https://www.guildsomm.com/research/expert_guides/w/expert-guides/2430/south-africaSat, 26 Sep 2026 20:15:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:974943c3-7239-439d-bc77-a0e8feafc1ffJonathan Eichholz“It is worth stressing the point: the reentry of South Africa into the world since the early 1990s has meant a growth in international sophistication for its wine. At its best, that has meant not the imposition of a bland ‘international style,’ but the emergence of the local story, better told.” – Tim James, "Wines of the New South Africa" Contents A Brief Introduction History of South Africa Climate & Geography The Grapes of South Africa South African Wine Law Regions of South Africa Bibliography A Brief Introduction Few countries have had as fraught a wine-producing history as South Africa. Things got off to a running start with Constantia, the sweet wine that became the darling of royals and intellectuals for much of the 18 th and 19 th centuries. But waves of economic and social calamity saw much of that early promise squandered, and the 20th century was, generally speaking, a dim time. Chronic overproduction led to the domination of co-ops, and one in particular, the KWV (Ko-operatieve Wijnbouwers Vereniging van Zuid-Afrika in Afrikaans, or Cooperative Winemakers Union of South Africa), grew to monopolize the industry. Due to its close political ties, the KWV’s reign became especially potent during the apartheid years, a period when embargos from much of the rest of the world left the wine industry to flounder in isolation. Things turned around rapidly after apartheid ended in the early 1990s—but the seeds of change had already started rooting. In the 1960s and ’70s, an increasing number of private estates had begun attracting attention with their high-quality wines, and this movement gained momentum across the 1980s. These producers and winemakers fought against the complacent establishment and lobbied for things like access to better vine material and the right to develop new viticultural areas. As a result, by the time of the first non-racial democratic election in 1994, the KWV had already softened many of its more draconian positions. Since that time, quality has skyrocketed, new producers are making some truly thrilling wines, and the fine wine-drinking world is waking up to the treasures of South Africa. Yet the industry has many issues left to resolve. Bulk wine still dominates, which drags down the national reputation. Because of this, profitability is a huge problem for both producers and grapegrowers, who struggle to command sustainable sums for their products. Racial inequity continues to cause strife, and political and economic instability has resulted in a fair amount of market insecurity. Yet an increasing number of social and economic programs are being put in place to correct for past ills, and the high quality and often undeniable individuality of contemporary wines are attracting new markets and demographics, many of whom lack the biases of previous generations and are happy to pay a premium for South African wine. This is good news for the industry as a whole, but especially for the country’s top tier of producers, whose efforts deserve a place among the world’s most celebrated wines. History of South Africa Base Camp to Phylloxera: 1652–1902 Europeans first settled in South Africa in 1652, when the Dutch government sent a group of less than 100 men to establish an outpost. This small encampment, located roughly halfway between the Netherlands and India, was intended as a refilling station, a place for Dutch East India Company ships to dock and replenish their supplies. At this point, the Dutch controlled the most formidable of the European merchant fleets, which made them very wealthy and very powerful. They were also very thirsty. And so, concurrent to their makeover of marshy Bordeaux, they planted the first vines in South Africa. The original cuttings were requested by Commander Jan van Riebeeck, who oversaw the first crush in 1659. From his experience as a ship surgeon, he felt that wine would benefit the sailors’ health. The vines were a mix of white varieties, presaging South Africa’s long allegiance to white wine. This original vineyard, located along the coast, was eventually judged to be poorly situated, and the vines were moved to a more favorable location, which today is under pavement as a suburb of Cape Town. Pronunciation Guide Aai = I Hoek = hook V = F G = H Example: Vergelegen = Fer-HELL-eh-hen Over time, the settlement grew to become a proper colony, which displaced the native tribes of the Khoikhoi and San. As the Dutch population swelled, so did South Africa’s vineyard, and wine grapes were soon grown throughout Stellenbosch and Paarl. The work on these vineyards and farms was mostly executed by slaves and free burghers—former employees of the Dutch East India Company that were moved to South Africa to work as laborers in exchange for land. By many accounts, the first South African wines were something of a disappointment. Though the parched sailors were undoubtedly grateful, early attempts to export back to Europe were met with disapproval, and in 1688, South Africa was asked to send no more wine. But two events would happen shortly after to turn the country’s vinous reputation around. In 1679, Commander Simon van der Stel arrived in South Africa. He was appointed the area’s first governor in 1691. Because of his high station, he was granted favorable lands. Among them was a property he would grow to become Constantia. Here, he developed the Cape’s largest vineyard, and the sweet wine produced there became known as the “governor’s wine.” It eventually took on the name of the estate, and Constantia developed into an international sensation—a legacy that is still going strong more than 300 years later. The second important development was the arrival of the French. In the late 1680s and early 1690s, Huguenots, a religious group of French protestants fleeing Catholic persecution, landed in South Africa. Most settled in a picturesque nook between the Stellenbosch and Paarl regions. This area became known as Franschhoek, or “French Quarter,” in honor of its new inhabitants. Though this French influx was long believed to have injected the wine scene with some much-needed expertise, South African wine writer and expert Tim James believes that this influence has been overstated. The wine industry grew steadily during the 1700s, with the most important products being dessert and fortified wines such as Constantia, Cape Madeira, Cape Port, Steen, and Hanepoot. Brandy grew to become an important export as well, and as it was generally distilled from white wine, plantings of white grapes—especially Semillon (here spelled without the accent, and historically called Greengrape)—swelled. As the close of the 18 th century approached, the political landscape changed dramatically, which had massive repercussions for the wine industry. In 1795, the British invaded and occupied South Africa. Though from 1803 to 1806 the Dutch managed to wrest it back, the Cape colony was officially ceded to Britain in 1814. The Dutch, meanwhile, retreated to their other strongholds in the north and east of the Cape area. Vineyard development spiked with the arrival of the British, an investment that was rewarded in 1813 when they lowered import tariffs on South African wine. This, in turn, encouraged even more planting, and land under vine tripled between 1795 and 1825. The vast majority of viticulture was confined to Stellenbosch, Paarl, and the area immediately surrounding Cape Town. Interior regions such as Robertson and the Swartland wouldn’t be planted until the 1870s, as the railway system extended inland. Glossary of Terms berg = mountain braai = BBQ dorp = village dry land farming = dry-farming groot = big klein = little kloof = valley/canyon rivier = river toren = tower The South African wine industry’s fortunes changed again in 1825, as Britain began moving away from preferential tariffs. There was an immediate negative impact on export volume and value, as well as a national grape glut. This was financially problematic for many farmers, who took another economic hit in 1834 when the British abolished slavery, doing away with their free labor. The handful of decades that followed were relatively bleak for the wine industry. In 1861, Britain signed a treaty reducing tariffs on French wine, driving further decline in South African exports. With the exception of Constantia, which had by this time been subdivided into a handful of independent estates, wine quality was routinely condemned, and a growing percentage of the grape harvest was sent to distillers each year to be processed as brandy. Despite these hardships, area under vine continued to grow, and another glut seemed on the horizon until phylloxera was discovered in South Africa in 1886. Even though the Europeans had already solved for the bug by grafting onto American rootstocks, much damage was done. Over a quarter of South Africa’s vineyard land was destroyed, and widespread replanting was delayed by rootstock shortages. To add insult to injury, the phylloxera epidemic was immediately followed by the Boer War, a struggle between the Dutch- and British-held South African colonies, which raged from 1899 until British victory in 1902. One result of the fighting was a unification of the various South African colonies into one nation; the other result was an economic depression. Depression & KWV Stronghold Years: 1905–1950s In response to the depression and yet another grape glut, the South African government ordered an inquiry into the status of its wine-producing regions in 1905. The investigating commission’s report recommended the establishment of cooperatives, and nine were founded the following year. This is a common strategy employed by wine regions around the world during times of economic hardship—cooperatives streamline production, centralize resources, and provide stable income for farmers. When several of the original cooperatives failed only a few years after launching, Charles Kohler came forward with a bold idea. He believed that regional cooperatives weren’t sufficient—only total centralization would fix South Africa’s stuttering wine industry. In 1918, he established the KWV, which became a mutual cooperative society in 1923. Aside from a handful of holdouts in Constantia and Stellenbosch, nearly all of South Africa’s “wine farmers” signed up to become part of the KWV. The original deal was that the KWV would not sell wine directly to consumers, so long as the merchants only bought their wine from the KWV. In addition, the KWV would effectively monopolize the export market, which, despite the tariffs, was still dominated by Britain. This arrangement stood for a number of years, but over time, the KWV was granted regulatory powers over the industry, much to the chagrin of the merchants. The KWV produced very little wine itself—its role was more to oversee the contracts between the growers and the co-ops—and one of its first acts was to establish minimum mandatory pricing for grapes. This was obviously beneficial to the farmers, but the unforeseen and perhaps inevitable outcome was overcropping and overproduction. In response, the KWV set production maximums and agreed to purchase surplus for distillation. Later, it required that each vineyard have a government-issued quota in order to operate. These quotas were given to operating wine farms between 1960 and 1970, and very few others were issued thereafter. By favoring existing farms, the KWV effectively forbid the development of new wine regions, freezing South Africa’s viticulture into its mid-1900s configuration, which, with the exception of Stellenbosch and Constantia, had become centered around the hotter interior regions where high yields and reliable ripening came easily. With a veritable army of growers in its ranks, the KWV was extremely influential, but its power grew along with the shifting political tides. In large part because all of the wine farms were owned by white Afrikaners , the KWV leadership had close ties to the National Party, which came to power in 1948 and formalized apartheid. The wine industry stagnated during the KWV years. Not only could new wine regions not be developed, but there was virtually no research or improvement in viticulture and enology (though they did make some technical advances in the pursuit of higher yields, such as studying the role of yeast available nitrogen, or YAN). Virus was rampant in the vineyards, high-yielding clones were given preference, and importing new clones or varieties was such a bureaucratic nightmare that it was effectively impossible. Aside from the introduction of cold fermentation in the 1950s, which allowed for the production of crisp white wines for the first time, cellar technology fell well behind the rest of the world. In fact, so much wine and fruit were sent to the distillers each year that the KWV became the world’s largest seller of brandy for a considerable stretch of time. Quality Revolution to Political Revolution: 1960s­–Early 1990s During apartheid, many countries turned against South Africa. International sanctions began in the 1960s, and the early loss of the Canadian and Scandinavian markets was a blow to South Africa’s wine industry. Though it became increasingly difficult to export, certain markets remained open, at least for a while. In fact, South Africa’s appellation system, the Wine of Origin scheme, was introduced in 1973 specifically to complement EU (then EEC) wine laws and ease trade. Despite its deepening isolation, the South African wine industry started to evolve in a positive direction in the 1960s and ’70s. A small group of quality-minded private producers began to set up shop independent of the KWV. At first, they were confined to the established premium regions of Paarl, Stellenbosch, and Constantia, but their influence began to spread slowly outward. Among the practices they inspired were a more careful approach to cellar hygiene, the use of French oak barrels, and a closer look at international varieties. Notably, the first Cape Bordeaux blend (Hofmeyr) debuted in 1979. Even so, that same year, 60% of the national grape harvest went toward brandy production. A handful of these independent producers began to openly rebel against the KWV. One of the biggest complaints during the KWV years was the lack of quality plant material, both in terms of clones and varieties. Due to cumbersome bureaucracy and strict quarantine laws, it could take several years to a decade to import new stock. More than one producer resorted to smuggling. Bringing in illegal “suitcase clones” is difficult in most countries, but it was measurably harder in South Africa given the rigorous account-keeping of the KWV. When Auxerrois—a grape that had never been cultivated by any South African nursery—was discovered in some vineyards, government officials realized what was afoot. In 1986, they launched an inquiry into the smuggling activities of Danie de Wet, Peter Finlayson, and others. Desperate for quality Chardonnay, these winemakers had inadvertently included some Auxerrois cuttings in their illicit haul. The happy if surprising result of the investigation was that the KWV began to relax its quarantine laws. It was also in 1986 that the Vine Improvement Association was founded to address issues around quality plant material, and this organization remains a leader in plant certification for vine propagation. In a similar vein, Timothy Hamilton Russell acted against the KWV by developing two vineyards in the cool coastal region of Hemel-en-Aarde in the late 1970s. The vineyard that contained his Pinot Noir had no quota, which made its very existence illegal, but the wines it produced were of high quality and attracted considerable attention. KWV officials once forced him to dump 5,000 liters of the wine down the drain but later capitulated to public pressure and decreed that unused quotas could be purchased or transferred to other farms. But while this opened the door to the development of small or independent producers, the KWV maintained a stranglehold on distribution networks, which made it difficult for such operations to sell their wine. Other key developments in the 1980s foreshadowed even greater change. In 1980, the now-essential Platter’s South African Wine Guide was launched. A yearly publication that rates wines and discusses trends and vintage characteristics, the Platter’s Guide provided a much-needed critical perspective and celebrated the producers who were eschewing quantity for quality. Those same producers decided to band together, share information, and provide support, establishing the Cape Winemakers Guild in 1982. What started as an elite club has become a veritable force, with over 45 members in its ranks as of 2020. The KWV’s grip on the South African wine industry had relaxed during the 1970s and ’80s, and it let go altogether in the 1990s. In 1992, the quota system was eliminated, which allowed for both the expansion of existing areas and the development of the cooler coastal regions. Two years later, the KWV also abolished the minimum pricing system. That same year, 1994, South Africa held its first non-racial democratic election. This marked the end of apartheid, which completely transformed the nation’s social and political landscape. It also opened up South Africa to the rest of the world. Life After Apartheid: 1994 & Onward Being able to participate freely in the international market led to rapid modernization in the South African wine industry. As Peter de Wet from Excelsior explains, because of South Africa’s long seclusion, “Styles didn’t evolve. We missed the global 1980s movement where the red wine plantings surged and people went to drier wines. It was only in the 1990s when we started exporting again, and first, we had to figure out what the world was drinking. We didn’t know because we were so isolated. We were an island economy; we drank what we produced.” Per Tim James, the first few years following the end of apartheid weren’t necessarily easy for the industry. Some quality issues, specifically over-acidification and over-oaking, persisted. Nonetheless, producers seemed to collectively rush through this awkward adolescent phase rather rapidly. The bigger challenges, James asserts, were the acquisition of clean vine material and the planting of the right variety in the right place. These are points where South Africa has made great strides, though virus is still a major issue. During the 2000s, a new generation of winemakers invigorated by international experience in both the Old and New Worlds emerged. Some are working to introduce new wines, varieties, and styles to South Africa, while others are focusing on revitalizing the traditions of their homeland. And while there has been a great deal of investment in new winegrowing regions such as the Hemel-en-Aarde, established areas such as Stellenbosch have also experienced impressive growth and refinement. Even the hotter inland areas that were historically associated with bulk wine have seen an uptick in small producers focused on quality. Perhaps the best example of this is the Swartland, whose “revolution” of quality has been one of the more widely covered trends in South African wine. Social Initiatives in South Africa Since apartheid, there has been a concerted effort within South Africa to right the wrongs of the past and give more land and leadership to those communities harmed by apartheid-era policies. Today, both privately and publicly funded programs such as those described below are seeking environmental and social betterment for the country. Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment (B-BBEE): B-BBEE evaluates how companies create opportunities and advancement for people from previously disadvantaged groups through training, management opportunities, ownership, living conditions, and more. Wine & Agricultural Ethical Trade Association (WIETA): WIETA is becoming the lynchpin in ensuring proper working conditions, compensation, and treatment of workers. Fair Trade: South Africa produces 65% of the world’s fair-trade wines, which represents 5% of the country’s wine production. Black-Owned Brands: Various programs are working to raise the number of black-owned brands. Examples include initiatives to reform the high capital costs involved with entering the wine industry and government land grants. Trained winemakers of color are capturing an increasing share in the premium space with their own brand offerings. Cape Winemakers Guild Protégé Programme: Skills transfer programs such as this one aim to move people from previously disadvantaged groups into better paid, skilled positions and then into management and ownership roles. Contemporary Market Landscape “Why don’t more people realise what’s going on in South Africa? I’m not talking about those who couldn’t point to it on a map of the world, but about interested consumers who routinely spend £20 or $30 on French, Italian or American wines but wouldn’t dream of drinking a Cape wine at the same price, which will almost certainly deliver superior value for money? . . . If we are looking for an answer, then it is surely related to image. South Africa occupies the bargain shelf or basement in many markets—only Spain has a lower bulk price and its vineyard area is nearly ten times larger than the Cape’s—and provides more than acceptable drinking at cheap prices. That is its strength as well as its weakness.” – Tim Atkin, “2017 South Africa Special Report” Though quality has risen dramatically since the early 1990s, the South African wine industry still faces many challenges. Domestically, per capita consumption has remained consistently low (in 2018, wine was only 7.47 liters to beer’s 55.46 liters). Exports have taken up the slack, however, soaring from 6.2% in 1993 to 51% in 2018. Even so, profitability is an issue. According to VinPro, a nonprofit advisory agency for the South African wine industry, in 2016, only 15% of South Africa’s winegrowers were profitable, 49% enjoyed low profits, 6% broke even, and 30% reported losses. Because of this, vine uprooting has surpassed planting every year for more than a decade. And while certainly some of those vineyards were poorly situated or planted to ill-suited varieties, great vineyards have been lost as well. Example of a large winery (Photo credit: Kelli White) Part of the problem lies with bulk wine. In 2018, over 50% of South Africa’s national production was exported as bulk—much of it destined for the bottom shelf of Europe’s supermarkets—and Vinpro reports that 14% of the white bulk wine was sold for less than the price of water. There are still about 50 cooperatives operating in South Africa (known locally as “producer cellars”), but though bulk wine is still a massive part of the picture, the focus is shifting to private producers. Yet growers in more premium regions such as Stellenbosch and Swartland aren’t necessarily better off. Even though they farm for lower yields and better quality, the grape prices aren’t reliably higher. In 1993, the year before apartheid’s end, South Africa could only count 170 private producers; by 2018, there were 468. This seems like a massive improvement—and it is—but the figures are misleading. First of all, the number of private producers is actually down from its peak of 524 in 2009, and second, cooperatives are not the only ones who produce bulk wine. Some of the country’s biggest wineries are technically considered private. Even the KWV lobbied to become a private company in 1997, a request the government only granted after forcing it to set up a trust of 477 million Rand for various wine industry purposes. And Distell, which functions as a kind of négociant, currently accounts for around 30% of South Africa’s total still and sparkling production. Most of the private wine cellars are located in the more premium regions such as Stellenbosch (168) and Paarl (109), with the next most populated areas being the Cape South Coast (55), Robertson (37), and the Swartland (28). By contrast, most of the cooperatives are located in the hotter interior, specifically Breedekloof (11), Robertson (9), and Worcester (8). But the growers far outnumber the producers. According to SAWIS, in 2018, there were 2,873 grapegrowers (down from 3,029 the year before). Taken together, they farm approximately 93,000 hectares of wine grapes, which makes South Africa the 15th most widely planted nation in the world. With around 825 million liters of resulting wine, the country ranks ninth in global production. Climate & Geography South Africa is one of the most geologically distinct wine regions in the world. Located at the southernmost tip of the African continent, the major winegrowing areas bracket the conjunction point of two oceans: the Atlantic and the Indian. These massive bodies of water have a profound influence on the vineyards, especially the Atlantic, with its frigid Benguela Current that swirls up from Antarctica. Cool, moist ocean breezes bathe the coastal vines, slowing the growing season. During the spring and summer, the occasionally fierce Cape Doctor wind blows in from the southeast. At its most intense, it can damage vines by breaking canes and interfering with fruit set. But its presence is typically benevolent, helping to stave off disease and pests in the vineyards. South Africa is also unique from a geographic perspective. A braid of mountains traces the coastline, forming an L-shape. These mountains carve the country into climatic zones. The coastal side of the ranges can be rather cool and rainy, the areas furthest inland are notably hot and dry, and in between, a series of valleys forms a temperate middle ground. Vineyard elevations range from 50 to 600 meters. The overall classification of the South African climate is Mediterranean, with long, dry summers and rain generally confined to the winter months. Access to water is an increasing threat. A severe water shortage in 2017 and 2018 led Cape Town to plan for “Day Zero,” referring to the possibility of major dams falling below 13.5% capacity. This was narrowly avoided through significant water restrictions and summer rains in 2018. Yet water remains a major concern. Mean February temperatures in South Africa; click to enlarge and zoom in (Courtesy of VinPro) Unlike many of the world’s wine regions, South Africa’s soils are relatively simple and very old. The country has been geologically stable for millennia—no glacial or volcanic activity and very few earthquakes. Most of the mountains are made of granite capped by sandstone, and these bedrocks have decomposed to form the basis of South Africa’s soils. Quartz is scattered throughout nearly all of the major winegrowing regions, and pockets of slate and shale can also be found. The Grapes of South Africa Due to the major roles played by brandy and dessert wine throughout its history, South Africa has long been dominated by white grapes. Semillon took the early lead. According to research done by Tim James, the grape enjoyed a near monopoly in South African vineyards during the 1800s. The phylloxera replant that came at the end of the century provided an opportunity to diversify, and a 1909 census saw its dominion knocked back to 40%. For the most part, it was other white varieties—specifically Palomino, Chenin Blanc, and Muscat—that rose to fill the void. The dominant red of South Africa’s past was Cinsaut, the local spelling of Cinsault and historically known as Hermitage. The high-yielding grape was introduced to the country in the 1880s, and by 1909, it was the third most widely planted variety. Today, only isolated patches can be found, and its role as the national red variety has been usurped by Pinotage, which was created in 1925. Similarly, Chenin Blanc (locally known as Steen) grew to supplant Semillon and today is the most widely planted variety in the country, though its area under vine is in constant decline. The Old Vine Project & Disappearing Vineyards For a variety of reasons—political turmoil, an unstable economy, the descending value of wine grapes coupled with rising farming costs—South Africa’s vineyards have been shrinking. Even as recently as 2018, over twice as many vines were pulled out as planted. This is an alarming enough statistic on its own, but a closer look at the data shows that it is historical varieties such as Chenin Blanc, and especially the old vines, that are being sacrificed for more contemporary grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon Blanc. In 2018, 3,858 hectares of vines were pulled out, by far the majority of which were Chenin Blanc (806 hectares) and Colombard (790 hectares). That same year, just over 1,500 hectares of new vines went in the ground—mostly Sauvignon Blanc (337 hectares), followed by Chenin Blanc (242 hectares), Colombard (177 hectares), Cabernet Sauvignon (151 hectares), and Chardonnay (143 hectares). The vineyards in high-tourist areas are less vulnerable to this trend, as the wineries tend to be more profitable. But no one is immune. According to the owner of the Iona Vineyard in Elgin, one of the country’s most lauded new winegrowing regions, “Per the government, a vineyard is worth the same as a vacant field. Here, a ton of apples brings in seven times the return as a ton of grapes.” He went on to relate this to the nationwide rise of Sauvignon Blanc. “For a wine grape, it’s ideal, as it’s popular and you can crop it high. This problem is magnified in areas such as the Swartland, Klein Karoo, and Olifants River, where the industry is composed mainly of independent growers who sell to co-ops. In such an arrangement, yield is paramount, which makes extreme vine age and the resulting low crop load a liability. And it is these old vines that are getting pulled and replaced with either more fashionable varieties or other produce entirely. In response to this trend, in 2002, viticulturist Rosa Kruger began compiling a list of old vine vineyards. In 2014, SAWIS, the organization body that spun from the KWV’s precise record keeping, gave her its vineyard registry dating back to 1900. She then established the Old Vine Project (OVP), which works not only to raise awareness of the special qualities of old vine fruit but also to raise prices to incentivize growers to keep these vines. The OVP’s Certified Heritage Vineyard seal can be used by farms where the average vine age is over 35 years. These efforts appear to be paying off, as the downward trajectory of old vine vineyards has slowed significantly since 2014, with Chenin Blanc the primary beneficiary; the OVP estimates that over half of the South African vines over 35 years old are Chenin Blanc. Despite the isolation of the long apartheid regime (1948–1994), South Africa’s vineyard composition began to slowly modernize behind the curtain. The first varietal Sauvignon Blanc was bottled in 1977, and the first Cabernet Sauvignon blend debuted in 1979. New grapes, especially the red Bordeaux varieties, gained steadily in popularity, but by 1993, South Africa was still planted to 81% whites. Since that time, however, brandy production has declined and wine production has increased. This has caused a dramatic shift in vineyard composition, and in 2018, white grapes accounted for only 55.3% of all vine land. Yet because of their higher yield, nearly twice as many white grapes (792,837 tons) were crushed as red (403,239 tons). Apartheid’s end coincided with a global rush of enthusiasm for a handful of French varieties, specifically Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Chardonnay, and Sauvignon Blanc (Shiraz, too, due to the Aussie explosion). All over the world, native or less popular varieties were being ripped up and replaced with these noble few—a trend that South Africa was quick to embrace. These varieties still dominate the fine wine landscape, but there have been some changes. As an increasing number of coastal regions have been developed since the early 2000s, plantings of Pinot Noir and other cool-climate varieties are on the rise. Further inland, winemakers such as Eben Sadie are experimenting with Mediterranean grapes, and Tinta Barroca seems to have cultivated an especially avid following. White Grapes Chardonnay: During the apartheid years, the preference for quantity over quality showed in the vineyards. Clones were selected for their yields rather than their organoleptic properties, and virus was rampant. Chardonnay was known to be especially virus-laden in the 1970s and ’80s. Importing new material was technically possible during this time, but the process lasted years, if not decades. In frustration, many vintners turned to smuggling. As previously mentioned, at some point in the late 1970s, winemakers Peter Finlayson, Danie De Wet, and a few others conspired to sneak some illicit Chardonnay cuttings into South Africa. They had first arranged for the dormant branches to be sent from Switzerland to Swaziland. From there, the cuttings were brought across the border in the bed of a logging truck. Finlayson and his colleagues passed these off as if they were from the local nursery, but there was one problem. Somehow, a few Auxerrois cuttings had been included in the haul, and Auxerrois had never before been seen in South Africa. When the KWV noticed, it launched an official inquiry in 1986. At its conclusion, instead of prosecuting the perpetrators, the KWV elected to relax its strict quarantine policies. Today, Chardonnay is a big part of South Africa’s winelands. A good proportion goes to bulk, but a fair amount is directed into the country’s robust traditional method sparkling production, known as Méthode Cap Classique, or MCC. A smaller amount is crafted into terroir-driven still wines, and interest in this category is rising sharply. The best fruit for these wines comes from newly developed coastal regions such as Hemel-en-Aarde, Elim, and Elgin, though De Wet is also making ageworthy wines from the limestone-rich soils of the Robertson Valley. In Elgin, where the potential is arguably the highest, viticulture is at risk as farmers are rapidly replacing grapes with apples, a significantly more profitable crop. 7.2% of vineyard land in 2018 6,661 hectares Méthode Cap Classique MCC is short for Méthode Cap Classique, an extremely popular category of Champagne method South African sparkling wine. Legally regulated since 1992, MCC supposedly finds its roots with the French Huguenots but seems to have really begun in 1971 with the appearance of Champagne method sparkling by Simonsig. This is a fast-growing segment of the wine industry that already displays great quality and value despite the plethora of quicker and cheaper examples on the market. While roughly the same amount of sparkling wine was produced between 2008 and 2018, this decade saw an increase of 120% in MCC and a decrease of 31% in other sparkling wine, indicating shift in demand toward premium South African sparkling. Today, Méthode Cap Classique can be made from any variety, and from any region, but it must undergo secondary fermentation in the bottle and rest on the lees for a minimum of twelve months. To be labeled as brut, the wine must contain less than 12 grams of residual sugar, extra brut less than 6, and brut nature less than 3. As in actual Champagne, many of the top producers (Graham Beck, Le Lude, and Charles Fox, for example) take things much further. They and others rely on the classic Champagne varieties of Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and Pinot Meunier (although, again, any variety is technically allowed) and subject their wines to far more extended lees and bottle aging. Robertson Valley, which boasts limestone soils and is the home of Graham Beck, seems to be a hub of quality MCC activity. Chenin Blanc: Chenin Blanc is the most widely planted variety in South Africa and arguably the most exciting. The grape has a long history in the country, where it was traditionally known as Steen (Steen was not officially recognized as being the same as Chenin Blanc until 1963). Chenin Blanc came early to South Africa, but plantings didn’t accelerate until after phylloxera tore through the country’s swaths of Semillon. Being naturally vigorous and drought resistant, Chenin Blanc was a natural fit and grew to form the basis of much of the country’s brandy. Old growers remember a time when 40 to 60 tons per hectare was common, but while perhaps thrilling to behold, such high crop loads and the assuredly poor quality that resulted did little to elevate the variety’s reputation. Plantings of Chenin Blanc got another boost in the 1950s when the arrival of refrigerated tanks changed the way that wines were manufactured. Suddenly, crisp white table wines and fruity non-fortified dessert wines could be produced with relative ease. A semi-sweet Chenin-based wine called Lieberstein debuted in 1959 and was enormously popular on the domestic market. Spurred on by this success as well as its easy cultivation, Chenin Blanc grew to become the most widely planted variety in South Africa. After apartheid ended, many enthusiastic producers eager to participate in the global market ripped up their Chenin Blanc in favor of more “contemporary” varieties such as Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon. This trend continues today—yet there is also a counter-trend in favor of Chenin Blanc that is correcting for some of this. Of the 1,500 hectares of new vines that were planted in 2018, 242 were Chenin Blanc. Old vine Chenin is one of the viticultural treasures of South Africa, and it has been given fresh prestige through the work of the new generation of producers. For the most part, these vines are head-trained and dry-farmed, relegated to hotter interior regions. While many South African Chenins can be alcoholic and rich, the best are concentrated and complex with a pithy, phenolic character and a remarkable ability to age. Premium examples are often aged, if not also fermented, in oak, a portion of which is typically new. It is not uncommon for lees aging, bâtonnage , and even malolactic fermentation to be employed for greater texture. 18.5% of vineyard land in 2018 17,242 hectares Colombard: For hundreds of years, the high-yielding and highly acidic Colombard and Chenin Blanc were the main grapes of South Africa’s brandy industry. As brandy production has declined, so have the plantings of Chenin Blanc and Colombard. However, unlike with Chenin Blanc, nobody is bothering to replant the Colombard, and relatively little fuss is being made about its old vine vineyards. 11.6% of vineyard land in 2018 10,821 hectares Muscat: Muscat has a long history in South Africa. Not only was it among the Cape’s original vinifera plantings, it was also one of the grapes used for the country’s first celebrity wine: Constantia. The original Constantia was unusual for its time in that it was typically produced without fortification. That tradition continues today with Klein Constantia’s Vin de Constance reigning as the most famous of the country’s sweet wines. Inside South Africa, Muscadel (unrelated to the Bordelais grape Muscadelle) is the local name for Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains, while Hanepoot is the name for Muscat of Alexandria. When Hanepoot is fortified prior to fermentation, the result is the vin de liqueur Jerepigo. Hanepoot (Muscat of Alexandria): 1.8% of vineyard land in 2018 1,665 hectares Muscadel (Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains): 0.9% of vineyard land in 2018 825 hectares Sauvignon Blanc: The 1909 post-phylloxera census reflects Sauvignon Blanc’s long history in South Africa, but the grape’s popularity was slow to develop. The first varietal Sauvignon Blanc wasn’t bottled until 1977, and the first Sauvignon Blanc/Semillon blend didn’t appear until 2001. Today, however, it is the most rapidly expanding variety in the country. As of 2018, Sauvignon Blanc accounts for over 10% of all planted area. It is grown in nearly every appellation, but about a third of it is located in Stellenbosch. There, producers position it as the white foil to their high-end Cabernet Sauvignon, à la Napa Valley. Sauvignon Blanc is also the most widely planted variety in cool Constantia, where it is often blended with Semillon and occasionally aged in oak. The national style tends to favor the green and grassy side of the grape and is rarely tropical. 