl/ha): 26
Volume by color: 100% white

Just south of Cornas are the Marsanne and Roussanne vineyards of Saint-Péray. This is the southernmost appellation in the Northern Rhône and reserved exclusively for white wines. As of 2024, 77% was planted to Marsanne and 23% to Roussanne. The terroir here is slightly different from that of the surrounding areas. While much of the appellation is granite, there’s also a significant outcrop of limestone.

In the early 20^th century, around 90% of Saint-Péray was sparkling. The first successful attempts at Saint-Péray mousseux were made by Maison Faure in 1829, with the help of a winemaker from Champagne, and the wines are still made in the traditional method today. The category thrived, and prices soon rivaled those of Saint-Péray’s more famous competitor.

Today, the proportions of still to sparkling are reversed, but the small amount of sparkling produced is dry and fairly rich in mouthfeel. These wines can be good, if rarely supremely elegant. The still wines, however, can be excellent and rival the best white wines of Saint-Joseph.

Hermitage AOC

Planted hectares: 136
Hectoliters produced: 3,843
Average yield (hl/ha): 28
Volume by color: 69% red, 31% white

Millions of years ago, the Rhône River gradually sliced a chunk of the Massif Central from the west bank, leaving an island of granite on the east bank. Gradually, other types of rock have fused to it, and today this is the hill of Hermitage. It forms a kink in the river where the Rhône River skirts around it, traveling briefly east before continuing south.

This hill presents its south-facing slope to the sun, sheltering the vines from the wind and creating a stunning site that appears as if it were designed for growing grapes. The top of the hill has deposits of loess, which are usually used for growing white grapes. The bottom of the hill has more clay and alluvial deposits, which yield wines with fruit and elegance, if rarely the intensity of wines from the top and middle of the slope. It’s an imposing sight, but the hill itself amounts only to 136 hectares (336 acres).

The name Hermitage (Ermitage) refers to a local legend about the knight Henri Gaspard de Stérimberg. Returning injured from the Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229), he came across the hill and wanted to stop and build a hermitage there. He made a request to Blanche de Castille, the queen of France, which she granted, and he remained there until his death. It’s said that he tended vines around the tiny Chapelle de Saint-Christophe (since rebuilt), which still sits at the top of the hill.

The wines of Hermitage quickly gained renown. Louis XIII visited in 1642, and he served the wines at his court. By the early 19^th century, prices of Hermitage equaled those of Burgundy grands crus and Bordeaux premiers crus.

Today, reds are almost always 100% Syrah, though up to 15% Roussanne or Marsanne, or both, is permitted. Red wines account for just over two-thirds of production. Whites are made from Marsanne, Roussanne, or both. In 2024, Marsanne made up most white plantings at 88%. Sweet white Hermitage Vin de Paille was a historically important style, but now it is made only by a handful of producers (including Jean-Louis Chave). All three styles can develop for decades in bottle, and the whites age as well as the reds. While white Hermitage can be drunk young, red Hermitage tends to show its best from 20 years of age.

Hermitage is divided into 20 lieux-dits. These are some of the most important, from west to east:

Les Bessards: Les Bessards is the most important lieu-dit on the granitic western flank of Hermitage, which makes up around one-fourth of the hill and is the highest part, rising to 320 meters (1,050 feet). Les Bessards produces wines with structure and backbone.

L’Hermite: L’Hermite sits in the middle of the hill’s western flank and is heavily influenced by its neighbors. The site’s granite section, around the chapel, is better for reds and has many similarities to Les Bessards, while its sandy loess section, better for whites, reflects the spirit of Le Méal. This part can deliver thrilling wines with pronounced tension, intensity, salinity, and longevity.

Le Méal: The most important lieu-dit after Les Bessards is the large, central, stony, calcareous section known as Le Méal. Although it is principally planted with Syrah, some producers, such as Chapoutier, have whites planted here, too. Both colors of wine are rich and potent.

Les Greffieux: Les Greffieux is situated underneath Le Méal at the bottom of the slope, with younger alluvial soils and clay. Its wines can be very good, though they’re not typically as interesting as those from the sites higher up. A blend from this lieu-dit, Les Bessards, and Le Méal was historically considered the traditional expression of the hill.

Maison Blanche: Eastward, in the third major section of the hill, the highest lieu-dit is Maison Blanche. It has mostly loess soils and is considered one of the best terroirs for white wines.

Les Beaumes: A thin strip of land that runs from the top of the hill all the way to the bottom, Les Beaumes contains varied soils, including some compacted stone locally known as poudingue. Wines from the foot of the hill are richer, while those from the top are fresher.

Péléat: This is a small lieu-dit at the center of the hill that produces whites with minerality. It is a core parcel for Domaine Jean-Louis Chave’s L’Hermitage blanc.

Les Rocoules: A large, midslope section just underneath Maison Blanche, Les Rocoules is mostly planted with white grapes. It produces wines with power and richness. Domaine Sorrel makes an excellent single-vineyard white Hermitage from Les Rocoules.

Les Diognières: At the foot of the slope underneath Les Rocoules, Les Diognières is geologically similar to Les Greffieux but can produce wines with finesse (if not great concentration) in the hands of producers such as Domaine Laurent Fayolle.

Crozes-Hermitage AOC

Planted hectares: 2,073
Hectoliters produced: 83,064
Average yield (hl/ha): 40
Volume by color: 89% red, 11% white

The village of Crozes invokes the name of Hermitage, but, while Hermitage is one of the smallest appellations in the Northern Rhône, Crozes-Hermitage is the largest. Its soils are very different from those of the other Northern Rhône crus. Between the Rhône and Isère Rivers, it is based mostly on red clay and rounded pebbles, successive low terraces of which were laid down by the action of glaciers.

A much smaller section north of Hermitage is grown on granite (albeit without the same combination of aspect and elevation as Hermitage). Wines from these villages, such as Gervans, lack the amplitude and concentration of the wines from the south, instead offering purity and finesse.

Another small terroir within Crozes-Hermitage with a distinct character is Larnage. This village east of Hermitage has large deposits of white kaolin sands, which yield elegant whites and reds.

Similar to Hermitage, Crozes-Hermitage reds are in practice made from 100% Syrah, but up to 15% Roussanne or Marsanne, or both, is permitted. Whites are made from Marsanne, Roussanne, or both. In 2024, Marsanne accounted for 80% of white grape plantings and Roussanne composed the remainder. Although Crozes-Hermitage can be a source of delightful and highly aromatic expressions of Northern Rhône Syrah, the wines don’t show the depth, intensity, or longevity of those from Hermitage.

Diois

The wines of Diois were welcomed into the administrative Rhône Valley family in the 1940s. The Diois vineyards are in the winding Drôme River valley, a tributary of the Rhône that flows in from the east, located between the Northern Rhône and the Southern Rhône. Although the wines made here are often based on the same grapes as those of other Rhône Valley appellations, the terroir has a more alpine influence. Vineyards are generally small and surrounded by other crops. They are planted at up to 700 meters (2,300 feet) in elevation. It is cooler and wetter here than in the Southern Rhône, and the area is shielded from the mistral.

Clairette de Die AOC

Planted hectares: 1,443
Hectoliters produced: 53,675
Average yield (hl/ha): 37
Volume by color: 100% white

This is by far the biggest appellation in Diois, with about 94% of production. Clairette de Die is an ancient style, mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History. It is made in two styles. Around 95% is méthode ancestrale. This is a sweet (minimum 35 grams of residual sugar per liter) sparkling white wine based on Muscat à Petits Grains Blancs (it can also contain up to 25% Clairette, Clairette Rose, or Muscat à Petits Grains Noirs, or all three). It is low in alcohol, around 8% ABV, and highly aromatic. The other style is méthode brut, a dry sparkling white wine made from 100% Clairette.

