https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/josh-kellyThu, 28 May 2026 18:11:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:02c721ae-dbb7-420b-98ba-86eb82aa201dhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/212/viticulture-and-vinificationTue, 26 May 2026 18:19:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:0c88ac3d-bd82-4b60-b047-8cc22c9e9953Sandra BanTable of Contents Viticulture A Year in the Vineyard Climate, Terroir, and the Grapevine Vine Training and Pruning Vine Diseases and Insect Threats Sustainable Models of Viticulture Vinification Red Wine Production White Wine Production Rosé Wine Production Oak The Future of Winemaking Viticulture Man first domesticated Vitis vinifera , the species of climbing vine responsible for fine wine production, nearly 5,000 years before the Common Era. Viticulture, the study of grape growing, slowly developed in conjunction with the cultivation of the vine, as growers over time learned from instinct and observation. The grower or viticulturist confronts decisions on vine training and pruning methods, canopy management, fertilization and irrigation, harvest dates, and disease control; and monitors the development of the vineyard in general. From Charlemagne’s directive to plant the vineyards of Corton where the snows melt first, to the widespread adoption of rootstock grafting to combat phylloxera, to the modern embrace of drip irrigation and mechanization, advances in viticulture aim to reduce the vagaries of weather and disease, and promote either the quantity or quality of wine. Rarely are these goals of quantity and quality aligned for the viticulturist. Today, viticulture is a highly evolved science, and the development of the vine (and its transformation in the winery) is highly calculated to provide a desired character of fruit. While cold science governed many of the viticultural advancements of the last century, newer movements of sustainability have sprouted in reaction, and several distinct paths of viticulture exist for conscientious growers. BACK TO TOP A Year in the Vineyard The annual life cycle of the vine begins in the spring, with budbreak. The vine, which started “weeping” or “bleeding” watery sap from pruned canes sometime in February (in the Northern Hemisphere), will finally emerge from dormancy as the average air temperature surpasses 50°F. During budbreak, which usually occurs in March or April, the first small shoots and leaves will break through buds left intact by winter pruning. At this stage, the vine is vulnerable to frost. The vine’s foliage continues to develop through the early spring, and small green clusters called embryo bunches form on the shoots by mid-April. Flowering occurs six to thirteen weeks after the initial budbreak, depending on the climate. During this period, the embryo bunches bloom into small flowers for about ten days, and the self-pollinating grapevine begins the process of fertilization, which leads to fruit set. As the vine flowers, it is extremely susceptible to the damaging effects of cold, frost, and wind. Successfully pollinated embryo bunches grow into true grape clusters during fruit set—each grape is the product of individual fertilization. Fruit set usually hovers around 30%—the remaining embryo berries “shatter,” falling from the cluster, a process also known as coulure. As the berries enlarge through July, they remain hard, high in acidity and low in sugar. Another danger that can impact yield at this time is millerandage, where some grape flowers fail to fertilize. They go on to mature at different rates; some grow ripe and large, while others stay very small and seedless. In August, however, veraison ( véraison ) begins and the grapes begin to truly ripen, as sugars are moved from the leaf system to the fruit. During veraison, the grapes soften and change color—turning from green to red-black or yellow-green—and acidity decreases. While veraison swiftly affects an individual grape, it may not evenly affect a whole bunch. Some varieties, such as Zinfandel, are characterized by extremely uneven ripening (also called asynchrony), in which veraison haphazardly affects each bunch. Cane ripening occurs in tandem with veraison, as the stems on each shoot begin to lignify, accumulating carbohydrates to sustain the plant through the winter. Once the grapes have achieved an optimal balance of sugar and acid, they are ready for harvest ( vendange ). Harvest, by either manual or mechanical means, begins as early as late August, and may last through the beginning of November. White grapes are generally harvested before red grapes, although some white grapes destined for the specialized botrytised dessert wines or icewine may hang on the vine until late November or December. New World winemakers have greatly advanced the idea of complete physiological ripeness—a concept of ripeness comprising not only must weight and pH, but also the ripening of tannin and other phenolics, the condition of the berry and its pulp, and seed lignification—which often requires longer “hang time” for the grapes on the vine. After harvest, work moves from the vineyard to the winery. The vines lose their leaves in the autumn, and enter a period of winter dormancy. Fertilization may be applied in the fall after harvest, and the vines will be pruned over the winter to prepare for next year’s growth. Note : For equivalent dates in southern hemisphere vineyards, add six months. BACK TO TOP Climate, Terroir, and the Grapevine Climate encompasses expected temperature, rainfall, sunshine, wind, and other atmospheric elements, and remains relatively stable from year to year—weather is the daily manifestation of climate, and is generally responsible for vintage variation. For temperature, the vine prefers a mean annual level between 50° and 68°F, with an ideal of 57°F. To successfully ripen, red grapes require an average summer temperature of approximately 70°F, whereas white grapes prefer an average of 66°F. This generally restricts viticulture to the temperate bands of latitude between 30° and 50° in both the northern and southern hemispheres. Certain pockets of viticulture exist, due to privileged exposures and climatic conditions, outside of these general bands of latitude, and climate change may expand the grapevine’s habitat in the coming years. One method of classifying climates solely by temperature—and therefore recommending varieties appropriate to that temperature—is the California Heat Summation Index (also known as the Winkler Index). This scale divides climates into five Regions based on the number of degree days. Degree days are calculated by multiplying the days in each month of the growing season (defined as April 1 through October 31) by the mean number of degrees over 50°F for that month. The months’ totals are then added together to arrive at the heat summation: Degree Days Region Ia 1,500-2,000° days F (850-1,111° days C) Region Ib 2,000-2,500° days F (1,111-1389° days C) Region II 2,500-3,000° days F (1,389-1,667° days C) Region III 3,000-3,500° days F (1,667-1,944° days C) Region IV 3,500-4,000° days F (1,944-2,222° days C) Region V 4,000-4,900° days F (2,222-2,700° days C) Temperature and sunshine are closely related. Sunshine, a requirement for photosynthesis—in which plants convert carbon dioxide into organic compounds, including sugars—is a necessary provider of both light and heat. The minimum amount of sunshine required to support viticulture is approximately 1,300 hours. As sunshine during the growing season increases the farther one moves away from the equator, vines in the cooler climates often enjoy more sunshine than vines in the warmer climates. Cloud cover will not greatly impact the transmission of light for the purposes of photosynthesis, but it will affect the amount of heat the sun bestows on a vine. Rainfall itself is another primary concern. The vine evolved as a drought-resistant plant, but it still requires approximately 10-30 