10.3% of vineyard land in 2018 9,533 hectares Semillon: For much of the 18 th and 19 th centuries, the prolific and disease-resistant Semillon was the most widely planted variety in South Africa. Originally known as Greengrape, it was a key component of the country’s early dessert wine and brandy production. Eventually, it was supplanted by Chenin Blanc as the most planted grape in the Cape, perhaps because of Chenin Blanc’s superior ability to deal with the heat and drought of the interior regions. Today, much of the remaining Semillon is confined to the coast. Some small patches of old vines can still be found in Franschhoek and Stellenbosch, where they are occasionally honored with their own bottlings, but Semillon is most often used as a blending partner for Sauvignon Blanc. Interestingly, South Africa is home to the unusual red mutation of Semillon, called Semillon Gris. According to Eben Sadie, the French at one point had the same mutation and culled it, and now producers are calling, begging for cuttings. 1.1% of vineyard land in 2018 1,064 hectares Other Whites: 3.8% of vineyard land in 2018 3,594 hectares Red Grapes Cabernet Sauvignon: As all over the world, Cabernet Sauvignon has become incredibly important to the South African wine industry. It was first documented in 1894 but played a minor role until the 1960s and ’70s, when the movement of independent (that is, non-cooperative) producers began to gain momentum. As these wineries were quality, not bulk, minded, Cabernet Sauvignon’s reputation swelled along with theirs. Today, it is among the most widely planted grapes in South Africa. Grown across the country, its best-known wines hail from the prestige regions of Paarl, Franschhoek, and Stellenbosch. Stellenbosch is especially successful with the variety and seems to have fashioned itself in the mold of Napa Valley. Most of the country’s posh tasting rooms are located there, making it the hub for South Africa’s wine tourism, and the jewel in the crown of their portfolios is inevitably a rich and powerful, modernly constructed Cabernet Sauvignon. However, the Cabernet Sauvignons from even the flashiest producers are restrained by contemporary standards. This is due in part to the Wine Commission’s tasting panel, as qualities such as “over-oaked” are considered a flaw, and in part to the weak Rand driving up barrel prices. 11% of vineyard land in 2018 10,233 hectares Cinsaut (Cinsault): Cinsaut is a vigorous variety that produces generous clusters of large black grapes. In South Africa, it is not uncommon to see the variety bottled as jelly or consumed as table grapes. Cinsaut was introduced to South Africa in the 1880s under the name Hermitage. It swiftly took over the landscape and by 1909 was the third most planted variety in the country. This statistical dominance would end during the rise of Chenin Blanc, and today Cinsaut represents less than 2% of national vineyard acreage. As new plantings are rare, the vines exist mostly in ancient form. These gnarly old patches of dry-farmed, head-trained vines are enjoying a surge in popularity thanks to the new wave of producers. 1.8% of vineyard land in 2018 1,713 hectares Pinot Noir: As of 2018, Pinot Noir occupies comparatively little of South Africa’s viticultural landscape, but many see it as a future star. Though inland South Africa is fairly hot and dry, the more extreme coastal locations are really quite marginal, especially those at the southernmost tip of the continent. According to Peter Finlayson, Pinot Noir has been in South Africa for several decades, but only a single clone was available: the Swiss sparkling clone BK5. Historically, and even today, most of the country’s Pinot Noir was planted in service of MCC production. What’s new and arguably more exciting is the rise of high-quality still Pinot Noir from areas such as Hemel-en-Aarde and Elgin, inspired in no small part by Finlayson’s work at Hamilton Russell in the 1980s and ’90s. 1.3% of vineyard land in 2018 1,176 hectares Pinotage: Pinotage is a fascinating and misunderstood grape with a complex history. Many consumers regard it with some level of contempt, citing its notoriously ferocious tannins and industrial aromas. But its champions insist that those markers are less inherent to the grape than they are indicative of poor farming and careless handling in the cellar. Recent tastings show that with the proper care, Pinotage can yield quite charming and attractive wines. The challenge now will be to convince the leagues of doubting consumers and journalists. Pinotage was created in 1925 when Dr. Abraham Izak Perold, professor at the University of Stellenbosch, swabbed the pollen from Pinot Noir onto a Cinsaut flower. The idea was to somehow marry the best qualities of the two parents into a superior offspring, perhaps one with the refined nature of Pinot Noir and the work ethic of Cinsaut. The seed was planted, but the resulting vines were very nearly forgotten, as Perold changed jobs shortly thereafter. The plants were eventually rediscovered, and the first experimental batches of wine were made in 1941. Two of the earliest wineries to plant and promote the variety were Kanonkop and Bellevue in Stellenbosch. The domestic press that their exciting new wine garnered in the 1960s encouraged a rush of planting. And since Pinotage was thick skinned, drought resistant, and high yielding, it was planted far and wide. Pinotage was quickly treated as the native grape of South Africa, which technically it is. But the export market was not as enthusiastic. The British media was especially hard on Pinotage, likening it to “rusty nails” or “paint thinner,” which caused some confusion and insecurity on the part of the farmers. Part of the problem, modern champions attest, was that Pinotage was originally planted on the hottest parts of a farm, and the variety responds better in cooler microclimates. Isoamyl acetate (the source of paint thinner aromas) can develop if vines experience water stress or high temperatures at harvest. Likewise, the burnt rubber smell many detect in Pinotage is thought to be related to viral disease in the vineyards, though causes are unclear and research on this topic is still underway. High cropping, long a point of contention among South African grapegrowers, certainly served to exacerbate the grape’s herbal and bloody aromas. Aggressive extraction techniques in the cellar yielded the toothsome tannins, and the wines’ tendency toward high pH increased the risk of microbial spoilage. As the notion that the polarizing qualities of Pinotage tend to be the fault of growers and winemakers, not necessarily the variety, spreads throughout South Africa, plantings are again on the rise. It seems that lower yields and a cooler climate make for a friendlier aromatic signature, and gentle handling in the cellar can coax out the Pinot Noir side of its parentage. There are now even whole-cluster examples, made to be enjoyed with a light chill. Pinotage is also the major blending variety in Cape Blends (a well-established term, though not legally regulated). A unique style that has found some popularity among consumers is referred to as Coffee Pinotage. Its coffee aroma is due to the compound furfurylthiol, which is formed from furfural released by toasted staves during fermentation. While new styles may take a while to catch on, it seems that Pinotage may one day evolve from national joke to national pride. 7.3% of vineyard land in 2018 6,791 hectares Shiraz (Syrah): Shiraz has a long history in South Africa, having first been planted in Groot Constantia in the 1890s. Today, it is grown all across the country, in warm and cool regions alike. Because its popularity first spiked during the Aussie-crazed 1990s, most producers label their wine as Shiraz. Those winemakers who favor a more restrained style or look specifically to the Rhône for inspiration, however, often label their wines as Syrah. 10.2% of vineyard land in 2018 9,497 hectares Other Reds: 13.2% of vineyard land in 2018 12,207 hectares South African Wine Law “In South Africa, no wine may carry any information on its label about vintage, origin, or grape variety unless it has undergone a rigorous process of certification. This involves a good deal of record-keeping and paperwork, as all stages of production are monitored to see that the basic sums add up: if so many tons of Cabernet grapes were produced on a particular farm in a particular year, producing so many liters, the authorities will get very anxious if a different volume is bottled. For wine to be certified it must also meet a minimum level of quality, as adjudged by official tasting panels. In 1993, just 12 percent of wine was thus certified, but the proportion rose steadily each year to about 57 percent in 2011—showing a major increase in ambition.” – Tim James “Of course there’s a lot of bureaucracy here. It’s Dutch/English/German founded—what did you think?” – Eben Sadie South Africa’s wine laws and appellation system are the most detailed and strict in the New World. They are also among the oldest, having debuted in 1973. By comparison, the United States didn’t begin drawing appellations until the 1980s, and even then only began with a handful. The architects of South Africa’s Wine of Origin (WO) scheme took the opposite strategy. Not wanting to begin a piecemeal process, they carved the entire country up into districts and regions. Wards were added in 1994, and 2004 saw the advent of single vineyards. In order to list a single vineyard on a label, the producer must petition the government to send inspectors and register the site, which is not to exceed six hectares. The push to establish codified wine laws started in 1969. Despite many international sanctions, the United Kingdom remained a critical export market for South Africa, and that year, the UK was greenlighted to begin negotiations to join Europe’s Economic Community. Britain’s entry meant that it would likely have to adopt continental Europe’s wine legislation, a fact which was not lost on the South African government. It acted fast and managed to launch a comprehensive appellation system in 1973, the very year that the UK joined the EC. The most important element of the original legislature was the creation of an estate category, which gave small producers an avenue to differentiate their wines from the mass creations dominating the market. These wines must be made from grapes farmed as a unit (bordering farms can be included), then produced and bottled in a cellar on the same estate. Today, there are over 200 estate wines. The initial rules stated that a wine had only to possess 30% of a given variety to list it on the label, but today that number is 85%. Minimum vintage requirement is also 85%, but place of origin is a very strict 100%. As Adam Mason from Mulderbosch explains, “If you blend in even a liter from a different appellation, you can’t call your wine Stellenbosch anymore.” Furthermore, a blended wine is not required to detail its varietal composition, but if it does, the grapes must be listed in order of dominance, and if one variety is mentioned, they all must be included. The exception to this is if two or more of the grapes combine to form over 85% of the blend, and each contributing variety represents at least 20%. For example, a wine that contained 60% Sauvignon Blanc, 30% Semillon, and 10% Muscadel could legally be labeled as simply Sauvignon Blanc/Semillon. Despite its European-like intricacy, the WO scheme makes no attempt to control farming practices or winemaking techniques, but it does submit all wines to a chemical analysis and rigorous tasting test before certification is granted. This tasting panel is very powerful; without its approval, a wine cannot list its vintage, variety, or region on the label. The disqualifying flaws span from the flagrant to the subtle, such as exaggerated oak or “lack of typicity.” But while this tasting is meant to be an agent of quality control, it has been criticized for curtailing creativity. For example, as the natural wine movement gained steam, many skin-contact white wines or low-sulfur reds flunked the tasting. Producers, armed with letters from importers stating that customers in their markets actually wanted such wines, lobbied the commission, which eventually relented and created a natural wine category. This demonstrates that the organization is capable of adapting in service of consumer needs, but it also means that South Africa can be slower than other markets to respond to trends. Regions of South Africa The geographical units of South Africa where wine production occurs; click to enlarge and zoom in (Courtesy of SAWIS) The South African approach to drawing appellations is both simple and complicated. The largest areas are called geographical units, many of which contain regions, which contain districts, which contain wards—the smallest of the appellations. This seems easy enough to grasp, but exceptions abound. At the most macro level, there are seven geographical units in South Africa where wine production occurs: Western Cape , Northern Cape , Eastern Cape , Limpopo , North West , Free State , and KwaZulu-Natal . Very little viticulture is found outside the Western Cape geographical unit, and the few wines that emerge are hardly regarded for their quality. But a handful of appellations have been drawn. The Western Cape geographical unit has been divided into five regions: the Breede River Valley, Klein Karoo, Olifants River, Cape South Coast, and the Coastal Region. Speaking broadly, the first three are associated with bulk wine, while Cape South Coast and the Coastal Region are known for fine wine production. That is, of course, a generalization; some truly great wines come from Robertson in the Breede River Valley and co-ops still have a presence in Paarl. Until recently, there was also a sixth region called Boberg, which was rather unusual. Unlike the other regions, it applied only to fortified wine specifically produced from the Coastal Region’s districts of Paarl, Franschhoek, Tulbagh, and Wellington. This was something of a vestigial appellation, as it was not widely seen on labels. Boberg was repealed in February of 2019. Cape Ruby, Cape Vintage, and Cape Tawny are far more popular names for this Port-like type of wine, and these terms have the added benefit of not being confined to any particular viticultural area. The regions of South Africa; click to enlarge and zoom in (Courtesy of SAWIS) Bottling a wine with a ward designation requires that 100% of the fruit come from that ward. Because of this, if wines from two wards within the same district are blended, only the district can be listed on the label; the same applies to wines from different districts within the same region. For example, if a winemaker combines fruit from Stellenbosch and Paarl, then it can only be labeled as Coastal Region. Blending between regions is more complicated; if fruit from the Cape South Coast and Coastal Region are combined, that wine is eligible for the overarching Cape Coastal designation, established in 2017. But if fruit from any other two regions are blended, that wine can only be labeled as Western Cape. This is the largest catch-all appellation allowed in South African wine, and though its reputation is for big, cheap blends, some very fine wine is being labeled as Western Cape. Exceptions abound within the WO scheme. For example, it is not necessary for a ward to be within a district. There are, in fact, 18 wards that lie outside of the established districts of the Western Cape geographical unit. There are also many cross-regional categories. Wards are added, tweaked, or redrawn somewhat regularly. This is a serious and intensive process that can last years and involves experts, winemakers, viticulturalists, and scientists. The districts of South Africa; click to enlarge and zoom in (Courtesy of SAWIS) The coastal wards are most subject to change as they are relatively new and being developed at a dramatic pace. In February 2020, an entirely new WO category was formed outside of the existing categories of geographic unit, region, district, and ward: the Cape West Coast subregion now exists to identify areas more "coastal" in character. It encompasses the districts of Darling, Lutzville Valley, and the western half of Swartland, plus the wards of Groenekloof, St. Helena Bay, Lamberts Bay, Bamboes Bay, and Koekenaap. The wards of South Africa; click to enlarge and zoom in (Courtesy of SAWIS) The following is a breakdown of all of the regions within the Western Cape geographical unit. The most important districts and wards are also discussed. Breede River Valley Region The Breede River is one of the widest rivers in South Africa, and the valleys formed by it and its tributaries are equally broad. The large Breede River Valley region is separated from the Coastal Region and the Cape South Coast by a series of mountain chains. These mountains block much of the ocean’s influence, making for a fairly hot and dry climate, though a steady wind blows daily that is both a blessing (mildew abatement) and a curse (desiccation). This wind, coupled with the lack of rain, makes irrigation essential in the minds of many growers. Breede River Valley district (Photo credit: Kelli White) Most viticulture is confined to the valley floor—flat and expansive stretches of land that feature fertile soils of sand and loam. The foothills of the mountains have soils of sandstone, shale, and schist, but vineyards are rare. Only in the past 20 years has a small collective of ambitious growers expanded into the hillsides. Though it contains relatively few wineries, the Breede River Valley grows more grapes (34.29% of South Africa’s 2018 total) and produces more wine than any other region. This is because it is, by and large, home to massive operations, many of which are cooperatives. Vines are cropped heavy, and much of the local production is sent to the distillers to become brandy. However, the scene is starting to change, with a handful of smaller producers pursuing artisan wines. The Breede River Valley region is divided into three districts: Breedekloof (which, confusingly, means “Breede River Valley” in Afrikaans) in the west, Worcester in the middle and the north, and Robertson in the southeast. Breedekloof District Because of the lingering importance of the brandy industry, the Breedekloof district is mostly dedicated to white varieties, with nearly 2,800 of its 12,604 hectares planted to Chenin Blanc. The next most widely cultivated grapes are Colombard (1,893 hectares), Sauvignon Blanc (1,184 hectares), Pinotage (920 hectares), and Chardonnay (806 hectares). Its wards are unlikely to appear on a wine label, but Slanghoek , with its somewhat cooler microclimate, is thought to have great potential. This area is home to mostly large-scale operations, but a dozen smaller wineries have recently banded together as the Breedekloof Makers. Their goal is to share information and resources and to move away from the big blend thinking of the region in a bid to understand the terroir potential of small-lot wines. Among them is Olifantsberg, a tiny estate dedicated to Rhône varieties. It serves as a model as to the leaps in quality available in moving off of the valley floor and to the mountain slopes. Wards: Goudini, Slanghoek Robertson District Robertson may be located in the warm Breede River Valley, but its position in the southwest makes it the coolest of three districts. The valley actually opens up facing coastal Malgas, allowing the influx of cooling ocean breezes. Because of this, and certainly because of its soils, it is home to over 25% of South Africa’s Chardonnay. Robertson district (Photo credit: Kelli White) For several generations, an important industry in Robertson has been the raising of race horses. These horses are known to be especially sturdy and fast, which was attributed to the area’s soil. Because Robertson possesses massive pockets of limestone (fairly unique in South Africa), the grass and hay grown are rich in calcium. This strengthened the bones of the horses, which improved their endurance and speed. Though still active, Robertson’s horse breeding industry has faded recently and has largely been replaced with viticulture. Today, one can hardly find a swath of ground that isn’t carpeted in vines. Much of Robertson’s Chardonnay goes to bulk or inexpensive wine production, but an increasing amount of it is being redirected to finer purposes. De Wetshof produces a range of single-vineyard and single-soil Chardonnays that have brought considerable critical acclaim to the region. Sparkling wine is another huge part of the landscape, with nearly a dozen of South Africa’s top MCC producers located here. Among them is the biggest, Graham Beck, which is also widely considered the category leader. In addition to Chardonnay (1,684 hectares), Robertson is planted to Colombard (1,982 hectares), Sauvignon Blanc (1,573 hectares), Chenin Blanc (1,546 hectares), Cabernet Sauvignon (1,296 hectares), and Shiraz (953 hectares). This list demonstrates that, while brandy and fortified wine production are still significant parts of regional operations, Robertson has had an easier time realigning itself to so-called noble varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz than other interior areas. But whatever the pedigree, a considerable amount of Robertson fruit leaves the district, used to pad or improve blends bottled under the Western Cape appellation. Wards: Agterkliphoogte, Ashton, Boesmansrivier, Bonnievale, Eilandia, Goedemoed, Goree, Goudmyn, Hoopsrivier, Klaasvoogds, Le Chasseur, McGregor, Vinkrivier, Zandrivier Worcester District Worcester is the largest of the three Breede River Valley districts but the least widely planted, possessing only half the area under vine of either Robertson or Breedekloof. It is also the most closely associated with “brandy varieties,” Chenin Blanc (1,860 hectares) and Colombard (1,176 hectares). These two grapes truly dominate the vineyards; the third most widely planted variety is Sauvignon Blanc, which only accounts for a paltry 578 hectares. As this district branches further inland than the others, it is by far the hottest and driest of the three, though frost is a regular and acute threat. Here, irrigation is almost always necessary, and vineyards higher on the slopes produce better quality. Brandy, bulk wine, and the odd historical sweet wine such as Jerepigo are the order of the day. The wards it contains are barely known, even inside South Africa. Wards: Hex River Valley, Keeromsberg, Nuy, Rooikrans, Scherpenheuvel, Stettyn Cape South Coast Region The Cape South Coast contains many of the most exciting and dynamic producers in South Africa, none of which existed a generation ago. This is because the sprawling region was (for the most part) not legally allowed to be planted until after the KWV abolished its quota scheme in 1992. It took a while for momentum to build, but viticulture really took off in the 2000s, when interest in more elegant wines from cool-climate regions began to increase globally. But though its ascent has been comparatively rapid, by 2018, the Cape South Coast only featured 2,632 hectares under vine. This is barely more than the Klein Karoo, the least developed of South Africa’s regions. But unlike the Klein Karoo, which is still wed mostly to grapes used for brandy, the Cape South Coast is planted almost exclusively to noble varieties. As of 2018, the most predominant vine types were Sauvignon Blanc (783 hectares), Shiraz (333 hectares), Chardonnay (319 hectares), Pinot Noir (309 hectares), and Cabernet Sauvignon (185 hectares). As the region traces the edge of both the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, it contains some of South Africa’s most marginal sites. Since few of these areas are suitable for bulk production, high-quality artisan winemaking is the order of the day. Cape South Coast wards with no district: Herbertsdale, Napier Cape Agulhas District The Cape Agulhas district occupies the very tip of the African continent, and most of the development can be found in the Elim ward. Vines grow among layered shales and iron-rich koffieklip, or “coffee stone,” soils, also known as ferricrete. Battered by wind from nearly every direction, this area is limited in what it can grow. Nonetheless, it is becoming increasingly well known for the quality of its Sauvignon Blanc, which tends to feature noticeable green or grassy tones. Ward: Elim Elgin District Elgin district (Photo credit: Kelli White) Elgin is a small but qualitatively important growing area that began as a ward but was promoted to district status. Situated just to the southeast of Stellenbosch, Elgin is effectively an elevated bowl ringed by mountains. The terrain undulates gently, and most of the agricultural land ranges between 300 and 500 meters in elevation. Soils vary but are primarily decomposed sandstone and shale. With a mean February temperature of only 19.7 degrees Celsius (67.5 degrees Fahrenheit), Elgin is among the cooler regions in all of South Africa. It is also besieged by rains throughout the growing season—over 1,000 millimeters annually. This rain and the accompanying high humidity come with all the attendant risks (mildew, botrytis, fruit dilution), but the regular cloud cover helps extend ripening. Frost is another major concern for farmers. Elgin is the country’s premier source of orchard fruits, with approximately 80% of the land dedicated to apples and pears. Though quality viticulture has been in play here since the 1980s, grapevine planting spiked after the turn of the century, when the value of apples declined. Of course, such is the cyclical nature of agriculture—today, it is grape prices that are falling, inspiring many farmers to reverse course and return their vineyards to apples, which they claim can bring in seven times the income. Because Elgin is relatively tiny and its agriculture is dominated by produce, both vineyards and wineries tend to be on the smaller side. As bulk quantity is not physically possible here, high quality seems to be the shared strategy of the area’s producers. Chardonnay is by far the most successful variety, generally produced in a bright, crisp style similar to the Chardonnays of Walker Bay. Sauvignon Blanc dominates, a handful of good Pinot Noir and Rieslings exist (but the potential for more is there), and Merlot remains a solid point of distinction. Overberg District Overberg , so-named because it was “over the mountains” from Stellenbosch, was once a considerably larger district. But over time, as certain viticultural areas inside it have expanded and matured, they were elevated to districts of their own, shrinking the overarching Overberg. Elgin and Walker Bay are the best known examples of this, and Walker Bay went on to be further subdivided into wards. As Overberg covers a significant span of ground, the area is quite varied, though this is generally a cold, wet, and windy place. It contains several wards, many of which are in their developmental infancy. The Greyton ward was drawn in honor of Lismore Estate. Lismore was started in the early 2000s by American transplant Samantha O’Keefe. O’Keefe purchased a remote dairy farm in the mountains, capitalizing on the same collapse in the price of milk and apples that set farmers to cultivating vines in Elgin. She planted Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, and Shiraz, becoming the first commercial grower in the area. Today, Lismore is one of the most celebrated brands in the country, and its refined wines are especially beloved by critics. Greyton ward (Photo credit: Kelli White) Lismore’s steep vineyard is dramatically situated at around 320 meters above sea level and features extremely rocky soils of shale and slate over clay and limestone. O’Keefe only plants vines where there’s enough clay that she can dry-farm, but the high amount of rain makes fighting vigor (both of her vines and cover crops) a major challenge. Her farm’s isolated location increases wildlife pressure, and O’Keefe struggles to keep the baboons from consuming her later-ripening red varieties. Wards: Elandskloof, Greyton, Klein River, Theewater Swellendam District Malgas ward (Photo credit: Kelli White) The Swellendam district is similar to Overberg in terms of both size and reputation. Though they are adjacent, Swellendam is far more protected from the ocean elements as, with the exception of a tiny tendril that follows the Breede River out to sea, the appellation lies farther inland than its neighbor to the west. In further similarity to Overberg, Swellendam is also most famous for a ward drawn to accommodate a single producer. This ward, Malgas, lies close to the ocean and looks down upon the Breede River. The vineyards of this producer, Sijnn (pronounced “sane”), occupy an isolated plateau in an otherwise bleak landscape dotted by the occasional dairy and wheat farm. Sijnn’s vineyard soils resemble that of Châteauneuf-du-Pape, in that they are a jumble of round weathered stones bound by relatively little topsoil. In honor of this (and despite the region’s cool climate), the proprietors have planted a range of varieties featuring numerous Rhône selections including Roussanne, Grenache, Mourvèdre, and Shiraz. They report an annual rainfall of between 340 and 380 millimeters a year, a mere third of that seen by neighboring Overberg. Wards: Buffeljags, Malgas, Stormsvlei Walker Bay District Walker Bay is by far the most famous and developed of all of the Cape South Coast’s districts. This is due in part to the fact that it contains Hermanus, a small coastal city and popular tourist destination, and also because of the pioneering work done by the Hamilton Russell and Bouchard-Finlayson wineries in what is now Hemel-en-Aarde (Afrikaans for “heaven and earth”). The various wards of Walker Bay stretch up the hillsides that radiate outward from the bay for which the district is named. Two of them, Bot River and Hemel-en-Aarde, were already producing quality wine prior to the KWV quota lift in 1992, but on a very small scale. Aside from those exceptions, Walker Bay is home to some of the youngest and most exciting brands in South Africa. As there was no historic tradition of winemaking here, these estates are being established by outsiders who are specifically drawn to the cool, maritime climate and unique soils of the area. Much of the focus is on Pinot Noir and Chardonnay, and the clear success of these two varieties has attracted interest and even investment from some of Burgundy’s producers. Bot River ward (Photo credit: Kelli White) Of Walker Bay’s many wards, Bot River and the trio of Hemel-en-Aardes are the best known. Due to Hamilton Russell’s early success, the Hemel-en-Aarde wards have molded themselves very much in the model of Burgundy or the Willamette Valley, while Bot River feels more traditionally South African. It is decidedly coastal in feel, with regular ocean breezes and an abundance of rain and mist, and yet the varieties planted are more typical of Swartland. Chenin Blanc is especially important to the area, and even old vines—a real rarity for the coast—can be found. Pinotage and Shiraz are also widely planted, in addition to a good amount of Semillon and Mourvèdre. Because of the contrast of “interior” varieties with a coastal climate, the wines from this region tend toward elegance. Per its name, the picturesque Bot River ward is made up of the valley bisected by the gentle Bot River. Two mountain ranges bracket the area, with the bowl of Elgin sitting over the western ridge and Hemel-en-Aarde lying to the east. The rolling terrain is dotted with farms and orchards, and the soils upon which both grapes and apples grow are primarily rocky shale with outcroppings of sandstone. Gabrielskloof is an important winery to the area, and though it has a long history there, it is starting to incorporate more contemporary approaches to winemaking, as evidenced by a single-soil Syrah series. Beaumont, the first operating winery of the modern era, is also significant. Its focus is on select bottlings of Chenin Blanc. Though neighboring Hemel-en-Aarde gets the lion’s share of press, Bot River is rich in both quality wines and the potential for further development. Hemel-en-Aarde (Photo credit: Kelli White) What is referred to generically as Hemel-en-Aarde is actually three distinct wards (Hemel-en-Aarde Valley, Upper Hemel-en-Aarde Valley, and Hemel-en-Aarde Ridge), whose names are confusingly similar. Collectively, these appellations got their viticultural start in the 1970s when Hamilton Russell, an advertising executive with a holiday home in Hermanus, decided to develop a pair of vineyards. He tested a range of grapes, with Pinot Noir and Chardonnay finding the greatest success, and these varieties continue to dominate the landscape (though experiments are still being carried out). At the time, developing such a marginal, coastal site was not only considered insane, it was also illegal. And yet the resulting wines were so enthusiastically received that, after a series of court battles, the KWV reluctantly relaxed its strict standards, opening the door to the eventual quota repeal of 1992. The three wards of Hemel-en-Aarde wind their way up from the valley floor to the hillside over a series of ridges. For the most part, the valleys are narrow enough that the vines are protected from the winds that regularly whip through Bot River. Hemel-en-Aarde Valley is the lowest in elevation at about 125 meters, while Hemel-en-Aarde Ridge (the highest) crests 400 meters in elevation. Rainfall averages 750 millimeters a year and, according to local producers, the climate is cooler than Burgundy in the summers but warmer during the shoulder seasons. Hemel-en-Aarde Valley and Hemel-en-Aarde Ridge enjoy predominately shale-based clay, while Upper Hemel-en-Aarde Valley is dominated by decomposed granite. Today, the region is a hotspot for young winemakers, many of whom are making some truly compelling wines. Though there are currently only around a dozen physical estates, outside wineries are snapping up vineyard land in a bid to capitalize on this fashionable region. Those who love Burgundy but lament how expensive it has gotten may very well want to keep an eye on the Hemel-en- Aarde wards. Wards: Bot River, Hemel-en-Aarde Ridge, Hemel-en-Aarde Valley, Springfontein Rim, Stanford Foothills, Sunday’s Glen, Upper Hemel-en-Aarde Valley Other districts in the Cape South Coast: Lower Duivenhoks River (no wards), Plettenberg Bay (no wards) Still Bay District In 2026, Still Bay was upgraded from a ward to a district. This district terroir is defined by pure limestone soils, cool coastal climate, and a mere 10 hectares of vines. The producers here are very excited about Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. Ward: Goukou River Valley Coastal Region South Africa’s Coastal Region is the source for most of the country’s high-quality wine. It is also the historic heartland of the industry, containing such seminal growing areas as Constantia, Stellenbosch, Swartland, and Paarl. One need only briefly dwell on the disparate nature of the aforementioned appellations to understand how vast and varied a terrain is encompassed in the Coastal Region. The name is even a bit misleading, as some of the hotter sites, specifically Tulbagh and Wellington, are decidedly inland. But because they fall outside of the tall, L-shaped mountain chain that borders the Ceres Plateau and the Breede River Valley, they are lumped together with the more properly maritime areas such as Stellenbosch. Perhaps what truly unites the region is not so much the coast as proximity to Cape Town. This important city, its dense population, and the bars and restaurants it contains, provide essential support to the surrounding wine industry. Coastal Region wards with no district: Bamboes Bay, Lamberts Bay Cape Town District Constantia ward (Photo credit: Kelli White) The Cape Town district is a good example of the fluidity of the Wine of Origin system. Prior to May of 2017, this was actually two separate districts: Cape Peninsula and Tygerberg. But as both districts were relatively unknown, authorities decided to merge the two and rebrand the combined area to reflect its proximity to the capital. The Cape Town district contains one important ward, Constantia, and three lesser-known wards: Durbanville, Hout Bay, and Philadelphia. The original Constantia farm was registered in 1685, making it one of the first commercial wine endeavors not only in South Africa but in the whole of the so-called New World. It was established by Simon van der Stel, whose sweet “governor’s wine” was the first critically acclaimed wine from South Africa. Later versions were known simply as Constantia. Though there is some debate about the profile of the original Constantia, it is believed that these were generally unfortified dessert wines made in both red and white styles. The category grew to become one of the most internationally sought-after wines of the 1700s, famously consumed by authors, royalty, and heads of state. When van der Stel died in 1712, his estate was subdivided into three parts: Groot and Klein Constantia (“big” and “little,” respectively) and Bergvliet. Over time, other wineries were established in close proximity, and today the ward counts around a dozen active brands. The Constantia ward sits on a small sliver of land that juts out into the Atlantic Ocean. The growing area occupies an amphitheater-shaped valley wedged between False Bay and the ever-expanding sprawl of Cape Town. This urban proximity affects Constantia in two rather dramatic ways. First, land values have been driven extremely high, making it difficult for young or new producers to get established. And second, wine tourism has become a major industry. This latter factor is critical in that it promotes direct-to-consumer sales, which aids profitability. Of course, the downside to such guaranteed and easy sales is that it can sometimes lead to complacent winemaking. Mean February temperatures in the Cape Town district; click to enlarge and zoom in (Courtesy of VinPro) As Constantia is surrounded on three sides by chilly ocean currents and is directly in the path of the relentless Cape Doctor wind, it is very much a cold-climate growing region. The mean temperature in February, the hottest month of the growing season, is only 20.6 degrees Celsius (69 degrees Fahrenheit). Because of this, in addition to the range of prestigious Muscat-based dessert wines, Sauvignon Blanc is the dominant variety. Red grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz have enjoyed some success at higher elevations, where the increased sun exposure and distance from the ocean aids ripening. Heavy rain is a signature of the region, averaging 1,000 millimeters per year, and the soils are primarily clay mixed with sand derived from granite (higher elevations) or sandstone (lower elevations). Located on the opposite side of Cape Town, Durbanville shares a border with Paarl and Swartland. Like Constantia, this is a cool-climate growing region primarily dedicated to Sauvignon Blanc. But because it lacks that appellation’s famous name, a considerable amount of Durbanville fruit leaves the ward, destined for blends based on Paarl or Stellenbosch fruit. Durbanville is one of the few South African winegrowing areas without any real mountain influence. Here, the terrain is dominated by low rolling hills dotted by sheep and small family farms. The ocean influence manifests in the form of ample rainfall (approximately 600 millimeters a year) and thick daily fog. Diemersdal is one of the larger producers in the region and is considered a quality leader. Wards: Constantia, Durbanville, Hout Bay, Philadelphia Darling District Darling , a triangle-shaped wedge within the southwest corner of the Swartland, used to be one of the area’s wards until it was promoted