To produce the méthode ancestrale wines, after pressing, the juice is chilled and undergoes a long, slow fermentation using natural yeasts. Partially fermented must (4% to 5% ABV) is bottled, and the fermentation continues at low temperature. Fermentation ends at around 8% ABV, when the yeasts stop functioning because of high pressure. Malolactic fermentation does not take place. Rather than classic disgorgement, the wine is emptied into tanks where it is filtered, then rebottled.

Crémant de Die AOC

Planted hectares: 66
Hectoliters produced: 2,994
Average yield (hl/ha): 45
Volume by color: 100% white

Crémant de Die is a sparkling dry white wine made mostly from Clairette (though small amounts of Aligoté and Muscat à Petits Grains Blancs are allowed), using the traditional method.

Châtillon-en-Diois AOC

Planted hectares: 28
Hectoliters produced: 670
Average yield (hl/ha): 24
Volume by color: 42% red, 12% rosé, 46% white

Châtillon-en-Diois is an appellation for dry still wines made in three colors. Whites are light-bodied and made from Chardonnay or Aligoté, or both. Reds and rosés are light- to medium-bodied and made mostly from Gamay, with optional Pinot Noir and Syrah.

Coteaux de Die AOC

Planted hectares: 6
Hectoliters produced: 256
Average yield (hl/ha): 42
Volume by color: 100% white

Coteaux de Die is a dry still white wine made from 100% Clairette. This is one of the smallest appellations in the Rhône Valley, but these Clairette wines can rival those made farther south.

Southern Rhône

Châteauneuf-du-Pape AOC

Planted hectares: 3,135
Hectoliters produced: 78,200
Average yield (hl/ha): 24.9
Volume by color: 90% red, 10% white

Châteauneuf-du-Pape is one of the most famous wine regions in the world—not only because of the quality of the wines but as a result of its long commercial history, papal endorsement, and role in developing the appellation system. The first written references to the village date to 1094, with the first mention of local viticulture in 1157. But the arrival of the popes in the early 1300s marked a turning point in the region’s history.

Clément V, the archbishop of Bordeaux, was elected pope in 1305. Instead of taking a seat in Rome, in 1309 he chose Avignon, which was within the papal lands then known as Comtat-Venaissin. This marked the start of the Avignon papacy. It was Clément V’s successor, Jean XXII, who started the construction of the château neuf (new castle) in the village now known as Châteauneuf-du-Pape (formerly Châteauneuf-Calcernier, for the area’s limestone quarries). This new castle was a summer residence, and vineyards were also established to cater to the pope and his thirsty entourage.

The rise of private estates came later. In 1560, the Tulle de Villefranche family bought the building and farmland that became Château La Nerthe, but it wasn’t until 1730 that the wines were sold commercially. In the early 1800s, more estates were established on the strength of La Nerthe’s success, such as Domaine de la Solitude (established in 1809), which was one of the first Châteauneuf-du-Pape estates to export wine and to use private labels on its bottles. In 1923, at the request of local growers, Le Roy developed the framework for Châteauneuf-du-Pape that later served as the model for other AOCs.

Châteauneuf-du-Pape is a gently rolling countryside stretching over nearly 3,200 hectares (7,900 acres) at a bend in the Rhône River. Its highest point is just 128 meters (420 feet) above sea level. The powerful mistral sweeps through all the vineyards here, helping reduce disease pressure. The appellation has land in five communes: at the center is Châteauneuf-du-Pape, then clockwise from the north are Orange, Courthézon, Bédarrides, and Sorgues. Ideally, the different terroirs of Châteauneuf-du-Pape would be reflected in commune boundaries, which would make it much easier to discuss the appellation, but that’s not the case. Even individual lieux-dits contain multiple soil types and exposures. Yet there are several distinct zones in Châteauneuf-du-Pape that are worth defining.

Toward the south of the appellation, there is a large strip of land close to the river, in the communes of Sorgues and Châteauneuf-du-Pape, that is composed of large galets roulés (sometimes called “pudding stones” in English). These are rounded silica pebbles, usually with clay underneath them, that are relatively recent deposits. Some of the best lieux-dits are directly south of the village of Châteauneuf-du-Pape, such as Le Bois de Boursan, Le Bois de la Ville, Les Galimardes, and Les Grandes Serres. Leading producers based here include Famille Isabel Ferrando and Mas Saint-Louis.

Most limestone is west and northwest of the village. This is rarely considered the best terroir for red wines, but grapes grown here can add complexity to a blend. This is an excellent place to plant white grapes, however, delivering wines of tension and freshness. Few estates are physically located in this area, but many own parcels, including Domaine de Beaurenard.

Following the appellation clockwise, bordering this limestone terroir is the vast, elevated plateau of Montredon, which has very old galets roulés, then the substantial lieux-dits of Farguerol and Cabrières, with more rounded stones. These are called the Villafranchian galets roulés, referring to the age in which they were deposited by the Rhône River. This area is among the best alluvial terroirs in the Southern Rhône, and it also includes the highest elevations in the appellation, reaching 129 meters (423 feet) at Pied Long. Estates such as Château Mont-Redon and Domaine Charvin are located here, making powerful, muscular reds.

The most significant outcrops of sand are northeast of the village, in the commune of Courthézon. This is where Château Rayas, Le Clos du Caillou, and Domaine Font de Courtedune are located. The sandy soils facilitate the wines of great finesse that have solidified these estates’ reputations.

A few kilometers east of the village is the other very large plateau of Villafranchian galets roulés, La Crau. Spreading over the meeting point of the three communes of Châteauneuf, Courthézon, and Bédarrides, it is an enviable terroir. There are few wineries of note built on these stones, but many leading estates have parcels here, including Domaine Henri Bonneau, Domaine de la Janasse, Domaine du Vieux Télégraphe, Domaine de la Mordorée, and Château La Nerthe. The best wines combine intensity, concentration, and refined tannins.

In Châteauneuf-du-Pape, rules around grape varieties are unusually lenient. Producers can use any combination of the following grapes for white or red wine (rosé is not permitted): Bourboulenc, Cinsault, Clairette, Clairette Rose, Counoise, Grenache Blanc, Grenache Gris, Grenache Noir, Mourvèdre, Muscardin, Picardan, Piquepoul Blanc, Piquepoul Gris, Piquepoul Noir, Roussanne, Syrah, Terret Noir, and Vaccarèse. Varietal wines from all these grapes are allowed. Grenache is by far the most widely planted red variety, followed by Syrah and Mourvèdre; Grenache Blanc is the most common white. Around 30 producers in the AOC use all the allowable varieties for their wines, with famous examples including Château de Beaucastel, Clos des Papes, Château Mont-Redon, and Château La Nerthe.

A century ago, the wines of Châteauneuf-du-Pape were commonly fermented and aged in large old oak foudres, but today concrete tanks are much more common for Grenache, as they are less expensive and easier to clean, reducing the risk of Brettanomyces. Stainless steel is used, too, but it’s less common. A benefit of concrete over stainless steel is that it holds heat better, so warming and cooling during fermentation are more gradual. Destemming is very traditional in the area, with examples of the practice dating to the 1860s. Today less than 10% of producers produce whole-cluster wines.

Châteauneuf-du-Pape, like so many other European regions, endured its so-called modern period in the 1990s and early 2000s, with new oak barriques gaining a brief following. They have fallen out of favor today, as new oak and Grenache are rarely an ideal combination—the natural sweetness of Grenache is embellished by sweet oak spice, which can produce confected wines. But barriques, new and recent, are still used for maturing Syrah, and to some extent Mourvèdre, as these grapes require contact with air during or after fermentation, or both, to mitigate the risk of reduction.