inches of rainfall annually to produce an adequate crop, depending on the warmth of the climate. Irrigation can of course supplant actual rainfall in regions where its usage is legal. Many Mediterranean winegrowing regions receive an abundance of rain in winter and spring, and remain mostly dry through the summer—an ideal situation for the vine. If the vine receives too little rain, water stress will occur, a condition that promotes smaller berry size and yields but will lead to interrupted ripening and complete shutdown of the vine if the stress is too severe. Too much rain will not adversely affect the vine itself, but it will dilute fruit quality and create a friendly environment for fungal diseases. Wind, a final consideration of climate, is often a detriment to the vine if it blows persistently hard. At its most violent extreme, wind can undermine flowering and denude vines. In colder climates, wind chill can be especially devastating. On the other hand, wind can be a detriment to mold and mildew, and wind machines are often employed in the battle against frost to mix colder, settled air near the ground with warmer upper air. The French concept of terroir is often cited as a word with no direct English equivalent, but it has an umbrella of meaning: terroir , in a holistic sense, defines the complete system of the living vine. The concept of terroir comprises the choice of grapevine as it relates to its location, topography, soil, climate, and the hand of man upon it. Terroir is not only the soil; terroir is the entire system of factors that influence the development of the vine—factors that, depending on the style of viticulture and wine-making applied, may be magnified or subsumed in the resulting wine. Terroir begins with the vine’s macroclimate: the regional climate. Macroclimate varies in size depending on the factors affecting it: the Rheingau, on a single south-facing slope, and the Médoc, with its even landscape and constant maritime influence, are subject to single macroclimates. However, the Napa Valley may be divided into several distinct macroclimates between the different peaks and valley floor. One can draw broad assertions about a region’s suitability for viticulture from its macroclimate, but the subtler distinctions of mesoclimate—the climate of a particular vineyard—are of greater importance. At this level, the aspect (degree and direction of its slope) and shelter of a vineyard are essential to distinctions in mesoclimate. Slopes provide good drainage and may benefit from increased sunshine, but temperature falls steadily with added altitude. Mesoclimates are small: one must realistically speak of several in Corton, the largest grand cru vineyard in Burgundy, whereas La Tâche has a single mesoclimate. On an even smaller scale, microclimate refers to the climate in and around a vine canopy, the restricted space including all parts of the vine above the ground. Techniques of canopy management have been developed to adjust the microclimate of a vine, particularly in its exposure to sunshine and its eventual yield. These include winter pruning, leaf removal, shoot positioning, and the use of sophisticated trellising systems—man’s hand at work in the equation of terroir . Soil type is a major aspect of a vine’s success. In general, low-fertility soils produce better wines than rich soils, the latter being better suited for other types of agriculture. Conventional wisdom holds that the vine should always struggle to produce good fruit; that too much vigor results in commonplace wine. Well-drained, easily penetrable soils with good water-retention are desirable, as they permit the vine to dig deeply for water and minerals. The heat-retaining (and reflecting) character of a particular soil is also an important factor, especially in correlation with climate. High soil pH, common in limestone-rich soils, contributes to higher acidity (low pH) in grapes, and although such soils are typically inhospitable to most agriculture, viticulture thrives. Soil acidity (low pH) can, on the other hand, be a deterrent to viticulture. This can be countered by the application of lime. The choice of grapevine is inextricably linked to its terroir : would the terroir of Burgundy not be fundamentally altered if Pinot Noir was suddenly replaced with another grape? When a new vineyard is planted, the grower not only chooses the grape variety he or she desires, but also the specific clone or clones of that variety that best express the desired character. Clones, identical genetic reproductions of a single vine, are selected for a host of different attributes in both the field and the wine: disease resistance, hardiness, yield, aromatics, structure, and color are among the qualities to consider when selecting a clone. Once a vineyard is established, the grower may choose to propagate the vines by either clonal selection or mass selection ( selection massale ). The latter method, popular in Burgundy, enables the grower to select budwood for replanting from a number of vines throughout the vineyard, rather than single clones. In mass selection, a grower will attempt to reinforce positive traits and eliminate negative traits through appropriate selection—and while the results may be less precise than those gained through clonal selection, a broader genetic diversity is maintained. The budwood selection, or scion, is then usually grafted onto separate rootstock. Although some modern vineyards are still planted on their own rootstock, most of the world’s vines are grafted to American rootstock. Phylloxera, detailed under “Vine Diseases and Insect Threats” below, ravaged most of the world’s vineyards in the late 19th century. Salvation came in the form of lowly American grapevine species— Vitis riparia and others—that were highly resistant to the root louse. A grower may select a particular rootstock not just for its resistance to phylloxera, but also its ability to withstand other diseases and drought, its tolerance to salt and lime, and/or its effect on vine vigor. The combination of clonal and rootstock selection will have a great impact on the character and health of the vine. Once grafted and planted, the vine will not usually produce a crop of grapes suitable for harvest until its third year. In many European appellations, growers are prohibited from harvesting grapes for wine until the vine is at least three years old. By its sixth year, the grapevine is considered mature; shoot growth and the vine’s annual yield, in the absence of major stresses, stabilize. The root system will grow to maturity by the tenth year, although poorer soils will slow growth. The yield of many commercial vineyards will begin to decline after 20 years, and vineyards are often uneconomical to maintain after 50 years of age. However, exceptional old vine plantings of a century or more of age exist, producing small yields but highly concentrated fruit. Old vine plantings of Rhône varieties in Australia and Zinfandel in California are especially valued. BACK TO TOP Vine Training and Pruning Head trained spur pruned Zinfandel. The objective of vine training, which includes the processes of pruning, shaping, and trellising the vine, is to maximize the vine’s performance in local conditions and to keep its canes from touching the ground and establishing new roots. The grapevine does not have a self-supporting structure, and must often be tethered to another apparatus: a tree, stake, or a wire trellis. The type of trellis or support varies according to the manner in which the vine is trained. In addition, the principles of canopy management are voiced through the selection of a training system. Most vines can be classified as either head-trained or cordon-trained. In cordon training, the vine has at least one permanent cane that extends from the trunk, called an arm or cordon. It grows thick and gnarled over time, and fruit-bearing shoots will emerge from it each season. Head-trained vines have no permanent