to a district status of its own. Today, it is a popular source of Sauvignon Blanc and a growing number of varietal Cinsauts. Ward: Groenekloof Franschhoek Valley District With its high-end boutique shopping, tourist-ferrying trolley, and French signage, Franschhoek is a unique within the South African wine industry. The ubiquitous presence of tourists is due to the district’s proximity to both Stellenbosch and Cape Town (not to mention its stunning physical beauty). The French signage is thanks to the French Huguenots who settled here in South Africa’s early colonial days, giving the area both its name (Franschhoek is Afrikaans for “French Quarter”) and its linguistic legacy. Franschhoek Valley district (Photo credit: Kelli White) The district (which contains no wards) is a small, narrow valley that forms a pie-shaped wedge between Paarl and Stellenbosch. Because the valley is pinched off at one end, breezes do not regularly flow here. This makes the area a kind of climatic middle ground between its much larger neighbors, as it is cooler than Paarl but warmer than Stellenbosch (though elevation plays a major role in microclimate). The mountains that so dramatically define the valley are made of pure granite, which informs the area’s soils. And as the valley floor is thick with clay, most viticulture has long been confined to the slopes. Plums are the other major agricultural product of the area, and their current high profitability is threatening some vineyards. Franschhoek is planted to a little bit of everything but is most famous for its old vine Semillon, though much of it has been removed over the years. Perhaps the most coveted vineyard in the area is La Colline, which is believed to have been planted in 1936. Beyond that, Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, and Cabernet Sauvignon seem to be the other favorites and are generally cultivated for quality, not bulk. Wards: None Paarl District The Paarl district, one of South Africa’s most historic winegrowing areas, is located at the interior edge of the Coastal Region, in between Stellenbosch, Wellington, and Swartland. It occupies a tense position in South African wine, with one foot in quality production and one foot in bulk. This latter position is especially grounded in the fact that Paarl is also famous as the home of the KWV, whose presence still looms in the guise of a massive private production facility. Paarl district (Photo credit: Kelli White) For the most part, Paarl enjoys granitic soils that contain more clay at lower elevations, and more sand and rock higher up. It is primarily a hot and flat area, though there are exceptions. The Berg River, which originates in the mountains of Franschhoek, flows through, providing irrigation water for local agriculture. Most of the flatland production is dedicated to bulk wine (Vilafonté is a notable exception), but three mountainous areas—Simonsberg, Paardeberg, and Paarl Rock—create more favorable microclimates for quality. Paarl’s wards have been drawn specifically to accommodate and highlight these high-performing viticultural areas. Paarl Rock sits in the center of the district and is a striking, massive, naked mound of pure granite. The Agter-Paarl ward extends behind it ( agter means “behind” in Afrikaans), encompassing a handful of producers. The other two wards sit on opposite sides of the district, one bordering Stellenbosch, the other Swartland. In the south, Simonsberg Mountain marks the boundary between Paarl and Stellenbosch, and its slopes are considered prime viticultural land on both sides. The districts share adjacent wards, Simonsberg-Paarl and Simonsberg-Stellenbosch, the wines from which are remarkably similar given their opposing aspects. On the Paarl side, Backsberg is a clear leader, and Bordeaux varieties and Chardonnay dominate the vineyards. In the north, the Voor-Paardeberg ward occupies the lower slopes of Swartland’s Paardeberg Mountain. Many feel this region bears more kinship to the Swartland, with its vast swaths of old vine Chenin vineyards (though Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz are also widely planted), and rumors persist that it will eventually be moved into the neighboring district. Mean February temperatures in Paarl; click to enlarge and zoom in (Courtesy of VinPro) Paarl is one of the most widely planted districts, boasting even more area under vine than the significantly larger Swartland (14,766 hectares compared to Swartland’s 12,850). Of all these vines, Chenin Blanc is the most significant (2,743 hectares), and many patches of old vines can be found. After that, Cabernet Sauvignon leads with 2,326 hectares under vine, followed by Shiraz (2,123 hectares), Pinotage (1,304 hectares), Chardonnay (1,208 hectares), Merlot (1,012 hectares), and Sauvignon Blanc (929 hectares). Though not statistically significant, Rhône varieties are gaining traction among quality- minded producers. Wards: Agter-Paarl, Simonsberg-Paarl, Voor-Paardeberg Stellenbosch District Stellenbosch is very much the heart of South Africa’s wine industry. Located only an hour’s drive from Cape Town, this district is centered around the picturesque town of the same name, where steepled, white-washed buildings reflect the Afrikaners’ Dutch roots. Stellenbosch University, the main academic training ground for the country’s winemakers and viticulturalists, is also located here. And the dozens of wine farms that extend into the beautiful countryside contain some of the most well-appointed, well-funded, and highly praised wineries in the country. Only Constantia has a longer history under vine than Stellenbosch, which has multiple properties that have been in operation since their founding in the 1600s. As Stellenbosch receives an impressive number of tourists, some of the wine estates function like mini-resorts, complete with restaurants, spas, art galleries, and rooms for rent. The Stellenbosch district stretches all the way from the coastline of False Bay in the south to Paarl in the north, with the Elgin district of the Cape South Coast region just to the east. Given the distinct climates over its many borders, it makes sense that Stellenbosch features a selection of microclimates, ranging from the maritime to the arid. Additionally, multiple dramatic mountain outcroppings interrupt the terrain, which further complicates the terroir. Considering this, it is no wonder that the relatively small Stellenbosch district can already count eight wards within its boundaries, with more rumored to be in the works. Stellenbosch district (Photo credit: Kelli White) Simonsberg-Stellenbosch is the largest, most northerly, and furthest inland of the Stellenbosch wards. It is primarily dedicated to red varieties (Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Shiraz, Pinotage), though Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay are planted in significant amounts as well. The most important winery in the ward is Kanonkop, which is especially well known for its Bordeaux blends and Pinotage. Rustenberg and Warwick are also very high performing. In part because of the warmer microclimate, and in part because of the preponderance of clay in the soil, wines from this ward tend to be on the richer, more luxurious side. Yet they are more elegant than their Paarl counterparts, due to the cool southerly exposure of the slopes and access to ocean breezes. Among locals, the Banghoek ward is often called Banker’s ward, referencing the area’s many wealthy estates (Jackson Family’s Capensis, Delaire Graff, Tokara, Rainbow’s End). This small ward occupies a dramatic valley that sits to the south of Simonsberg-Stellenbosch. It features starkly rising slopes that contain the highest elevation vineyards in Stellenbosch (up to 640 meters), which can be quite cool. The soils here are mostly decomposed granite (sandstone higher up) with clay, and as development has been fairly recent, modern varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay dominate the vineyards. The Bottelary ward, located in the western end of Stellenbosch, has north-facing slopes ideal for the ripening of red varieties, but its proximity to the coast opens the appellation up to the ocean’s cooling influence. Vineyards are mostly confined to the valley floor and low hills, stretching as high as 300 meters. Chenin Blanc can be found here, but Bordeaux varieties, Pinotage, and Shiraz are more common. Just to its south lies the newer Polkadraai Hills ward, which produces a more nervy style of wine. These slopes face mostly south and southwest, opening them directly up to the cooling influence of False Bay and the Atlantic. Sauvignon Blanc dominates, but Shiraz and Bordeaux varieties are also widely planted, as are Chenin Blanc and Chardonnay (to a lesser extent). The other wards are not considered as significant, often because they are cooler or don’t contain as many wineries. Jonkershoek Valley is a very distinctive area. This valley is nestled up to a particularly tall mountain, which captures cool air and moisture. This, plus the clay-heavy soils, results in a more elegant style of wine. Devon Valley is another cool site with very deep and fertile soils. It is said to be more of a challenging place to farm than Jonkershoek, and the red varieties planted here are widely thought to display an herbal or green characteristic. Most of Stellenbosch has not been carved into wards, and these undefined areas often contain the most prized vineyards and respected wineries, such as Mulderbosch and Waterford. A region known as the Golden Triangle , which extends southward from the town of Stellenbosch, is especially revered, as are the slopes of the Helderberg Mountain. This mountain sits at a perpendicular angle to the coastline and channels the ocean breezes to either side, exerting a powerful influence over a broad swath of Stellenbosch. Soils are very heterogeneous in Stellenbosch, but most are some sort of combination of decomposed sandstone or decomposed granite mixed with varying proportions of clay (though small pockets of shale can be found). The most widely planted variety across the entire district is Cabernet Sauvignon, with 2,963 hectares under vine. This is logical, as Cabernet-dominant Bordeaux blends are very much the hallmark wine of the region. Sauvignon Blanc leads the whites with 2,602 hectares planted, and Shiraz (1,964 hectares), Merlot (1,746 hectares), Chenin Blanc (1,344 hectares), Pinotage (1,200 hectares), and Chardonnay (1,099 hectares) follow in order. Though Stellenbosch is one of South Africa’s most historic winegrowing areas, old vine vineyards are rare. This is primarily due to the amount of money that has flooded the district. While it may seem counterintuitive, areas of high investment tend to feature younger vineyards, as the wineries are able to play with the latest clones, rootstocks, and vineyard technology (needless to say, more fashionable grapes are also favored over traditional varieties). But despite the area’s collective resources, because it is the most densely planted district in the Cape, virus—specifically leaf roll— is rampant. Other important wineries include Beyerskloof, DeMorgenzon, Ken Forrester, Meerlust, Neil Ellis, Raats, Rustenberg, Rust en Vrede, Thelema, and Vergelegen. Wards: Banghoek, Bottelary, Devon Valley, Jonkershoek Valley, Papegaaiberg, Polkadraai Hills, Simonsberg-Stellenbosch, Vlottenburg Swartland District Stellenbosch, Constantia, Franschhoek, and even Paarl to a lesser extent, are well-established wine regions packed with grand buildings, eager tourists, and the facilities that service them. The Swartland is something apart. Mountains loom, but they are widely spaced, with broad swaths of wheat-covered plains stretching between them. Wineries (aside from the handful of remaining cooperatives) tend to be modest affairs, barn-like, tucked away from the road, and often absent signage. Tourists don’t accidentally wander into the Swartland (unless for the olive oil); it is a place one must deliberately seek, but visitors are rewarded with some of South Africa’s most compelling wines. Swartland district (Photo credit: Kelli White) The Swartland has a long history under vine, stretching back almost as long as Constantia and Stellenbosch. Records are scant, but the area didn’t start producing a quantitatively significant amount of wine until the mid-19 th century. Broad, hot, and dry, the Swartland seemed to align itself with bulk production early on and remained committed to cooperatives and brandy grapes long after the rest of South Africa started amassing small estates focused on quality in the 1960s and ’70s. Swartland’s fortunes changed in the mid-1990s when Charles Back established a winery named Spice Route. His family’s background was first in bulk and then in estate production, and he believed that the Swartland had enormous potential for quality. Spice Route was cutting edge in that it focused on Mediterranean varieties while the rest of the country was looking toward Bordeaux and Burgundy. But while the winery is significant in its own right, Spice Route is perhaps now more famous as the former employer of Eben Sadie, the man who has almost single-handedly transformed the Swartland from viticultural backwater to the torchbearer for “the New South Africa.” Sadie worked at Spice Route from 1998 to 2001, when he left to focus on his own project, Columella, which released its first vintage in 2000. Before long, his passion and the clear success of his wines inspired friends to follow. Among the first to relocate to the Swartland were the Mullineuxs and Adi Badenhorst, who was raised on the Groot Constantia estate, where his father worked as manager. The three declared themselves “the Swartland Revolution,” and over time, a handful of other (often quite young) winemakers joined them. Today, the Swartland Independent Producers (SIP) carries out this group’s mission “to build a strong regional identity through wines that truly express this uniqueness of the region,” with stated core values and requirements for the local certification. This includes a list of varieties best suited to the region and a mandate for minimal-to-no adjustments in the cellar. Bush vines in Swartland (Photo credit: Kelli White) The Swartland is a vast place, commonly referred to as the breadbasket of South Africa. Its western length runs along the coast, but most viticulture is found further inland, barely in reach of the cooling breezes. Mountains ring the plains, which undulate in low hills that are often covered in livestock or agriculture. The soils are some of the most variegated in South Africa, with sand-like decomposed granite common in the Paardeberg area to the south, where Sadie and Badenhorst are based. Slate, shale, and schist dominate the area around the eastern mountains, and some chalk can be found in the north. Bands of rich red clay loam run west of Malmesbury, and quartz stones are sprinkled throughout. Climatically speaking, the Swartland is primarily a hot and dry place, with little in the way of rainfall. Because of this, wide spaced, head-trained bush vines that can be dry-farmed dominate. These old vines, preserved largely through the area’s lack of prosperity, are one of the Swartland’s most prized and defining characteristics. Chenin Blanc, much of which was planted to support the dessert wine and brandy industries in the mid-20 th century, occupies 2,553 hectares of the area’s vineyards. Shiraz comes next with 2,048 hectares, followed by Cabernet Sauvignon (1,836 hectares), Pinotage (1,464 hectares), and Sauvignon Blanc (1,167 hectares). While not statistically significant, Sadie has been working with the government to import and trial dozens of varieties that he feels might be well suited to South Africa. So far, his imports include selections from Greece, Italy, Portugal, Southern France, and Spain. Most winegrowing is concentrated in the area to the southeast of Malmesbury, the commercial hub of the Swartland, in the Paardeberg and Paardeburg South wards, which are rich in sandy granitic soils. The official Malmesbury ward extends to the northwest of the city but is rarely seen on bottles. The other major hubs for viticulture are in the adjacent Riebeekberg and Riebeeksrivier wards, just to the northeast of Malmesbury. The wines here, cultivated on soils of iron-rich slate and shale, tend to be earthy and powerful, while the Paardeberg wines are more sculptural. Finally, along the northwest coast is the remote St. Helena Bay ward, which contains very little viticulture. This region is regularly 10 degrees Celsius (18 degrees Fahrenheit) less than the inland area, with chalk-rich soils that produce nervy, saline wines. Wards: Malmesbury, Paardeberg, Paardeberg South, Picket-Bo-Berg, Porseleinberg, Riebeekberg, Riebeeksrivier, St. Helena Bay Tulbagh District The Tulbagh district is a unique pocket of land within the South African landscape. It sits inland from the hot, dry Swartland, but because it is an elevated horseshoe-shaped valley carved from tall mountains, it has colder winters and higher rainfall than its neighbor. It is worth pointing out that though Tulbagh and Swartland were both long associated with bulk wine, it was for dry table wine and not dessert wine, unlike the rest of the country. Since the early 2000s, Tulbagh’s reputation has been in flux, as a small but growing number of independent wineries have set up shop. Fable Mountain in particular stands out for its concentrated yet elegant reds. The town of Tulbagh occupies the center of the valley’s bowl, and much of the viticulture is located in the eastern foothills, reaching as high as 450 meters in elevation. Here, Chenin Blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon, and red Rhône varieties thrive. The soils are quite varied but, while neighboring Swartland is grounded in granite, here the primary substrate is shale mixed with clay and quartz. Air currents can be ferocious, and while that can have a pleasant cooling effect, vines highest up the slopes have been known to experience wind damage. Additionally, because of the penned-in shape of the valley, the cold air sinks and becomes trapped, making for a rather distinct microclimate. Wards: None Wellington District Wellington sits in between Tulbagh and Paarl, with Swartland stretching off to the west. This inland area was actually once a ward of Paarl before it was elevated to district status, and many feel that it still spiritually belongs to its neighbor. Like Paarl, Wellington is primarily hot and dry, though it lacks defining mountains. Its low, rolling terrain has long appealed to growers of bulk wine and table grapes, and though quality is improving, the district’s reputation is such that it is rarely listed on a label. The massive private company DGB is based here, and the director calls Wellington and Paarl the “engines of South Africa’s wine industry.” Heat is the biggest hurdle to quality grapegrowing in Wellington, though a dramatic diurnal swing helps preserve acidity. Because of this, the best and most widely planted varieties tend to be heat tolerant, such as Chenin Blanc, Shiraz, and Pinotage, along with some new and notable plantings of Grenache and Carignan. The soils are mostly shale at lower elevations, with weathered granite and sandstone at higher elevations. Wellington is also significant as the center of the vine nursery industry; nearly all of the vine stock distributed across South Africa finds its origin here. Wards: Blouvlei, Bovlei, Groenberg, Limietberg, Mid-Berg River Other districts in the Coastal Region: Lutzville Valley (ward: Koekenaap) Klein Karoo Region Karoo is an ancient word in South Africa, taken from the language of the indigenous San people. It translates roughly to “dry and thirsty land”—an apt description for this land-locked region. The Klein Karoo is essentially a long east-west valley that sits just over a mountain ridge to the north of the Robertson and Swellendam districts. These mountains isolate the region into its own distinct climate. It is not uncommon to see clear blue skies above the Klein Karoo while neighboring Robertson is shrouded in storm clouds. This difference is also reflected in the flora—the landscape becomes suddenly far more parched and desert-like in appearance, with low scrub brushes replacing tall trees. This area is considered by many to be the farthest inland that quality grapegrowing is possible. Over the northern ridge lies the Great Karoo, a vast stretch of mostly barren plains. Klein Karoo region (Photo credit: Kelli White) For the most part, the Klein Karoo is associated with bulk, sweet (Hanepoot, Jerepigo, and Moscatel), and “Port” production. The Calitzdorp district in the east is one of the best-known sources for Cape Vintage, Cape Ruby, and Cape Tawny. But, like much of the rest of South Africa, change is afoot. This is evidenced by the slow delineation of stand-alone wards, many of which were drawn to highlight a cluster of quality activity. Among the more promising are Tradouw and the Tradouw Highlands , where the Joubert-Tradauw winery is located. Meyer Joubert comes from an agricultural family that sold and continues to sell fruit to the area co-ops. He began making his own wine in 1999 and over time has reserved an increasing amount of grapes for his own purposes. The results are surprisingly refined considering the reputation of the Karoo and are a reminder that almost none of the generalizations about the South African wine industry can be taken at face value. Soils vary but are primarily built of shale, which is the bedrock of the southern band of mountains. Down near Calitzdorp, the ground is rich and fluvial, but up in the hills near Tradouw there is more clay, which is essential in such a dry area. Joubert notes that while his vineyard (which sits at around 500 meters) only receives 350 millimeters of rain a year, the mountains receive around 1,000 millimeters. To capture this moisture, his family has series of canals and pipes that redirect the water to their farm. One benefit of the arid conditions is that disease pressure in the Klein Karoo is among the lowest in South Africa. Viticulture is limited and separated into sparse pockets that are only loosely assembled into the greater Klein Karoo area. Because of the emphasis on bulk, brandy, and dessert styles, Colombard is the leading variety, with 716 hectares. Chenin Blanc and Hanepoot follow with 454 hectares and 141 hectares, respectively. Other districts in Klein Karoo: Calitzdorp ( ward: Groenfontein), Langeberg-Garcia (no wards) Klein Karoo wards with no district: Cango Valley, Montagu, Outeniqua, Tradouw, Tradouw Highlands, Upper Langkloof Olifants River Region Olifants River region (Photo credit: Kelli White) The Olifants River region is a vast and remote area located to the north of Swartland that traces the path of the river for which it is named. Overall, this area is even hotter and drier than the Swartland, and in many cases, it is only the river that renders viticulture possible. The region remains very dedicated to bulk wine, as evidenced by the grapes grown. Chenin Blanc and Colombard lead with 2,822 and 2,528 hectares, respectively. Shiraz is a distant third with 702 hectares, followed by Merlot (623 hectares), Sauvignon Blanc (586 hectares), Cabernet Sauvignon (461 hectares), Hanepoot (369 hectares), and Ruby Cabernet (368 hectares). One pocket, the Piekenierskloof ward in the Citrusdal Mountain district, has recently set itself apart for quality. Here the best vines grow at high elevation (around 600 meters) on the slopes of a large sandstone mountain. Rooibos tea bushes and citrus are the primary crops, but patches of old vine Chenin and Semillon can also be found. Piekenierskloof has also been home to the single largest amount of Grenache in South Africa since the 1960s, which has drawn the attention of some of the country’s best wineries. Outside of the ward, in the generic Citrusdal Mountain district, Eben Sadie’s famous vineyard Skurfberg can be found. Other districts in Olifants River: Citrusdal Mountain (ward: Piekenierskloof), Citrusdal Valley (no wards) Olifants River wards with no district: Spruitdrift, Vredendal Western Cape Districts & Wards Outside of Demarcated Regions Within the Western Cape, there is one district, Ceres Plateau, that does not belong to a region; it contains a ward called Ceres. There are also several orphan wards that belong to no district, including Cederberg, Leipoldtville-Sandveld, Nieuwoudtville, Prince Albert Valley, and Swartberg. Of these wards, Ceres in the Ceres Plateau district is the most exciting. Ceres sits up the mountains and inland from Tulbagh. Though a relatively scorching area, vineyards have been shown to thrive at the very high altitude plateau (around 850 meters). Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and Shiraz have so far shown promise, creating characterful wines due to the intense solar radiation (which is thought to thicken skins), the shale-based soils, and extremely cold nights. These are the few vineyards in South Africa that see regular winter snow. Cederberg has also been the site of interesting recent expansion. It is home to some of the highest vineyards at 1,100 meters. Remaining Geographical Units The Northern Cape geographical unit is perhaps the next most significant production region behind the Western Cape. While it produces mostly bulk wine, one region (Karoo-Hoogland), three districts (Central Orange River, Douglas and Sutherland-Karoo) and seven wards (Groblershoop, Grootdrink, Kakamas, Keimoes, and Upington in Central Orange River district, and the free wards of Hartswater and Prieska) have been designated. Of them, the Sutherland-Karoo district, with its high-elevation mountain sites, seems best situated to compete at a quality level. The remaining four geographical units are responsible for only a very small amount of wine compared to the rest of South Africa. The Eastern Cape and Free State each possess a single ward, St. Francis Bay and Rietrivier FS, respectively. The KwaZulu-Natal contains two districts, Central Drakensberg and Lions River. Bibliography Atkin, Tim. 2019 South Africa Special Report. TimAtkin.com, 2019. https://timatkin.com/product/2019-south-africa-special-report/ . James, Tim. Wines of the New South Africa: Tradition and Revolution. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013. Old Vine Project. Accessed January 31, 2020. https://oldvineproject.co.za/ . SA Wine Industry Information and Systems (SAWIS). Accessed January 31, 2020. http://www.sawis.co.za/ . Swart, Elmari, and Izak Smit. Essential Guide to South African Wines. Cape Town: Cheviot Publishing, 2009. van Zyl, Philip, ed. Platter’s by Diners Club South African Wine Guide 2016. Hermanus, South Africa: John Platter SA Wineguide (Pty) Ltd., 2016. Wines of South Africa. Accessed January 31, 2020. https://www.wosa.co.za/ . Special thanks to Jim Clarke, WOSA, SAWIS, and the OVP. Compiled by Kelli White (February 2020) Edited by Stacy LadenburgerPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/research/expert_guides/w/expert-guides/2450/viticultureFri, 25 Sep 2026 20:08:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:92e7e7ac-9036-4856-b81d-6a2a6f635659GuildSomm AdminContents Domestication of the Grapevine Vine Anatomy Grapevine Taxonomy Climate Soil Vineyard Establishment A Year in the Vineyard Vineyard Operations Pests & Diseases Farming Philosophies The Future of Farming Bibliography Grapes are a unique agricultural product. While more than half go toward the production of wine, they are also grown to be dried into raisins or eaten fresh. Grapes command more return per acre than almost any other plant, and in 2018, a single hectare of grand cru vineyard in Burgundy cost over seven million dollars on average. Further, unlike many crops that are planted each growing season, vineyards are a long-term investment—they require several years to become established and are designed to survive for decades. Unlike many commodity plants, the profitability of wine grapes is driven by quality, which includes the grape’s ability to convey a unique sense of place. While other agricultural crops look to new varieties for flavor improvement, disease resistance, and adaptations to climate, most wine producers rely on a small number of established cultivars. Site selection and vineyard practices, however, are critical, since improvement is achieved through management of the vine’s environment. Domestication of the Grapevine Grapes were one of the first fruits to be domesticated by humans. In ancient times, they were prized for their high levels of sugar, a source of both nutrition and novelty. Most of the grape varieties used in wine production belong to a single species, Vitis vinifera , which was first domesticated from wild grapevines, called Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris (or Vitis sylvestris ), at least 7,000 years ago in the land between the Black, Caspian, and Mediterranean Seas. As nomadic people settled into an agrarian lifestyle, they carried grapevines south to Mesopotamia. Domestic vinifera grapes were spread from the Fertile Crescent throughout the Mediterranean and Europe, driven by the westward migration of farming communities and, eventually, the expansion of the Roman Empire. Vitis sylvestris is native to Europe and Western Asia, and wild grapevines still inhabit these areas. Some evidence indicates that there may have been other centers of domestication of Vitis sylvestris , including sites in the Iberian Peninsula and Southern Italy. Over time, a collection of grape varieties was generated through the process of evolution, breeding, and human selection. Today, roughly 10,000 grape cultivars exist, with over 1,400 in commercial production, and grapegrowing has spread to hospitable zones throughout the world. Grapevines are lianas: unlike trees, they do not produce extensive wooden support systems but are instead “structural parasites,” climbing on trees for support. They are also phototrophs, or sunseekers, and invest most of their energy into producing leaves and tall shoots, since rapid vertical growth is essential for competition with other plants for vital sunlight. In nature, grapevines invest little energy in fruit production, yielding just enough scraggly clusters to ensure proliferation. Wild vines are also dioecious, which means that both male and females plants exist, and successful fertilization relies on wind and insects for pollination. Male plants bare no fruit, and female plants are only fruitful when a male plant is nearby. By contrast, since domesticated grapevines are cultivated for their fruit, they have been selected and managed to be prolific. Hermaphroditic, self-pollinating varieties were likely chosen initially, since these vines would have reliably produced more fruit. In addition to high yields, the selection of vines suitable for agriculture favored those with other beneficial characteristics, including large clusters, adaptations to the growing environment, and resistance to disease. The ability to attain the high sugar concentrations necessary for wine production, as well as taste, aroma, and appearance, also factored into selection. Analogous to a house cat and a lion, domestic vines have diverged significantly from those found in nature. Hills in the Napa Valley (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) While the romantic notion of a vineyard paints it as a natural space with little intervention, it is more akin to a highly cultivated garden, organized for both ease of use and optimization of yields and fruit quality. Rows facilitate management and allow tractors and other equipment to access the vines easily. Grapes are propagated vegetatively, generally grafted to a different species’ roots, and trained into small shrubs to facilitate management. Annual pruning dictates the number of shoots that will form in the following year and where they will be located. Growers often impose moderately stressful conditions, such as limited water availability, to encourage the vine to limit its vegetative growth and concentrate its energy on fruit production. By taming and training them, humans have coaxed vines to defy their nature in order to be cultivated effectively for food and wine production. Vine Anatomy Grapevines are perennial, deciduous plants that have a permanent woody frame consisting of a trunk, cordons, canes, and spur positions. Below the ground, an extensive root system anchors the vine and provides an interface with the soil, which supplies water and nutrients to the plant. A vine’s root system is mostly located within the top three feet of soil and consists of mature roots, which survive year to year, and smaller feeder roots, which grow anew each year. Often, Vitis vinifera is grafted onto a phylloxera-resistant rootstock. Grafted vines consist of an above-the-ground portion called the scion, which is joined to the rootstock at the graft union, visible a few inches above the vineyard floor. Some rootstock species develop deep root systems, while others grow more laterally. Credit: Laura Perrone A grapevine’s trunk is analogous to that of a tree; it’s the permanent, vertical structure. Cordons, canes, or spur positions may be attached to the trunk, though the vine’s form will ultimately depend on pruning decisions made during the first few years of the vine’s life. A cane-pruned vine after winter pruning, with dormant buds visible along the cane (Photo credit: GuildSomm) Canes are shoots grown in the previous growing season that have lignified, or turned brown. After pruning, they are generally one to four feet long. Spurs, however, are canes that have been trimmed to a length of several inches. Cordons are horizontal extensions of the trunk and have a number of spur positions located along them. Along a cane, there are dormant buds, and spurs generally contain between one and three buds. During the growing season, these buds develop into fruiting shoots. Every few inches along each shoot, there are nodes, which resemble knuckles, and the portion of stem between nodes is called the internode. Leaves, buds, clusters, and tendrils are joined to each shoot at the node. Collectively, all of the vegetative green growth that develops during the growing season is called the canopy. Two types of buds are located at each node, between the leaf and the stem: lateral buds and dormant buds. Each bud contains a highly compressed potential shoot. Lateral buds develop into shoots called laterals during the current growing season. These are side shoots that branch off of the main fruiting shoots. They are typically non-fruiting but may produce small clusters known as second crop. Laterals are often trimmed or removed through canopy management to prevent overcrowding and shading. Dormant buds, also called latent buds, spend the year maturing and develop into shoots in future years. As a rule, the dormant buds that formed last year, on canes and spurs from one-year-old wood, are the most fruitful. Dormant buds on older wood may also develop into unwanted shoots called suckers. Generally, suckers will not produce any fruit, and they are removed while they are small. Credit: Laura Perrone At each node, a single leaf develops, adjacent to the buds. Leaves are the powerhouse of grapevines, where photosynthesis takes place, and petioles are their stems, connecting leaf and shoot. A small lateral shoot and dormant bud are visible in the “elbow” at the node between the leaf and main shoot (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Clusters are located at nodes near the base of the vine. Most shoots contain between one and three clusters, with two being most common, though the typical number varies by grape variety. Carignan, for example, is known for producing three clusters per shoot. The area of the vine where the fruit is growing is described as the fruit zone. Long, thin coils called tendrils support the vine by wrapping around and attaching to trellises, trees, or other supports. Technically, they are modified flower clusters, though the two bear no resemblance to each other. Clusters and tendrils develop along each shoot in a “hit, hit, miss” pattern. The first few nodes closest to the base of the vine typically have neither. Then, every two nodes have either a cluster or a tendril, while every third node has neither, with the pattern continuing up the shoot. In the beginning of the season, inflorescences, or flower clusters that resemble immature grape clusters, are found on each fruitful shoot. These clusters were actually initiated within the buds during the previous growing season, with the number of clusters determined at that time. Every flower has the potential to be fertilized and become a berry during bloom, and flower clusters are transformed into grape clusters at fruit set. The stem of the cluster is called the rachis. Berries have a thick waxy coating known as bloom that protects the fruit from disease, prevents berry dehydration, and collects yeasts and other microbes useful during fermentation; within most berries are two or three seeds. Ampelography is the science of identifying grape varieties based on morphology. Clusters and berries vary in shape and size, and, along with leaf characteristics and the vine’s overall growth patterns, these attributes are used to identify grape species and varieties based on their unique patterns. Grapevine Function Plants create sugar from carbon dioxide and light through the process of photosynthesis, which takes place primarily in the leaves but may occur in any green plant tissue. Afterward, sugar is transported throughout the vine to be used for growth and development, and also into the fruit during ripening. Plants have a fluid transport system akin to veins in humans. The xylem carries water and nutrients from the roots throughout the vine, while the phloem carries sugar from the leaves throughout the plant. A subsequent reaction, respiration , converts sugar into usable energy called adenosine triphosphate, or ATP. This reaction requires oxygen and releases carbon dioxide and is required for vine growth and development. It occurs in every part of the plant, including the roots, both day and night. During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide in the environment is taken in through microscopic pores in the leaves called stomates. When the stomates are open, water vapor is released from the plant into the atmosphere through transpiration . During periods of stress, especially hydric stress, the vine will close its stomates to conserve water, halting photosynthesis and slowing respiration. Vine Balance A vine with ample water and nutrients will develop a large canopy with fast-growing shoots. Vine vigor refers to the amount of vegetative growth produced by a vine, and it is assessed through several markers, including shoot length and diameter, the number of shoots per vine, and the vine’s tendency to produce laterals and suckers. Vigor may be quantified through pruning weight, which is literally the weight of the material that is removed from the vine at pruning, sampled across a selection of vines. Excessive vegetative growth can be detrimental to fruit quality and quantity. Overly vigorous vines put too much energy into growing shoots and leaves, resulting in a large, shady canopy. Shaded buds will develop into less productive shoots, reducing the overall quantity of fruit over time and exacerbating the imbalance. Fruit quality is often compromised through increased disease pressure and lack of light in the fruit zone. A vine’s capacity is the optimum amount of fruit, or yield, it is able to produce, given its specific conditions. Vines that carry too much fruit for their frame may not be able to successfully ripen it, especially in marginal climates, and will weaken over time, further reducing capacity. On the other hand, if too little fruit is left, the vine will become more vigorous, and the amount of fruit produced will gradually decrease. There is a general belief that balanced vines make balanced wines. Vine balance considers vegetative versus fruit growth. The Ravaz Index, the ratio of fruit weight to pruning