Special cuvées have been an important modern development for Châteauneuf-du-Pape. The first was Henri Bonneau’s Clos des Célestins (now Réserve des Célestins) in 1927, but the practice of bottling special cuvées grew in the period from the late 20^thto early 21^st centuries. These wines highlight old vines, specific varieties, and, for many producers, the significant use of new French oak. Famous examples are Beaucastel’s Hommage à Jacques Perrin, Domaine du Pégau’s Cuvée Da Capo, and Clos Saint-Jean’s Deus ex Machina.

Châteauneuf-du-Pape wines have an unusual ability to age in bottle. Most reds, even in average vintages, will last for 15 to 20 years, and the best wines in top vintages will last for well over 50 years. Whites can also age well, often developing highly complex aromas. Aging between 10 and 20 years is common. Because these wines can enter an oxidative phase between 5 and 10 years of age, it’s advisable to avoid drinking them in this window.

Gigondas AOC

Planted hectares: 1,205
Hectoliters produced: 33,363
Average yield (hl/ha): 28
Volume by color: 98% red, 1% rosé, 1% white

Châteauneuf-du-Pape and Gigondas share a handful of grape varieties, but their terroirs are completely different. While Châteauneuf is spread across rolling countryside by the river, Gigondas covers the Dentelles de Montmirail, a small chain of mountains. The Dentelles are effectively the foothills of Mont Ventoux, the highest mountain in Provence. They sit above the Nîmes fault, whose action has caused some ancient soils to be pushed to the surface. Like stabbing a knife upward through a mille-feuille pastry, the once-horizontal layers of limestone and clay have been driven vertical. The peaks of the Dentelles are crowned with distinctive jagged white limestone teeth that point toward the sky.

The pretty village of Gigondas is perched on the western edge of the Dentelles massif. It faces northwest, affording morning shade to the vines. Only a small proportion of Gigondas’s vineyards are among these raw limestone peaks, with the highest at around 500 meters (1,640 feet) in elevation. These higher-elevation sites benefit from cooler temperatures.

Most vines are grown on the lower foothills and on the alluvial fan known as the Cône de la Font des Papes, which has ferried soil and rock down the mountain toward the Ouvèze River. These soils have more clay and marl, offering plentiful nutrients and providing moisture during the dry summer months. Another important soil type is sand, a band of which skirts around the base of the Dentelles, running through the appellations of Gigondas, Côtes du Rhône Villages Sablet, and Côtes du Rhône Villages Séguret.

Gigondas was the fourth cru established in the Southern Rhône, following Châteauneuf, Lirac, and Tavel. It was granted in 1971 after extended negotiation with the appellation authorities. Red wines, as well as the tiny amount of rosé produced, must be at least 50% Grenache and can be 100% Grenache. They may also include the following grape varieties: Bourboulenc, Cinsault, Clairette, Clairette Rose, Counoise, Grenache Blanc, Grenache Gris, Marsanne, Mourvèdre, Muscardin, Piquepoul Blanc, Piquepoul Noir, Roussanne, Syrah, Terret Noir, Ugni Blanc, Vaccarèse, and Viognier. In practice, after Grenache, Syrah and Mourvèdre are by far the most widely used grapes.

Whites must be 70% or more Clairette Blanche, and they may also contain Bourboulenc, Clairette Rose, Grenache Blanc, Grenache Gris, Marsanne, Piquepoul Blanc, Roussanne, Viognier, and Ugni Blanc. White Gigondas has been permitted only since the 2023 vintage, a sensible change in the appellation rules given the abundance of limestone and relative freshness of this spectacular terroir.

Beaumes-de-Venise AOC

Planted hectares: 729
Hectoliters produced: 22,238
Average yield (hl/ha): 31
Volume by color: 100% red

Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise AOC

Planted hectares: 264
Hectoliters produced: 4,557
Average yield (hl/ha): 17
Volume by color: 2% red, 12% rosé, 86% white

Counterclockwise from Gigondas, around to the southern face of the Dentelles de Montmirail massif, is the picturesque village of Beaumes-de-Venise. It’s commonly associated with sweet Muscat and received the appellation for this style in 1945. Only much later, in 2005, did it receive an appellation for dry reds. These two styles are usually made in different parts of the appellation, however. Muscat is grown on the flat, hot, sandy soils of the commune of Aubignan, whereas the dry reds are produced at higher elevation on the clay-limestone slopes of the Dentelles.

Beaumes-de-Venise shares a hillside border with Gigondas, and their red wines have many similar characteristics. The rules of production are slightly different: red Beaumes-de-Venise wines must contain Grenache and Syrah, which together must constitute the largest component of the blend; they may also contain Bourboulenc, Carignan, Cinsault, Clairette, Clairette Rose, Counoise, Grenache Blanc, Grenache Gris, Marsanne, Muscardin, Piquepoul Blanc, Piquepoul Noir, Roussanne, Terret Noir, Ugni Blanc, Vaccarèse, and Viognier. Up to 10% of the blend can be white grapes.

Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise is an ancient wine, mentioned by Pliny the Elder. It is a vin doux naturel, whose fermentation is stopped by mutage, or adding pure alcohol, leaving some natural grape sugars in the wine. The best producers make several passes through the vineyard to pick grapes at optimum ripeness, and the resulting juice must have a sugar content above 252 grams per liter before fermentation. The finished wine must contain at least 100 grams of residual sugar per liter and have a minimum ABV of 15%.

Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise is made with Muscat à Petits Grains Blancs, and most is white. But thanks to this variety’s propensity to naturally mutate to the red-skinned Muscat à Petits Grains Noirs, rosé and red wines are also made. This is the only still, sweet wine made in any notable quantity in the Rhône Valley (Rasteau Vin Doux Naturel, Hermitage Vin de Paille, and sweet Condrieu are made in very small amounts).

Vacqueyras AOC

Planted hectares: 1,445
Hectoliters produced: 40,703
Average yield (hl/ha): 28
Volume by color: 93% red, 1% rosé, 6% white

Most of Vacqueyras AOC covers a vast, stony terrace known locally as the garrigues, with a small section of land at the base of the Dentelles de Montmirail that rises to 200 meters (660 feet). The terrace is the old riverbed of the Ouvèze River and lies at around 100 meters (330 feet) in elevation, and it’s made up of small, irregular galets roulés and red, black, and white clays and marls. It’s a hot terroir, open to the sun and swept by the mistral.

Winemaking here has been practiced for centuries, with the first written records dating to 1414. The name Vacqueyras comes from Vallis Quadreria, meaning “valley of stones.” Traditionally, the best area was the northern half of the garrigues, as the southern half can be very arid. At the very northern limit, the appellation shares a border with the Cône de la Font des Papes, which is home to some excellent wines and very good estates. There is a band of sand that runs around the edge of the appellation, which produces reds with finesse and some fantastic whites. Overall, the whites of Vacqueyras are among the best of the Southern Rhône. The region’s rosés are rarely as exciting.

Reds must be mostly Grenache and include Syrah or Mourvèdre, or both. They may also include the following accessory grapes: Bourboulenc, Carignan, Cinsault, Clairette, Clairette Rose, Counoise, Grenache Blanc, Grenache Gris, Marsanne, Muscardin, Piquepoul Noir, Roussanne, Terret Noir, Vaccarèse, and Viognier.

For rosés, the main grapes are Cinsault, Grenache, Mourvèdre, and Syrah; they can include the same accessory grapes as reds. Whites must contain at least two of the following: Bourboulenc, Clairette, Grenache Blanc, Marsanne, Roussanne, and Viognier.

Rasteau AOC (Dry Reds)

Planted hectares: 935
Hectoliters produced: 28,635
Average yield (hl/ha): 31
Volume by color: 100% red

Rasteau Vin Doux Naturel AOC (Sweet Wines)

Planted hectares: 19
Hectoliters produced: 551
Average yield (hl/ha): 29
Volume by color: 33% red, 66% rosé, 1% white

As in Beaumes-de-Venice, in Rasteau the appellation for sweet wine (established in 1944), predates the appellation for dry wine (established in 2010). But while Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise is a wine with a tradition stretching back over two millennia, Rasteau Vin Doux Naturel is a more recent product.