cordon, and the trunk ends in a knob, or head. Cordon-trained vines generally require a trellising system, whereas head-trained vines may be supported by a simple stake, or not at all. Although head-trained vines may technically be trellised (see the Guyot training system, below), head-training is commonly asserted as an alternative to trellising, synonymous with bush vines. Head-trained vines may be spur-pruned or cane-pruned, whereas cordon-trained vines are spur-pruned. If left on the vine, a green shoot (fruiting cane) will harden to become a woody cane after a season—along the cane are a number of buds, which will each produce a shoot during spring budbreak. The spur is a cane cut back to two buds. If a vine is spur-pruned, the upper cane growing from a spur will be removed during winter pruning, and the lower cane growing from the same spur will be cut back to two buds, creating a new spur. Thus, each spur will produce two fruiting canes each year, one of which will become the following year’s spur. Cordon-trained vines contain several spurs along the length of the arm. In its simplest form, cane pruning requires the grower to retain one spur and one cane. The number of buds left on the cane may range from six to over a dozen, and European appellation systems often establish a maximum number for each grape. The buds on the two-year-old cane each release shoots that will produce a season’s fruit, and the entire two-year-old main cane and its fruiting canes are removed after the growing season. In its place, one of the one-year-old canes from the spur is selected and retained to become the following season’s main cane. Although cane-pruning is usually only used on head-trained vines, some growers occasionally merge the style with cordon-training, retaining a “kicker cane” along an otherwise spur-trained cordon. VSP in New Zealand. One of the most basic systems of cane-pruning/head-training is the Guyot system, developed in the 1860 by Jules Guyot. The Guyot system requires a vertical trellis on which the canes can be suspended, and has one spur and one main two-year-old cane. The double Guyot variant supports two main canes, extending outward from the trunk on opposite sides. The simplest form of spur-pruning/head-training is the Gobelet system, an ancient technique common in the Southern Rhône and Southern Italy, wherein the vine, often unsupported, resembles a goblet, with each year’s fruiting canes extending from the spur-pruned, shortened arms atop the trunk. In Italy the Gobelet system is known as albarello ; in Spain, en vaso . Australians often refer to such vines as bush vines. One of the simplest spur-pruned/cordon-trained systems is the Cordon de Royat, the preferred training style for Pinot Noir in Champagne. The Cordon de Royat system is similar to the Guyot system, with a single spur-pruned permanent cordon extending horizontally from the trunk, rather than a two-year-old cane. The spur-pruned/cordon-trained Geneva system and a close variant, the Lyre system, are more complicated, as cordons extend outward from the trunk in a flat “U” shape, creating a divided canopy. Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP), a trellising system, may be used for either cane-pruned or spur-pruned vines. The Tendone system, known as pergola in Italy and enforcado in Portugal, is an alternative training system in which the vines are trained upward and overhead along wooden frames or trees, enabling workers to pass underneath. Tendone vines may be either spur- or cane-pruned. This list is by no means exhaustive; many other styles and combinations of training systems exist. BACK TO TOP Vine Diseases and Insect Threats Diseases that affect the vine can be broadly categorized into four main groups: fungal, viral, bacterial, and phytoplasma. Fungal diseases manifest as mildew or mold and are typically associated with warm and damp climates, attacking either the root system or the canopy of the grapevine. Fungal spores are spread by wind and rain and a disease, once entrenched in a vine, may infect an entire vineyard. Some of the most worrisome fungal diseases—including powdery and downy mildew—originated in America, arriving in Europe on cuttings in the 19th century. Fungal diseases, while problematic in the past, can be successfully controlled—if not wholly eradicated—through fungicide sprays and other applications. Bacterial diseases are less common but are difficult to control and can be extremely devastating to the health of the vine. Viral diseases, spread through grafting or transmitted by insects, are often less immediately destructive than bacterial diseases, yet there is no known cure for many common viruses affecting grapevines. Infected vines experience a shortened lifespan, reduced yields and a changed quality of fruit. Viral diseases are controlled through removal and appropriate selection for propagation. Phytoplasma diseases are caused by phytoplasmas, pathogens similar to bacteria, yet they are symptomatically similar to viral diseases and, like viruses, must be spread through an insect vector or rootstock grafting. Phytoplasma diseases, known as grapevine yellows, were first recorded in Europe in the mid-1990s, and may cause widespread difficulties in the 21st century. One of the most historically important and devastating blights on the vine is not a disease at all, but an infestation: phylloxera . The tiny Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (originally called Phylloxera vastatrix ), an aphid that feeds on the roots of vines, is native to the Eastern United States, but it quickly spread through Europe from cuttings imported to the Southern Rhône Valley in the early 1860s, and is now present in all of the world’s major winegrowing countries—with the notable exception of Chile. Phylloxera will kill vines by destroying its root system, and its arrival in Europe swelled fears of a total collapse of viticulture. Most of the world’s Vitis vinifera vines are today grafted onto native American vine rootstocks, which are naturally resistant to the phylloxera root louse. Sandier soils, such as those found in Colares in Portugal, act as a natural barrier, impeding the spread of phylloxera. Other insects—mealy bugs, nematodes, and glassy-winged sharpshooters—act as carriers, or vectors, of disease, and their appearance in the vineyard may be a harbinger of a coming infection. Fungal Diseases Powdery Mildew (Oidium): Native to North America, the Uncinula necator fungus has spread worldwide, and thrives in humid climates even without precipitation—rainfall is actually a detriment to the survival of its spores. The fungus, during its anamorph stage, is known as Oidium tuckerii . Powdery mildew affects all green parts of the plant, marking grapes, leaves, and shoots with its dusty white mildew growth. It prefers densely shaded canopies and overcast weather, and greatly inhibits bunch development and ripening. If infected prior to flowering, yields will be reduced; if infected after fruit set, berries will struggle to achieve veraison and reach full size. Fruit affected by powdery mildew is universally avoided in the winemaking process, as it creates off-flavors in the wine. Powdery mildew, first recorded in England in 1847, spread quickly throughout the Vitis vinifera vineyards of Europe but was soon controlled by applications of sulfur and other fungicides. Downy Mildew (Peronospora): Another fungal disease that emigrated to Europe on North American vine cuttings, downy mildew spread rampantly through France and the rest of Europe in the early 1880s. Plasmopara viticola , the agent of downy mildew, attacks the green portions of the vine, causing leaves to drop off the vine and limiting the vine’s ability to photosynthesize. The infection is first visible as an oil spot on vine leaves. As spores germinate a white, cottony growth develops on the underside of the leaves. The fungus survives the winter on fallen leaves in the soil, and