weight, is one metric used for assessment. Ratios of 4 to 10 are generally considered balanced. Growers also look at the length of shoots and internodes, targeting three- to four-inch internodes and roughly four-foot shoots. Growers coax vines toward balance through planting decisions, including choice of rootstock and trellis systems, as well as vineyard operations, such as pruning and irrigation. Balanced vines pay off, maximizing yields and fruit quality. Yet it’s important to recognize that balance can take many forms. Larger vines have more capacity for fruit production, and vines grown on fertile soils will have more vigor and thus more capacity than those grown on weaker soils. In this scenario, the vine may be more balanced carrying five tons per acre rather than half of that. Appropriate yields should not be prescribed without understanding the conditions of the site. Grapevine Taxonomy Vitis vinifera , also called the European grapevine , includes many of the wine and table grapes. It belongs to the family Vitaceae, along with other common vine plants like Boston ivy and Virginia creeper. Most cultivated grape species belong to the genus Vitis and have 38 chromosomes, while others belong to the genus Muscadinia , formerly considered a subspecies of Vitis , with 40 chromosomes. Beyond vinifera, several other Vitis species are significant in viticulture. Vitis rupestris , Vitis riparia , and Vitis berlandieri are common rootstock species, and Vitis labrusca , Muscadinia rotundifolia , and Vitis amurensis are occasionally used in winemaking. Within each species, there are many cultivars, often called varieties in a wine context. A selection of grape species and cultivars; those cultivars not marked as hybrids are crossings. Note that Muscadinia is considered by some to be a sub-genera of Vitis. (Credit: Laura Perrone) Both species and varieties have been interbred. The offspring of two varieties belonging to the same species are known as crossings, and examples include Chardonnay, Riesling, Merlot, and almost all other cultivars used in winemaking. The products of interspecies breeding are called hybrids; rootstocks and niche wine grapes like Rondo, Chambourcin, and Vidal Blanc are examples. Crossings and hybrids have been bred to incorporate the desirable characteristics of both parents. For instance, Frontenac is a hybrid that combines the cold hardiness and resistance to fungal diseases of Vitis labrusca , with a flavor profile more similar to vinifera. (Labrusca varieties are often marked by a grapey flavor described as “foxy” that is generally not preferred in wine.) Throughout history, grape breeding has occasionally been intentional but more often occurs in nature. Cultivars Crossings of Vitis vinifera are responsible for the tens of thousands of cultivars that exist. Pinot Noir, Savagnin, and Gouais Blanc are old varieties, believed to be closely related to Vitis sylvestris , and found in the lineage of many common European grape varieties. Most crossings arose naturally, but a few well-known examples are products of breeding. The teinturier grape Alicante Bouschet, whose durability and deep color made it popular with home winemakers during Prohibition, was produced by crossing Petit Bouschet, also an intensely colored teinturier with thick skins, with fruit-forward Grenache. Müller-Thurgau, once a very important variety in Germany, was produced from Riesling and Madeleine Royale in an attempt to develop an earlier-ripening grape with Riesling-like aromatics. South Africa’s signature grape, Pinotage, was bred to combine the elegance of Pinot Noir with the hardiness and productivity of Cinsault. From an evolutionary perspective, vinifera grape varieties are organized into three proles, indicating the primary center of their cultivation, evidenced by their physical characteristics. Proles pontica, which includes Zinfandel, Furmint, and Vermentino, is native to the Aegean and Black Seas and has more jagged leaf blades; white hair on the underside of the leaves; mid-sized clusters; and small-to-medium, round berries. Proles occidentalis is native to Western Europe and includes most international grape varieties, such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and Riesling. Occidentalis has convex leaves; small, compact bunches; and small, round berries. Proles orientalis is native to the Middle East, Iran, and Afghanistan and has large leaves, bunches, and berries with an oval shape. Muscat, Cinsault, and most table grape varieties are examples. Grape varieties differ significantly from one another, both in terms of wine flavor and environmental adaptations, as a result of their unique genetics. Every variety is hardwired to produce different amounts of flavor, color, and tannin. The chemical pathways that create each of these may be upregulated, where the production of a compound is increased, or downregulated, where that production is decreased, in response to the environment. For example, grapes under water stress will produce more tannin than those with an ample water supply, even after accounting for the difference in berry size. Varieties also exhibit different behavior. Some go through budbreak a couple of weeks earlier than others, some require more heat accumulation in order to achieve ripeness, and varieties differ when it comes to yield potential, vine vigor, and tolerance to environmental stressors. The grape varieties are usually divided into red (or black) and white grapes, though pink (or gray) versions exist as well, such as Gewürztraminer and Pinot Gris. White grapes can be further characterized as aromatic, partially aromatic, and non-aromatic, primarily resulting from the grape’s propensity to form monoterpenes, compounds responsible for flavors of rose, lychee, and orange blossom. Red grapes differ in their amount of color and its hue. In both cases, levels of acidity and tannin vary, and each grape has a unique flavor profile. Clones Clones are variants within a grape variety that differ slightly in terms of morphology or behavior. Grapevines are prone to mutations that arise from errors during cell division, and the genetic variation that results is the major source of clonal differences. Mutations can affect a single bud, leaf, or flower. When a bud is affected, the single resulting shoot may bear some distinction from the parent vine. Cuttings taken from this shoot would constitute a unique clone that may differ from the parent plant in terms of grape color, ripening dates, yields, berry and cluster morphology, and flavor characteristics. Viral infection also influences gene expression and is another source of clonal variation. The Gingin clone of Chardonnay that is popular in Western Australia, for example, was confirmed to have grapevine leafroll virus, believed to be responsible for some of its positive attributes, including low yields. When clonal selection is performed in a nursery, virus-infected vines are heat-treated to remove the virus before they are propagated and distributed. Old varieties typically exhibit more clonal diversity. Pinot Noir is thought to be at least 2,000 years old, and as a result, many diverse clones exist. As mutations accumulate over time, significant changes may result in the mutant being renamed as an entirely different variety. Pinot Noir, Pinot Gris, Pinot Blanc, Pinot Meunier, and Pinot Teinturier are considered by many to be separate varieties, but each is technically a clone of Pinot. Similarly, the highly aromatic, pink Gewürztraminer is a mutation of Savagnin Blanc. Hybrids Grape Breeding Grape breeding is a slow, laborious process that relies on old-fashioned techniques. Parent breeds are selected and hundreds of offspring created through intentional cross-pollination. These new varieties are grown for several years, characterized, and selected for desirable traits. Today, most breeding programs seek to create varieties that are tolerant to disease and better adapted to the effects of climate change, including drought. While new grapes struggle to gain commercial acceptance, researchers believe they still have a place in viticulture. In 2020, UC Davis released five new Pierce’s disease-resistant varieties with 97% vinifera parentage, created by Dr. Andy Walker. Although these grapes may not be accepted for winemaking, except perhaps as blending grapes, they could be planted around the perimeter of an existing vineyard to shield it from intruders. Hybrid grape varieties allow for viticulture in environments where grapes would not otherwise grow successfully. In America in the early and mid-1800s, vinifera was interbred with native American grape species like Vitis labrusca and Vitis aestivalis that are better adapted to the cold winters and humid, disease-prone summers of much of the Eastern United States. The resulting hybrid varieties include Clinton, Catawba, Delaware, Herbemont, Isabella, Niagara, Noah, and Norton. While some of these are used for wine, many are considered better suited to fruit juice and jam on account of their foxy flavors. Hybrids tend to be high yielding, and the resulting wine is generally regarded as inferior to that of pure Vitis vinifera . After the introduction of phylloxera and powdery and downy mildews to Europe, French researchers looked to hybrids to instill pest and disease resistance until better treatments were found. Beginning in the late 1800s, a large number of French hybrids were generated, including Baco Noir and Blanc, Chambourcin, Chancellor, Couderc Noir, Plantet, Villard Noir and Blanc, Seibel, and Seyval Blanc. These played an important role in European wine production from the late 1800s until the mid-1900s. By the end of the 1950s, hybrid grapes covered one-third of France’s vineyard area. Subsidies encouraged producers to replant vineyards to vinifera grapes, and by the late 1980s, hybrid varieties accounted for only 3% of European production. Today, most hybrids are not permitted by the EU for PDO wine production, though exceptions exist. The German Rondo and Regent, used for their disease resistance and cold tolerance, are most common. French hybrids like Vidal Blanc, Vignoles, Chambourcin, Seyval Blanc, and Maréchal Foch are more typical in vineyards in Eastern and Midwestern North America, along with newer varieties like Cayuga White, Chardonel, Frontenac, and Traminette, which were bred to withstand winter freeze. Japan’s signature grape, Koshu, is a vinifera-dominant hybrid crossed with the East Asian species Vitis davidii . Hybrid grapes are considered by some to be more sustainable, since many are disease resistant and require significantly less use of fungicides. Rootstocks When a vine is grafted, some characteristics of the rootstock are conferred to the scion. While rootstocks were first developed for phylloxera resistance, today, they have other adaptations that may be beneficial to a vine, as they differ in terms of vigor, drought tolerance, resistance to pests and diseases, and adaptations to various soil conditions. Most rootstocks are hybrids of non-vinifera grape species, especially North American varieties. Three species are frequently encountered: Vitis riparia , Vitis rupestris , and Vitis berlandieri . Other examples include Vitis champinii , Muscadinia rotundifolia , and Vitis solonis . Offspring of these species usually demonstrate characteristics inherited from both of their parents. By knowing the general attributes of each, the behaviors of their offspring can be better understood. Berlandieri leaves (left) are dark green and leathery, those of riparia (center) are large and pale, and those of rupestris (right) are small and smooth (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Vitis riparia is native to riparian areas, or those alongside rivers, throughout much of eastern and central North America, where it grows up trees. Because its native habitat is near water, riparia forms shallow, fibrous roots and is not drought tolerant. Riparia induces low vigor and early ripening in the scion and confers phylloxera resistance. It is easy to propagate but does not do well in lime soils. Riparia Gloire is a pure riparia rootstock. Vitis rupestris is native to the American South. A shrubby vine that thrives in rocky creek beds and nutrient-poor areas, it grows extensive roots, resulting in drought tolerance in deep soils. Rupestris is vigorous and will induce large canopies in the scion when planted on fertile soils. It is resistant to phylloxera and somewhat tolerant of nematodes and viruses, so it may result in less virus expression. Rupestris is easy to propagate. St. George is a pure rupestris rootstock. Vitis berlandieri is native to deep limestone soils in Texas and a good choice for use on alkaline soils. Berlandieri develops deep roots and confers some drought tolerance. It induces later ripening and has variable phylloxera tolerance. Berlandieri vines will not root from dormant cuttings so must be bred with another vine in order to be commercially viable. An expanded list of rootstocks can be found in the Compendium Climate The environmental conditions within the vineyard play an important role in shaping wine expression. This phenomenon has been described as terroir . While terroir has been interpreted literally to refer to vineyard soils, most definitions have expanded to encompass the influences of climate, topography, human practices, and sometimes other external biological factors such as microorganisms and virus. Whatever the precise definition, terroir is broadly understood as the elusive quality that gives a wine a sense of place and makes it a more intriguing, unique product. The vine’s environment fosters its growth and development. Because a vine is not able to move, it must instead adapt. These adaptations often manifest themselves as differences in fruit characteristics. As an example, water-stressed vines will develop a smaller canopy that provides less shade to the fruit. Along with a host of other differences in fruit composition, berries that develop in the sun will produce more “sunscreen” phenolic compounds. Fruit ripening dynamics, and the amount of sugar, acid, tannin, and flavor, are all impacted by environmental conditions. It is for this reason that wine is often said to reflect the place in which it’s grown. Climate refers to the patterns and overall amount of heat, sunlight, precipitation, and wind that characterize a region. A related and often confused concept is weather, which describes these properties over a short period. Climate is the long-term average of weather over time. It is often separated into three spheres of influence: macro-, meso-, and microclimate. Macroclimate describes the climate of a larger region, spanning tens to hundreds of miles. While not well defined, mesoclimate identifies a smaller area, a single vineyard or a region that perhaps spans tens of miles and might be impacted by local geographical features like smaller bodies of water, topography, and soil conditions. Microclimate describes the environment directly around the vine and fruit. While this is influenced by the vineyard site, human practices such as trellis systems and canopy management play an important and often underappreciated role in shaping the environment. While some climates are inhospitable to grapegrowing, many grape varieties can be grown in a range of climates and soil types. Chardonnay, for example, grows successfully across disparate regions, as it can be appreciated in a range of styles. Each climate, of course, offers its own unique challenges. Grapes grown in climates that are too warm may ripen early, at the detriment of flavor and acidity, while grapes grown in cool climates may not ripen sufficiently, also impacting flavor. Wet climates may have elevated disease pressure, while overly dry climates may not provide enough water to sustain growth. Climate Classifications Climate classifications consider patterns of temperature and precipitation to give a high-level synopsis of weather patterns and potential hazards. They are a convenient means of comparing regions to one another. While grapes are often associated with Mediterranean climates, some wine regions are better described as maritime, continental, or even subtropical. Mediterranean and maritime climates are moderate, with a small range between summer and winter temperatures. Continental climates have a more dramatic temperature swing throughout the year and experience the classic four seasons. Mediterranean climates have wet winters but receive little rain during the growing season, while maritime and continental climates receive rain year-round. Burgundy, Austria’s Wachau, and Mendoza are typically considered continental; Bordeaux, New Zealand’s Hawkes Bay, and Oregon’s Willamette Valley are maritime; and Tuscany, the Barossa Valley, and Stellenbosch, South Africa, are best described as Mediterranean. While labels are convenient, it’s useful to think of these classifications as a spectrum, with most regions falling in between specific definitions. Vines are temperate plants and require a dormant season prior to budbreak. As a result, climates without sufficiently cold winter temperatures are not suitable for wine grape production. Tropical climates, for instance, have little temperature variation throughout the year and are not suited to wine grapes, but there are subtropical regions where grapegrowing occurs, including parts of eastern Australia, Madeira, and the Canary Islands. Often, grapes grown in these climates are made into fortified wines, where the effect of the vineyard site is arguably less important than the impact of winemaking. In the EU, wine regions are classified into zones depending by climate, and certain practices including chaptalization, acid adjustments, and minimum potential alcohol requirements are governed by zone. Germany, the Loire, Champagne, Alsace, and Austria belong to Zones A and B, which are permitted to enrich wine by 3% ABV and deacidify, but not acidify. Portugal, Southern Spain, Southern Italy, and parts of Greece belong to Zone CIIIb. They may acidify, but not deacidify, and enrich to a lesser extent. The Köppen-Geiger climate classifications divide regions into five main groups—tropical, dry, temperate, continental, and polar—and then further into subgroups based on temperature and precipitation patterns. Under this scheme, most winegrowing regions are categorized as temperate. While this is a very precise and well-defined index, it is seldomly referenced in regard to wine. Environmental Factors Differences in climate can be distilled into a few key properties that are fundamental to a vine’s development: heat, light, water, and nutrients. Without sufficient amounts of each of these, a vine will not be fruitful and, in extreme cases, cannot survive. Temperature It has been said that temperature is the metronome of plants. Heat drives vine growth and development, and many of a plant’s metabolic processes are temperature dependent. In warm climates, vines grow and develop more quickly, and fruit ripens earlier. Vine growth occurs between 50 and 95 degrees Fahrenheit, where mid-70s Fahrenheit is optimal. At lower temperatures, vines are dormant, and at temperatures over 95 degrees, vine growth and fruit ripening may shut down to conserve water. In hot weather, the microclimate around the canopy may actually be significantly cooler than the ambient temperature, as the vine cools itself through transpiration provided that it has a sufficient supply of water. Frigid temperatures can lead to injury and even vine death if precautions are not taken. Temperature affects both the quality and quantity of grapes. At bloom, it impacts the number of berries that will develop in the current growing season as well as the number of clusters that form the following year. Warmer temperatures result in higher yields, and vines will develop more capacity to support the additional crop. Understanding a growing region’s temperature profile, which includes both the overall amount of heat and patterns of accumulation, helps growers predict which grape varieties will be most successful. Varieties differ in the amount of heat needed to ripen. It is often claimed that the best quality wine comes from marginal climates where heat accumulation is just sufficient to ripen the grapes, with classic illustrations being Pinot Noir in Burgundy and Riesling in the Mosel. Flavor profiles are impacted, too. Warmer climates tend to yield fruitier wines, with higher alcohol, lower acidity, and softer tannins, but overripeness is a risk if harvest occurs later in the season. In cooler climates, wine may have lower alcohol, higher acidity, more astringent tannins, and fresh fruit and savory flavors; in some years, however, wines may be underripe and lacking flavor. Heat indices are used to guide varietal selection and to compare climates, estimating the amount of heat that accumulates throughout the growing season as the product of temperature and time. In the United States, the Winkler Index is frequently used to categorize viticultural areas with similar accumulation of “growing degree days” from April 1 to October 31. A region’s degree days are calculated by taking the average daily temperature minus 50 degrees Fahrenheit from every day within this range and summing them. The correction of 50 degrees is used to acknowledge that below this temperature, little shoot growth takes place. The Winkler Index is easily employed, but because it does not account for day length, it is not applicable to all regions. Elsewhere, the Huglin Index, which accounts for latitude, is more common. Growing degree days are calculated from April to October in the Northern Hemisphere and October to April in the Southern Hemisphere. While heat summation is a useful metric, the pattern of heat accumulation is also important. A moderate climate with a long growing season may experience the same overall heat accumulation as a warmer climate that has a short season, but each will impact the fruit differently. Two important concepts related to heat accumulation patterns are continentality and diurnal shift. Diurnal shift describes the difference between day and nighttime temperatures. In warm climates, a large diurnal shift is often thought to be important for wine quality as it seems to preserve acidity and flavors. In marginal climates, warm nights may assist in developing acid and flavors. Continentality is the difference between summer and winter temperatures. Continental climates have wide temperature swings throughout the year and are more prone to spring and fall frost. Continentality can be assessed by comparing the average temperature during the warmest and coolest months of the year. Growing season average temperatures are also used to compare regions. Averages are calculated from April to October in the Northern Hemisphere and October to April in the Southern Hemisphere. Light Sunlight is essential for plant growth. Light in the canopy fuels photosynthesis, which drives plant growth and development and creates sugar that facilitates fruit ripening. The number of sun-exposed leaves on a vine will determine its photosynthetic capacity, where more leaves results in a higher capacity for development, as well as greater water use. About 12 to 16 leaves are required to ripen a cluster. Metered, or dappled, sunlight improves fruit quality and quantity. Shaded buds are less fruitful, but ample light exposure on the shoots increases yields in the following year. Shaded berries ripen more slowly, while berries with direct light exposure can reach high temperatures, which may interfere with ripening. During a heat spike in 2017, one Napa Valley vineyard observed temperatures in excess of 140 degrees Fahrenheit in sunlit berries. Though light determines the rate of photosynthesis and therefore sugar accumulation in the fruit, other features of ripening, like acid degradation and tannin ripening, may be more tied to temperature. Sunlight is typically considered important for flavor development. Light stimulates the production of phenolic compounds, like anthocyanin and tannin, that are considered key for red wine quality, as well as 1,1,6,-trimethyl-1,2-dihydronapthalene (TDN), the petrol flavor observed in aged Riesling. It also encourages the breakdown of pyrazine, the green bell pepper flavor associated with grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon Blanc. While sun exposure upregulates the production of certain flavor compounds, the increase in temperature can result in flavor loss, acid degradation, and sunburn. The duration of sunlight during the day (sunshine hours) and its intensity influence vine and fruit development. Vitis vinifera is said to require at least 1,250 sunshine hours to ripen fruit. Higher-latitude regions have longer days and receive more sunshine hours, while the sunlight intensity is greater nearer to the equator. Sunlight intensity also increases with elevation, but cloud cover, pollution, and smoke can reduce the amount of sunlight that reaches the vine. Water Vines are incredibly resilient plants and have adapted many mechanisms to survive and potentially thrive in periods of drought. While moderate water stress is considered beneficial for wine quality, all plants need water to grow and develop optimally. Vines generally require 10 to 30 inches of rain during the growing season, though more may be necessary depending on the timing of precipitation, temperature patterns, and soil conditions. Sandy soils with low water-holding capacity, warm climates, and high-density plantings require more water. Young vines also need more frequent water additions than mature vines, as their roots are not fully developed and they cannot access water stored at deeper soil depths. Many regions receive insufficient precipitation during the growing season and rely on irrigation. Too little water can stunt growth and development, limit yields, and delay ripening. Under severe water stress, vines close their stomates to conserve water, halting photosynthesis and plant function. Extreme drought conditions result in defoliation and, eventually, vine death. Yet wet conditions can result in excessive yields and slow ripening and encourage the vine to produce a big, vigorous canopy. Timing is also important. An adequate amount of available water is desired early in the season so that shoots reach their full height prior to veraison, when berries change color. Once berries have formed, mild water stress helps to maintain a moderate berry size and promotes the production of phenolic compounds, which are considered integral to red wine quality. Near the end of the season, water deficit can cause dehydration, but rain near harvest can cause berries to swell and split, resulting in dilution and increased disease pressure. Late-season rain frequently reduces wine quality. The amount of water available to the vine depends on soil conditions. Soil has a limited capacity to hold water. Heavy rainstorms can deposit a lot of water, but it may not be accessible to the vine, as some is lost through drainage or run-off. On deep soils, well-developed and deeper root systems allow a vine to source water from a larger volume of soil; shallow soils are more limited in their capacity. The impact of water availability on vine and fruit development, and especially on wine quality, is one of the most important topics being studied in viticulture today. By providing just enough water when the vine needs it, viticulturists hope to improve wine quality and conserve precious resources. Wind A hoyo in Lanzarote (Photo credit: Kelli White) Wind has a cooling and drying effect that can impact vine development. While this may help minimize disease pressure, vines may require more water, as leaves close their stomates under windy conditions to conserve water lost from the plant through transpiration. This leads to less vigorous vines and, in extreme situations, can result in delayed development. It is particularly difficult to establish a new vineyard in very windy conditions. In some instances, vine shelters and windbreaks can help protect the nascent shoots and leaves. Along with windbreaks, other protective measures can be taken in windy climates. In Provence and the Southern Rhône, the vineyard rows may be planted parallel to the prevailing wind, with vines trained low to the ground, in order to minimize damage. In parts of coastal California, some producers have observed that rows planted perpendicular to the wind will “self-shelter,” resulting in higher sugar accumulation. Regions like Greece’s Santorini and Lanzarote in the Canary Islands have developed novel vine training systems for wind protection. Geographical Factors Latitude Wine grapes generally grow between 30 and 50 degree in latitude. In lower latitudes, the vines don’t experience a dormant season, while higher latitudes are often too cold for grapes to attain ripeness, or vines may be threatened by winter freeze. Both temperature and sunlight intensity are generally higher for regions closer to the equator. Those regions further from the equator often have shorter growing seasons but longer days, which accelerates growth and development. Marginal climates may also rely on other influences that increase their viability. For instance, higher latitudes often rely on warming from bodies of water, favorable orientations, and warm air currents, while lower latitudes may benefit from cooling influences like high elevation. Hills & Mountains Hills and mountains can result in significant climatic diversity. The first relevant factor is altitude, which tends to reduce temperature but also increases sunlight intensity. Roughly, for every 300-foot gain in elevation, the temperature will decrease by about 1 degree Fahrenheit, and for every 1,000-foot increase, there is a 2% increase in sunlight exposure. Because cold air sinks, lower-elevation bowls trap cold air and may be more frost prone. Gravity causes soil and water to run downhill, so the bottom of the hill typically has deeper soil and more available water. Mid-slope sites are often considered best for wine quality, as they seem to have an ideal balance of soil and water conditions, along with favorable airflow to prevent frost and disease. Vineyards in the Jura with various elevations, aspects, and orientations (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Elevation plays a key role in diurnal shift, especially in areas prone to marine influence. Vineyards above what’s commonly called the inversion layer tend to see smaller diurnal shifts, while vineyards below this layer warm during the day and cool, sometimes drastically, at night. Some parts of a hill are warmer and sunnier than others. Slope, or the degree of incline, is an important factor. In Côte Rôtie, inclines can exceed 55 degrees. Vineyards in the Mosel reach 70 degrees—these are considered the steepest in the world. While the sun’s position changes throughout the day and year, steeper slopes will intercept the most sunlight on average and tend to be earlier ripening. (Solar panels are positioned at an angle for the same reason.) In Burgundy, grand cru vineyards are often located mid-slope, on the steepest and earliest-ripening part of the hill. Fog Fog is a hallmark of many classic winegrowing regions, including Piedmont, Napa and Sonoma Valleys, and Chile’s Casablanca Valley. It generally results when warm, humid air encounters cooler air. Fog moderates temperature and can reduce the amount of sunlight reaching the vines. It also increases disease pressure. Regions that are known for botrytized wines production, such as Sauternes and Tokaj, rely on humid morning conditions for the development of noble rot. Aspect, or orientation, is the cardinal direction that the vineyard faces. In the Northern Hemisphere, south-facing vineyards intercept the most sunlight during the day, are warmer, and usually ripen earlier than north-facing vineyards, which tend to be the coolest sites. East-facing vineyards get more morning sun, reducing early morning humidity and thus minimizing disease pressure, while west-facing vineyards are exposed during the most intense part of the day, making them more prone to sunburn. Historically, south- and southeast-facing vineyards were preferred, as these conditions facilitate ripening. Mountain ranges tend to have a windward side that experiences more weather and precipitation, with a leeward side that is drier and more protected. Alsace and Mendoza, for instance, are both located in the rain shadows of nearby mountain ranges and receive relatively little precipitation. Bodies of Water Many historic winegrowing regions are situated along bodies of water, as this positioning provided a means of transport as well as groundwater or a source of irrigation. As with hills, where a vineyard lies in relationship to an ocean, lake, or river will affect its climate. Water has a large heat-holding capacity and changes temperature slowly. As a result, proximity to bodies of water results in a more moderate temperature range on both a daily and annual basis. Water can also reflect sunlight onto the vines, helping vineyards to ripen earlier. Air currents that move along water can bring cold or warm air into a region and create fog and mist that reduce the amount of sunlight reaching the vines. Viticulturally important examples include the cooling Humboldt Current off of Chile and Benguela Current in South Africa. The Gulf Stream warms much of Northern Europe, allowing grapes to ripen in locations where they otherwise might not. Humidity is often higher near water, and this can increase disease pressure. In some cases, this is beneficial, as in morning fog that helps develop noble rot in regions known for their botrytized wines. Fog off of the Columbia River (Photo credit: James Mantone) Climate Change The wine business tends to be fixated on the weather due to its profound impact on vintage variation. Because of this, grapes are considered a more sensitive barometer of climate change than other crops. The industry has collected detailed records that illustrate changes over the past 50 years, including in heat accumulation, temperature extremes, and rainfall patterns. In some areas, drought and fire are more rampant than in the past. Changes in climate could redefine quality potential and wine style in classic regions throughout the world. Thus far, they have benefited some areas. Southern England was once considered unsuitable for grapegrowing but is now showing promise for sparkling production. Classic regions in Italy, France, and Germany are producing great vintages more consistently. Alongside any effects of climate change, significant adjustments in viticultural practices over the past 50 years have also played a role in shifting wine styles. Not long ago, many regions struggled to adequately ripen grapes. As a result, viticulture developed practices specifically intended to accelerate the ripening process, and these were widely adopted. Producers developed more efficient canopy architecture, reduced yields, irrigated less, adopted earlier-ripening clones and rootstocks, and removed diseased vines that delayed ripening. The effect of these changes on grape ripening and wine style should not be underestimated. Today, producers are looking to viticultural practices to slow ripening. Cooler sites that were historically less desirable, like those with a north-facing aspect, may be preferred in the future. In some cases, producers are even looking to new varieties; in Bordeaux, a proposal to allow seven new grape varieties in AOC wines was put forward in 2019. Weather Hazards Frost Spring frost can kill young shoots, and while new shoots will often replace the lost ones, their development is delayed and they are typically less fruitful. Frost that occurs in the fall prior to harvest will kill the leaves, which prevents the vine from being able to ripen fruit further. In this case, the fruit will not improve and should be picked right away. These frost events are often the result of an inversion layer, where cold air near the ground is trapped under warmer air. There are several means of frost mitigation: Site selection: Because cold air settles into areas of low elevation, especially bowls that have no way of draining, early-budding (and therefore frost-prone) varieties should be avoided on these sites. Air circulation: Cover crops and plants growing on the vineyard floor should be mowed short prior to frost season to allow for better air circulation. Sprinklers: Overhead sprinklers can be used to warm the surface of the vine by a few degrees. As water freezes, it releases heat, so as long as water is constantly applied during a frost event, the temperature will remain just above freezing. Fans or helicopters: These disrupt the inversion layer to warm the environment. Heat: Heaters and small fires are used to warm the microclimate. Many areas have banned the use of orchard heaters or “smudge pots” due to air quality concerns. Pruning methods: Vines may be pre-pruned, where spurs are left long, or late-pruned. This encourages sacrificial buds to push early in the season, knowing that a later pruning will remove damaged tissue. Sprinklers prevent damage during a spring frost event (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Winter freeze can cause damage to dormant vines if temperatures fall below 5 degrees Fahrenheit. The methods described above only increase the temperatures slightly so are insufficient for protecting against winter freeze. Most vinifera vines can survive until 0 degrees Fahrenheit, but much below this, they risk death. In regions where winter freeze occurs, cold-tolerant varieties like Riesling and select hybrids may be planted. Otherwise, vines are buried each year for insulation and uncovered the subsequent spring. Recently, some producers have begun covering the vines in geothermal, geotextile blankets as an alternative means of freeze protection. Hail Hail regularly causes major localized damage in susceptible regions, including parts of the Loire Valley, Burgundy, Bordeaux, Piedmont, and Mendoza. Its impact on a particular growing season is dictated by the intensity of the event and the phenological stage of the vine. Hail can remove entire shoots and severely damage fruit as well as leaves, reducing the canopy’s capacity to support fruit ripening. Some regions have started using netting to protect the vines from hail. Another method is to fire hail cannons or rockets into the air, disrupting hail formation. Drought Shade cloth protects fruit from intense sunlight (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Many vineyards that thrived in the past now struggle due to lack of water. As with many weather hazards, site selection is key to limiting drought risk. Where it is possible, irrigation can help mitigate damage. Many wine regions in the EU that did not previously permit irrigation, including Bordeaux, Burgundy, Barolo, Barbaresco, and Montalcino, now allow it when faced with drought conditions, though additional restrictions may apply. Drought-tolerant rootstocks such as St. George, 110R, and 140R can also be used to better adapt the vine to its environment. Risks of warm, dry environments include sunburn, which results in caramelized flavors, and dehydration, which concentrates sugars and acid in the fruit and can lead to raisinated flavors. Except in extreme cases, the risk of dehydration is typically not until later in the season, when the fruit has begun softening. Maintaining a protective canopy can help reduce the risk of sunburn, and where this is not possible, growers are increasingly using shade cloth, or fabric that is hung in the fruiting zone after veraison, to protect the fruit from dehydration and sunburn later in the season. In extreme heat events, sprinklers or misters might be used for evaporative cooling. In Australia, some producers apply a clay-based “sunscreen” to the fruit and canopy for protection. Fire Forest fires that occur near wine regions are a growing problem. While vineyards often act as firebreaks and aren’t likely to burn themselves, smoke can be taken in through pores in the grapes or leaves and then translocated to the fruit any