The Ventabren massif is a wide hill of clay-limestone soils with outcrops of small pebbles. The vineyards of Cairanne occupy the western half of its south-facing slope; the vineyards of Rasteau cover the eastern half. At the foot of the slope is Côtes du Rhône Villages Plan de Dieu AOC, a vast, flat, low terrace of gravels that lies between the Aigues River and the Ouvèze River (both of which can appear more like streams in summer). Both Cairanne and Rasteau have annexed a section of this hot, stony terroir for themselves, giving them more-varied soil types and terrain.

Rasteau winemakers refer to this lower terroir (around 110 meters, or 360 feet) as Le Plan, and the concentrated grapes it produces are ideal for sweet wines, though some good dry wines are made, too. To the north of this section is the village of Rasteau and the surrounding blue and gray marls. Farther north, into the wooded montagne, vineyards sit at up to 350 meters (1,150 feet) in elevation. This part of the appellation is more suitable for producing dry wines.

The main red grape used for dry reds must be Grenache, and wines must also contain Syrah or Mourvèdre, or both. Other minor permitted grapes are Bourboulenc, Carignan, Cinsault, Clairette, Clairette Rose, Counoise, Grenache Blanc, Grenache Gris, Marsanne, Muscardin, Piquepoul Blanc, Piquepoul Noir, Roussanne, Terret Noir, Ugni Blanc, Vaccarèse, and Viognier. Stylistically, these wines are powerful and bold, with an intense fruit ripeness (sucrosité) and muscular but smooth tannic structure.

Rasteau Vin Doux Naturel was first developed in 1934 with the help of a winemaker from Rivesaltes, in Roussillon, an area with a long history of making sweet Grenache. Grapes are handpicked, and yields cannot surpass 30 hectoliters per hectare; the juice must reach a minimum natural sugar level of 252 grams per liter. Like all vins doux naturels (VDNs), the fermentation is stopped by adding pure grape spirit, leaving natural grape sweetness in the wine and raising the overall alcohol level to a minimum ABV of 15%.

Rasteau Vin Doux Naturel can be white, rosé, or red. Locally, the red version is referred to as grenat (garnet). Extended aging of any color brings additional categories into play. A white or rosé VDN with a further 30 months of oxidative aging is described as ambré, while the same style of red is called tuilé. Ambré and tuilé styles with a minimum of 60 months’ oxidative aging are called hors d’âge. Finally, rancio is an hors d’âge wine that has taken on a green tint and a nutty, maderized flavor.

For Rasteau Vin Doux Naturel, grapes from the Grenache family (Grenache Noir, Gris, and Blanc) must make up 90% of the blend. The minor permitted varieties are Bourboulenc, Carignan, Cinsault, Clairette, Clairette Rose, Counoise, Marsanne, Mourvèdre, Muscardin, Piquepoul Blanc, Piquepoul Noir, Roussanne, Syrah, Terret Noir, Ugni Blanc, Vaccarèse, and Viognier.

Cairanne AOC

Planted hectares: 889
Hectoliters produced: 26,776
Average yield (hl/ha): 30
Volume by color: 93% red, 7% white

The appellation of Cairanne covers the western half of the south-facing slope of the Ventabren massif. The terroir is similar to that of the neighboring Rasteau; soils are principally marls with outcrops of small pebbles. Also like Rasteau, there is a large section of the appellation on the flatland at the foot of the hill, known locally as the garrigues. This area is hotter, with deep, free-draining gravel soils with brown and red clay. The third main section of the appellation, known as the Terrasses de l’Aigues, lies on the other side of the Aigues River. As in Rasteau, the highest point is at 350 meters (1,150 feet), but the hillsides here are gentler.

Although this part of the Rhône has been home to overperforming estates for centuries, it was only granted its own appellation by the INAO in 2015, with approval by the EU in 2016. The appellation’s syndicat opted to include three rules of production in its cahier des charges that were pioneering at the time: to ban machine harvesting, set a tight limit on added sulfites, and restrict the use of herbicides.

Stylistically, a typical red or white Rasteau wine is fuller and more powerful, which is likely just as much (if not more) a result of winemaking as terroir. White wines are particularly reliable in Cairanne and tend to be less oak driven and gentler in style compared with those of Châteauneuf-du-Pape, for example.

Reds must contain 40% Grenache along with Syrah or Mourvèdre, or both. They may also contain Bourboulenc, Carignan, Cinsault, Clairette, Clairette Rose, Counoise, Grenache Blanc, Grenache Gris, Marsanne, Muscardin, Piquepoul Blanc, Piquepoul Noir, Roussanne, Terret Noir, Vaccarèse, and Viognier.

Whites must contain at least two of the following: Clairette, Grenache Blanc, and Roussanne (and at least 20% of any variety used). They may also contain Bourboulenc, Marsanne, Piquepoul Blanc, and Viognier, but no more than 10% of any one and no more than 30% of these additional varieties in total.

Vinsobres AOC

Planted hectares: 550
Hectoliters produced: 18,278
Average yield (hl/ha): 33
Volume by color: 100% red

Vinsobres was elevated from Côtes du Rhône Villages to its own appellation in 2006, but it remains relatively unsung. Perhaps people find its oxymoronic name confusing; it’s certainly not from a lack of good estates or quality wines. The appellation is for reds only, though producers are lobbying for the inclusion of whites.

Vinsobres shares a large massif (around four times the size of the Ventabren massif of Cairanne and Rasteau) with several other appellations, all Côtes du Rhône Villages with geographic designation: Visan, Valréas, and Saint-Maurice.

Vinsobres is on the far eastern side of this massif, close to the Lance Mountains, which mark the natural frontier of the Southern Rhône growing area. An air current whistles through a gap in the mountains here and follows the Aigues River, which runs along the foot of the largely south-facing slope where Vinsobres is located. This brings a freshening effect to the vines. The impact of elevation compounds this; vines are grown between 250 meters (820 feet) and 450 meters (1,480 feet) in elevation.

Grenache must be the largest component of the blend, and wines must contain Syrah or Mourvèdre, or both. Also permitted in the blend are Bourboulenc, Carignan, Cinsault, Clairette, Clairette Rose, Counoise, Grenache Blanc, Grenache Gris, Marsanne, Muscardin, Piquepoul Blanc, Piquepoul Noir, Roussanne, Terret Noir, Ugni Blanc, Vaccarèse, and Viognier. An unusually large proportion of Syrah is grown here; in 2024, 62% of red plantings were Grenache and 31% were Syrah.

The amount of Syrah used, alongside the influences of wind, elevation, and northerly latitude, results in a tense and structured style, with relatively high acidity and assertive tannins.

Tavel AOC

Planted hectares: 731
Hectoliters produced: 19,492
Average yield (hl/ha): 27
Volume by color: 100% rosé

In 1936, Tavel was established as one of the first five wine appellations of France (along with Arbois, Monbazillac, Cassis, and Châteauneuf-du-Pape), reflecting the esteem that these wines were held in at that time. While Le Roy gave the appellation to Châteauneuf-du-Pape for reds and whites, Tavel was restricted to making rosé. Today, it remains the only 100% rosé appellation in the Rhône Valley.

Tavel’s fortunes have waxed and waned over the centuries. Tavel was known for quality wine well before the popes arrived in Châteauneuf in the 14^th century. The first text mentioning its vines dates to 897 CE. But today Tavel struggles commercially. Its rosés are traditionally—and as stipulated in the cahier des charges—dark in color, in contrast with the pale rosé style now in vogue.