its spores reach the vine again with the help of rain splatter in the spring. Arid regions prohibit its growth. The blue-staining Bordeaux Mixture , a spray of copper sulfate, water and lime, was developed by 1885 to prevent outbreaks of downy mildew. Eutypa Dieback: Also called dead arm, the disease is caused by the Eutypa lata fungus. Spores are carried by rain and enter the vine through pruning wounds. Common in Mediterranean climates, the disease is difficult to control as it affects a wide number of plants. Infected vines experience stunted shoot growth as the fungus releases toxins, and eventually an infected cane may die—the dead arm. This disease has a drastic effect on yield, but does not devalue the quality of the crop. In fact, Australia’s d’Arenberg ascribes a beneficial effect on quality to the dead arm, and markets its icon Shiraz under the disease’s nickname. A separate fungus, Phomopsis viticola , manifests as a similar disease. Esca (Black Measles): One of the earliest known fungal grapevine diseases, Esca thrives in warmer climates but exists worldwide, and there is no known control or cure. Unlike other fungal diseases, Esca is the result of a complex of fungi, rather than a single organism. On young vines, the disease will weaken growth, affect berry development and discolor leaves; in hot weather an affected young vine may suddenly die. In older vines, the disease affects the wood, causing the interior of the trunk and arms to soften and rot from the inside—a condition that led ancient Romans to use Esca-infected tree trunks for firewood, as its spongy interior quickly caught fire. Mature, Esca-infected vines will rarely live past 30 years of age. The disease is exacerbated by rainfall and can be spread by wind or on the pruning shears of careless vineyard workers. Black Rot: Native to North America, Black Rot spread to Europe with the importation of phylloxera-resistant rootstocks in the late 1800s. The disease is caused by the Guignardia bidwelli fungus, originating as a black spot on the vine’s shoots, leaves, and berries. Although yield reductions can be disastrous if unchecked, the disease can be controlled through fungicide sprays. Bunch Rot: Bunch rot is a grouping of similar diseases caused by a number of fungi species. In general, bunch rots reduce crop yields and may adversely affect the character of the wine, imbuing it with moldy off-flavors. One of the most common forms of bunch rot is Botrytis bunch rot. Known in its malevolent form as grey rot, the Botrytis cinerea fungus will break down the skin of berries and allow other yeasts and bacteria to rot the grapes. It spreads quickly throughout vineyards. However, if the fungus invades healthy white grapes under favorable conditions, it will instead result in the noble rot, a precondition for some of the world’s greatest sweet wines. Botrytis bunch rot requires warm weather and humidity of at least 90% to germinate. Bacterial Diseases Pierce’s Disease: Caused by the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa and most commonly transmitted by the glassy-winged sharpshooter—a leafhopping insect found near citrus orchards and oleander plants—Pierce’s Disease is a scourge, rendering vines incapable of producing chlorophyll and killing them within one to five years. The disease is common in the southern United States and Mexico but is steadily moving northward in California, with sightings of the glassy-winged sharpshooter and outbreaks of the disease provoking major alarm in both Sonoma and Napa counties. There is neither a cure nor a chemical control for the disease, and authorities in other countries are maintaining strict quarantines to prevent its incursion. Crown Gall (Black Knot): T he Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium causes the Crown Gall disease in a wide variety of plant species. When affected, a vine develops tumors (galls) on its trunk, which girdle and essentially strangle the vine, withering or killing outright the portions of the vine above. The bacteria thrive in colder climates, and systemically live inside the grapevine. During winter freezes, when the vine’s trunk may be ruptured, the bacteria invade the outer trunk, rapidly multiplying and fomenting the onset of disease. The disease is spread through the propagation of bacteria-infected budwood. Bacterial Blight: Caused by the Xanthomonas ampelina bacterium, Bacterial Blight often kills young grapevine shoots. They develop dark brown streaks in early spring, and eventually wither and die. Spread by rain and compromised pruning tools, the disease can be controlled by hot water treatments and copper sprays, such as the Bordeaux Mixture. Viral Diseases Leafroll Virus: Leafroll Virus, a condition caused by a complex of at least nine different viruses, may be responsible for as much as 60% of the world’s grape production losses. Although affected vines display radiant shades of red and gold in the autumn, such beautiful colors, combined with a characteristic downward curling of the leaves, signal the virus’s malevolent side: reduced yields and delayed ripening. Leafroll Virus, spread through propagation of infected vines or by an insect vector like the mealy bug, is currently incurable but it will not kill the vine; thus, infected vines are not always removed. Fanleaf Degeneration: Fanleaf Degeneration, a nepovirus spread by soil nematodes feeding on infected roots, severely curtails yields and affected vineyards must be removed. A complex of similar diseases, Fanleaf Degeneration deforms shoot growth, and leads to poor fruit set and shot (seedless) berries. The leaves on an infected vine are malformed, resembling fans in appearance, and may form yellow bands around the veins. The productive lifespan of the vine and its winter durability are diminished. Phytoplasma Diseases Flavescence Dorée: A form of grapevine yellows, Flavescence Dorée first appeared in Armagnac in 1949. Leafhopper insects and propagation of infected vines spread the disease, which will initially delay budbreak and slow shoot growth, eventually causing bunches to fall off the vine and berries to shrivel. The disease will discolor leaves, cause pustules and cracks to form, and may kill young vines. No cure exists, although insecticides may be used to control leafhopper insect populations and retard its spread. BACK TO TOP Sustainable Models of Viticulture The 20th century witnessed a series of great agricultural advancements—many of which grew from wartime applications—as modern chemistry paved the way for successful monoculture. The discovery of synthetic nitrogen led to the development of chemical fertilizers, a Nobel Prize-winning endeavor blemished by its subsequent use in the poison gases of World Wars I and II. Chemical disease and pest control became widespread. By the 1950s, agriculture amongst the world’s leading nations was industrialized, and farming yields climbed. Such intensive farming practices require high inputs of (fossil fuel) energy, and industrialized farms develop dependencies on chemical means of survival as the land is stripped bare. As the 21st century dawned, such chemical enhancements are being enhanced by precise genetic modification—perhaps the only possible result of a history in which mankind has continually refined the plant species of agriculture through one form of selection or another. GMOs (genetically modified organisms) have been banned in the EU since 1998, but genetically modified yeasts were first employed in North American winemaking in 2006. Viticulture—a commercial enterprise at its heart—parallels trends and advancements in the larger world of agriculture. However, a rapidly expanding generation of growers is taking the ethos of organic and sustainable viticulture to heart. The ideal of sustainable viticulture, an unregulated (and therefore abused) term, is ultimately to return the vineyard to a self-sustaining position in harmony with the larger ecosystem to which it belongs. Its