time after fruit set. This will taint the wine with an unpleasant, smoky flavor. The West Coast of North America, much of Australia, and parts of Portugal and Spain have all suffered damage from smoke in recent years. Although researchers are currently devoting attention to this topic, currently, there is no successful form of mitigation in the vineyard. Soil While a region’s weather varies from year to year, soil is reasonably stable. In this sense, it is the most enduring aspect of a wine’s sense of place. The basic function of soil, with respect to the vine, is to anchor it and provide it with water and nutrients. Soil conditions determine how much precipitation actually reaches the vine, since different soils absorb and hold water differently. Most critical to wine quality, soil characteristics impact vine vigor, which is driven by the availability of water and nutrients. Vines grown in favorable soil conditions will have deep roots and balanced vigor and are able to adapt to wet and dry conditions more easily. Free-draining soils with limited but adequate water and nutrients are best for wine quality. Highly fertile soils induce too much vigor and are typically avoided, as are soils with toxicities, including high salt or aluminum concentration. Popular Geology As the notion of terroir has been popularized, vineyard soils have become a topic of interest for many wine enthusiasts. Wine descriptions often include information on rocks and soils found in the vineyard, such as their composition, geological age, and origins. Vineyard soils are often described by the qualities of their underlying bedrock. All rocks are classified into three types as determined by the geologic forces that formed the parent material: Igneous rocks like granite are formed from cooled magma and tend to be strong, resistant to erosion, and non-porous. Volcanic rocks are a type of igneous rock formed from lava. Basalt is a volcanic rock that breaks down to form highly fertile clay soils. Sedimentary soils are formed from weathered rocks carried by wind or water and deposited in layers. Limestone, chalk, shale, and sandstone are examples. The characteristics of these soils depend on what they’re made of and how strongly they’ve been cemented together. Metamorphic rocks are igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been subjected to heat and pressure. The category includes slate, schist, and gneiss. These rocks may be crumbly and friable or very hard, depending on the forces that shaped them and the underlying rocks’ composition. While these types of rocks are often encountered in wine studies, the information they provide is limited, since these convenient classifications often combine dissimilar soils within a single category. Two vineyards with similar bedrock may have entirely different soils overlaying them. For example, a vineyard with granite bedrock could be overlaid with deep sandy soils or very thin soils. From a viticultural perspective, soils are characterized instead by their physical and chemical characteristics, since these properties determine the amount of water and nutrients available to the vine. Common Geology Terms rock: A solid aggregate of minerals. gravel: Small pieces of rock. soil: Weathered rock sediments combined with organic matter. loam: Soil texture comprised of a blend of different particle sizes, including sand, silt, and clay. aeolian: Wind-blown soil, such as loess or parna. alluvial: Soil transported and deposited by (non-marine) surface water. Alluvial deposits have been cemented into rock. colluvial: Soil transported by erosion and gravity. fluvial: Soil weathered, transported, and deposited by rivers and streams. marine: Soil deposited in ocean beds. glacial: Soil formed and deposited by glaciers. till: Rocks and soil deposited by glaciers. soil pan: An impenetrable layer of soil formed from compaction or cementation, such as hardpan or calcrete . calcareous: Alkaline soil with a high proportion of calcium or magnesium carbonate. A soil’s geological age, which generally refers to the time period when the underlying bedrock formed, is another property that is frequently cited in wine literature. The Kimmeridgian soils developed during the Jurassic Period from marine sediments, for example, are often noted, as they famously appear in Chablis, the Aube region of Champagne, and Sancerre. Just as there is huge diversity in soil today, the sediments laid down during the Jurassic Period were not homogenous; to describe a soil by the time its parent material was formed, while interesting, is not terribly meaningful. Physical Properties Great wines are made from grapes grown on a range of soil types. Within individual regions, producers frequently attribute wine qualities to the rocks found in their vineyard, but more generally, rock type does not appear to be well correlated with wine’s composition or attributes. While different soils clearly contribute to creating distinct wines, many of the differences ascribed to rock type are actually the result of physical attributes of the soil. A heterogenous mixture, soil is comprised primarily of minerals, water, air, and a small portion of organic matter. It’s made from weathered rock, plant material, and soil microbes. Soil’s formation is said to depend on five factors: the parent material, climate, topography, organisms, and time. The hardness of the parent rock will determine how easily it is broken down into soil. Warm, wet conditions will accelerate the weathering process, and the erosion that occurs by water and wind will be shaped by an area’s topography. Rocks and organic matter are broken down by the action of soil microbes and plants’ roots. This occurs slowly: it takes at least 100 years to form an inch of topsoil. Because soils are also transported by erosion, wind, leaching, and the action of rivers and glaciers, vineyards that share a common bedrock composition can have very different soils overlaying them. Soils are organized into layers of sediments called horizons. Topsoil, or horizon A, is the outermost layer and ranges in depth from a few inches to a few feet. The composition of soil in this layer least resembles the composition of the underlying rock, since it has often been deposited from elsewhere. The topsoil contains most of the soil’s organic matter, worms, and microbes. Humus, an important topsoil constituent, is nutrient-dense organic material that holds water and nutrients in the soil, reduces erosion, and helps avoid soil compaction. As rainwater moves through the soil, it leaches smaller particles and nutrients downward. As a result, horizon B, called the subsoil, is less porous, contains a higher proportion of clay, and has better water-holding capacity than the topsoil. Horizon C, or the substratum, may consist of friable rock, and few if any roots are found here. Bedrock, which lies underneath the soil, is not soil at all but the outer layer of the earth’s surface. The manner in which roots navigate this complex layering of soil strata dictates the amount of water and nutrients the plant can access all year long. Variation in the Vineyard The attributes of soil can change rapidly within a vineyard, both vertically and horizontally. Despite receiving the same amount of rainfall, one part of a vineyard may have much more water access than another due to differences in topography and the depth and composition of the soil. Investigating differences in soil prior to planting can lead to better vineyard design that matches compatible rootstock with anticipated soil conditions. Prior to planting, soil pits may be dug throughout the vineyard to reveal the soil’s profile, and soil maps and other technologies can be used to gain insight. Later on, these distinctions are observed as variation in vine vigor. Block divisions and management are most effective if they contemplate the differences in the soil. Soil is a reservoir of water for plants. After a rain event, water is lost through run-off, drainage, evaporation, and plant use. Several attributes influence how water drains and is stored in the soil to be used in the future. Soil depth, or the distance from the soil surface to the bedrock or another impenetrable layer, limits a vine’s rooting depth, which determines the deepest soil that the vine can access. (Roots may, however, be able to penetrate small cracks in friable bedrock.) Deep soils allow roots to access water from greater depths and provide the vine with more water throughout the growing season since the roots are in contact with a larger volume of soil. Because grapevines can develop deeper root systems than most other plants, on these soils, they can access water few competing plants are able to reach. Shallow soils can flood easily and have less available water than deeper soils; they require regular additions of water, sometimes through irrigation, to meet the vine’s needs. Shallow soils are generally not suitable for dry-farming except in climates that receive regular precipitation. Where an impenetrable layer, such as a hardpan, limits the rooting depth, the soil may be ripped prior to planting. Ripping involves dragging a large steel implement through the soil to break up an impenetrable layer. If shallow soils overlay bedrock, ripping is not possible, although modern heavy machinery, including excavators and pneumatic rock breakers, has allowed viticulture to extend into otherwise unusable land. Range of soils sampled from one vineyard in Saint-Estèphe, varying in texture, structure, and composition (Photo credit: Avery Heelan) Two related concepts are key to healthy plant growth: porosity, or the amount of open space in the soil, and permeability, which describes the ability for water, oxygen, and roots to pass freely. These factors allow for drainage, water storage, root growth, and aeration, which are essential for healthy roots and soil microbial populations. Growth will be limited in waterlogged and non-porous soils. Porosity is governed by soil structure, an attribute that describes how soil particles aggregate, or form small clumps, and how easily these clumps crumble. Large pores between soil aggregates increase the porosity of well-structured soils and ensure that water on the soil surface is absorbed. These soils are better able to resist erosion and compaction. A moderate humus content helps the soil stick together, which improves the soil’s integrity. By increasing soil organic matter through the addition of compost and usage of cover crops, it is possible to build better structure in the soil. Compaction Vineyard soils are prone to compaction due to the repetitive use of tractors and other heavy equipment in the vine rows. Compaction destroys porosity, and limited infiltration of water and oxygen in these soils inhibits root growth. To avoid compaction, producers try to avoid unnecessary tractor passes and may use tillage to aerate the soil in conjunction with cover crops, which break up compacted areas with their roots. Soil texture also influences porosity and permeability. Texture, referring to the size of soil particles, includes sand, silt, and clay, where sand particles are largest and clay smallest. Loam is a mixture of the three types and falls on a spectrum depending on the proportion of each component. Soils also contain rocks of different sizes, including gravels, pebbles, cobbles, and boulders. Rocks do not contribute water or minerals to the vine, but they increase drainage and limit erosion. They are generally considered beneficial for vine roots, when not overwhelming in proportion. Sandy soils are sometimes called light soils, while clay soils are described as heavy, a reference to their superior water-holding capacity. Water is held in the soil by sticking to the surface of soil particles and through capillary action (the attraction of water molecules to each other and other substances), which is more effective with smaller pores like those found in clay. Because clay particles are small, they pack more tightly together and have more surface area per volume. Soils heavy in clay content have better structure than sandy soils but can be prone to water logging and tend to harbor higher populations of phylloxera. Soil Color The color of soil is sometimes said to warm the microclimate of the vine. Light-colored soils, such as the white albariza soils of Jerez, reflect sunlight back into the fruit zone, providing even greater warmth during the hottest parts of the day. Darker soils, like the slate and basalt soils of the Ahr in Germany, absorb heat and radiate it throughout the night. While many producers cite this effect, it’s important to note that the vines must be relatively low to the ground to benefit from it. In cool climates, some producers line the vine row with reflective tarps that mimic the impact of light-colored soils. As a result of their lesser water content, sandy soils warm up faster than clay soils, which initiates budbreak sooner and accelerates ripening. In a cool or wet vintage, sandier soils may perform better, while in a warm and dry year, soils with a higher clay content may be preferred. Parasitic nematodes are particularly fond of sandy soils. Loam soils are considered ideal for vineyards, since the combination of particle sizes achieves the ideal balance of drainage, provided by the sand, and fertility, provided by clay, that is desirable for balanced vine growth. The USDA soil texture triangle groups soil types by particle size. Credit: Laura Perrone Chemical Properties While wine style is clearly influenced by the physical factors that dictate water availability, except in the case of nutrient deficiencies, few differences in wine can be attributed to a soil’s chemical composition. Rocks are made of minerals like quartz, mica, feldspar, gypsum, calcite, and flint. These minerals do not make their way into the glass directly; rather, the vine roots take up only small ions, including the 17 mineral nutrients that are described below. (Note that minerals and mineral nutrients are distinct from one another, though frequently confused.) While the weathering process releases a small amount of mineral nutrients from the soil, most of the nutrients supplied to the vine come from organic matter and fertilizers. Current understanding of rock chemistry suggests it does not play an important role in soil chemistry as related to the vine, with one important exception: calcareous soils are strongly alkaline. Soil pH The pH of soil is its most important chemical property. pH is a scale of acidity that ranges from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very basic), with water considered neutral at a pH of 7. Technically, pH is a measure of the hydrogen ions, or protons, dissolved in a solution, where more acidic substances have more protons. pH is a logarithmic scale, which means that a pH of 6 has 10 times the amount of protons as a pH of 7. Soil pH ranges from 3 to 10. Soils described as acidic have a pH below 6.5, neutral soils are 6.5 to 8, and alkaline (basic) soils are over 8. From a viticultural perspective, neutral soils are considered ideal, while those lower than 5 are generally considered to be unsuitable for farming, though they may be amended to lift the pH to a more desirable range. Overly acidic soils might also induce aluminum toxicity, which is detrimental to root growth. High pH, above 8.5, is the result of significant lime content, which is found in calcareous soils including limestone, chalk, tufa, marlstone, and marble. These soils are frequently associated with wine quality, though the precise reasons for this connection are not well understood. Basalt, sandstone, shale, slate, and schist tend to be more acidic. The slate soils in the Mosel, for example, can have a pH below 6. Soil acidity, however, depends not only on the nature of the parent rock but also on climatic and human factors. A soil’s pH influences the mineral nutrients that are available to the vine. Nutrients are stored by adsorbing, or sticking, to soil particles. Positively charged nutrients are attracted to soil particles, which are largely negatively charged. Soil particles have a limited surface area to hold nutrients, described as the cation exchange capacity (CEC). Larger particles like sand have less total surface area per volume and are less nutrient dense. Clay soils are rich in nutrients, but because the nutrients are bound more tightly, they are less available to the vine. Soil organic matter also increases CEC. Nutrients compete for space on the CEC, so too much of one nutrient can induce a deficiency in another. In acidic soils, protons take up too much space on the CEC, and as a result, some nutrients are less available in low-pH soils. Acidic soil induces phosphate deficiency, while alkaline soils can induce iron deficiency. Along with soil texture, pH has a significant influence on the availability of nutrients. pH also influences which plants will grow. Most rootstocks are not well adapted to high pH, so lime-tolerant rootstocks, often Vitis berlandieri based, must be used. This is important to recognize, since it is difficult to separate the influence of rootstock from that of soil pH. Agricultural soils become increasingly acidic over time, which can degrade soil structure and disrupt microbial communities. As nutrients are leached from the soil, protons take their place on the CEC. The decomposition of organic matter and respiration of roots release carbon dioxide, which forms carbonic acid in the soil. Additionally, the use of ammonia-based fertilizers increases acidity over time. A farmer may amend soil acidity through liming, which is the application of limestone, dolomite, or lime (calcium hydroxide), to neutralize the topsoil. Typically, this occurs when a vineyard site is being developed, but these materials can also be applied along with compost in an established vineyard to maintain a desired soil pH. Soil organic matter helps buffer against change in pH. Soil Toxicities Dissolved salts like sodium chloride (table salt) are toxic to plants in high concentration, as they hinder the vine’s ability to absorb water. Water follows a concentration gradient and flows from areas with less salt content to areas with more. Irrigating with water with a high salt content is one of the biggest causes of saline soils. Parts of California’s Central Coast, Mexico’s Baja region, and South and Western Australia struggle with salinity. In response, salt-tolerant rootstocks such as Ramey have been developed to adapt vines to saline conditions. Sodicity is a related concept but considers only the amount of sodium in the soil. Too much sodium reduces soil permeability and destroys soil structure because high concentrations of sodium have a repelling effect and disperse clay particles. Soil Microbiome Plants evolved with a plethora of microorganisms. Microbes living in the soil are critical to vine health, impacting fertility, plant growth, disease resistance, and climate adaptation. Microbial populations are highly concentrated in the rhizosphere, or the area directly around plant roots, and may even colonize the roots internally. Microorganisms facilitate the vine’s nutrient and water uptake in several ways. Mycorrhizae, or symbiotic associations of fungi and plant roots, are perhaps the best example. In this arrangement, fungi provide the vine with water and nutrients in exchange for sugar produced through photosynthesis. These fungal roots serve as an extension of the vine’s own root system. Beneficial, nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert proteins from decaying plant matter into sources of nitrogen that the vine is able to use, including ammonia and nitrates. Some fungi and bacteria that live in soil, however, will cause disease if they enter the vascular system of plants. Beneficial microbes help protect vines from invasion by these pathogens through a number of mechanisms. They might limit pathogen populations by feeding on them or outcompeting them, block access to plant roots, or release hormones that stimulate the plant’s own defense system to react against the intruder. Certain microorganisms release hormones that stimulate plant growth and development. While these relationships are not yet well understood, they may imply that microbial populations are able to influence fruit composition. Scientific communities are considering the potential of “microbial terroir” resulting not only from soil microbes’ contributions to fermentation but also from their influence on fruit development and composition. Vine Nutrition Grapes have relatively low requirements for water and nutrients, as far as agricultural plants are concerned, so they may be cultivated on soils considered unsuitable for other crops. Yet deficiencies can limit growth and development. Soil fertility refers to the ability of the soil to provide nutrients. Starving vines for nutrients can reduce yields, impede the vine’s ability to ripen fruit, and render the vine more susceptible to pests and diseases. On the other hand, excess of certain nutrients can be detrimental to quality. Vines require 17 essential nutrients for healthy function. Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are supplied by water and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, but the rest are taken up through the soil. Of those absorbed through the soil, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are by far the most important, as they are essential for plant growth and development. They are considered macronutrients, along with sulfur, calcium, and magnesium, as the vine uses them in macro quantities. Boron, manganese, copper, iron, zinc, molybdenum, nickel, and chlorine are micronutrients, as the vine has less demand for them. An expanded list of grapevine nutrients can be found in the Compendium Nitrogen has the most significant impact on grape quality and yields, and its availability is key to soil fertility. Insufficient nitrogen results in weak vines with short shoots and chlorotic leaves, while excess nitrogen can lead to vigorous vines with dark green canopies and reduced yields. Particularly for red grapes, the shade provided by this type of a canopy is considered negative for quality. Nitrogen-rich vines also attract pests such as leafhoppers. Plants are able to use nitrogen in the form of ammonia or nitrates. Potassium helps to maintains cell structure through osmotic pressure and facilitates ripening through sugar transport and deacidification. After veraison, potassium is exchanged for protons in the berries, lowering the fruit’s acidity. Potassium deficiencies can result in elevated levels of acidity in the fruit, low yields, and uneven ripening. Leaf discoloration and leaves that roll under are symptoms. Excesses can reduce fruit acidity and may induce deficiencies in other nutrients. Phosphorous is important for photosynthesis as well as energy storage and transport throughout the vine. It’s a key component of both nucleic acids and ATP. Deficiencies are relatively rare but reduce yields and cause discoloration of the leaf margin. Foliar symptoms of magnesium, manganese, and potassium deficiencies (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante [left], Sarah Ferguson) Nutrients are depleted from the vineyard over time as fruit and canes are removed at pruning. Certain nutrients, like nitrogen, are leachable, meaning they can be washed from the soil in groundwater runoff, while others, like phosphorus, are more immobile. Most vineyards require nutrient additions from time to time, particularly of the macronutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (known collectively as NPK). Producers can assess nutritional deficits through petiole sampling at flowering or veraison, taking soil samples, or observing visual symptoms. Nutrient imbalances like nitrogen and iron deficiency cause characteristic chlorosis, or yellowing of the leaves either along the leaf veins or within the leaf margin. With red grape varieties, imbalances like phosphorous and potassium deficiency may also cause reddening in the leaves due to an accumulation of anthocyanin, the same pigment that gives red grapes their color. These symptoms are easily mistaken for common diseases such as leafroll and fanleaf viruses. Certain nutrients are mobile in the plant, and in the case of deficiency, they will be translocated from older leaves into newer ones, since the plant prioritizes the development of young leaves. Other nutrients are tied up in compounds that cannot move freely within the vine and are considered immobile. This can help with diagnosis of problems: if a nutrient is mobile, older basal leaves will show symptoms first. With immobile deficiencies, symptoms appear in younger leaves first. Fertilization Fertilizers may be applied directly to the soil or through fertigation, where the fertilizer is dissolved in water and applied through the irrigation line. Both mineral (inorganic) and organic fertilizers can be added in this way. Some micronutrients, including boron, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, and iron, are applied through foliar sprays, which are fine mists sprayed onto the canopy. Fertilization may be done at any point during the growing season except near bloom, since fertilization during this time can disrupt berry set. More complex forms of nutrition include compost and the incorporation of cover crops into the soil, referred to as green manure. Compost is spread on top of soil and then incorporated slowly through rainfall or light tillage. Green manure is tilled into the soil and gradually broken down over time. Mineral fertilizers are readily useable by the plant, so their effect is more immediate. Complex fertilizers must be broken down by soil microorganisms, which is a slow and inconsistent process, especially in dry years; they may not be absorbed by the vine for several years. Mineral fertilizers are less expensive than the alternatives but, over the long term, can cause soil acidification. Vineyard Establishment Site Selection Farmers have always sought the sites that produce the best wines. The phrase Bacchus amat colles , meaning “Bacchus loves the hills,” is an enduring observation from early explorations of site selection. While this process is more of an art than a science, some forethought can improve quality and save money. Within a region, certain sites are preferred based on their mesoclimates, the availability of water, and the rarity of adverse conditions like frost. Some sites ripen earlier than others, which may be advantageous in a cool region and less desirable in a warm one. Terrain is also a consideration. While hillside sites may be enticing, they are often more difficult and expensive to farm. Economic factors like the reputation and cost of the land and the proximity to markets, labor, and resources are considered as well. Because of the proliferation of vineyards in the past few decades, wine regions may have laws dictating if and where new vineyard land may be planted. While much of the vineyard land in Europe is already delineated, as viticulture spreads, the suitability of new sites may be evaluated by comparing their soils and climates to those of established regions. Planting Material In some regions, grape variety is dictated by local laws. Otherwise, the climate and intended wine style should guide the choice of varieties. Selection may also be influenced by factors such as personal preference, marketability, or tradition. Rootstock, where used, should be matched to the site conditions and any hazards to be mitigated, such as nematodes and high concentrations of salt or lime. The influence of clone is generally small compared with site, variety, and rootstock. If multiple clones are available, flavor and yield considerations, ripening characteristics, disease resistance, and notoriety may guide the selection. In particular, several clones of Pinot Noir have been popularized for various flavor and ripening characteristics, including Pommard, Wädenswil, 667, 777, and 115. The vast majority of grapevines are grown from grafted vines with plant material obtained from a nursery. Grapevine propagation is labor intensive, and many growers are not equipped for this undertaking. Nurseries strive to provide vines that are virus free, an important assurance for a long-term investment. The downside is that nurseries are often limited in the varieties and clones that they carry. Grapevine Propagation Cuttings of scion and rootstock are joined using an omega punch (Photo credit: Novavine) Except under experimental conditions, wine grapes are almost never propagated from seed. During fertilization, DNA is recombined, so each seed produces an entirely new variety that may not possess the attributes of its parent plant. The seeds of self-pollinating vines are highly inbred and prone to recessive-type diseases; many are nonviable or non-fruiting. While they may share some similarities with their parent, vines grown from seed bear unique genetics, and it can take years to characterize a new vine’s behavior. Instead, vines are propagated vegetatively from dormant cuttings, which are 12- to 18-inch pieces of cane taken from a parent plant. Cuttings are taken from dormant vines during the winter months and stored at low temperature until they are ready for use. Dormant cuttings of rootstock or vinifera varieties can be planted directly in the ground, or they may be grafted prior to planting. Ungrafted vines, typically rootstock selections, are sold as dormant rooted cuttings that have been grown in a nursery for a season, unearthed during dormancy, and kept in cold storage prior to planting. Cuttings may originate from a single parent vine, called a clone, or from massal selection, where cuttings are taken from numerous vines throughout a vineyard that may have undergone small mutations. Producers who prefer clones hope to replicate the characteristics of the parent in their own vineyards. Since clones are genetically identical, they may result in a more even, easy-to-manage vineyard. A producer may instead choose massal selection for the increased genetic diversity, which could confer more disease resistance and, potentially, complexity in the wines. Grafting is essentially the fusing of plant tissues of two different species. In the case of grapevines, grafting is typically used to join a vinifera scion to a non-vinifera rootstock. Occasionally, the variety may be changed in an existing vineyard by grafting onto established vines in the field, known as top grafting. In certain situations, this may be preferable to replanting the vineyard. Layering Layering, also known as provignage , is a traditional method of grapevine propagation. In layering, a shoot from a neighboring vine is laid down into the ground, where it roots and forms a new vine that may be separated from the mother vine. This technique is cheap and easy, but it cannot be used in soils with phylloxera. Several vineyards still utilize provignage when replanting, including Bollinger’s Clos Chaudes Terres and Clos Saint-Jacques, which provide grapes for the brand’s prestige cuvée , Vieilles Vignes Françaises. During grafting, cuts are made in both pieces of wood, allowing the vines to fit together and join like puzzle pieces. Two compatible plants with similar circumferences are connected such that their cambium, the layer of cells between the xylem and phloem responsible for wood’s increase in diameter, is matched up. Once the graft heals, the grafted vine functions as a single plant with characteristics from both the rootstock and scion. Traditionally, a number of different shapes of cuts have been used, such as a v-shaped cleft graft or an omega punch. There are two major types of grafting in viticulture, bench and field grafting. In bench grafting, two dormant cuttings, the rootstock and scion, are joined together at the nursery, usually by machine. The scion cutting is trimmed to a few inches prior to grafting, leaving a single bud. Afterward, the graft is wrapped to provide support and stored in a warm, damp room for several months to “callus,” or heal. The graft union is then waxed, and vines are stored at cold temperature prior to planting in the spring. Grafted vines may be grown for one season in the nursery and sold as dormant bench grafts. Alternatively, the grafted cutting may be planted in a pot just after callusing, grown in a greenhouse, and sold during the same year as a green-growing bench graft, or potted vine. Potted vines are less expensive, and they mature one year earlier than dormant bench grafts. In field grafting, rootstock is planted in the vineyard in the spring and allowed to grow for an entire season. The scion is then grafted on top, either in the fall or following spring. Field grafting uses a technique called chip-budding, where very small pieces of cuttings containing a single bud are inserted into the rootstock. Similar to own-rooted vines, rootstock is sold as a dormant rooted cutting. Of these options, bench grafting is easier and less expensive, and only vines that have been successfully grafted are planted. Field grafting is more expensive overall, yet the costs are spread out over two intervals. It requires skilled labor and can have a greater failure rate, but these vines have a more stable root system at the time of grafting and may have more longevity. The choice of planting material is often inhibited by what is available locally. In the past, winemakers traveled to established growing regions and brought cuttings home with them to be used in vineyard establishment. While this practice allowed for diversification in newer growing regions, it is technically illegal in most countries and has been responsible for the proliferation of grapevine viruses all over the world. In order to import vines legally, a state-approved nursery must verify that the plant stock is pest and virus free, a process that takes several years but avoids undesirable stowaways. Foundation Plant Services (FPS) is the major US nursery used for this purpose. Own-Rooted Vines For most of history, vines were grown on their own roots. As phylloxera spreads throughout the world, ungrafted vines are becoming rare, and even in areas where phylloxera is not present, producers may still use rootstock to provide other benefits or adaptations to the scion. Some have suggested that own-rooted vines make better wines. Grafted vines are clearly changed to some extent by their rootstock, and it is not unreasonable to believe that this impacts fruit composition. Yet these changes could be positive as well as negative, and the overall effect on wine quality probably depends more on other environmental conditions. Land Preparation Prior to planting, land that has been used for vineyards or other agriculture in the past may be allowed to lay fallow (bare) for a couple of years or be planted with cover crops that build soil organic matter and nutrition. Soil assessments reveal a soil’s pH and any nutrient deficiencies, which are easiest to amend before planting. The land is cleared of trees, foliage, and large rocks and roots. Drainage may be improved through ripping or through the installation of subterranean drains to prevent waterlogging in low-lying spots. Earthwork is done in the spring or fall, when soils are damp but not too wet to pass equipment. Lime might be applied to soil to reduce high acidity prior to planting (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Determining a vineyard’s boundaries is one of the first steps of planning. Vineyards are typically divided into several management blocks, and thoughtful placement of the divisions between them simplifies vineyard management. Ideally, blocks are relatively homogenous in terms of variety, rootstock, soil, microclimate, and elevation. Boundaries often respect natural borders formed by topographical features, transitions in soil, and roads. A grower may choose to adapt varieties, rootstock, and vineyard architecture to the block’s natural characteristics. Vineyard Architecture A vineyard’s layout and trellis system design are referred to as its vineyard architecture. Row orientation, or the rows’ planting direction, is a fundamental decision. A north-south orientation allows both sides of the vine an equivalent duration of sunlight throughout the day. The downside is that fruit on the west side of the vine may be overexposed to the afternoon heat. East-west rows allow the canopy to intercept the maximum amount of sunlight all day, but this will result in significant differences between the north and south side of the vine, as the south side has more exposure. Recently, northeast-southwest orientations have become popular in warmer regions, as they maximize light interception while also shading themselves during the hottest part of the day, protecting fruit from sunburn and dehydration. On slopes, rows may either be oriented up and down or across the slope. Rows that follow the slope have better airflow and are generally safer for equipment, provided that rows are not too steep. However, this orientation can result in erosion, and fruit along the row may be uneven due to differences in elevation. On steep slopes, terracing is necessary for rows planted across the slope to allow equipment to work safely. Classic examples of terracing are found in Portugal’s Douro, the Northern Rhône, and Alto Adige. Terraced vineyards are expensive to build and maintain and can be difficult to manage. They also have a tendency to create heterogeneous soils due to the large amount of earth that must be moved to create the terraces. Vineyard spacing refers to the distance between rows as well as the distance between vines. The combination of these is called vine density, which typically ranges from 500 to 6,000 vines per acre, while the space between vines and rows typically ranges from about 4 feet to 12 feet. European vineyards tend to use higher density, with 4,000 vines per acre (10,000 vines per hectare) being common. Much of the New World uses planting densities of 1,500 vines per acre or less. Narrow row spacing is more efficient in terms of land use but may require specialized tractors and farming equipment. High-density planting is used to limit vine vigor through competition and to maximize yields, and it is believed by some to produce higher-quality fruit. Vigorous vines, however, are better suited to wider spacing. Low-density planting may also be more appropriate for vineyards with inadequate water supply or for dry-farming, as observed in many Spanish wine regions. It can significantly reduce farming costs since less infrastructure is required and there are fewer vines to tend to per area. Efficient vineyards do not leave empty space along a vineyard row, so if wider vine spacing is used, the size of the vine is generally adjusted to fill all of the available room. Trends in vineyard architecture are subject to the prevailing wisdom of the time. Producers often look to classic regions that they admire or to their neighbors to inform their choices. However, what works on one site, or in one region, may not be the most appropriate layout for all sites. Useful Conversions Yields Typical yield = 2–10 tons (US) per acre 1 ton fruit ≈ 120–160 gallons of wine ≈ 50–70 cases 10,000 kilograms fruit ≈ 50–65 hectoliters of wine 1 acre produces ≈ 100­­­–700 cases Vine Density 1,000 vines per acre ≈ 2,500 vines per hectare To calculate vines density from vine and row spacing, use this table . Standard to Metric Conversions 1 hectare ≈ 2.5 acres 1 ton per acre ≈ 11–15 hectoliters per hectare of wine Planting Planting occurs over one or two years, and once vines are in the ground, the vine requires at least two or three years to become established before any fruit is harvested. During the first year after planting, the focus is on growing healthy roots. In the next couple of years, it shifts to development of the vines’ permanent structure through vine training. Vines are planted by hand or machine. While hand-planting is traditional, it is labor intensive. Machine planting is significantly less expensive and can have very good results; it shows a lot of promise as an opportunity for mechanization. Planting typically occurs