Located on the west bank of the Rhône River around the Malaven tributary, Tavel has a varied terroir, with sandy soils and limestone (known locally as lauzes). It also shares a large plateau of galets roulés with the neighboring Lirac.

While Grenache dominates, there is an unusually large amount of Cinsault here, at 21% of plantings, a higher proportion than in any other Rhône Valley appellation. Cinsault produces big berries with thin skins, typically making wines with a relatively pale color.

Tavel is a rosé of maceration. Grapes are cold-macerated for 12 to 48 hours before pressing, and then the press and free-run juices are fermented at low temperature, usually between 14 degrees Celsius (57 degrees Fahrenheit) and 18 degrees Celsius (64 degrees Fahrenheit). The wines are sometimes clarified by flotation, or sparging with nitrogen to make suspended particles rise to the top; malolactic fermentation is usually blocked; and the wines are typically filtered. The resulting wines are deep in color as well as flavor. Quality is variable. Some Tavel wines have confected red fruit flavors and lack interest. But the growth of a back-to-basics approach (here defined by organic farming, handpicking, semicarbonic maceration, and malolactic fermentation), spearheaded by Eric Pfifferling, who founded Domaine l’Anglore, is resulting in a new wave of exceptional wines of tension, minerality, and sublime drinkability.

Lirac AOC

Planted hectares: 852
Hectoliters produced: 17,182
Average yield (hl/ha): 20 (atypically low in 2024; usually approximately 30–35)
Volume by color: 82% red, 3% rosé, 15% white

Like Tavel, Lirac is located on the west bank, and it, too, has had mixed fortunes over the centuries. The appellation spans four communes: Lirac, Roquemaure, Saint-Geniès-de-Comolas, and Saint-Laurent-des-Arbres. In the Middle Ages, Roquemaure was a major port, and, by the 16^th century, Lirac wines were served in royal courts in France and beyond. But in 1862, a resident of Lirac received some vine cuttings from a friend who lived in the US. He planted them in his garden, unaware that, in their roots, they contained phylloxera, which had an enormously destructive impact on French vineyards.

Although Lirac is situated just over the river from Châteauneuf-du-Pape, it is shadier, more enclosed, and less carpeted with vines. It’s similarly diverse in soil types (sand, galets roulés, limestone) but with more forest, and it is bordered to the west by hills.

Lirac produces red, white, and rosé wines. For reds, most of the blend must come from Grenache, Syrah, Mourvèdre, and Cinsault. The following accessory varieties may be used but cannot make up more than 10% of the blend: Carignan, Clairette Rose, Counoise, Grenache Gris, Marsanne, Piquepoul Blanc, Piquepoul Noir, Roussanne, Ugni Blanc, and Viognier. Rules for rosés are the same as for reds, but the accessory varieties can contribute up to 20% of the blend.

For whites, most of the blend must be composed of Bourboulenc, Clairette, Grenache Blanc, and Roussanne. Marsanne, Piquepoul Blanc, Ugni Blanc, and Viognier can also be used.

While powerful reds and whites are produced in Lirac, the wines don’t tend to be quite as rich, full-bodied, and potent as those from the east bank.

Costières de Nîmes AOC

Planted hectares: 2,540
Hectoliters produced: 110,510
Average yield (hl/ha): 44
Volume by color: 42% red, 47% rosé, 11% white

Costières de Nîmes AOC and the remaining appellations in this guide are classic expressions of the Southern Rhône, though they do not sit within the Côtes du Rhône AOC growing area.

With some vineyards just 20 kilometers (12.5 miles) from the Mediterranean, Costières de Nîmes is the southernmost Rhône Valley appellation. The soils here are composed of vast banks of galets roulés brought by the Rhône and Durance Rivers. Despite its far southern location, this is not the hottest appellation in the Rhône Valley. Costières de Nîmes is close to the coast, and the sun heats up the pebbles during the day, which causes warm air to rise, drawing in cooler sea breezes and clouds in the afternoon that shelter the vines from the sun. This is one reason that Syrah is more widely planted here than Grenache. Another unusual characteristic of this appellation is that it makes more rosé than red or white.

Reds must be a blend of at least two varieties, including at least one of the principal varieties, Grenache, Mourvèdre, and Syrah. These varieties must make up at least 50% of the blend. Accessory varieties include Carignan, Cinsault, and Marselan. No more than 10% Marselan is permitted.

Rosés follow the same blending rules as reds. Whites must be a blend of at least two varieties and must include at least one of the principal varieties: Grenache Blanc, Marsanne, and Roussanne. Principal grape varieties must make up at least 60% of the blend. Whites may also contain Bourboulenc, Clairette, Macabeu, Rolle, and Viognier. No more than 20% Viognier is permitted.

In April 2025, five new VIFA varieties were selected for trial in the appellation. The two reds are Montepulciano and Morrastel (Graciano); the three white and pink varieties are Tourbat, Piquepoul Blanc, and Souvignier Gris. Vignerons can use these within the limit of 5% of their vineyard area and 10% of the final blend of any wine.

Clairette de Bellegarde AOC

Planted hectares: 9
Hectoliters produced: 436
Average yield (hl/ha): 46
Volume by color: 100% white

Bellegarde is one of the 24 communes in the growing area of Costières de Nîmes. In this rolling landscape of galets roulés, vignerons can choose to produce Clairette de Bellegarde AOC if they follow a different cahier des charges, which is reserved for dry still white wines made of 100% Clairette Blanche. Despite the relatively low acidity of the wines (malolactic fermentation is sometimes blocked), they can be surprisingly ageworthy.

Duché d’Uzès AOC

Planted hectares: 294
Hectoliters produced: 9,595
Average yield (hl/ha): 33
Volume by color: 55% red, 15% rosé, 30% white

Duché d’Uzès, established in 2013, covers a vast area: 77 communes, all on the west bank between the Cévennes Mountains and the Rhône River. The appellation is solely for the higher-elevation, clay-limestone terroirs within these communes. Only a small amount of wine is currently bottled under this AOC (much of what is grown in this area is bottled under one of the various possible IGPs).

For a young appellation, the rules around blending are quite restrictive. Reds must contain at least 40% Syrah and at least 20% Grenache; they may also contain Mourvèdre, Carignan, or Cinsault, or all three. The result is an aromatic style of Southern Rhône wine, tense and smoky.

Rosés must contain at least 20% Syrah and at least 50% Grenache; they may also contain Mourvèdre, Carignan, and Cinsault. Stylistically, they are between Tavel and Provence.

Whites must contain at least 40% Viognier and at least 30% Grenache Blanc, and they must also contain at least 20% Marsanne, Roussanne, and Rolle. Ugni Blanc and Clairette are also permitted. These wines show aromatic lift and freshness from the Viognier, tempered by Grenache Blanc’s aromatic neutrality.

All three colors can be very good. The appellation has yet to receive much market recognition, but it holds promise.

Côtes du Vivarais AOC

Planted hectares: 139
Hectoliters produced: 4,457
Average yield (hl/ha): 32
Volume by color: 60% red, 29% rosé, 11% white

Côtes du Vivarais is the northernmost Rhône Valley appellation on the west bank of the Southern Rhône, with most of its growing area in the Ardèche department, directly north of the Ardèche River (except for a small area south of the river in the Gard department). This large area of 14 communes was granted its appellation in 1999.

The wines were praised by the influential French agronomist Olivier de Serres in the late 16^th century. After phylloxera, however, the area was planted with large quantities of hybrid vines, which stunted its progress. Most of these plantings have since been ripped out and replaced with Vitis vinifera.

The defining characteristic of this part of the Rhône Valley is its limestone bedrock. Its solubility has resulted in a dramatic landscape of deep river gorges and huge cave networks. Given the calcareous soils, it’s surprising that more white wines aren’t produced here. Whites must contain at least 50% Grenache Blanc. Clairette and Marsanne combined must make up at least 30% of the blend, and Viognier and Roussanne must be no more than 10%.