many adherents interpret the idea in different ways and to different degrees. In the US, many advocates of greener agriculture have become fixated on the idea of organic farming. In order to grow grapes organically in the US or Australia, synthetic chemical treatments and certain filtration procedures are forbidden—although copper and sulfur treatments, such as Bordeaux Mixture, may still be allowed. When an American (or Australian) wine is labeled as organic, it must be produced from organically-grown grapes and contain no added sulfites—a stipulation which prevents most good bottles from qualifying, as sulfites are an important (and almost universal) preservative in wine. Instead, many bottles are labeled as “wine made from organically grown grapes,” a designation which permits the addition of sulfites. Despite the image of green, less than 3% of California’s acreage is certified organic. France only has about 9% of its vineyard area certified. In 2012, the EU elaborated upon existing laws for organic grapegrowing by laying out winemaking measures required in order to label a wine organic. This included limiting the amount of SO 2 allowed in winemaking (a maximum of 100 mg/L for reds and 150 mg/L for whites and rosé, with a 30 mg/L differential if residual sugar is greater than 2 g/L). It is important to remember, too, that many growers around the world practice organically but choose not to get certified for a multitude of reasons, not the least of which are economic as well as the fact that certification rules can be rigid in exceptionally challenging vintages. While organic viticulture is admirable, it functions legally by the elimination of negative practices, rather than implementation of positive ones. Other models of sustainability take a different approach in promoting the long-term health of the soil and the vine’s relationship to its environment. In this sense, sustainability may govern (but is not limited to) water usage, energy efficiency, pest and erosion control, the planting of cover crops, the degree of mechanization, planting decisions, and even labor practices. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is considered a sustainable approach to weed, insect, and disease problems that tolerates the targeted application of some synthetic products, but limits their use overall. Often, IPM is utilized as a vineyard transitions from conventional to organic viticulture, or it may be a part of a separate sustainability philosophy. New regional sustainability organizations include VINEA, a voluntary group of Walla Walla Valley winegrowers who promote a holistic, socially- and environmentally-responsible methodology. VINEA winegrowers may not be exclusively organic, but they do farm in accordance with the standards set forth by LIVE (Low Input Viticulture and Enology, a third-party certifying system) and the vineyards are certified as Salmon-Safe. Oregon’s producers are at the forefront of sustainable approaches, and may label their wines as Oregon Sustainable Certified Wine (OSCW) provided 97% of fruit is certified by Salmon-Safe. Another approved organization, such as LIVE or USDA Organic, must certify both the fruit and the winery. California Certified Sustainable Winegrowing (CERTIFIED SUSTAINABLE), administered by the California Sustainable Winegrowing Alliance (CSWA), provides incremental certification for wineries and vineyards based on a concept of continual improvement. While less than 3% of California’s grape acreage is certified organic, as of 2015, 25% of acreage and over 60% of the state’s case production was CERTIFIED SUSTAINABLE, Lodi Rules, Napa Green, and/or SIP. The controversial concept of biodynamic viticulture takes the concepts of organic and sustainable farming and combines them with an almost mystical sensibility. Observing the rhythms and forces of the Earth is, in the ideal of biodynamic farming, intrinsically tied to the success of any ecosystem—the farm, in concert with the cosmic periphery, becomes a whole organism, generating its own fertility as governed by the cycle of seasons and lunar activity. Truly biodynamic vineyard workers will time their various tasks by motions of celestial bodies—particularly the moon. Introduced by the Austrian Rudolf Steiner in 1924 and today personified by Nicolas Joly of the Loire, biodynamic agriculture requires the yearly application of homeopathic preparations, produced from such animal and mineral substances as dandelion flowers, stinging nettles, and “horn manure” to ritually treat and heal the soil. Biodiversity and soil rotation are emphasized. The Demeter Biodynamic Trade Association certifies biodynamic farms and vineyards internationally. Many are skeptical of the biodynamic model, and the resulting wines may be wasteful or revelatory—depending on whom one asks. BACK TO TOP Vinification The intricacies of vinification—the transformation of grape juice into wine—can vary considerably between different producers, different regions, and different styles of wine, but the principles remain the same. Vinification is dependent on sound viticulture. Ultimately, the job of the winemaker is to preserve the inherent quality of a grape as it becomes wine. However, the choices a winemaker faces in determining how a grape’s character may be best expressed—and the tools at his or her disposal—are numerous. The rather quaint notion of fermentation as a natural, unaided process—and of wine as a totally natural product—is a false premise in most cases, relieved of the burden of truth by the methods inherent to modern winemaking. Many modern enhancements of the basic principles of vinification have raised the overall quality of wine worldwide, and confer a greater control over the final product. As in the practices of viticulture, some producers choose to emphasize the natural form of wine in its levels of unpredictability; others prefer to make their wines with the assurances that result from an industrialized process. In the process of alcoholic fermentation, the metabolism of yeast cells converts sugar in grape must into ethyl alcohol (ethanol) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). Heat is generated during this process. The ratio of conversion is not perfect, and intermediate compounds must develop, bridging the transformation of sugar to alcohol. Traces of volatile compounds produced in this complex series of reactions, including acetaldehydes, ethyl acetate and fusel oils, remain in the finished wine and influence its aroma and character. While a small amount of sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) is also naturally produced as a byproduct of fermentation, SO 2 is generally added to the must or juice before fermentation to prevent oxidation and bacterial contamination, and to ensure rapid fermentation. Acetaldehyde, regarded as a sign of oxidation in finished wines, is actually the last link on the chain of intermediate compounds between sugar and alcohol, and will remain in the new wine in trace amounts. A small amount of the remaining acetaldehyde is inevitably converted to acetic acid, which in turn reacts with alcohol to produce ethyl acetate, a culprit of volatile acidity in wine. When volatile acidity is encountered as a fault, excessive acetic acid has been produced by the activity of acetobacter, the group of bacteria responsible for turning wine to vinegar in the presence of oxygen. Yeasts require nitrogen to work, and low levels of nitrogen in the must leads to the formation of hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), a highly volatile compound reminiscent of rotten eggs. Winemakers may supplement low nitrogen levels through nutrient additions, to avoid excessive sulfide production during fermentation. H 2 S levels may also be affected by elemental sulfur (S) coming in from the vineyard on the grapes if a treatment occurred close to harvest. In winemaking terms, the addition of sulfites refers to sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ); sulfides include hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), mercaptans and other foul-smelling compounds produced under reductive conditions. The size and complexity of a fermentation vessel can range from a small plastic bin to a barrique to a 2,500 hl-capacity stainless steel tank. The amount of heat generated by fermentation increases with the size of the must—without accounting for any temperature control, small vessels provoke slow, cool fermentations and large vessels lead to short, hot fermentations. Below 50°F, most yeasts will not act; above 105°F, yeasts will die. White wine fermentations usually take place on the cooler end, as fruit and freshness are preserved at lower temperatures. Red wine fermentations may reach into the 90s, although winemakers run the risk of volatalized (lost) flavor compounds and stuck fermentations as the thermometer passes 95°F. The benefit of hot fermentations for red wines is in the increased extraction of color, tannin and flavor compounds. The risk of stuck fermentation—a disastrous and sudden shutdown of yeast activity—has been greatly reduced in the age of temperature control and selected commercial yeasts. However, stuck fermentations still keep many winemakers up at night during, particularly if it has been a challenging vintage, yeast nutrition has been difficult to manage, and/or they have opted for using ambient yeasts to ferment. Large fermentation tanks with temperature control can accompany either cool or hot fermentations, without allowing the temperature to rise out of hand. Barrel fermentation , on the other hand, lacks temperature control but the relatively small size of the vessel prevents temperatures from rising too high. White grapes (such as Chardonnay) fermented in barrel will lose some of the initial fruit and fresh aromatics, yet gain a more cohesive expression of oak and a subtler color than those fermented in tank but aged in a new barrel. Barrel fermented wines are generally subject to the processes of lees contact and bâtonnage , or lees stirring, which add further complexity and richness. Other fermentation vessels include large wooden casks, ceramic amphorae and cement eggs—a less porous vessel than a barrel, yet still allowing some oxygen ingress. Bâtonnage. The agent of fermentation—yeast—is an important consideration for the winemaker. A wide number of cultured yeasts are available, developed in laboratories and designed to lend control over some aspect of the fermentation process or affect the character of the wine. Cultured yeasts promise reliability, and are often able to continue to work in higher levels of alcohol than ambient yeasts. Ambient yeasts—often inaccurately identified as native or wild—inhabit the winery and come to life in the presence of must, although they are by nature less predictable than cultured yeasts. Many winemakers believe ambient yeasts create a more complex wine. Some will hope for a smooth beginning to ambient yeast fermentation, but inoculate the must with cultured yeast if the progress is slow; others will inoculate with cultured yeasts and use SO 2 to eliminate any ambient yeast in the must in order to maintain total control. Depending on the type of yeast used, the wine will take as little as a week to more than a month to ferment dry. In the milder climates of the Old World, chaptalization—the addition of sugar to the must to increase the final alcohol and glycerin content of the wine—is frequently practiced. In the warmer climates of the New World, some producers respond to the problem of excessive ripening and the resulting high alcohol levels by removing alcohol from the wine through modern devices such as spinning cones. Another technique of alcohol adjustment, reverse osmosis , separates the wine into two constituent parts, permeate and retentate. The permeate, which contains water and ethanol, is then distilled to a proper level before being recombined with the retentate—the wine’s aromatic compounds—at a lower percentage of alcohol. Once banned in the EU, such processes of de-alcoholization by physical separation were legalized in 2009, provided the level of alcohol is not adjusted by more than 2%. Winemakers in warm regions may also choose to balance their wines through acidification: the addition of acid to must or to a finished wine. Tartaric acid and malic acid, the two principal acids in grape juice, may be used for acidification; tartaric acid, added prior to fermentation, is preferred. As (or after) the alcoholic fermentation occurs, the unrelated process of malolactic fermentation, also known as secondary fermentation or “malo,” may take place in the wine. In malolactic fermentation, lactic acid bacteria convert harsh malic acids into softer lactic acids and carbon dioxide. It rounds out a wine’s texture. Malolactic fermentation may be initiated by inoculation, or it may occur naturally, as lactic acid bacteria are naturally found alongside yeasts on grape skins. It may also be prevented or shortened by removing the organisms responsible. Malolactic fermentation often occurs in red wines, and most of the world’s fuller styles of white wines undergo either full or partial malo. Lighter, high-acid whites are sometimes treated to a degree of malo, although producers of certain varieties, like Riesling, scrupulously avoid it. Diacetyl, the compound responsible for buttery aromas in wine, is a byproduct of malolactic fermentation. Carbonic maceration ( macération carbonique ) is an alcoholic fermentation used for some red wines, wherein whole, uncrushed grapes in an anaerobic environment (under a protective blanket of CO 2 ) initiate an intracellular fermentation. Attempting to sustain itself, a berry will release enzymes to transform its own sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This occurs without the action of yeasts. However, such fermentations cannot produce more than a couple of degrees of alcohol, as the berry ceases activity in the presence of enough ethanol. Carbonic maceration must therefore be combined with a standard fermentation in wine production. In Beaujolais, where the process is often used for nouveau and other wines, a tank will be filled with whole berries. Berries at the bottom will be crushed under the weight of those above it and will ferment normally. The ensuing carbon dioxide will blanket the whole berries above, which will then begin to ferment by carbonic maceration. The grapes will eventually explode, or the winemaker will press the juice, and then the yeasts would begin their work. Carbonic maceration. BACK TO TOP Red Wine Production After harvest, grapes may be sorted (on a vibrating table or belt) prior to being crushed and destemmed. This initial sorting is labor-intensive and expensive, but allows the winemaker to remove MOG—material other than grapes. Crushing grapes, traditionally accomplished by foot, is usually carried out by machine—a crusher-destemmer. Alternatively, some producers may choose to use whole clusters (retaining the stems), whole berries (discarding the stems), or partially destemmed and partially crushed berries. The fermentation of whole berries—a common practice with Pinot Noir and Syrah—will encourage a level of carbonic maceration, whereas stems may be retained for spicy aromatic complexity and structure. Whole cluster fermentation requires less handling while improving the movement of juice and air through the cap. Damaged or unripe stems, however, can cause undesirable green flavors in the wine. If a winery uses whole berries—and spares no expense—the grapes may be sorted again after destemming to remove jacks (leftover pieces of grape stem) and any remaining MOG. Crushed red grapes will usually undergo a pre-fermentation maceration, which promotes the extraction of color and tannin. Traditionally, this maceration was the simple consequence of waiting for ambient yeasts to ignite fermentation, but today many inoculated musts undergo