in the spring, though vines may be planted anytime during the growing season, taking care to avoid frost before the vine has become established. Young vines require more attention than those that are established. J-rooting, a common cause of young vine decline, occurs when vines are placed in holes with their roots bent upward. Young vines are also prone to certain fungal diseases that can result in vineyard failure if infected plant material is used. While the notion of starving vines of water to encourage deep root growth has been popularized, young vines’ root systems are not well developed, and they may require frequent irrigation. Water stress will stunt growth and ultimately shorten the life of the vine. Even in regions where irrigation is not permitted, exceptions are typically made for vineyards less than three years old. Growers remove weeds that can outcompete or girdle young vines and often place growing tubes around the vines to protect them from weeds and animals. During the first two to three years, any fruit that forms is typically removed to allow the vine to put maximum energy into vegetative growth. Failing to do this can weaken vines and shorten the vineyard’s lifespan. Vine Training A vine’s training system is the shape and position of its permanent structures, including the trunk, cordons, canes, and spurs, and is best observed after winter pruning. The training system is ultimately determined by the cuts made during pruning in the first few years, which have a long-term impact on the vine’s shape. The three most common vine-training systems are cordon-trained and spur-pruned; head-trained and cane-pruned; and head-trained and spur-pruned. Considerations for choosing the most appropriate system include grape variety, environmental conditions, and yield goals. Very often, tradition, which may be codified in law or local trends, will also play a role. Cordon-Trained & Spur-Pruned Cordon-trained, spur-pruned vines, commonly referred to simply as cordon-trained vines, can have up to four cordons attached to the trunk, described as unilateral, bilateral, or quadrilateral. Along each cordon are permanent spur positions located every few inches. As the grapevine ages, permanent wood accumulates at the base of each spur and develops into arms. Shoots grow from the spurs during the season, and during pruning they are trimmed back into spurs, so that each year, the vine looks nearly identical. Credit: Laura Perrone There are a number of advantages to this system, which has been widely adopted, especially in warmer regions. After establishment, cordon-trained vines are the easiest, fastest, and cheapest to prune. Shoot development along the cordon is generally very even, with a clear fruit zone. This system is also suitable for mechanization. Because these vines have more permanent wood than other systems, they store more water and nutrients and may better tolerate adverse environmental conditions. Kicker Canes Kicker canes are sacrificial canes that are left on spur-pruned vines during pruning. They can be used to devigorate the vine or to avoid frost risk to the shoots at spur positions. These shoots will go through budbreak first because of apical dominance, delaying budbreak in the remaining spurs, and eventually be removed. However, cordon-training is not always the best option. An extra year may be required before fruit is harvested to establish the cordon and spur positions. Cordon-trained vines store more reserves through the winter since they have more permanent wood, resulting in more vigor and a need for wider spacing. Spur-pruning is not appropriate for varieties that have low fertility in buds close to the cordon, such as Nebbiolo and Carmenère, since spur-pruning can reduce their yields. It is also risky on frost-prone sites. In these conditions, all buds tend to push at the same time, opening up the vine to greater loss. To minimize this risk, some growers pre-prune the vines or leave kicker canes, strategies that help minimize frost risk. Head-Trained & Cane-Pruned Head-trained, cane-pruned vines typically have one or two canes (though as many as four are possible) attached to the head (top) of the trunk. Guyot is a well-known variation of cane-pruning that includes one spur for each fruiting cane attached directly to the head, called replacement or renewal spurs. During the growing season, shoots form on each bud along the cane and renewal spurs. The grower selects and lays down a new fruiting cane, called the baguette in French, during pruning each year, removing the cane from the previous season. Renewal spurs ensure that there is always a good supply of canes near the head of the vine that may be retained for the coming year. Credit: Laura Perrone The main advantage of cane-pruned vines is that they have less permanent wood and fewer reserves, so they are less vigorous and better suited to high-density plantings. Despite their lower vigor, they are often more productive than spur-pruned vines (when grown under equivalent conditions) and may require more fruit thinning to ensure adequate ripening. Cane-pruned vines have fewer pruning cuts than spur-pruned vines; as a result, they may be less prone to fungal diseases that enter the vine through pruning wounds. Many believe that cane-pruning is inherently better for wine quality. It is used in many of Europe’s most esteemed wine regions, so it has been adopted by many producers. Yet there are some important disadvantages of this system. Cane-pruned vines require skilled labor for pruning, which increases farming costs, and they are not suitable for mechanization. They are more susceptible to winter freeze, because buds are located further from permanent wood, leaving them more vulnerable to damage. Due to apical dominance, budbreak and development are uneven along the cane, with uppermost buds and those located at the vine’s extremities favored. Head-Trained & Spur-Pruned Taille Chablis used on Chardonnay in Champagne (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Head-trained, spur-pruned vines—also called bush, gobelet, or head-trained vines—have many spur positions attached to arms that form from the head of the vine. During the growing season, shoots will form at each spur position, and at pruning, the spur positions will be restored. Head-trained vines are typically found in warm, sunny growing regions with limited water availability. Much of Spain and Southern France, and vineyards with older plantings in California, utilize this training system. Head-training systems are also common with large-bunched varieties that are prone to rot, like Zinfandel and Petite Sirah, since the lack of wires and stakes prevents the clusters from becoming tangled in the trellis and damaged as the fruit develops. Head-trained vines are the least expensive to establish and manage, since no trellis system is required, and as a result, canopy work is minimal. The initial training and pruning of head-trained vines requires skilled labor, though pruning becomes easier over time. However, head-trained vines are the least productive and not suitable for mechanization. Because all of the fruiting shoots are attached to the vine near the head, this system is prone to crowding. Head-trained vines share the same concerns of frost risk, trunk disease, and low-bud fertility as cordon-trained and spur-pruned vines. Vine Head Height The height of the vine, as indicated by the head of the vine, determines the height of the fruit zone. It can range from as little as six inches to nine feet in the case of pergola-trained vines. Vine height may be dictated by the training or trellising system, or if mechanization will be used, there may be particular specifications depending on equipment. Higher-density plantings require vines to be shorter; a general rule of thumb is that the height of the canopy should not exceed the row width, or vines will shade those in the row next to them, reducing sun interception and light in the fruit zone. Vines that are closer to the ground may receive additional warming from heat reflected or radiated from the vineyard floor, which may be beneficial in cool climates and less desirable in warmer ones. Shorter vines have increased frost risk, since cold air sinks. Extreme heights, whether short or tall, are uncomfortable for vineyard workers and may increase farming expenses. While a number of other training systems exist, most are a variation of these basic structures, which can be adapted by leaving additional cordons, canes, or spur positions. The novel Sylvoz training system, used on high-yielding varieties and sites, is cordon-trained and cane-pruned. This results in a large number of fruiting shoots during the growing season and is an example of adapting the training system to the site and yield requirements. Champagne employs a number of unique training systems, including Taille Chablis and Vallée de la Marne, that are high-yielding and reduce the risk of frost damage. Trellis Systems The organization of the vine’s canopy begins with the choice of the trellis system, or the structure of posts and wires that support the canopy. A vine’s trellis accommodates its natural impulse to grow vertically and provides support for the shoots and fruit, since the vine is not able to support itself. It helps spread the shoots out more evenly, which improves airflow and light penetration in the canopy, reducing disease pressure and increasing the photosynthetic capacity of the vine. From a practical standpoint, the trellis system facilitates vineyard operations. It keeps shoots out of the vineyard row, allowing tractors and other equipment to pass. Because the shoots are organized in a predictable pattern, canopy management work is easier. The shape of the vine training system often guides the options for trellising. The trellis typically considers the natural growth patterns of the vine. Shoots can be trained upward or downward, or they may be partially supported by a wire and then allowed to drape down. Vitis vinifera likes to grow vertically and will be devigorated if it is trained downward, whereas hybrid grapes often prefer downward growth. Large vines require more space and a more extensive trellis system, such as a divided canopy system, which has multiple fruit zones and allows the vine to spread out. Climate, soil, variety, and rootstock must all be considered when choosing a trellis system, which will influence the vine’s microclimate. Cooler climates require more efficient sunlight interception, while sunny climates demand protection. Humidity and airflow are also important considerations. Finally, there are practical factors like cost, ease of use, and compatibility for mechanization. Simpler systems with fewer wires are usually less expensive and less labor intensive. Mechanization works best on cordon-trained, spur-pruned vines with a single “wall” of shoots. While a number of trellis system designs exist, it is more important to understand the concepts behind them than each individual design. While some of these trellis systems are traditional, others were designed more recently to optimize microclimatic conditions. Variations of each of these are common around the world, and many similar systems go by different names. Untrellised Vines Head-trained vines are typically not trellised. In sunny climates, shoots may be left to drape onto the floor, while in cooler climates, shoots may be tied to a central post for support and to allow more sunlight in the canopy and fruit zone. Untrellised vines require very little canopy management, since minimal work is required to arrange shoots. Because shoots sit on the vineyard floor, some vineyard operations, like running equipment through the rows, are more challenging. This arrangement can result in dense canopies with excessive shading and increased disease pressure, which is exacerbated by the difficulty of getting adequate spray coverage. Untrellised vines are not suitable for mechanized harvesting. An old, head-trained vineyard with untrellised vines (left) and a head-trained vine with canes tied together prior to winter pruning (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Non-Divided Canopy Systems A bilateral cordon-trained vine with VSP trellising (Photo credit: Avery Heelan) Cordon and cane-pruned vines have many options for trellis systems. These are broadly categorized as divided or non-divided systems, and in each case, shoots may be trained upright, or they may be allowed to hang down toward the ground. On low-vigor sites, cordon and cane vines are often trained to one or two horizontal canes or cordons, referred to as a non-divided system, since there is a single fruit zone. Several trellis systems are commonly used for non-divided canopies. In vertical shoot positioning (VSP), the shoots are trained vertically and compressed into a single wall between several wires of support. VSP is ideal for high-density plantings. It respects the tendency of vinifera grapes to grow vertically and results in good light interception. VSP works well for lower-vigor vines, as shoots may be positioned for good airflow and coverage with anti-fungal sprays. For vines with higher vigor, the canopy may become too dense and humid, restricting airflow and harboring disease. Warmer climates that risk overexposure may require more protection in the fruiting zone. VSP is suitable for mechanization; however, this system requires additional labor to tuck shoots into the trellis. It is moderately expensive to install and operate. Where more protection from sunlight is desired—for example, on warmer sites that are prone to sunburn—a slightly wider variation of VSP may be used, with spreader bars that open the canopy slightly. This is also good for more vigorous vines, since it allows for better airflow and sunlight penetration into the canopy and reduces crowding in the fruit zone. California Sprawl is an example of a two-wire system. In this layout, the shoots are flopped over a single higher wire that provides support and shade to the fruit zone. Two-wire systems are less expensive to install and require less canopy work than VSP. This system is compatible with vigorous canopies but may restrict airflow such that the underside of the canopy becomes humid and prone to disease. A cordon-trained vine with high wire trellising (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) In high-wire systems, such as high bilateral cordon, the cordon or cane is trained along a support wire, while the fruiting shoots sprawl unsupported in all directions. It is a good low-cost option since it is well suited to mechanization and requires little canopy management, and with basic infrastructure, it is inexpensive to install. Because the fruit is located near the top of the vine, it gets good light exposure, but this system might not offer suitable protection in very warm climates. High wire systems require a tall head height, so these vines can be difficult to prune and harvest by hand. Divided Canopy Systems On high-vigor sites, a divided canopy may be utilized to provide more space for the vine and avoid overcrowding. Divided canopy systems are typically quadrilateral cane or cordon-trained. The canopy may be divided horizontally, with two parallel fruit zones located three to four feet apart at identical heights, or vertically, with an upper and lower fruit zone. Many of these have an analogous non-divided canopy system. Uneven ripening is a risk of divided canopies since there are multiple fruit zones. Some producers will even harvest the different zones on different dates. There are horizontally divided equivalents of each of the systems mentioned above. Lyre is similar to VSP, Wye is similar to California Sprawl, and Geneva Double Curtain is similar to the high-wire system. In each case, the canopy is mirror-imaged across the vine row. Scott Henry and Smart-Dyson are unique vertically divided systems used primarily in New World wine regions including parts of New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Chile, and the United States, as well as Spain and Portugal. Scott Henry is a quadrilateral cane-pruned system, with two canes trellised vertically and two trellised downward. This system is used for high-vigor situations where tighter row spacing is desired. While efficient, the fruit from the upper and lower fruiting zones will ripen at different times (fruit on the upper cane ripens first, another example of apical dominance). Smart-Dyson is a similar system used for high-vigor bilateral cordon vines, where shoots are trained both up and down. It is very suitable for mechanization, and the fruit on these vines ripens more evenly than with Scott Henry. Overly vigorous VSP vines can easily be retrofitted to this system. A quadrilateral cordon-trained vineyard with a Lyre trellis system (Photo credit: GuildSomm) Other novel trellis systems are possible. Pergola, also called tendone in Italy and latada in Spain, is a classic system used on high-vigor, high-production vines in Southern Europe. Pergola systems allow workers to pass below the vines. These systems make efficient use of vineyard space, allowing maximum light interception by the canopy while also providing adequate protection in the fruiting zone. In humid areas like Rías Baixas, pergola trellising promotes airflow and reduces fungal disease pressure. Whereas the canopy of other trellis systems can be thought of as perpendicular to the ground, in pergola systems, the canopy is parallel. The high height of the fruit zone makes pruning and harvesting challenging, and this layout doesn’t easily accommodate driving equipment through the vineyard. Te Kauwhata two-tier, a vertically divided training and trellising system used in New Zealand (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) A Year in the Vineyard Phenology is a term that describes a vine’s reoccurring patterns of growth and development throughout the year. Major milestones include budbreak, flowering and fruit set, veraison, harvest, and leaf fall. Except in tropical environments, grapevines fruit once per year. They spend the entire growing season establishing a canopy and ripening their fruit, and during dormancy, they survive off of carbohydrate reserves stored in the trunk and roots during the growing season. Credit: Laura Perrone In the Northern Hemisphere, the growing season begins with budbreak (or budburst) in March or April and ends with harvest sometime between August and November. (In the Southern Hemisphere, budbreak occurs in September or October, with harvest between February and May.) While the dates of budburst, flowering, and veraison are reasonably consistent for most varieties, with differences of about two weeks at most, a much larger span of harvest dates is observed between varieties. Start of the Growing Season Coulure on a wild rootstock vine (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) When the temperature begins to warm to about 50 degrees Fahrenheit, the vine begins transporting sap containing nutrients and energy stores from the roots to the buds to initiate shoot growth. This may be observed as weeping, where sap is pushed through open pruning wounds. Excessively wet conditions at this time might prevent soils from warming, stifle root growth, and delay the start of the season. At budbreak, the dormant buds begin to “push,” and the compressed shoots stored inside begin growing. The first leaves appear, and as the shoot elongates, new leaves emerge from the shoot tip. The growth is slow at first, fueled by energy stored in the roots and trunk. Budbreak occurs according to apical dominance, where buds that are located further from the ground push first. After a few weeks of slow growth, the vines enter a period known as rapid shoot growth or the “grand period of growth.” During this time, shoots may increase in length by inches per day. By flowering, the shoots are typically about half of their full size. Flowering & Fruit Set Grape flowers do not resemble the common notion of a flower with petals radiating from the pistil (female flower part). Rather, grape flower petals form a cap around each flower that falls off during flowering to reveal the stamens (male flower parts). Pollen from the stamens falls onto the pistil during fertilization, and each fertilized flower turns into a grape berry. The weather during flowering is critical, as low temperatures interfere with fertilization, ultimately reducing the number of berries as well as the overall yield. Bloom typically begins six to eight weeks after budbreak and continues over a span of one to three weeks. Shortly after flowering, during fruit set, fertilized flowers turn into berries and the yields for the season become more apparent. Under favorable conditions, roughly a third of flowers develop successfully into berries. Flowers that are not fertilized fall off. The rapid growth phase pauses during flowering and resumes after fruit set. After set, the vine begins devoting more energy to fruit development. The berries are hard and green at first and rapidly increase in size as cells within the berries divide. Starting at set, reactions begin taking place inside the berries that will ultimately determine berry composition, and the environmental conditions around the cluster more significantly influence fruit composition. Acid, tannin, and some flavor precursors begin accumulating, and the timing of canopy management operations becomes more critical. Coulure & Millerandage Two terms are used to describe irregular outcomes at fruit set. Coulure, or shatter, occurs when a large percentage of berries are not fertilized successfully, and few berries form. While cold weather at flowering is often to blame, certain grape varieties, such as Merlot and Grenache, are prone to coulure. Millerandage, also known as hens and chicks, describes a condition where berries contain a different number of seeds, resulting in different berry sizes. It is often the result of a nutrient deficiency or disease. The Wente and Gingin clones of Chardonnay are known for their tendency for millerandage. While both of these conditions are detrimental to yields, they do not necessarily reduce quality. Veraison Veraison is one of the most recognizable and photogenic phases of grape development, where grapes change color from green to red—or, in the case of white grapes, from bright lime green to a pale, translucent green. This occurs about four to six weeks after flowering and marks many important changes in the vine. Prior to veraison, the vine invests its energy into growth and development. By veraison, the shoots are typically full height, and the vine’s energy is focused on fruit ripening. Color, flavor, and sugar begin accumulating in the fruit. Acidity and astringency decrease, and the fruit begins to soften. Berries continue increasing in size for several weeks after veraison, but cell enlargement, rather than cell division, is responsible for this increase. Veraison (Photo credit: Robert Black) Harvest & Post-Harvest Depending on the desired level of ripeness, harvest ranges from 4 to 12 weeks after veraison for dry wine styles. Harvest for sweet wine styles may occur much later in the fall. Different varieties ripen at different rates, and ultimately, the winemaker decides when the fruit is ready to be harvested. Ripeness should be thought of as a spectrum, rather than a discrete point, and harvest timing within this ripening window has serious implications on wine style and expression of site. After the fruit has been harvested, the canopy changes colors from green to yellow as leaves senesce. The vine redistributes energy from the canopy into the trunk and roots. During this time, the vine must store enough energy to provide for early development in the following year, from budbreak until leaves are big enough for photosynthesis. After nutrients have been translocated from leaves and shoots into the permanent features of the vine, the end of the season is marked by leaf fall, when spent leaves fall and the vine enters dormancy. Vineyard Operations Pruning One of the most important annual operations in the vineyard is pruning, where last year’s vegetative growth is removed to make way for new growth during the coming season. During pruning, viticulturists determine the number and position of buds that will turn into shoots. Through the process, they set potential yields, guide the permanent shape and balance of the vine, and foster organization to facilitate other operations. Pruning is not only one of the most technical vineyard operations, since the decisions made affect the vineyard’s long-term trajectory, but also among the most expensive and labor intensive. Its goal is to slowly work toward vine balance. Pruning diminishes the overall capacity of the vine by leaving fewer shoots and leaves to support fruit ripening. It concentrates the vine’s energy into the buds that remain, so that the shoots they produce are longer, stronger, and more fruitful. If a vine is pruned with balance in mind, yields will stabilize over time, since the vine is neither overtaxed nor overshaded, both of which decrease yields. There are a few conventional wisdoms used during pruning: The most fruitful buds are those on one-year-old wood (from last year’s fruiting shoots). Thicker canes should be pruned to longer spurs with more buds since they have more capacity than smaller canes. If there was excessive vegetative growth in the previous year (for example, if shoots grew too long), more buds should be left this year to balance the shoot growth. Pruning occurs during winter dormancy and before budbreak. In the Northern Hemisphere, this is typically between December and March. Vines that are pruned earlier in this window may be more prone to fungal trunk diseases and winter freeze. Pruning should never be done in the rain, and it is ideal to wait several days after the last rain to minimize the risk of fungal disease. Late pruning can be used to delay budbreak slightly in order to avoid the risk of spring frost, but if it occurs after budbreak, it can ultimately weaken vines. Ideally, pruning should occur as late as possible, while still being finished in time for the start of the season, but timing is often dictated by the availability of labor. Spur Pruning A spur with two buds will grow into two shoots during the season. At pruning, one of these shoots is removed entirely, while the other is trimmed back to a spur. The only decision the pruner must make is which cane to use for the spur. For spurs on cordons, the lower cane is typically favored to keep spur positions from reaching too high. It is also best for the spur to be vertical, which may override this preference for the lower cane. During pruning, one cane is removed entirely from each spur position, and the other is trimmed into a spur. Credit: Laura Perrone Spur-pruned vines may be pre-pruned, where the top portion of the cane is cut and removed from the vineyard prior to making the final pruning cuts. This is a method used to divide labor, allowing the second pruning pass to occur as late as possible. The first pass is more labor intensive, since the brush must be removed from the trellis, whereas the second pass is more thoughtful, since these are the pruning cuts that matter. Head-trained vines require a longer-term vision, considering where the shoots will grow the following year. Typically, spurs that are oriented away from the head of the vine are most desirable. During establishment, spur positions will occasionally be pruned into “rabbit ears,” where both canes at a spur position are pruned into spurs for the following year, to leave more buds and increase the capacity of the vine. Cane Pruning In cane pruning, buds that grow into fruiting shoots come from a single cane instead of many spurs. Pruning cane-pruned vines is more complex. Guyot is a specific type of cane pruning, where the producer selects one cane that will be retained and used as the fruiting cane the following year, and one cane that will be trimmed into a renewal spur. The renewal spur may be the next year’s fruiting cane, so its placement is critical. Renewal spurs should be located close to the head of the vine, and the spur should be oriented such that it is not growing into the row. During pruning, at least one fruiting cane is retained and laid down. A renewal spur is optional. Credit: Laura Perrone Selecting a suitable cane is also important. An ideal cane is moderate in diameter, with normally spaced internodes, and is well positioned so that it may be bent and tied to the support wire along the vineyard row. Canes are generally pruned to between 8 and 16 nodes. The number of buds retained depends on the growth observed in the previous season along with yield goals for the season ahead. After a suitable cane is selected, the rest of last year’s growth is removed. In cane pruning, the cane must be tied to a trellis wire for support. This is generally done as a second pass that happens once pruning is finished. For varieties where buds in the middle of the canes may struggle to push, the cane may be tied into an arch to encourage more even growth. This training technique, sometimes called “cane cracking,” is often used for Riesling in Germany and Nebbiolo in Piedmont. Guyot-Poussard Pruning The pruning principles described here are widely used throughout viticulture. However, an alternative school of thought is rapidly gaining traction, especially in growing regions with more resources. Guyot-Poussard pruning is based on concepts originally described by Eugène Poussard and Charles Guyot in the 1860s. The idea behind this method is that traditional pruning leaves “scar tissue” in the vine that ultimately diminishes its ability to transport water and nutrients, and encourages Esca and other fungal diseases. This alternative system is more conscious of where these wounds occur and seeks to make pruning cuts that respect the vine’s sap flow. Large cuts and cuts near the head of the vine are avoided. These practices are believed to extend the longevity, productivity, and health of the vineyard. The downside is that this type of pruning is extremely technical and has a steep learning curve. Pruning consultants Simonit & Sirch have popularized their own version of Poussard pruning and travel throughout the world teaching these complex techniques. Mechanical Pruning Pruning for cordon-trained, spur-pruned vines may be done mechanically, using a method similar to hedging. Common mechanical pruners cut everything off of the vine above a certain height, or make cuts around four sides of the cordon, called box-pruning. Mechanical pruning leaves long spurs and results in haphazard canopies. While effective, mechanical pruning cannot replicate the quality of pruning by hand, which benefits from human intuition and thoughtful decision-making. Mechanical pruning is unlikely to gain widespread acceptance any time soon, but it is more widely used for pre-pruning. Minimal pruning, where vines are pruned minimally or not at all, is used occasionally in grape production, more often for raisins. While this is not a technique that will be adopted by many wine producers, it does provide an interesting illustration of how the vine regulates itself over time. Minimally pruned vines have many short shoots, and while clusters are irregular in size and position, they tend to orient themselves on the outside of the canopy. These vines develop an extensive system of permanent wood and do not resemble the organized, homogenous, well-position vines of many vineyards. Canopy Management While a region’s macro- and mesoclimates shape vine growth and development, the vine’s microclimate is largely determined by its canopy. The main function of the canopy is to provide energy to the vine through photosynthesis. A vine’s photosynthetic capacity increases with the amount of sun-exposed leaves. Additionally, the canopy hydrates and cools the microclimate through transpiration and evaporative cooling. Dense canopies are more prone to fungal disease, as they are more humid but also have less airflow, and they make it more difficult to get coverage from sprays that protect the vine from mildew and botrytis. Canopy management includes a series of vineyard tasks designed to fine-tune the microclimate and organize the vine. It is one of the most effective ways for a producer to improve wine quality, especially in vigorous or disease-prone vineyards. The importance of sunlight in the canopy and fruit zone were more fully realized in the last 40 years, and since then, more extensive research has informed the practices used today. Shoot thinning (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Appropriate canopy management practices depend on the conditions of the growing environment as well as vine vigor. Warm, sunny climates often demand more protection from sunburn and dehydration, while cool, wet climates require maximizing sun exposure and reducing disease pressure. More work is needed to keep vigorous vines healthy and their quality high. Labor availability is also an important consideration, as many of these operations occur during the spring and early summer, often the busiest part of the growing season. Fruit cost will help dictate the extent of canopy management that is reasonable. During shoot thinning, unwanted shoots are removed to reduce crowding and competition. Good candidates for removal include multiple shoots growing from a single bud, suckers, laterals, and shoots that are growing in inconvenient spaces, such as into the vineyard row. Vigorous vines will push more suckers and laterals and require more shoot thinning. Timing is important. It’s easiest to remove shoots before they are six to eight inches long, but removing unwanted shoots too early encourages more to grow in their place. A viticulturist may prefer to let the shoots grow longer to diffuse energy. If vigor is limited, thinning should be done sooner to allow the vine to focus its energy on remaining shoots. The process often begins prior to bloom and may be repeated as necessary. Through shoot positioning, a viticulturist orients the shoots in the canopy in an organized and even way. Where a trellis system is used, positioning also involves tucking shoots into support wires that help hold the shoots in place. Shoot positioning creates an even environment, with a balance of light exposure and protection, and makes all subsequent vineyard work easier. It’s done after bloom, once the shoots are long enough but while they are still sufficiently flexible to bend without breaking and are not too tangled. Leafing, or removing leaves from dense canopies, improves airflow and sunlight penetration throughout the canopy and fruiting zone, which reduces disease pressure. Often, leaves are removed from the morning side of the canopy in the fruiting zone but retained on the afternoon sun side. Internal leaves may be removed from higher up in the canopy to increase airflow and light while leaving fruit protected. Leafing can be done any time after fruit set, but earlier is better. Exposing shaded berries to sun later in the season makes them more vulnerable to sunburn, since they aren’t well adapted. The maximum benefits of sunlight in terms of flavor development occur prior to veraison. A vine before and after leafing (Photo credit: Sarah Ferguson) Suckering and leafing can be mechanized. While this might slightly damage the remaining shoots, it allows for timely action, which may ultimately be more important in terms of fruit quality. Hedging is trimming shoots and leaves that fall outside of the plane of the canopy. It creates a tailored, shrub-like appearance. Hedging keeps the rows clear and prevents damage from vineyard equipment. Topping is a specific form of hedging where shoots are cut at the top to keep them from growing taller, as they will continue to grow as long as they have enough water, since they lack a terminal bud. Topping is done after shoots have reached their maximum height, if the growing tip is still green and active. Along with pruning, cluster thinning is an opportunity for the viticulturist to manage yields directly. Clusters may be removed to achieve targeted yields and prevent overcropping. Young vines are often prone to setting too much fruit for their small stature, and there are varieties, including Chenin Blanc, Carignan, Grenache, and Valdigué, that are more ambitious in terms of yields. As vines move toward balance, they require less crop adjustment. Cluster thinning may be done at any time throughout the growing season but generally occurs between fruit set and veraison, once yields can be estimated. A common technique is to leave two clusters on healthy shoots, one cluster on shoots that are half-height, and no fruit on short shoots. On low-vigor and cooler sites, it might be more prudent to leave only one cluster per shoot. A second round of cluster thinning known as green drop, or green harvest, may be done at the end of veraison, where clusters with delayed maturity are removed to promote homogenous ripening. To hasten development and not overtax the vine, however, earlier crop removal is better. In many vineyards, the economics of dropping fruit do not make sense, as the grower is literally leaving money on the ground. While lower yields do not necessarily result in higher quality, the grower may be incentivized to retain more fruit than is ideal. For this reason, some producers have moved toward acreage contracts, where a buyer pays for fruit by the acre instead of by the ton. Ultimately, many wineries seek to own vineyards in order to tailor viticultural practices to the needs of their wine program. Yields While excessive yields are detrimental to fruit quality, severely limiting crops is not economical and can reduce quality. Throughout the world, high-quality wines are made from grapes cropped at anywhere from less than one up to eight tons per acre. As a general rule of thumb, reducing the amount of fruit increases the rate of ripening. In marginal climates, limiting yields may be necessary. In climates with adequate warmth and resources, significant crop reduction may lead to uneven ripening, with sugar accumulation and acid loss outpacing flavor development and tannin ripening. At certain times in history, vines have been systematically overcropped to increase yields and profits, but this ultimately produced lower-quality wines. As a reaction to this, many now believe that a vine has a limited capacity to produce flavors and that lowering yields increases flavor concentration. While reducing yields speeds up sugar accumulation, it is not generally true that the flavors of higher yielding vines are more dilute (within a reasonable range). Vines with more fruit actually adjust their metabolism to produce more flavor compounds. Appropriate yields depend on both the vine and its environment. In warm climates, higher yields make more sense, since the increased rate of ripening can support more fruit. Larger vines on rich soils can also support higher yields than smaller vines on weak soils, and higher-density plantings will produce higher yields per acre (but lower yields per vine) since the acreage is used more efficiently. Certain wine styles fare better than others with larger yields. With white and sparkling wine, for example, acid retention may be more important than concentration. Vineyard Floor Management For part of the year, native grass and broadleaf species, weeds, and cover crops grow on the vineyard floor. These plants will impact the amount of water and nutrients available to the vine and, as a result, managing the vineyard floor is an important aspect of managing the vine. The conditions on the vineyard floor also influence the microclimate. Bare soil is warmer than soil covered in plants. Covered soils are cooler during the day but may take longer to cool off during the night, since airflow is impeded. These soils are also more prone to frost damage on emerging shoots, as pockets of cold air can become trapped in tall cover crops. Cover crops are intentionally seeded during the fall. Legumes like peas and clovers and a range of grasses are common in viticulture. Legumes add nitrogen to the