Rosés are largely commercial in style. Grenache must constitute 60% to 80% of the blend, and the wines may also contain Syrah, Cinsault, or Marselan, or all three. For reds, Syrah must make up at least 40% of the blend and Grenache at least 30%; red wines may also contain Cinsault or Marselan, or both. These wines tend to be more tense and less generous compared with the reds of Vaucluse.

Grignan-les-Adhémar AOC

Planted hectares: 1,170
Hectoliters produced: 37,105
Average yield (hl/ha): 32
Volume by color: 73% red, 15% rosé, 12% white

Grignan-les-Adhémar is the northernmost appellation on the east bank of the Southern Rhône, stretching nearly as far north as Montélimar. Much of the vineyard area was established by pieds-noirs, a term for people of mainly French descent born in Algeria during the period of French colonization, who came to France in the 1960s following the Algerian War of Independence. The appellation was established in 1973 under the name Coteaux du Tricastin, and the name was changed in 2010 to avoid associations with the nearby Tricastin nuclear power plant.

Grignan-les-Adhémar is a large appellation covering 21 communes, and the terroir is varied. Toward the Rhône River are sandy clay and galets roulés; the northern part is hillier, featuring more clay-limestone content; and to the east, there is more sand and sandstone. Climatically, this area is a meeting point of continental, alpine, and Mediterranean influences. This diversity of terroir makes it difficult to discern a strong sense of place for the appellation’s wines.

Reds must contain a majority of Grenache and Syrah. They may also include Bourboulenc, Carignan, Cinsault, Clairette Blanche, Grenache Blanc, Marsanne, Marselan, Mourvèdre, Roussanne, and Viognier. White varieties may contribute up to 10% of the blend.

Rosés follow the same rules as reds, but white varieties may contribute up to 20% of the blend. Whites may include Bourboulenc, Clairette Blanche, Grenache Blanc, Marsanne, Roussanne, and Viognier. Bourboulenc and Clairette Blanche combined cannot make up more than 50% of the blend.

Ventoux AOC

Planted hectares: 5,442
Hectoliters produced: 211,691
Average yield (hl/ha): 39
Volume by color: 58% red, 33% rosé, 9% white

Reaching 1,912 meters (6,273 feet), Mont Ventoux is the highest mountain in Provence, visible from most of the vineyards of Vaucluse. Ventoux AOC, named after the mountain, covers 51 communes. Most are west of the mountain, and there’s a separate section to its south. Although the vineyards scale the mountain and its foothills, many are planted on the flatter plains below.

Naturally, the terroir is varied. On the hillsides, there is more limestone and marl, with colluvial limestone gravels farther down, and more sand and alluvial deposits on the flat portions. Vineyards rise to 500 meters (1,640 feet), and, as they do, the air temperature drops, helping conserve freshness and acidity. The mistral’s impact is significant on the slopes. Even areas at the foot of the mountain benefit from the mountain’s influence, as cool air descends at night, helping retain freshness and aromas in the grapes.

Ventoux AOC produces 10% of all AOC wine made in the Rhône Valley. Given this size, generalizations are difficult, as the range of styles and quality levels is large. Until the early 2000s, Ventoux had a reputation for thin, acidic reds, but there has been a revolution since then, partly thanks to global warming and partly thanks to an influx of talented winemakers from elsewhere. Today, the most gifted winemakers working the best terroirs (most notably those in the more northerly communes) make wines that rival good bottlings from Vacqueyras and Gigondas—and often at lower prices.

Both reds and rosés must be a blend of at least two of the principal varieties: Carignan, Cinsault, Grenache, Mourvèdre, and Syrah. The wines may also contain a maximum of 20% Bourboulenc, Clairette, Counoise, Grenache Blanc, Marsanne, Marselan, Piquepoul Noir, Roussanne, Rolle, and Viognier.

White wines must also be a blend of at least two of the principal varieties, the majority of which must come from Bourboulenc, Clairette, Grenache Blanc, or Roussanne. They may also contain Marsanne, Rolle, and Viognier.

Luberon AOC

Planted hectares: 3,021
Hectoliters produced: 118,210
Average yield (hl/ha): 39
Volume by color: 26% red, 46% rosé, 28% white

Luberon AOC is another very large appellation impacted by nearby mountains. Here, the Luberon mountain range is the main influence on the wines. This chain is 60 kilometers (37 miles) long and runs roughly west to east, rising to 1,125 meters (3,690 feet) at its highest point. This creates two growing areas. One section is between the north-facing slope of the mountain and the Calavon River. The larger, southern section is between the south-facing slope of the mountain and the Durance River. Although the appellation is warm and sunny, the two rivers act as channels for cool air that flows from the mountains to the east. Vineyards are situated between 200 meters (660 feet) and 500 meters (1,640 feet) in elevation.

It’s a picturesque area, located within the Luberon Regional Nature Park and dotted with ancient, unspoiled villages. Soils are mostly clay-limestone, with deep gravels at the foot of the mountain range, and outcrops of sand and sandstone.

Although viticulture here dates to Roman times, the influx of private estates is relatively new, with the first ones appearing in the 1980s. Today, production is still heavily dominated by cooperatives.

In 2024, 88% of plantings of red varieties were Grenache and Syrah, with just 1% more Syrah than Grenache. Luberon reds must be a blend, the majority of which must come from at least two of the following three grapes: Grenache, Mourvèdre, or Syrah. They may also contain Bourboulenc, Carignan, Cinsault, Clairette, Grenache Blanc, Marsanne, Marselan, Roussanne, Ugni Blanc, Rolle, or Viognier. Production is mostly rosé, however, in a pale, Provençal style. The blending rules for rosé are the same as those for reds.

Whites are arguably the Luberon’s strength, with many white wines here rivaling those from more famous crus. This is thanks to winemakers embracing Rolle, which produces fresh and zesty wines. Luberon whites must also be a blend, the majority of which must come from at least two of the following varieties: Bourboulenc, Clairette, Grenache Blanc, Marsanne, Roussanne, or Rolle. They may also contain Ugni Blanc and Viognier.

Compiled by Matt Walls (May 2026)

Edited by Stacy Ladenburger

Bibliography

Bailly, Robert. Histoire de la vigne et des grands vins des Côtes du Rhône. Orta, 1978.

Dion, Roger. Histoire de la vigne et du vin en France des origines au XIXe siècle. CNRS Editions, 2010.

Dovaz, Michel. Châteauneuf-du-Pape. Jacques Legrand, 1992.

The Encyclopedia of Côtes du Rhône and Rhône Valley AOC Wines. Inter Rhône, 2019. https://www.vins-rhone.com/sites/vignoble/files/documentation/2026-04/INTER-RHONE-ENCYCLOPEDIE-2026-EN-BAT_0.pdf.

Fanet, Jacques. Les Terroirs du vin. Hachette, 2001.

Johnson, Hugh, and Jancis Robinson. The World Atlas of Wine. 6th ed. Mitchell Beazley, 2007.

Karis, Harry. The Châteauneuf-du-Pape Wine Book. Kavino, 2009.

Key Figures 2024. Inter Rhône, 2025. https://www.vins-rhone.com/sites/vignoble/files/documentation/2025-04/INTER-RHONE-CHIFFRES-CLES-2025-EN-BAT.pdf.

Livingstone-Learmonth, John. Gigondas: Its Wines, Its Land, Its People. Les Éditions du Bottin Gourmand, 2012.

Livingstone-Learmonth, John. The Wines of the Rhône. 3rd ed. Faber & Faber, 1992.

Maltman, Alex. Taste the Limestone, Smell the Slate: A Geologist Wanders through the World of Wine. Académie du Vin Library, 2025.

Maltman, Alex. Vineyards, Rocks, and Soils: The Wine Lover’s Guide to Geology. Oxford University Press, 2018.