this period of aqueous extraction. Cold soak, a pre-fermentation maceration technique that relies on substantial SO 2 additions and a cold temperature, was developed in Burgundy in the 1970s and has been popularized by Pinot Noir producers worldwide. Proponents may cold soak grapes for nearly a week before fermentation. Occasionally, some juice will be run off prior to fermentation, in order for the producer to have a greater ratio of skins to juice, and therefore achieve more extraction. Punching down the cap (pigeage) of California Pinot Noir. Fermentation and maceration occur in tandem for red wines. Grape skins are always included in red wine fermentation, as the winemaker hopes to extract the phenolics contained within grape skins—tannin, color compounds (anthocyanins) and flavor compounds—with the help of heat and alcohol. The juice, in most cases, would be colorless without the skins. As red wine ferments, a cap ( chapeau ) of grape solids (pomace) develops on the surface of the must, pushed up by the action of CO 2 . Careful cap management is integral to red wine production: without intervention, the cap will dry out, solidify and prevent extraction. One traditional method of submerging and breaking up the cap is pigeage , or punching down. Pigeage may be performed manually—by workers using poles, paddles, or even their own feet—or mechanically. An alternate method of cap management is remontage , in which the fermenting wine is pumped over the top of the cap. Pumping over will agitate and aerate the wine to a greater degree. Both methods may be performed once or several times daily during fermentation. A third technique, délestage , allows the winemaker to fully drain the fermentation vessel. The wine is racked into a separate vessel while the cap drains fully, and is then pumped back over the cap in the fermentation vessel. Once fermentation has concluded, a fuller-bodied red may continue to macerate for a period of days or weeks before it is pressed off the skins. The most tannic and traditional styles of Nebbiolo-based wines in Piedmont often incur at least a month of post-fermentation maceration. After fermentation and any post-fermentation maceration, the winemaker will draw the high quality, free-run wine ( vin de goutte ) from the tank. The remaining pomace is then pressed to yield coarser, tannic press wine ( vin de presse ). A small proportion of press wine may be blended in to a top cuvée for structure, or it may be entirely reserved for lesser wines. The traditional basket press relies on vertical pressure to press the pomace, whereas the modern pneumatic bladder press exerts gentle pressure on the grapes by means of its inflation with air. The wines may be blended or kept as separate lots, and moved into the preferred aging vessel, if any. High quality red wines are generally matured in oak barrels—the size and percentage of new barrels is determined by the style of the wine. The maturation period ( élevage ) ranges from a few months to more than two years in wood for some top Bordeaux and Napa wines, and the wines racked periodically during the process. Racking, or soutirage , is the movement of wine from one vessel to another, providing aeration and clarification as the wine is removed from its lees, or sediment. Malolactic fermentation may occur quickly at the end of fermentation or slowly during maturation. SO 2 is often added during maturation, or just before bottling—an addition that is anathema to advocates of sans soufre (“without sulfur”), a newer doctrine of extreme natural winemaking. Prior to bottling, the wines will be racked a final time, and may be fined or filtered. Both processes ensure greater clarification in the finished wine, and filtration promotes stability in the bottle. Fining ( collage ) requires a fining agent to precipitate solids out of the wine: bentonite, casein, isinglass, gelatin, and egg white are commonly used. When employed in the fining process, casein (a milk protein), egg white, gelatin and isinglass (a material obtained from sturgeon bladders) may create a dilemma for vegans and vegetarians. Bentonite, a type of clay, escapes criticism from such quarters. Filtration, a more invasive and expensive process, is often accomplished through the use of pads or a membrane with microscopic openings. Many critics charge that fining and especially filtration strip the wine of character, and a growing number of winemakers are proclaiming their aversion to either method. BACK TO TOP White Wine Production Chardonnay undergoing a brief period of skin contact. White wine grapes are crushed and pressed prior to fermentation. The grapes may be crushed and destemmed, or crushed as whole bunches, as the stems provide good drainage channels for the juice during the pressing stage. White grapes may see some extended skin contact, usually measured in hours rather than days, between crushing and pressing. This maceration enables the extraction of aromatic compounds but may lead to excessive tannin and bitterness in the final wine if unchecked. White grapes are pressed in either a traditional style of vertical press or a modern pneumatic press, and—like red grapes after fermentation—first yield free-run juice, followed by pressed juice of decreasing quality. After pressing, the juice is allowed to settle ( débourbage ). This process allows the juice to be racked off suspended solids and clarified prior to fermentation. During all of these procedures, warm temperatures and oxygen are the enemy, and winemakers must keep musts cool and prevent spoilage or premature fermentation with the judicious use of SO 2 . Fermentation occurs at a cooler temperature for white wines than for reds, and there is no cap, as the grapes have already been pressed. White wines are frequently clarified after fermentation, and may undergo cold stabilization—a process that causes tartrate crystals to precipitate out of the wine at a temperature of approximately 25°F. In white wines that are not cold-stabilized, crystals may later form in the bottle. Light, aromatic white wines do not often undergo barrel maturation or malolactic fermentation, and will usually be bottled shortly after the conclusion of fermentation. White wines may be fermented to dryness, but fermentation is arrested for many aromatic white wines while some degree of residual sugar remains. In some cases, sweetness may also be added back to a wine after it ferments to dryness, in the form of sterilized fresh grape juice, known as Süssreserve in Germany. Off-dry and sweet white wines are often filtered, as the sugar content can lead to unexpected refermentation in the bottle. White wines matured in oak often undergo full or partial malolactic fermentation. The lees, or yeast sediment, build up in fermenting red wines as well as whites, but their impact is more noticeable in the development of white wines. Fermented wine, whether in tank or barrel, may be left in contact with the lees in order to encourage malolactic fermentation—lactic acid bacteria feed on the nutrients in lees—and supplement richness and body in the wines. The effects of lees contact may be punctuated by bâtonnage . White wines matured in oak, such as the classic wines of Burgundy or Graves, are typically bottled after 9 to 18 months in barrel. During the maturation period, the wines may be racked and the lees may be stirred frequently or not at all. They may be fined or filtered prior to bottling. BACK TO TOP Rosé Wine Production There are two basic methods of rosé winemaking: blending and limited skin maceration . A blended rosé is simply the product of red and white base wines blended together, a technique widely regarded as inferior. Blending is prohibited throughout the EU, but only for wines below the PGI level! While individual appellations typically preclude the use of blending in rosé winemaking, this does not rule out changes to PDO/PGI regulations in the future, and the world's most expensive rosé wine—Champagne—is