soil but have low water requirements. Some grasses have high water requirements and can be used to devigorate vines through competition. Brassicas may help control nematode populations. Cover crops and other plants limit erosion during the winter months, reduce compaction, and soak up excess soil moisture in the spring. During the growing season, plants compete with vines for water and nutrients. Later in the season, they may wither and die, or they may continue to grow if there is sufficient water. Crimson clover is an attractive, nitrogen-rich cover crop (Photo credit: Robert Black) The primary goals of vineyard floor management include optimizing the amount of water and nutrients that are available to the vine, limiting erosion, building soil organic matter, and influencing microclimate. Good cover crop selection coupled with appropriate vineyard floor management strategy will also keep invasive weed species from inundating the vineyard. On the practical side, clearing the vineyard floor allows workers and equipment to pass easily and safely through the vineyard rows, and keeps weeds from becoming entangled in the vines. During the growing season, a number of practices are used to manage plants on the vineyard floor. From a practical standpoint, the work is divided into two zones that are managed using different machinery. While the alleyway between rows is easy to access with tractors and plows, the area under the vine row requires more specialized equipment. Mowing is generally the first step of control against weeds and cover crops. Just after budbreak, rows may be mowed to increase airflow and reduce frost risk. Mowing early in the season encourages regrowth and can be used to soak up excess moisture. In dry climates, mowing later in the season will typically kill the groundcover. Tillage, or cultivation, is the turning over of the top 6 to 10 inches of soil. Tillage can be used to add fertility to the soil through green manure and reduces competition between the vine and groundcover for water and nutrients. It also reduces rodent populations, which can cause significant damage on no-till soils. Tillage is not typically practiced on hills, as it encourages erosion. Some producers vehemently oppose tillage since it destroys soil structure, can hinder water’s absorption into the soil, encourages erosion, and disrupts soil microbial communities. As soil is turned, carbon is brought to the surface and off-gases as carbon dioxide, which some believe contributes to global warming. Lightly tilled soil after harvest (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Mulching, also called green mulching, refers to mowing or crimping cover crops and grasses so that they make a carpet over the vineyard that discourages weeds from growing. Crimping uses a heavy implement to flatten plants to the ground, making “crimps” every few feet that damage the plants. Mulching helps conserve soil moisture and also reduces the soil temperature, which some believe is beneficial for soil bacteria. When compared with bare soil, it cools the microclimate, since the ground stays at a lower temperature and does not reflect much sunlight back into the vine. Under the vine row, herbicides are the cheapest and easiest method for weed removal, but many are critical of their use in farming. While organic herbicides exist, they are not particularly effective. Producers are increasingly moving away from the use of herbicides in favor of mechanical cultivation, which involves using a French plow or other implement that scrapes the top of the soil to remove weeds and other plants. Others plant a low-growing perennial cover crop like clover that will outcompete the weeds. Most of these practices occur in the spring and early summer, once the soil is dry enough for equipment to enter the vineyard without becoming stuck. Timing depends on water and nutrient availability and how much competition is desired, as well as labor, since this is a busy season in the vineyard. In dry climates, competition for water should be limited, so cover crops may be mowed, crimped, or tilled early in the season. In wet climates, cover crops can be used to remove excess moisture from the soil and may be allowed to grow year round. Beyond these factors, there are different schools of thought in terms of management techniques. On one end of the spectrum, some farmers will cultivate the soil each year in the spring, once soils are suitably dry, to integrate cover crops and weeds and remove sources of competition and habitat that might harbor pests and rodents. Weeds underneath the row may be cultivated using an implement like a French plow or desiccated using an herbicide like glyphosate. These techniques can reduce irrigation requirements and are popular with those who dry-farm. Others see the plants that grow on the vineyard floor as a vital part of the vine’s ecosystem and put a great deal of thought into what is growing there, when it is growing, and how to manage it. They view cover crops less as competition and more as an opportunity for building soil fertility and organic matter. Nitrogen-fixing cover crops may be selected to add nitrogen to the soil. Where competition needs to be limited, cover crops with low water requirements or those that go to seed early in the season may be planted. These producers typically prefer practices that maintain soil structure, using, for example, mowing and crimping rather than tillage. Water Management Water management is another lever for influencing grape quality. Ideally, the vine has enough water to keep it functioning healthily, but not so much as to induce additional vegetative growth. In many climates, the soil has plenty of water early in the spring, though excess moisture in the ground at this time can cause waterlogging, which inhibits root growth. Springtime rains, if paired with ample sunshine, can produce vigorous vegetative growth early in the season, but by mid-summer, water may be in short supply. Throughout the growing season, precipitation or irrigation is generally necessary for vineyard health. Irrigation is expensive and labor intensive, and most producers prefer to avoid it, if possible. Unfortunately, not all wine regions and sites are suitable for dry-farming. Historically, vineyard sites with adequate water reserves were selected, but as the climate changes, dry-farming is becoming increasingly difficult even in some traditional growing regions. The upside is that where water is limited, it can be controlled, which can be beneficial since excess water is often the culprit for low wine quality. An aerial NDVI map is used to identify areas of water stress throughout the vineyard (Credit: Jennifer Angelosante) In areas where irrigation is not used, water management occurs passively through site selection, decisions made during site preparation, and vineyard floor management. The resulting wines may demonstrate more seasonal variation, and for this reason, it could be argued that they present a more honest expression of the vintage. On the other hand, where irrigation is used, the viticulturist can fine-tune the vine’s water status. While more generous irrigation can be used to help support a larger crop load, quality-minded producers typically follow a deficit irrigation strategy. Where deficit irrigation is used, vines often receive less water during the growing season than they would in a region with regular summer rainfall. Under deficit irrigation, the vineyard is monitored for water stress, and just enough water is added to keep the vine healthy. Some growers irrigate fewer times at larger volumes, while other irrigate more frequently at lower volumes. The former technique is used to encourage deeper root growth and to acclimatize the vine to water stress. The latter may be more appropriate on soils with low water-holding capacity. Partial rootzone drying is a specific deficit irrigation technique where only half of the rootzone receives water at a time, which encourages the vine to be more efficient with its overall water use throughout the season. Growers who irrigate monitor water stress in a number of ways: NDVIs are vineyard maps that demonstrate vine vigor, based on the color of the canopy, as captured by aerial infrared photography. These maps suggest areas of water stress. Soil moisture probes give an indication of the amount of water in the soil. Leaf water potential is a measurement taken using a tool called a pressure bomb on individual leaves, identifying their degree of water stress. The amount of pressure that must be applied to a leaf in order for it to release water from the petiole (leaf stem) indicates how many stomates are closed, a response to stress conditions. Predictive models estimate how much total water is lost from the vineyard soil through evapotranspiration (the combination of water lost due to evaporation from the soil and transpiration from plants) and then add back a certain percentage of this amount, depending on the weather forecast. Though irrigation has been used in agriculture for about 8,000 years, a number of different types of irrigation are practiced today. Drip irrigation is by far the most common. It is highly efficient in its water use but expensive to install and maintain. It also provides the ability to fertigate, where fertilizer is added through the irrigation system. Overhead sprinklers are another option, applying water evenly over the surface of the vineyard. Sprinklers double as frost protection and may be used during heat events to lower temperatures through evaporative cooling. Sprinklers increase moisture in the canopy, however, which increases disease pressure. They are inefficient, since water is lost to evaporation, and expensive to install. Under flood irrigation, the vineyard is flooded with water diverted from a nearby water source. While no longer common, this is still used in Chile and Argentina. Flooding the soil can stymy root growth, but it can also be effective at disrupting populations of phylloxera, and vineyards may be flood irrigated several times per season. Harvest Harvest is a busy time in the vineyard. Each pick requires the coordination of labor, equipment, and transportation. These logistics must be responsive, since picks are decided only a few days ahead of time and plans may be impacted by inclement weather and other unforeseen events. Collaboration and flexibility on the part of both vineyard manager and winemaker are necessary to achieve the best expression from the land. A number of factors influence a winemaker’s decision of when to harvest, including levels of sugar and acid, tannin texture, and flavor profile, along with practical considerations like winery capacity and weather. From a grower’s perspective, an earlier harvest is often desirable, as this ensures the safety of the fruit—waiting can risk damage from weather or disease. Rain or irrigation can cause fruit to swell and may dilute sugar, acid, and flavor concentration. However, water stress during the ripening period can concentrate the fruit through dehydration. Producers who purchase fruit often pay for grapes by the ton, but since dehydrated fruit weighs less, a grower may prefer to irrigate close to harvest, while a winemaker might prefer extra concentration. This is another reason why acreage contracts are becoming increasingly popular. Fruit is vulnerable to damage and oxidation from the time it comes off the vine until it is safely in tank. Keeping the fruit safe, intact, and cool is of upmost importance and requires that picks occur quickly and smoothly. In warm regions, fruit may be harvested during the night to keep it cool. Traditionally, fruit has been harvested by hand. Harvest season is a time of celebration, since it represents the culmination of a year’s work. In Europe, students and townspeople were often enlisted to join in the festivities. Today, cost and labor limitations force growers to consider alternative methods. Mechanical harvesters are improving each year; the technology is promising and may eventually surpass hand-harvesting from a quality perspective. As with mechanical pruning, specific vineyard architecture is required for machine harvesting. In some areas, like New Zealand, it is standard. The distinctive style of New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc has even been attributed to the use of machine harvesting. While there are exceptions, for producers that prioritize quality, hand-harvesting is still the standard. Once harvest is finished, the vineyard work for the year is nearly done. If there is no rain, the vines may be fertilized or irrigated to help them store sufficient reserves for the following season, and cover crop seeds may be sown. Autumn is also the best time to identify and remove diseased vines, since symptoms are generally most severe at the end of the season. Pests & Diseases Pests and diseases threaten vineyard health and longevity as well as the quality and quantity of the current season’s fruit. An essential part of a viticulturist’s job is to diagnosis, treat, and prevent these ills. Pests Phylloxera feeding on vine roots (Photo credit: Matteo Abreu) Some vineyard dwellers are helpful, preying on undesirable insects and fungi. Others, however, vector disease or damage the fruit or vine directly, preventing proper growth and development by inhibiting photosynthesis or nutrient uptake. Phylloxera vastatrix , literally “the devastator,” is among the most infamous pests. A destructive yellow louse native to the Americas, it now inhabits most vineyard soils worldwide. It was first observed in Europe in 1863 and spread throughout the Continent, destroying vineyards in its wake. Phylloxera feeds on the vine’s roots, and while this is not fatal in itself, the punctures allow infection by pathogens in the soil. Ultimately, this causes necrosis and prevents healthy uptake of water and nutrients. Phylloxera’s damage is slow and can take years to come to fruition, gradually reducing the vine’s ability to successfully ripen fruit and eventually killing it. While Vitis vinifera is highly susceptible, it was discovered in the 1870s that native American grape species are resistant to phylloxera’s damage. As a result, vinifera was grafted to (mostly) American rootstocks. The use of rootstock has been an effective remedy overall, but there have been missteps. AXR1, a rootstock used commonly in California during the 1900s, was initially believed to be phylloxera resistant and later proven not to be, resulting in a second round of attack by phylloxera and massive replants. Several rootstocks still used today may not be as resistant as was once thought. There are still wine regions, however, that are reasonably phylloxera free, including Washington State, parts of Southern Australia, Argentina, and Chile. In Australia, strict quarantine protocols limit phylloxera’s spread. Sandy soils and those that flood regularly (including by flood irrigation) are fairly inhospitable to the aphid. Nematodes are native to Europe and Asia. Similar to phylloxera, they are parasites that feed on roots, ultimately limiting the capacity of the vine to uptake water and nutrients. Several species of nematodes are found in viticulture. The best known of these is the dagger nematode, Xiphinema index , which vectors fanleaf virus. In soils that are affected, the practice of leaving soils fallow for several years prior to replanting is helpful. Certain cover crops, like mustard, are believed to produce toxins unfavorable to nematodes, discouraging their proliferation. Nematode resistant rootstocks—for example, O39-16—may also be used. Mites are very common in vineyards as well. Some are damaging, while others are beneficial. They feed on leaves, making small brown galls or causing discoloration and reducing the vine’s photosynthetic capacity. Usually, this isn’t serious, but if mite populations grow out of control, they can delay ripening and may even result in defoliation. While chemical treatments are available, many use cultural and biological controls instead. Mites thrive in dusty conditions, so dust should be kept at a minimum when driving through a vineyard. Predatory mites feed on undesirable mite species and can be released into the vineyard to slow their damage. Several organic and non-organic treatments are available to effectively control mite populations should counts exceed established economic impact levels. Many other insects call the vineyard home. Mealybugs vector leafroll virus, and glassy-winged sharpshooters vector Pierce’s disease. Other species, like the suzukii fruit fly and the European grapevine moth, damage the fruit and open it up to infection by botrytis and other pathogens. Leafhopper nymphs (left) and mealybugs (Photo credit: Avery Heelan [left], Shawn DeMartino) Insects are differentiated by the type of feeding that they do, and this is key to diagnosing which insect is culpable for damage. Sucking insects include leafhoppers and sharpshooters, while cutworms and beetles are chewing insects. To limit damage, predatory insects, like ladybugs that will prey on immature leafhoppers and aphids, may be released. Host plants may be removed from the area or planted nearby to divert insects out of the vineyard. Mating disruption is a technique in which pheromones are released, making it difficult for insects to find each other and mate successfully. When necessary, pesticides can also limit insect populations. Bird netting is used throughout New Zealand to protect vines from crop losses (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Birds and mammals are incredibly destructive in vineyards as well. Their feeding reduces yields and injures fruit, which encourages disease, and larger animals may damage vineyard infrastructure. Wild boar are a key concern throughout Italy, France, and Germany. In South Africa, baboons walk down vineyard rows “harvesting” clusters as they pass, and in Australia, kangaroos can eat up to 150 kilograms of fruit in a day. In the United States, bird damage is estimated to cost vineyards $70 million per year in losses. Prevention, through bird netting, air cannons, noise emitters, scarecrows, and fencing, may be used in areas where animals pose a threat. Nearly all vineyards in New Zealand use bird-netting to protect the vines, while some producers in Northern California employ falconers to discourage smaller birds. Bird damage is often most severe in early-ripening vineyards, and some producers interplant small amounts of sacrificial, earlier-ripening varieties, in hopes that the birds will eat them and move on. Diseases Fungal Diseases Powdery & Downy Mildew Powdery and downy mildew are native to North America. While indigenous American grape species are largely resistant to these fungal diseases, Vitis vinifera is highly susceptible. Dormant mildew spores overwinter in buds and bark, and under favorable conditions, they multiply and cause infection. Both powdery and downy mildew can result in devastating crop losses. Powdery mildew ( oïdium in French) was first described in 1834 in the United States, and it ravaged Europe 10 years later. It is caused by the fungus Erysiphe necator (also known as Uncinula necator ). Under warm, damp conditions, spores are carried by wind and infect green plant tissue. Mildew’s spread is temperature dependent, with the greatest success between 70 and 85 degrees. Powdery mildew is most detrimental from budbreak until veraison, when it can grow on berries. It causes small, web-like, fuzzy patches on leaves and fruit as well as black scarring on canes. Growers treat powdery mildew with vineyard sprays of sulfur or systemic fungicides on the canopy, generally at regular intervals throughout the growing season. (Note that the elemental sulfur used as a fungicide in the vineyard is distinct from the sulfur dioxide used in the winery.) Control is especially important at budbreak and bloom, since infections on immature plant tissue can spread quickly. Sulfur is typically applied every 10 to 14 days from budbreak until veraison, systemic fungicides every 21 days, and organic biological fungicides, such as Serenade and Sonata, every 7 days. Vineyards are sometimes threatened throughout the growing season, or the danger could be more intermittent. A dry, warm climate may require 8 to 10 sprays, while at-risk climates may demand over 12 sprays per year. Some producers are able to spray less through careful vineyard monitoring when conditions are favorable. To reduce applications, some viticulturists in the Napa Valley use indicators such as mathematical models or spore traps, which assess the risk of infection, and treat only when the threat is sufficient. Canopy management choices can also minimize risk. Canopies with good airflow are less mildew prone, and the efficacy of sprays depends on coverage, which is easier to achieve on open canopies. Some grape varieties, including Cabernet Sauvignon, Carignan, and Chardonnay, are more susceptible than others. Merlot, Pinot Noir, Riesling, and Zinfandel are less severely affected. Mildew-infected berries are generally excluded from production as they contribute unpleasant, moldy, and earthy flavors to wine. Powdery mildew symptoms on leaves and fruit (Photo credit: Jack Kelly Clark, used with permission from the University of California Statewide IPM Program [left], Jennifer Angelosante) Downy mildew ( mildiou in French) is caused by Plasmopara viticola. It is sometimes called Peronospora in Europe ( Plasmopara was previously taxonomically classified as Peronospora ). It is most successful in warm conditions from 65 to 77 degrees Fahrenheit, but unlike powdery mildew, downy mildew only spreads through water. Regions that receive summertime rain like Northern Europe and the East Coast of the United States are more threatened by downy mildew, while sunny areas including California, Western Australia, and Northern Chile are largely free of it. Downy mildew attacks green plant tissue, especially young shoots and leaves, and causes oily yellow spots on leaves. Severe infections cripple growing shoots and can lead to defoliation, which will shut down the vine. Berries infected with downy mildew turn green-gray or pink-gray and shrivel. Downy mildew is treated through regular spray applications of Bordeaux blend, a mixture of copper and sulfur that treats both downy and powdery mildew, or systemic fungicides. Sprays are typically applied every two weeks beginning at budbreak, though reapplication is required after rain. Affected fruit is removed through sorting, either on the vine or sorting table. Bunch Rot Several microorganisms, including species of fungi and bacteria, cause bunch rot in grapes, which destroys the flavor and integrity of fruit, typically rendering it useless for winemaking. Botrytis cinerea is the most familiar of these. Botrytis is able to penetrate and infect healthy berries. Other bunch rot culprits are opportunists that attack damaged fruit. Sour rot is a form of bunch rot caused by yeast and bacteria that colonizes damaged fruit and produces off-flavors like acetic acid (vinegar). Botrytis overwinters in canes and clusters and germinates in rainy spring conditions, where 65 to 75 degrees Fahrenheit is ideal for its spread. Bunch rot often begins during flowering. Spores become trapped in flowers and lie dormant until veraison, when sugar begins accumulating in the berries. Rain near harvest and insect, bird, or mechanical damage also welcome botrytis and other infections that feed on the sugar. Infected berries turn brown (white varieties) or reddish (red varieties) and shrivel, sometimes becoming fuzzy and gray. After botrytis has infected berries, other species such as acetobacter can cause sour rot. The best way to avoid botrytis is prevention. Anti-fungal sprays at bloom and prior to bunch closure are particularly important to limit its effects later. Cultural practices that encourage airflow in the canopy, like shoot thinning and leafing, will reduce disease pressure as well. Infected plant material should be removed from the vineyard at the end of the season. Tight-bunched cultivars are most vulnerable, since spores become trapped within the cluster at bunch closure, and dense, shady, and humid canopies foster disease. Berries have a waxy cuticle that protects them from infection, and many red cultivars produce compounds in their skins that combat botrytis. Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, Riesling, Sauvignon Blanc, Zinfandel, and Pinot Noir are prone to botrytis, while Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Sémillon, and Muscat are less so. Under certain conditions, botrytis infection late in the season can cause a positive result known as noble rot. Sémillon, Sauvignon Blanc, Chenin Blanc, Riesling, and Furmint are all botrytis-prone and used to create some of the world’s most expensive and sought-after sweet wines. Noble rot requires dry conditions so that the fruit remains intact and secondary infection by acetobacter and other pathogens does not occur. Trunk Diseases Esca causes a tiger-striped pattern on leaves (Photo credit: Avery Heelan) The trunk diseases are a collection of maladies such as Esca, Botryosphaeria, and Eutypa dieback caused by fungal spores that enter the vine through pruning wounds. Infections in the cordons and trunk decay the plant’s vascular system and prevent the transport of water and nutrients to the vine’s extremities. Brown “cankers” or portions of damaged wood are visible in the permanent wood. Trunk diseases are one of the most serious economic threats to vineyards worldwide and result in premature replanting and vine death. Eutypa dieback is caused by Eutypa lata and typically affects only a single spur position before advancing through the rest of the vine. Eutypa causes stunted shoots, shriveled fruit, and small, cup-shaped, chlorotic leaves. Botryosphaeria results in a distinctive pie-shaped wedge inside the permanent wood, and shoots on the vine’s extremities are often undersized. Esca was officially discovered in 1898, but there are ancient references to the disease. It causes black measles to appear on berries and very distinct tiger-striped leaves with scorching along the margins. The risk of trunk disease is minimized through good pruning practices. Cane-pruning may be preferred over spur-pruning, and antifungal paste may be painted onto wounds to keep spores from entering. Once infection occurs, the portion of cordon with a canker may be removed, and a new shoot retrained in its place, to prevent the infection from spreading further into the vine. Black Rot Black rot is a fungal disease instigated by Guignardia bidwellii that plagues vineyards in humid climates, especially in the Eastern United States and parts of Europe. Spores are released with spring rains and attack young green growth, forming small, reddish-brown circular spots on the leaves and dark lesions on the stems. The best way to avoid black rot is to remove all affected clusters from the vineyard, as the spores will otherwise overwinter in the plants. Copper-based fungicides are also effective. Bacterial Diseases Red Leaf Diseases With the exception of teinturier varieties, the leaves of healthy Vitis vinifera should not turn red in the fall. A number of so-called red leaf diseases cause the leaves of red grape varieties to turn red, and the leaves of white varieties to turn yellow. The source of these diseases may be virus, bacteria, or other pathogens, and they can be confused for a variety of nutrient deficiencies. Viticulturists look at secondary symptoms to identify the underlying cause, and testing for nutrient deficiency or the presence of virus can be used for diagnosis. Pierce’s disease, often called PD, is caused by the bacteria Xylella fastidiosa, which infects the xylem of vines, preventing the transport of water. Pierce’s disease is vectored by sap-feeding insects like sharpshooters and spittlebugs. It is increasingly common in California but rarely observed in Europe or climates with sufficiently cold winters. Delayed budbreak, stunted growth, and fruit dehydration are common symptoms, and they are further exacerbated by drought. Pierce’s disease is identified by uneven shoot lignification, and “matchsticks,” which are petioles that are left on shoots after leaves defoliate. Infected vines will typically die within two to five years, but cold winter conditions seem to extend the life of some vines. There is no treatment for Pierce’s disease, and infected vines should be removed to reduce spread. The insects that vector PD live in riparian areas, so nearby vineyards are generally at greatest risk. Building a barricade of plants, such as PD-resistant vines, has been suggested as an effective means of control. “Grapevine yellows” describes several phytoplasmic diseases, including Flavescence dorée, that are primarily found in Southern European wine regions. Phytoplasms are a specialized type of bacteria that infect plants’ phloem. Delayed, abnormal shoot growth, discolored leaves that curl downward, and berry dehydration are symptoms. Because the shoots do not lignify, infected vines are easily identified by their green shoots in the fall. Leafhoppers are a primary vector of grapevine yellows, so control of these insects is key to slowing the spread, as is removal of any diseased vines. Crown gall, caused by the bacteria Allorhizobium vitis (previously known as Agrobacterium vitis ), is the most common disease of nurseries worldwide. It infects vine tissue during grafting, and later, galls form at the graft union and girdle the vine. Bacterial blight, caused by Xanthomonas ampelina, kills young shoots. It is spread by rain and on pruning tools, and it can be controlled by copper sprays such as the Bordeaux mixture. Blight is found in South Africa, Southern Europe, Argentina, and Australia. Viral Diseases Foliar symptoms of fanleaf virus (Photo credit: Sarah Ferguson) Grapevine leafroll virus causes significant reduction in yields and slows fruit maturation. On red varieties, leaf margins turn red while veins remain green, and the leaves of white varieties turn yellow. In both cases, the leaves fold downward. Mealybugs are the primary vector of leafroll and are transported throughout regions by birds, wind, and on equipment and workers’ clothes. Leafroll is treated by removing infected vines and through suppression of the mealybug population. One popular treatment is sexual confusion, where tags with mealybug pheromones are placed throughout the vineyard to disrupt mating. In warm regions, where fruit ripens quickly, some winemakers may view leafroll as beneficial, but there are more effective methods to delay maturity. Grapevine fanleaf virus reduces yields and fruit quality and shortens the lifespan of a vineyard. Infected vines often exhibit abnormal asymmetric leaves, a yellow mosaic pattern in the leaf margin, and yellow bands along the veins. Millerandage is a symptom. Fanleaf is typically introduced to a vineyard through infected planting stock, and afterward, it is vectored by the nematode Xiphinema index . Once fanleaf has been introduced, it is difficult to remove from a vineyard, particularly as nematodes are able to transmit the virus even after the vineyard has been fallow for years. Nematode resistant rootstock, such as O39-16, may be used during replanting. Red blotch disease is attributed to a virus discovered in California in 2011. It lowers wine quality by delaying and even preventing ripening. Infected leaves from red cultivars exhibit a distinctive red mosaic appearance, with red veins, that is sometimes mistaken for leafroll virus. Best Practices The spread of pests and disease can be limited by following a set of best practices. Care should be taken to avoid carrying soil or insects on equipment, shoes, clothing, and shears from vineyard to vineyard, especially if a diseased vineyard has been identified. Pruning shears and other equipment must be cleaned prior to use. Dead plant material, especially from infected vines, should be removed during winter pruning to prevent pathogens from overwintering there. In some cases, the removal of diseased vines will prevent neighboring vines from being infected. During vineyard establishment, only vines that have been tested and certified to be free of virus should be used, and a thorough inspection can minimize the risk of introducing infected planting material. This is also why growers are encouraged to import new plant material through nurseries equipped to do so safely, rather than bringing in so-called suitcase clones themselves. Farming Philosophies After the end of World War II, many chemical resources that had gone toward the production of explosives became destined for a new fate: commercial NPK-based fertilizers. This heralded a cultural shift in agriculture and the proliferation of the “better living through chemistry” mentality. By the time the 1970s came around, a lot of farmland had been overworked and overfed. Organic farming and its successors are seen as a backlash to these newer ways of farming, today known as conventional agriculture. Wine grapes are often farmed with quality in mind. While sustainable farming has not been shown to make better wines, the belief that this is probably the case leads to alternative practices. Indeed, many of the most esteemed wine estates throughout the world employ some form of non-conventional farming. As consumer demand for healthier and more environmentally friendly products increases, producers continue adopting more sustainable practices. Organic Farming Organic farming, popularized in the 1970s as the antidote to industrial agriculture, avoids the use of synthetic chemicals that are commonly used in farming. These include conventional fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, and systemic fungicides. (Organic farming also prohibits the use of genetically modified organisms, or GMOs, but since these are not accepted in the wine industry, this is not a point of distinction in viticulture.) The transition from conventional to certified organic agriculture takes at least three years and requires ongoing audits. A number of organizations worldwide grant organic certification, including the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Bioagricert, Agriculture Biologique, and Australian Certified Organic. Spraying in Organic Viticulture Many people believe incorrectly that organic and biodynamic vineyards do not use fungicide sprays. In fact, organic fungicides are typically applied more frequently than their conventional counterparts. While there are restrictions around the amount of product applied per year, sulfur- and copper-based products, including the Bordeaux mixture, are permitted. In 2018, the EU reduced the limit for copper in organic vineyards to four kilograms per hectare per year, taken over a seven-year average, which allows producers to apply more in a particularly bad year (effective as of 2019). Vineyards in France have received attention for the high levels of copper, a heavy metal, that have accumulated in the soil as a result of these sprays. While many argue that they are better than the synthetic alternatives, this is controversial, and scientists are currently looking for healthier solutions. Varied practices fall under the umbrella of organic farming. On one end of the spectrum, organic agriculture resembles conventional agriculture but with organic products replacing synthetic chemical inputs. Other growers go “beyond organic” and seek to minimize inputs, improve the soil, encourage biodiversity, and even look after the spiritual health of the vineyard. This range of beliefs and emphases has led to further delineation of various farming schools of thought. Many of these philosophies share a common set of values: Intolerance of chemically synthesized fertilizers, herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides. Preference for complex forms of fertilizer like compost, fish emulsion, and cover crops, rather than mineral-based fertilizers. Vineyard-floor practices that build soil organic matter, preserve soil structure, and increase fertility. Encouragement of biodiversity, both in the soil and on the farm. Holistic, systems-based thinking and decision-making for long-term results. Biodynamic Farming Biodynamic farming shares many of the principles of organic farming but includes extra inputs. It was originally proposed by Austrian Rudolph Steiner, a controversial figure in his time, in a series of lectures given in 1924. While sometimes described as a more premium form of organic farming, the key distinction between organic and biodynamic farming is the annual application of nine biodynamic preparations, applied to the vineyard in homeopathic quantities. Biodynamic farming is also unique for its spiritual nature. Practitioners may elect to farm by the moon calendar, which has been used traditionally in farming and is still mentioned in the venerable Farmer’s Almanac , or the biodynamic calendar, a sort of astrology for plants developed by Maria Thun beginning in 1962. Demeter is the primary biodynamic certification granted throughout the world, and Biodyvin and respekt-BIODYN are smaller regional organizations. For decades, non-conventional farmers had the option to self-identify as organic or biodynamic. But while many farmers wish to go beyond the basic requirements of organic agriculture, the emphasis of biodynamics on the nine preps and its adherence to the cosmos are not priorities for some seeking a more environmentally friendly approach. Regenerative Agriculture Regenerative farming is viewed by some as the next frontier of organic farming. Whereas organic farming takes a stance of “do no harm,” regenerative farming seeks to go further, actively improving the land through soil building, nurturing microbial ecosystems, and advancing the health of the vineyard. Its ultimate goal is to reduce climate change through carbon sequestration, or removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Regenerative agriculture is heavily influenced by teachings from the Rodale Institute and the Weston A. Price Foundation, and while there is currently no certification, some programs are being developed. Mimi Casteel of Hope Well Vineyard in the Willamette Valley is one of the leading voices for regenerative agriculture within the wine community. The focus of regenerative agriculture is, fundamentally, on management of the vineyard floor. Building organic matter in the soil, preserving soil structure by no-till practices, and the use of cover crops encourage soil health and prevent erosion. Regenerative farming is sometimes mistakenly described as “do-nothing farming.” At its best, regenerative farming is very active and requires careful observation and decision-making. Sustainable Farming Sustainable farming, called lutte raisonée in France, has been used as a catchall to describe a range of growing practices. On the one hand, it could be thought of as a more pragmatic alternative to organic farming, since producers are free to intervene when necessary. Yet sustainable farming also encompasses a wider range of values than organic farming, including the responsible use of resources like water, power, and fuel. While sustainable farming is generally unregulated, several regional certifications have been created to offer better definition of the concept. These programs look at vineyard inputs and practices as well as use of resources (such as water and electricity), business sustainability, and even labor practices. Many of them encourage continual, gradual improvement, such as doing fewer sprays in a year, eliminating the use of herbicides, or reducing water use. Examples include Sonoma County Sustainable, Napa Green, Lodi Rules, SIP Certified, and LIVE. The Porto Protocol, formed in 2019, is a global initiative that encourages growers to adopt practices that combat climate change. Integrated Pest Management Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is essentially a systems-based approach to treating vineyard pests and diseases. Rather than treating a symptom, IPM encourages producers to identify and treat root causes or adjust the environment to make