Portes, Jean-Claude. Châteauneuf-du-Pape, première AOC de France. Châteauneuf-du-Pape: Organisme de défense et de gestion de l’AOC Châteauneuf-du-Pape, 2016.

Robinson, Jancis. The Oxford Companion to Wine. 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2015.

Robinson, Jancis, Julia Harding, and José Vouillamoz. Wine Grapes. Allen Lane, 2012.

Truc, Georges. Châteauneuf-du-Pape: Histoire Géologique et Naissance des Terroirs. Syndicat des vignerons de l’appellation d’origine Châteauneuf-du-Pape, 2023.

Walls, Matt. Wines of the Rhône. Infinite Ideas, 2021.

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Rhône Valley

Sandra Ban — Mon, 04 May 2026 04:24:14 GMT

Revision 61 posted to Expert Guides by Sandra Ban on 5/4/2026 4:24:14 AM

History of the Rhône Valley
Rhône Valley Wine in Context
Land and Climate
Rhône Valley Wine Law
The Grapes of the Rhône Valley
Northern Rhône
Southern Rhône
Bibliography

The Rhône Valley has a very long history of viticulture and today produces some of the most characterful and impressive red, white, and rosé wines in the world.

History of the Rhône Valley

In 476 CE, the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire was deposed. Grapes continued to be cultivated, though documentary evidence until the Middle Ages is scarce.

Both world wars had huge impacts on the wines of France. Many wine professionals lost their lives. Some vineyards abandoned in the aftermath are being rediscovered only today.

Barrels in a Rhône cellar (Credit: Jeff Habourdin for Inter Rhône)

Rhône Valley Wine in Context

Credit: Inter Rhône

The top five export markets by volume for Rhône Valley AOC wine in 2024 were Belgium (19%), the UK (16%), the US (13%), Canada (10%), and Germany (8%).

Land and Climate

Geology and Topography of the Northern Rhône

Geology and Topography of the Southern Rhône

Climate of the Rhône Valley

The climates of the Northern Rhône and the Southern Rhône are very different. Côte-Rôtie is equidistant from Châteauneuf-du-Pape and Beaune, and its climate lies between the two.

Rhône Valley Wine Law

Vin de France

Indication Géographique Protégée

The following IGPs can be used by some Rhône Valley estates.

Regional IGPs

Méditerranée IGP, including the territorial references Comté de Grignan and Coteaux de Montélimar
Comtés Rhodaniens IGP

Departmental IGPs

Gard IGP
Ardèche IGP, including the territorial reference Coteaux de l’Ardèche
Vaucluse IGP, including the territorial references Principauté d’Orange and Aigues
Drôme IGP, including the territorial references Comté de Grignan and Coteaux de Montélimar

Zonal IGPs

Coteaux des Baronnies IGP
Cévennes IGP
Coteaux du Pont du Gard IGP
Collines Rhodaniennes IGP

Côtes du Rhône AOC

Planted hectares: 28,462
Hectoliters produced: 974,144
Average yield (hl/ha): 34
Volume by color: 83% red, 9% rosé, 8% white

All figures are 2024 unless otherwise noted.

Permitted grape varieties for red and rosé wines:

Principal varieties: Grenache, Mourvèdre, Syrah
Accessory varieties: Bourboulenc, Caladoc, Carignan, Cinsault, Clairette, Clairette Rose, Counoise, Couston, Grenache Blanc, Grenache Gris, Marsanne, Marselan, Muscardin, Piquepoul Blanc, Piquepoul Noir, Roussanne, Terret Noir, Ugni Blanc, Vaccarèse, Viognier
VIFA varieties: Carignan Blanc, Floréal, Rolle, Vidoc

Permitted grape varieties for white wines:

Principal varieties: Bourboulenc, Clairette, Grenache Blanc, Marsanne, Roussanne, Viognier
Accessory varieties: Piquepoul Blanc, Ugni Blanc
VIFA varieties: Carignan Blanc, Floréal, Rolle

Whites must contain mostly principal varieties, with VIFA varieties composing no more than 10% of the blend.

Côtes du Rhône Villages AOC without Geographic Name

Planted hectares: 2,672
Hectoliters produced: 82,740
Average yield (hl/ha): 31
Volume by color: 96% red, 1% rosé, 3% white

The next level up in the appellation pyramid is Côtes du Rhône Villages AOC, which may be used by 95 of the 172 communes allowed by Côtes du Rhône AOC. All of them are in the Southern Rhône.

Côtes du Rhône Villages AOC with Geographic Name

Planted hectares: 5,335
Hectoliters produced: 165,258
Average yield (hl/ha): 31
Volume by color: 96% red, 1% rosé, 3% white

Most named villages are permitted to make wine in all three colors, though the tendency more recently has been to restrict color variations to those considered most traditional or typical.

The list below contains all current named villages. If colors are restricted, this is noted in parentheses.

Chusclan (red and rosé)
Gadagne (red)
Massif d’Uchaux (red)
Nyons (red)
Plan de Dieu (red)
Puyméras (red)
Roaix
Rochegude
Rousset-les-Vignes
Sablet
Saint-Andéol (red)
Saint-Gervais
Saint-Maurice
Saint-Pantaléon-les-Vignes
Sainte-Cécile (red)
Séguret
Signargues (red)
Suze-la-Rousse (red)
Vaison-la-Romaine (red)
Valréas
Visan

The Grapes of the Rhône Valley

Red Grapes

Bush vine in Gigondas (Credit: Christophe Grilhé for Inter Rhône)

Syrah vs. Serine

White and Pink Grapes

In the Southern Rhône, where Viognier can be richer, it is typically used as a blending component, adding aromatics and textural richness.

Roussanne is mostly used for still, dry wines, but it also appears either with or without Marsanne in sparkling Saint-Péray. It is used for sweet white Hermitage Vin de Paille as well.

Like Roussanne, Marsanne is mostly used for still, dry wines, but it can appear with or without Roussanne in sparkling Saint-Péray. It is also used for sweet white Hermitage Vin de Paille.

Northern Rhône

Harvest at Domaine Pierre Gaillard (Credit: Christophe Grilhé for Inter Rhône)

Côte-Rôtie AOC

Planted hectares: 343
Hectoliters produced: 11,752
Average yield (hl/ha): 34
Volume by color: 100% red

Although there is no official classification of Côte-Rôtie lieux-dits, some are considered better than others. The following are broadly considered among the most desirable:

Other notable lieux-dits include Côte Rozier, Chavaroche, Fongeant, and Coteaux de Tupin.

Condrieu AOC

Planted hectares: 221
Hectoliters produced: 7,167
Average yield (hl/ha): 32
Volume by color: 100% white

Château-Grillet AOC

Château-Grillet AOC (Credit: Christophe Grilhé for Inter Rhône)

Planted hectares: 3.5
Hectoliters produced: 96
Average yield (hl/ha): 26
Volume by color: 100% white

Compared with typical Condrieu wines, those of Château-Grillet display a marked tension and salinity—perhaps because of the estate’s south-facing slope—and they have a rare longevity.

Saint-Joseph AOC

Planted hectares: 1,415
Hectoliters produced: 50,689
Average yield (hl/ha): 36
Volume by color: 86% red, 14% white

Cornas AOC

Planted hectares: 164
Hectoliters produced: 4,938
Average yield (hl/ha): 30
Volume by color: 100% red

Saint-Péray AOC

Planted hectares: 116
Hectoliters produced: 3,075
Average yield (hl/ha): 26
Volume by color: 100% white

Hermitage AOC

Planted hectares: 136
Hectoliters produced: 3,843
Average yield (hl/ha): 28
Volume by color: 69% red, 31% white

Hermitage is divided into 20 lieux-dits. These are some of the most important, from west to east:

Maison Blanche: Eastward, in the third major section of the hill, the highest lieu-dit is Maison Blanche. It has mostly loess soils and is considered one of the best terroirs for white wines.