almost always assembled as a blend of white and red base wines. Nonetheless, subjecting red grapes to a short period of skin contact prior to fermentation is generally upheld as the superior technique for still rosé winemaking. In this method, a winemaker may purposefully craft rosé by leaving the juice in contact with its skins for a period of several hours to several days, depending on the desired extraction of color. Conversely, he or she may "bleed" juice from a maceration, producing rosé as a byproduct of red wine fermentation. In this variant, known as the saignée ("bleeding") method, pink juice is drawn from a vessel to concentrate the remaining must for red wine production, improving its color and structure. Finally, some winemakers may choose not to crush at all, achieving the palest of hues through direct pressing of whole red grapes or clusters. From a whisper of pink to salmon to orange to cherry red, the color of rosé wines can vary greatly, depending on the technique of production and the length of maceration. BACK TO TOP Oak Oak, a watertight, lightweight, and malleable wood, became a vessel of choice for wine during the era of ancient Rome. Oak allows gentle, slow oxidation to occur, rounding out and softening the texture of wine. The smaller the oak container, the more marked this effect is. New oak also contributes flavor—in the form of lactones and phenolic aldehydes such as vanillin—and wood tannin to wine, but this effect is dulled upon repeated usage—a barrel becomes neutral, ceasing to contribute flavor and aroma by its fourth to sixth year of use. Most of the barrel’s flavor is transmitted to the wine in its first year. However, a neutral barrel can still be useful, especially if new wood flavor is not desired. The use of new barrels is not just a stylistic concern, as new oak barrels are extremely expensive. The use of oak chips, staves, and powder are cheaper alternatives, although they will not provide an oxidative effect. Micro-oxygenation ( microbullage ), an aeration technique in which small amounts of oxygen are allowed to enter a stainless steel tank during either fermentation or maturation of the wine, may be combined with oak chips to approximate the effects of a new barrel at a fraction of the cost. The flavor imparted by an oak barrel is dependent on the level of toast and the type of wood. French oak barrels, produced from Quercus robur and Quercus petraea trees, are characterized by tight wood grain developed through slow growth. Faster-growing American white oak species ( Quercus alba ) usually display wider grain. Traditionally, French oak is split rather than sawn, a technique that produces fewer staves but prevents leakage in the final barrel. American oak is less porous and can be sawn without fear of leakage, but this method releases more vanillin and lactones, resulting in the coconut character of American oak. The drying process of the green staves also varies between European and American coopers. French oak is usually air-dried, a gentle process that leaches out some of oak’s more aggressive tannins and flavors, whereas American oak is quickly kiln-dried, and lactones are concentrated. The quality (and subtlety) of American oak is improving, however, and many American coopers now use air-drying techniques. In order to make an oak barrel, heat must be applied to bend each dry wooden stave into shape. This process is divided into three stages: warming ( chauffage ), shaping ( cintrage ), and toasting ( bousinage )—the latter stage has a significant effect on the wine. A barrel is subject to light, medium, or heavy toasting, and while the level of lactones (responsible for oaky aromas) and vanillin rises with increased toasting, they will subside with heavy toasting in place of spicier, smokier aromas. Light toast promotes the most extraction of wood tannin. BACK TO TOP The Future of Winemaking Wine has been an important commodity since ancient times, and winemaking decisions cannot be totally divorced from the business of wine, except in the most privileged of cases. Economic realities inform decisions in the winery and the vineyard. Striving for sustainability is necessary, but such wines are more expensive to produce, at least in the short term. While the downside of industrial viticulture and winemaking is easy to see, the search for sustainability and low-impact techniques may promote its own dangerous sensibility of doctrine and purity. Winemakers who advocate sustainable vineyard practices must determine if vinification practices should be altered to conform to the ethos guiding management of the vineyard. What is an unnatural manipulation in the winery and what is an accepted practice, necessary to the character of a particular wine? As the public continues to demand—and deserve—a right to understand what we consume, winery decisions will be thrust ever more into the spotlight. A “natural,” hands-off approach in the winery may lead to superior wines, or it may lead to bacterial spoilage and inconsistency. A winemaker may choose from many avenues of production, and must determine his or her own balance of quality, consistency, and level of intervention. BACK TO TOPPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/vintage/b/announcements/posts/vintage-decade-revisiting-the-judgment-of-paris-winesFri, 22 May 2026 13:55:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:515ebac9-5421-41b7-aa6d-b000cf29edc0GuildSomm AdminWe've published two vintage decade graphics that revisit the 1970s in Napa Valley and Médoc in recognition of the 50th anniversary of the Judgment of Paris, which took place on May 24, 1976. Learn more about the vintages of the winning American wines and the second-place French wines, and discover how these years fit within the context of the broader decade in each region. Read more about the 1970s in Napa Valley and Médoc !https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/video/b/new-content/posts/barrel-sizesThu, 21 May 2026 16:15:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:6b69d66d-b9b5-4398-b09d-5dc8a1a4dac4GuildSomm AdminWe have a new video short highlighting the sizes of key wine barrels and the varieties of oak used to make each one. Check it out on YouTube , Vimeo , or here on our site ! Thanks to If So Studio for developing this video.https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/videos/m/videos/16767Thu, 21 May 2026 16:09:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:ab05e69a-61b6-46a5-ae33-846612ff7e79GuildSomm AdminLearn the sizes of classic barrels employed for maturation in winemaking, along with the varieties of oak used to make each one. Production by If So Studios Copyright 2026https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/podcasts/b/guild_podcasts/posts/uruguay-with-santiago-deicasTue, 12 May 2026 14:17:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:82aadc99-1289-45b9-aeb2-ae26c9d2ee21GuildSomm AdminIn this episode, host and Master Sommelier Chris Tanghe interviews winemaker Santiago Deicas of Bodega Familia Deicas to explore the wines of Uruguay, one of South America's most exciting winemaking countries. Santiago lays the foundation for understanding the climate, geography, varieties, and viticultural specifics of this Atlantic-influenced growing area. Thanks for listening. If you enjoy this episode, please leave us a review, as it helps us connect and grow the GuildSomm community. Cheers! traffic.libsyn.com/.../GSI_podcast_Uruguay_with_Santiago_Deicas_5_12_20206.mp3 In this episode: Santiago Deicas Santiago is the third-generation winemaker at Familia Deicas, his family's fine wine label. His family also makes wine under the Establecimiento Juanicó label. Santiago was named Young Winemaker of the Year by Tim Atkin in 2020 and listed as one of Decanter's T op 5 Most Influential Winemakers in South America in 2021. Learn more about Familia Deicas . Follow Santiago on LinkedIn . Follow Santiago on Instagram .