Péléat: This is a small lieu-dit at the center of the hill that produces whites with minerality. It is a core parcel for Domaine Jean-Louis Chave’s L’Hermitage blanc.

Crozes-Hermitage AOC

Planted hectares: 2,073
Hectoliters produced: 83,064
Average yield (hl/ha): 40
Volume by color: 89% red, 11% white

Another small terroir within Crozes-Hermitage with a distinct character is Larnage. This village east of Hermitage has large deposits of white kaolin sands, which yield elegant whites and reds.

Diois

Clairette de Die AOC

Planted hectares: 1,443
Hectoliters produced: 53,675
Average yield (hl/ha): 37
Volume by color: 100% white

Crémant de Die AOC

Planted hectares: 66
Hectoliters produced: 2,994
Average yield (hl/ha): 45
Volume by color: 100% white

Crémant de Die is a sparkling dry white wine made mostly from Clairette (though small amounts of Aligoté and Muscat à Petits Grains Blancs are allowed), using the traditional method.

Châtillon-en-Diois AOC

Planted hectares: 28
Hectoliters produced: 670
Average yield (hl/ha): 24
Volume by color: 42% red, 12% rosé, 46% white

Coteaux de Die AOC

Planted hectares: 6
Hectoliters produced: 256
Average yield (hl/ha): 42
Volume by color: 100% white

Coteaux de Die is a dry still white wine made from 100% Clairette. This is one of the smallest appellations in the Rhône Valley, but these Clairette wines can rival those made farther south.

Southern Rhône

Châteauneuf-du-Pape AOC

Planted hectares: 3,135
Hectoliters produced: 78,200
Average yield (hl/ha): 24.9
Volume by color: 90% red, 10% white

Gigondas AOC

Planted hectares: 1,205
Hectoliters produced: 33,363
Average yield (hl/ha): 28
Volume by color: 98% red, 1% rosé, 1% white

Beaumes-de-Venise AOC

Planted hectares: 729
Hectoliters produced: 22,238
Average yield (hl/ha): 31
Volume by color: 100% red

Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise AOC

Planted hectares: 264
Hectoliters produced: 4,557
Average yield (hl/ha): 17
Volume by color: 2% red, 12% rosé, 86% white

Vacqueyras AOC

Planted hectares: 1,445
Hectoliters produced: 40,703
Average yield (hl/ha): 28
Volume by color: 93% red, 1% rosé, 6% white

Rasteau AOC (Dry Reds)

Planted hectares: 935
Hectoliters produced: 28,635
Average yield (hl/ha): 31
Volume by color: 100% red

Rasteau Vin Doux Naturel AOC (Sweet Wines)

Planted hectares: 19
Hectoliters produced: 551
Average yield (hl/ha): 29
Volume by color: 33% red, 66% rosé, 1% white

Cairanne AOC

Planted hectares: 889
Hectoliters produced: 26,776
Average yield (hl/ha): 30
Volume by color: 93% red, 7% white

Stylistically, both red and white wines made here are harmonious and balanced. A typical Rasteau is fuller and more powerful, which is likely just as much (if not more) a result of winemaking as terroir. White wines are particularly reliable in Cairanne and tend to be less oak driven and gentler in style compared with those of Châteauneuf-du-Pape, for example.

Vinsobres AOC

Planted hectares: 550
Hectoliters produced: 18,278
Average yield (hl/ha): 33
Volume by color: 100% red

The amount of Syrah used, alongside the influences of wind, elevation, and northerly latitude, results in a tense and structured style, with relatively high acidity and assertive tannins.

Tavel AOC

Planted hectares: 731
Hectoliters produced: 19,492
Average yield (hl/ha): 27
Volume by color: 100% rosé

Lirac AOC

Planted hectares: 852
Hectoliters produced: 17,182
Average yield (hl/ha): 20 (atypically low in 2024; usually approximately 30–35)
Volume by color: 82% red, 3% rosé, 15% white

For whites, most of the blend must be composed of Bourboulenc, Clairette, Grenache Blanc, and Roussanne. Marsanne, Piquepoul Blanc, Ugni Blanc, and Viognier can also be used.

While powerful reds and whites are produced in Lirac, the wines don’t tend to be quite as rich, full-bodied, and potent as those from the east bank.

Costières de Nîmes AOC

Planted hectares: 2,540
Hectoliters produced: 110,510
Average yield (hl/ha): 44
Volume by color: 42% red, 47% rosé, 11% white

Costières de Nîmes AOC and the remaining appellations in this guide are classic expressions of the Southern Rhône, though they do not sit within the Côtes du Rhône AOC growing area.

Rosés follow the same blending rules as reds. Whites must be a blend of at least two varieties and must include at least one of the principal varieties: Grenache Blanc, Marsanne, and Roussanne. Principal grape varieties must make up at least 60% of the blend. Whites may also contain Bourboulenc, Clairette, Macabeu, Vermentino, and Viognier. No more than 20% Viognier is permitted.

Clairette de Bellegarde AOC

Planted hectares: 9
Hectoliters produced: 436
Average yield (hl/ha): 46
Volume by color: 100% white

Duché d’Uzès AOC

Planted hectares: 294
Hectoliters produced: 9,595
Average yield (hl/ha): 33
Volume by color: 55% red, 15% rosé, 30% white

Rosés must contain at least 20% Syrah and at least 50% Grenache; they may also contain Mourvèdre, Carignan, and Cinsault. Stylistically, they are between Tavel and Provence.

Whites must contain at least 40% Viognier and at least 30% Grenache Blanc, and they must also contain at least 20% Marsanne, Roussanne, and Vermentino. Ugni Blanc and Clairette are also permitted. These wines show aromatic lift and freshness from the Viognier, tempered by Grenache Blanc’s aromatic neutrality.

All three colors can be very good. The appellation has yet to receive much market recognition, but it holds promise.

Côtes du Vivarais AOC

Planted hectares: 139
Hectoliters produced: 4,457
Average yield (hl/ha): 32
Volume by color: 60% red, 29% rosé, 11% white

Grignan-les-Adhémar AOC

Planted hectares: 1,170
Hectoliters produced: 37,105
Average yield (hl/ha): 32
Volume by color: 73% red, 15% rosé, 12% white

Ventoux AOC

Planted hectares: 5,442
Hectoliters produced: 211,691
Average yield (hl/ha): 39
Volume by color: 58% red, 33% rosé, 9% white

Whites must also be a blend, with the majority composed of Bourboulenc, Clairette, Grenache Blanc, or Roussanne, or all four. They may also contain Marsanne, Vermentino, and Viognier.

Luberon AOC

Planted hectares: 3,021
Hectoliters produced: 118,210
Average yield (hl/ha): 39
Volume by color: 26% red, 46% rosé, 28% white

In 2024, 88% of plantings of red varieties were Grenache or Syrah, with just 1% more Syrah than Grenache. Luberon reds must be a blend, the majority of which must come from at least two of the following three grapes: Grenache, Mourvèdre, or Syrah. They may also contain Bourboulenc, Carignan, Cinsault, Clairette, Grenache Blanc, Marsanne, Marselan, Roussanne, Ugni Blanc, Vermentino, or Viognier. Production is mostly rosé, however, in a pale, Provençal style. The blending rules for rosé are the same as those for reds.

Whites are arguably the Luberon’s strength, with many white wines here rivaling those from more famous crus. This is thanks to winemakers embracing Rolle, which produces fresh and zesty wines. Luberon whites must be a blend, and the majority must include Bourboulenc, Clairette, Grenache Blanc, Marsanne, Roussanne, or Vermentino, or all six. They may also contain Ugni Blanc and Viognier.