conditions less favorable for pests and disease—requiring an understanding of their lifecycles. IPM emphasizes the use of biological and cultural controls over chemical controls such as insecticides and fungicides. It treats maladies by exploiting predator-prey and host relationships, habitat manipulation, physical barriers, and biological interventions like mating confusion. Other Considerations There are a number of reasons that a producer may generally adhere to particular farming practices but not choose to seek certification, even if it might offer a point of distinction. Certifications are expensive, labor and paperwork intensive, and disproportionately costly to small operations. Some prefer to instead spend that time improving their farming practices. For producers that do not intend to use certification for marketing purposes, the effort and cost might not make sense. Others prefer the flexibility to use treatments in case of an emergency. While many have moved in the direction of more sustainable practices, there are practical limitations to farming non-conventionally. Most vineyards are businesses and must be economically viable. Non-conventional agriculture can be more costly; at a minimum, it requires more vineyard oversite than conventional practices. In challenging climates, chemical-based disease control can be more effective than its organic counterparts, which might result in yield and quality losses. With any vineyard philosophy, there are trade-offs, and dogmatism can ultimately do more harm than good. For example, organic sprays often must be applied more frequently than conventional ones, which requires tractors to pass at least twice as often, increasing compaction and burning more fuel. The Future of Farming The Importance of Experience In practice, it is difficult to anticipate how the nuances of a vineyard site will interact with a particular grape variety, rootstock, or viticultural practice. There are simply too many confounding factors. While study gives insight and informs decision-making, in reality, grapegrowing is a craft best learned in the vineyard, through observation, experimentation, and years of experience. A vineyard is best understood by those who work it on a daily basis. Vineyard Labor In many regions, agricultural work is done by a migrant labor force that travels to the region only during the growing season. This is driven by economic disparities that make it more profitable for these workers to pursue employment far from home. But political constraints, housing shortages, better economic opportunities at home, and the strain this schedule places on family life are rapidly disincentivizing migrant labor. Many agricultural communities rely on what is ultimately an unsustainable model, and labor shortages pose a real threat. A reduction in the workforce increases labor costs, ultimately impacting bottle price. On the top end, this may be surmountable; however, for some producers, hand-labor is rapidly becoming cost-prohibitive. In some regions, labor is not available at any price. As a response, many producers are forced to consider increased mechanization in the vineyard. Vineyard Mechanization As more traditional farming practices grow in popularity, an equal and seemingly opposite trend is the rise of mechanization and technology in the vineyard. Certain tasks are widely mechanized, including ploughing, mowing, hedging, and spraying. Others, like leafing and suckering, are reasonably easy to mechanize, while some operations, such as pruning, are more difficult to mechanize without a loss in quality. Mechanical harvesters picking in New Zealand (Photo credit: Jennifer Angelosante) Mechanization is more responsive, faster, and cheaper than doing the work by hand, which may allow better timing with grapevine phenology. It requires significantly less labor, and technology is improving each year, sometimes resulting in better wine quality than hand labor. However, currently, mechanization is not as precise as hand work for many tasks and can damage the fruit or vine. It requires specific vineyard architecture, and many established vineyards would need to be retrofitted in order to use it. Mechanization also changes the culture of grapegrowing, eliminating the human element and traditional ways of working. While the wine industry has been much slower to adopt mechanization than other forms of farming, it is widely acknowledged that in the future, many tasks currently done by hand will likely be done by machine. Precision Viticulture Fruition Sciences’ sap flow sensors remotely monitor water lost through vine transpiration (Photo credit: Fruition Sciences) Increased mechanization has also paved the way for an emerging field known as precision viticulture, which uses extensive data collection and artificial intelligence (AI) to improve quality and efficiency. A number of interesting vineyard monitoring tools are being developed. Tractors and drones equipped with cameras are used to create vineyard maps with data collected on a vine-by-vine basis. Mapped data might include areas of water and nutrient stress, color accumulation, the degree of fruit ripening, yield estimates, and diseased vines. Precision viticulture seeks to minimize overtreatment and can be used to support sustainability through resource conservation. For example, variable irrigation schemes irrigate or fertigate vines based on their specific needs, saving huge amounts of water. Additionally, equipment is being designed to reduce the amount of product needed. While the technology has not yet been perfected, electrostatic fungicide sprayers release a fine mist of particles that are attracted electrostatically to the vine, providing better coverage with less volume. The mechanical pruners of the future will likely be programmed with artificial intelligence and “taught” to prune vines as a human would. AI could be used to train machines to do a number of farming tasks, likely at a fraction of the cost and time they take today. It is possible to imagine each individual vine being farmed to a particular specification to optimize quality and yields. Homogeneity in the Vineyard Many vineyard management principles and operations have historically been used to create more even conditions within the vineyard. Homogeneity facilitates management, since it is easier to keep vines in their optimal levels if they all have the same needs, and this approach has been credited with increasing wine quality, especially on the value end. Some have raised the question of whether homogeneity in farming sacrifices complexity in wine. While this is yet to be seen, as precision viticulture offers the possibility of approaching true homogeneity, there may be a point of diminishing returns. Going forward, this will be an important philosophical question in viticulture. Precision viticulture allows for the acquisition of data for better decision-making, cost reduction, and conservation of resources like water and labor. Overall, it presents many potential benefits, especially for the value segment of the market, but many producers are wary of this vision of the future. The quest for optimization requires a target and is often met with standardization; whenever many producers emulate a specific wine style, it is at the detriment of diversity. The challenge of precision viticulture will be the emphasis, and not erasure, of terroir. Looking Ahead Viticulture is an ever-changing science. As more is learned about biological systems and plant function, and as climate and palates evolve, viticulturists must continue to adapt and rethink beliefs that have driven decision-making for years. What is fixed, however, is the interdependence of the vineyard system, which combines human inputs, the environment, and the vine’s natural inclinations, as dictated by genetics. The viticulturist spends all season tending grapes with the goal of delivering healthy, ripe fruit and adequate yields at harvest; from here, the process is in the hands of the winemaker . Bibliography Bettiga, Larry J. Grape Pest Management . 3rd ed. Oakland, CA: University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources, 2013. “Catalogue of rootstock varieties registered in France.” Pl@ntGrape . Accessed September 2, 2020. http://plantgrape.plantnet-project.org/en/porte-greffes . Coombe, B. G., and P. R. Dry, eds. Viticulture . Vol. 1: Resources. Underdale, South Australia: Winetitles Pty, 1988. Coombe, B. G., and P. R. Dry, eds. Viticulture . Vol. 2: Practices. Broadview, South Australia: Winetitles Pty, 1988. Goldammer, Ted. Grape Grower's Handbook: A Complete Guide to Viticulture for Wine Production . 3rd ed. Centreville, VA: APEX Publishers, 2018. Ivaldi, Marion Sepeau. “Les AOC gagnent un peu de liberté d'irriguer.” Vitisphere.com , September 2017. https://www.vitisphere.com/actualite-86036-Les-AOC-gagnent-un-peu-de-liberte-dirriguer.htm . Jackson, Ronald S. Wine Science: Principles and Applications . 5th ed. London: Academic Press, 2020. Johnson, Hugh, and Jancis Robinson, eds.. The World Atlas of Wine . 8th ed. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2019. Jones, Gregory. “Climate, Grapes, and Wine.” GuildSomm . August 12, 2015. https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/gregory_jones/posts/climate-grapes-and-wine . Keller, Markus. The Science of Grapevines: Anatomy and Physiology . 2nd ed. London: Elsevier Academic Press, 2015. Maltman, Alex. “Part 1: Soil Principles.” GuildSomm . January 17, 2013. https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/soils_for_sommeliers/posts/soil-principles . Maltman, Alex. “Part 2: Vineyard Geology.” GuildSomm . January 24, 2013. https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/soils_for_sommeliers/posts/part-2-vineyard-geology . Maltman, Alex. Vineyards, Rocks, and Soils: The Wine Lover's Guide to Geology . New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2018. Martin, Fleur. “The Irrigation of Grapevines in Europe – an Update on Existing Legislation.” Irrigazette . October 28, 2016. https://irrigazette.com/en/news/irrigation-grapevines-europe-update-existing-legislation . Meloni, Giulia, and Johan Swinnen. “The Political Economy of European Wine Regulations.” Journal of Wine Economics 8, no. 3 (2013): 244–84. https://doi.org/10.1017/jwe.2013.33 . Rienth, Markus, and Thibaut Scholasch. “State-of-the-Art of Tools and Methods to Assess Vine Water Status”. OENO One 53 (2019). https://doi.org/10.20870/oeno-one.2019.53.4.2403 . Robinson, Jancis, and Julia Harding, eds. The Oxford Companion to Wine . 3rd ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2006. Robinson, Jancis, Julia Harding, and José Vouillamoz. Wine Grapes . New York: Harper Collins, 2012. “Rootstocks for Grafted Vines.” Winegrowers Supplies . Accessed September 2, 2020. https://www.winegrowers.info/rootstocks/home.htm . Skelton, Stephen. Viticulture: An Introduction to Commercial Grape Growing for Wine Production . 11th ed. London: Stephen Skelton, 2009. Skinkis, Patricia A., and R. Paul Schreiner. “Grapevine Nutrition.” Oregon State University . June 2011. https://catalog.extension.oregonstate.edu/sites/catalog/files/project/media/em9024/index.html . Todorov, Kerana. “Napa Valley Grape Growers Gearing Up for Second Half of 2017 Harvest.” Wine Business.com . Accessed July 26, 2020. https://www.winebusiness.com/news/?go=getArticle&dataid=189951 . White, Robert E. Soils for Fine Wines . New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2003. Compiled by Jennifer Angelosante (September 2020) Edited by Stacy LadenburgerPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/206/south-americaSat, 19 Sep 2026 12:50:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:b85e65a1-7938-4b14-9f4d-e8452085a20bJonathan EichholzTable of Contents South America Chile Argentina Other Countries of South America South America Winemaking arrived in the New World with Spanish conquistadores in the 16th century. From Mexico, where viticulture was first established in the Americas, the vine spread southward through other Spanish colonies, from Peru to Chile and Argentina by 1560. The Portuguese brought the vine to Brazil as early as 1532. Whether Spanish Catholics and missionaries hold responsibility for propagation of the vine, or colonists were simply interested in preserving a staple of their old lives, viticulture flourished in most of South America. However, despite promising early origins, South American viticulture suffered under a prohibitive 17th century Spanish law that restricted wine production (unrelated to the Church) in the New World in favor of Iberian producers. While some nascent wine-producing colonies were hindered by Spanish calls to uproot their vineyards, others, such as Chile, did their best to ignore the ban on production. The matter was settled definitively as the early 1800s brought a new era of political autonomy to former colonies, and Argentina, Chile, and Brazil (South America’s three leading wine producers) gained independence, though not without a great degree of turbulence and strife. An influx of European immigration in the 19th century, along with the development of a national rail system, resulted in a rapid expansion of viticulture in Argentina. Chile also benefited from European expertise: in 1830 the Frenchman Claudio Gay set up a Chilean repository of pre-phylloxera Vitis vinifera vines at the University of Chile’s Quinta Normal department. These vine specimens served Chile well; its geographic isolation, due to the Andes, prevented phylloxera from entering the country. Today, Chile is the only major winemaking country to remain totally phylloxera-free; in the late 1800s the country was able to capitalize on Europe’s vineyard devastation and a large domestic consumption to advance its own industry. The 20th century in South America was plagued by political and economic difficulties, and wine industries in both Chile and Argentina faced a number of challenges. The extraordinarily high domestic consumption of the early 20th century in both countries fell throughout the second half of the century; Argentineans were drinking nearly 90 liters of wine per person annually in the early 1970s, but by the late 1990s consumption dropped by over half. Throughout much of the 20th century, protective state policies prevented Chilean wine producers from participating in an international market, but foreign investment began to pour in during the 1980s, and Chile began to aggressively export its wines. Argentinean winemakers, beleaguered by economic woes, hyperinflation, and a sudden drop in domestic demand in the 1980s, looked to Chile’s recent success for inspiration, and began to focus on quality wine production meant for international markets. Chile has developed a reputation for quality varietal wines at value prices, as well as a number of super-premium red blends—often the product of joint projects between Chile’s great domestic houses and some of the more lauded names of Bordeaux and California. Argentina, meanwhile, touts its status as the world’s fifth largest wine-producing country, and owes a great deal of its successes to the appeal of the Malbec grape. One of the earliest grapes to arrive in the Americas was the black Mission grape. While it is often suggested that the Spanish planted this vine from seed, modern DNA research has revealed that Mission is identical to a grape found in the Canary Islands, Listán Prieto, and that it originated in Spain itself. Various offshoots from the grape provided early viticultural material for Central and South America, and even California. Until the 21st century, País (the Chilean synonym for the Mission grape) was the most planted grape in Chile. The grape, known as Criolla Chica in Argentina, played a similarly important role in historical viticulture, although plantings are not prevalent today. Two related grapes, the pink-skinned Cereza and Criolla Grande, while on the decline, still account for huge swaths of vineyard—Cereza was, until very recently, Argentina’s most planted grape. International varieties in both countries are rapidly increasing, led by Cabernet Sauvignon in Chile and Malbec in Argentina. Argentina successfully forged an international reputation for red varietal wines produced from Malbec, a previously overlooked Bordeaux blending variety introduced into the country in 1860. The country’s winemakers hope for similar success with Torrontés Riojano, a unique, highly aromatic crossing of Criolla Chica x Muscat of Alexandria. Two other varieties, Torrontés Mendocino and Torrontés Sanjuanino, may be labeled as "Torrontés" but they tend to produce lower quality wines. Torrontés Sanjuanino is also a Criolla Chica x Muscat of Alexandria crossing, and Torrontés Mendocino is a crossing of Muscat and an as-yet-unidentified other grape. Chile, on the other hand, has had mixed success with the development of a similarly popular and distinctive variety with which it can be readily identified. Part of the problem may stem from Chile’s own confusion over what is actually planted in the nation’s vineyards: ampelographical research determined that much of Chile’s Sauvignon Blanc was actually Sauvignon Vert, or Friulano, and a significant portion of the country’s Merlot turned out to be Carmenère, the sixth “lost” grape of Bordeaux. Many Chilean producers consider Carmenère to be the nation’s claim to a unique varietal expression, but the grape’s tendency to show pronounced green flavors has heretofore prevented it from capturing the public imagination to the same degree as Argentinean Malbec. BACK TO TOP Chile Chile stretches for nearly 3,000 miles up the west coast of South America, separated from the remainder of the continent by the Andes Mountains. Viticulture occupies around 800 of these coastal miles, with most major regions of production to the south of the capital city, Santiago. From north to south, the six regional Denominations of Origin (DOs) in Chile are Atacama, Coquimbo, Aconcagua, the Valle Central (Central Valley), Sur (the Southern Regions), and a new area at the southernmost limit of grapegrowing in the country, the Austral Region . Even with moderating maritime influence, Chile’s climate varies enormously from the northern to southern latitudes. The northernmost regions of Atacama and Coquimbo are dry and desert-like, with grapes historically destined for Pisco production or the table. The country’s most suitable vineyards for fine wine are mostly situated in the Central Valley to the south of Santiago, where the proximity of the Andes cools nighttime temperatures, and along the coast, where the cold, maritime Humboldt Current cools the vines. Although the Coastal Mountains (between the Central Valley and the Pacific) provide some shelter, the Humboldt Current forces cool sea air inland through the river valleys to affect the Central Valley vineyards during the day. While neither zone is as dry as the deserts to the north, irrigation is still essential in both the Central Valley and Aconcagua. In the country’s southernmost areas of viticulture, rainfall is higher and the overall growing season is cooler and shorter. Significant variations in altitude exist in most of Chile’s major regions, as vineyard plantings climb from the coast into the Coastal Ranges, and from the valleys into the Andean foothills. Chilean wine law, established in 1995, instituted the 75% rule: vintage, variety, and denomination of origin must, if listed on the bottle, comprise a minimum 75% of the blend. Many wineries observe an 85% minimum for all three categories, in order to comply with EU standards for export. Only permitted varieties may be used, and hybrid grapes are forbidden. Chilean law requires all wines to show a minimum alcohol content of 11.5%. Wines labeled Reserva and Reserva Especial must have a minimum 12% abv, and wines labeled Reserva Privada and Gran Reserva require a minimum 12.5% abv. In addition, Reserva Especial and Gran Reserva wines spend mandatory time in oak. Leading grape varieties in Chile after Cabernet Sauvignon include Sauvignon Blanc (and Sauvignon Vert), Merlot, Chardonnay, Carmenère, and Syrah. Muscat of Alexandria retains a large share of plantings, but the grape is used chiefly for distillation. Red grapes account for over 70% of the total acreage in Chile. In Atacama , the northernmost winegrowing region in Chile, viticulture is only possible through irrigation, and the region’s wines are generally distilled. Pisco and table grape production is also prominent in Coquimbo , but the region’s two northern valleys—Elqui and Limarí—are starting to develop a reputation for their wines, and vineyard acreage devoted to wine grapes has dramatically increased since the 1990s. Syrah is gaining attention in the Elqui’s cool, high-altitude vineyards, while the limestone soils and cooler climate of coastal Limarí are proving to be a match for Chardonnay. Coquimbo's third subregion, Choapa, is located in a narrow area to the south, where the Andes and Coastal Mountains converge. The Aconcagua DO takes its name from the Aconcagua River, rather than the nearby Argentinean peak—the highest mountain in the Americas. The sunny, dry Aconcagua Valley subregion follows the river as it flows from the Andes to the Pacific. Soils in the Aconcagua Valley are generally alluvial, and red grapes dominate the valley’s vineyards, particularly Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot. Although much of the valley is distressingly hot for grape-growing, the commune of Panquehue, home to Errázuriz, one of Chile’s most prominent estates and winemaking families, experiences a more moderate climate. Errázuriz’s “Seña,” an iconic Bordeaux-style blend and one of the premier reds of Chile, placed ahead of both Château Lafite and Château Margaux in the 2004 Berlin Tasting—a milestone for the Chilean wine industry likened to the famous 1976 Judgment of Paris. Aconcagua's other subregions—Casablanca and San Antonio—are located along the coast, and are among Chile’s coolest new winemaking zones, in stark contrast to the heat of the interior Aconcagua Valley. With a relatively short history, Casablanca has become the Aconcagua DO’s most prominent zone of production and one of Chile’s most exciting areas for fresh, crisp and fruity Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay. The emerging area of San Antonio, directly south of Casablanca, has the DO zone of Leyda Valley and five DO areas. Like Casablanca, San Antonio is predominantly a white wine region, with Pinot Noir also showing promising results. The Central Valley DO , located between the Andes and the hills and ranges along the coast, is Chile’s oldest and most established winemaking region. From north to south, the DO’s subregions are Maipo Valley, Rapel Valley, Curicó, and Maule Valley. The warm Maipo Valley is Chile’s most famous winemaking area, and the classic region in the country for Cabernet Sauvignon. Over 50% of the region’s more than 10,000 hectares are devoted to the grape, followed by Merlot, Syrah and Carmenère. Due to its proximity to Santiago, many of Chile’s established houses are based in the region, including Concha y Toro (Chile’s largest producer), Santa Rita, and Cousiño Macul. Cabernet thrives on the well-drained, low slopes of the Andes, and some of Chile’s most premium red wines issue from the subregion of Puente Alto, such as Concha y Toro’s “Don Melchor” and Errázuriz’s “Viñedo Chadwick” Cabernet Sauvignon varietal wines, and “Almaviva”, a joint project between Baron Philippe de Rothschild (Mouton-Rothschild) and Concha y Toro. The 2000 “Viñedo Chadwick” took first place in the 2004 Berlin Tasting. The Rapel Valley, divided into Cachapoal and Colchagua, is located to the south of Maipo. Although Cabernet Sauvignon’s position as the leading grape in both regions is firmly secure, Carmenère is growing in importance, and may soon eclipse Merlot as the valley’s second most cultivated grape. Colchagua is the larger, central portion of the valley, and is characterized by a warm climate and fertile soils. Although Colchagua is historically a bulk wine region, producers are finding success with premium wines sourced from higher-altitude eastern subregions with greater diurnal variation, such as San Fernando and Chimbarongo. Two areas were elevated to DO status in 2018: Los Lingues and Apalta. The latter, in eastern Colchagua, is the source of Casa Lapostolle’s “Clos Apalta” and Viña Montes “Alpha M,” two of Chile’s iconic Bordeaux-style blends. Viña Montes also produces “Purple Angel,” one of Chile’s highest-profile Carmenère varietal wines, from Colchagua fruit. Colchagua Chile. The Maule Valley and Curicó comprise the remainder of the Central Valley DO. Maule, one of Chile’s largest regions, has much more vineyard acreage than the Maipo Valley, but the quality is variable. Although Cabernet recently overtook País as the region’s most planted grape, bulk wines meant for local consumption still comprise a large share of the Maule Valley’s output. Curicó, with its two DO zones of Lontué and Teno, achieved some international recognition when Miguel Torres set up Chilean operations here in the late 1970s. Cabernet Sauvignon again dominates the vineyards, but a range of red and white grapes are represented, including Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay. Chile’s Southern Regions DO (Sur) contains three valleys: Itata, Bío Bío, and the southernmost Malleco. Cultivation is sparser in these southern valleys, and País and Muscat de Alexandria are the most planted grapes in both Itata and Bío Bío—nearly 6,000 acres of the Muscat variety in the Southern Regions, while on the decline, account for its status as Chile’s third most planted white variety, after Sauvignon (Blanc and Vert) and Chardonnay. Malleco is a tiny region, with just a few hectares of Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. In 2024, Chile continues to push the boundaries of viticulture as they approved two DOs in new portions of the country. Rapa Nui DO in the Pacific Ocean and Chiloé DO in Patagonia. All of the aforementioned DOs have a north-south orientation. In 2012, the Chilean Ministry of Agriculture amended wine law to support three new geographic terms: Costa, Entre Cordilleras, and Andes. On labels, producers may now append pre-existing DOs with one of these three new designations, which signify the proximity of a vineyard to the coast (Costa) or to the mountains (Andes). Entre Cordilleras ("between mountains") describes the valley areas between the coastal range and the Andes, a region in which over three-quarters of Chilean wine grapes are grown. In order for a wine to qualify for one of the new designations, at least 85% of the grapes must be harvested in the appropriate region. The enormous influence wielded by the sea and Chile's mountains upon viticulture is thrust into the limelight with these new geographic indications, but, as with most changes to appellation systems, early criticism of its meaningfulness to the consumer is robust. BACK TO TOP Argentina As of 2018, Argentina is the world’s fifth largest wine producer in the world and the tenth largest wine exporter. The country’s vineyards are mostly confined to the western sector of the country, in the plains and foothills near the Andes, where they experience a continental climate. In the rain shadow of the Andes, Argentina’s wine producing regions are very dry, a condition exacerbated by the Zonda, a fierce, dusty, hot afternoon wind that blows down from the mountains in the late spring and early summer, sometimes adversely affecting flowering. The general lack of humidity in most Argentinean winegrowing regions keeps vineyards free of fungal problems, and snowmelt provides plentiful water for irrigation—in those years that the Andes receive heavy winter snowfall. Unfortunately, the little moisture that does precipitate in the vineyards often comes in the form of dangerous spring and summer hail. As expected in a continental climate, summer temperatures can reach 100° F and above, although the country’s higher elevation vineyards—some of the world’s highest vines (3,000 meters above sea level) are located in Salta, at Donald Hess’ Colomé estate—serve to mitigate such extreme highs and prolong the growing season. As Argentinean vineyards are generally situated on the slopes of the Andean foothills and plains, the average national elevation for vineyards is approximately 900 meters above sea level. The lack of major nearby urban centers keeps Argentinean vineyards rather free from the effects of pollution; the Maipo, just across the mountains, is covered in Santiago’s smog by comparison. In descending order of importance, the country’s most important red grapes include the flagship Malbec, Bonarda, Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Merlot, and Tempranillo. Argentina ’ s Bonarda, the country ’ s second most planted red grape, is genetically distinct from the Northern Italian grape of the same name, but recent DNA studies have identified it as Savoie's Corbeau—a variety known as Charbono in the United States. The country’s most planted white grape is Pedro Giménez, a variety unrelated to Spain’s Pedro Ximénez, a blending grape often mainly suitable for bulk wines or grape concentrate. The distinctive, floral Torrontés is second among white grapes, followed by Chardonnay and Chenin Blanc. The Mendoza Chardonnay clone, developed at the University of California at Davis, has become popular throughout the country; despite being prone to millerandage the resulting grapes have a greater skin-to-juice ratio . Pink-skinned varieties, including Cereza, Criolla Chica, and Criolla Grande, occupy nearly 30% of the nation’s vineyard acreage. When working with premium wine grapes (such as Malbec or Gewürztraminer, but not Cereza, winemakers have the option of labeling both red and white wines as Reserva or Gran Reserva . Reserva implies a minimum 6 months of aging for white wines and one year for reds; Gran Reserva indicates at least one year for whites and two for reds. These two new designations, introduced in 2008, also limit maximum yields. The winemaking areas of Argentina are divided among the northwestern provinces, the central provinces of Cuyo, and the southern provinces of Patagonia. Approximately three-quarters of the country’s entire wine production occurs in the province of Mendoza in Cuyo, where more than 150,000 hectares are cultivated. To the north, the province of Salta, despite fewer than 3,000 total hectares under vine, is gaining a reputation for high-altitude Torrontés—a variety prone to high alcohol levels at lower, hotter elevations. Red grapes, such as Malbec and Cabernet Sauvignon, are also successful in the cooler mountain climate. Cafayate is a promising department within Salta, and is increasingly appearing on bottles of Torrontés—Susana Balbo’s “Crios” is a widely exported hallmark of the style. Etchart, the winery that first brought Michel Rolland to Argentina, and Yacochuya, Arnaldo Etchart's new project, are two prominent producers based in Cafayate. In the province of Catamarca, located directly south of Salta, Torrontés, Syrah, Malbec, and Cabernet Sauvignon lead in acreage. Cuyo comprises the wine-producing provinces of Mendoza, La Rioja, and San Juan. La Rioja is the northernmost of the three provinces; its most famous wine region is the Famatina Valley. Torrontés is again the most cultivated grape, followed by Malbec. Although production is significantly higher than in the northern provinces, La Rioja’s output is dwarfed by the massive production of Mendoza and San Juan to the south. San Juan, Argentina’s second-largest wine-producing province, has more than 45,000 hectares under vine in the Tulum, Zonda, Ullum, Jáchal, Calingasta, Pedernal and Fértil Valleys. Much of this acreage has historically been devoted to Argentina’s pink-skinned varieties, although Syrah and Bonarda—sometimes confusingly called Barbera Bonarda—are capturing critical attention. San Juan’s hot summer climate is ideal for grapes destined for brandy and vermouth production, and the region’s sherry-style wines are reasonably good in quality. Mendoza, the center of the Argentinean wine industry, is broadly divided into North, Central (Primera Zona), South, and East sectors, and the Uco Valley—a western subregion and home to the province’s highest vineyards. Soils in the region are generally comprised of loose, alluvial sand over clay, a structure that, when coupled with the gale-force Zonda wind, helps to keep phylloxera and other diseases at bay. As in Chile, almost all vines in Mendoza are planted on their own rootstock. The climate is desert-like, and irrigation is absolutely necessary, whether in the traditional form of furrow irrigation—a technique developed centuries ago by the Incas, in which the rivers' water, swelled by Andes snowmelt, is directed through the vineyards in channels—or by more modern methods of drip irrigation. Red grapes account for over half of the entire province’s acreage; Malbec, the most planted grape, covers around 35,000 hectares of vineyard. Despite being planted in Cahors, Bordeaux, and the Loire Valley, the grape achieves its most classic and identifiable varietal expression in Mendoza, offering brambly black and red mountain fruit tones, rich and robust texture, and sweet floral tones. The wines usually undergo some degree of French and/or American oak treatment, with some of the more serious examples, such as the single-vineyard Achaval Ferrer wines, spending over a year in 100% new barrels. In some applications, such as the blended Cheval des Andes, Malbec may convey a texture and style reminiscent of velvety Pomerol; other offerings are simpler, fresher, and best enjoyed in youth. The departments of Luján de Cuyo (one of Argentina’s two DOCs, authorized only for Malbec wines) and Maipú, in Central Mendoza, provide some of the best traditional sites for the grape. Highly regarded estates include Catena, Susana Balbo’s Dominio del Plata, Bressia, and Achával Ferrer. In addition to Malbec, Cabernet Sauvignon is finding complexity and popularity here at roughly 7% of the acreage. While white grapes, such as Chardonnay and Sémillon, are cultivated with success in the high elevation vineyards of Uco Valley and its Tupungato department. In Southern Mendoza's department of San Rafael DOC, Malbec is the principal grape. Southern Mendoza is also home to General Alvear, which focuses on the Criolla varieties and is not known for fine wines. Criolla Grande and Cereza still account for about 20% of the plantings in Mendoza, but they are relegated to bulk wine and grape concentrate production, and are losing acreage to a plethora of international and Italian varieties. South of Mendoza, the winemaking provinces of Patagonia are Río Negro, Neuquén, and Chubut. These are smaller regions of production, and markedly cooler than those to the north. White grapes, such as Torrontés and Sémillon, perform well in the provinces’ chalky soils and longer growing seasons, although cool-climate, elegant versions of Malbec, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Pinot Noir are promising. Bodegas Chacra, spearheaded by the family behind Tuscany’s Sassicaia, rapidly emerged as Patagonia’s most famous estate in the mid-2000s, selling super-premium Río Negro Pinot Noir. Bodega Noemía de Patagonia, another premier producer in the province, is winning acclaim for Malbec. La Pampa, an adjacent province to the north of Río Negro, is an emerging area for wine. BACK TO TOP Other Countries of South and Central America Beyond Chile and Argentina, viticulture is gaining steam in Brazil and Uruguay. Brazil’s production is predominantly red, although nearly a quarter of the country’s output is sparkling, and the country has attracted significant foreign investment, including the Champagne firm Moët et Chandon. Most of the country’s viticultural activity takes place in the southern state of Rio Grande do Sul, on the Argentinean border. Within Rio Grande do Sul, Serra Gaúcha is the country's most developed viticultural region and accounts for approximately 90% of Brazilian wine. Other southern regions include São Joaquim, Serra do Sudeste, and Campanha. São Francisco Valley is a tropical winegrowing region in the northern part of the country, where growers are able to harvest twice a year. A new system of Origin Indications in Brazil is unique among New World countries; both yields and grape varieties are restricted in the manner of European appellations. Vale dos Vinhedos , a subregion within Serra Gaúcha, received Brazil’s first Origin Indication in 2002. Bordeaux and other international grapes are planted in Brazil, alongside Iberian varieties like Aragonez and Touriga Nacional. Uruguay, South America’s fourth largest producer, exports over half of its production to Brazil. Tannat—rechristened Harriague, after Don Pascual Harriague, the Frenchman who introduced the grape to Uruguay—is the dominant red variety for quality wines. Smaller wine industries exist in Paraguay, Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador. BACK TO TOPPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/richard-mayson/posts/portugal-treasure-trove-native-grapesThu, 17 Sep 2026 19:35:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:febbb5ce-0485-49d1-ba77-8c0a0f5e5ee8Richard MaysonThis edited excerpt, from the new, second edition of Richard Mayson’s book The Wines of Portugal , published by Académie du Vin Library, delves into Portuguese vineyards and some of the distinctive grapes found in them. It was the wine writer Hugh Johnson who described Portugal’s vineyards as “a site of special scientific and sensuous interest.” This was back in the mid-1990s, when Portugal was still something of a terra incognita after decades of insularity. The isolation was not just geographic but also political. Facts and figures were still hard to come by, and there was a feeling at the time that Portugal was hiding something. That “something” was described in my first book on Portugal, published in 1992, as “a treasure trove of indigenous grapes,” a phrase that has been regularly repeated and appears to have stuck. With amusing and evocative names, such as Tinto Cão (translated as “dog red”) and Borrado das Moscas (“fly droppings”), there seemed to be a mysterious new realm of grapes waiting to be uncovered. Since the 1990s, much progress has been made, but that treasure trove is still in the process of being unlocked. Traditionally, Portuguese vineyards were set out in a haphazard fashion, with numerous different grape varieties cohabiting the same small plot. In an extreme example, at Quinta do Crasto’s Maria Teresa vineyard, in the Douro, 54 different grape varieties have been identified growing together in a plot of less than 5 hectares (12 acres). For growers eking out a living from tiny parcels of vines, the interplanting of numerous different grape varieties was a good insurance policy, particularly after the double whammy of oidium and phylloxera in the nineteenth century. A variety susceptible to, say, uneven flowering could be offset by another, more resistant grape that might itself be prone to bunch rot. A grape that ripened to high levels of sugar but provided little color could be offset by a variety with thick skins and plenty of color. In this way, in Portugal’s often unpredictable Atlantic climate, growers could assure themselves of a reasonably consistent crop of grapes in all but the most challenging of years. As early as 1531, a writer named Rui Fernandes observed that “if some varieties fail to yield well in a particular year the others would compensate.” Although a number of early authorities commented on individual Portuguese varieties, it wasn’t until the mid-nineteenth century that the first of many attempts was made to list and categorize the principal Portuguese grapes. With Port wine having been an important export commodity since the seventeenth century, it is hardly surprising that much of the research took place in the Douro. In 1853, the baron Joseph James Forrester complained that “an infinite number of different wines could be produced in the Douro if only there could be a separation of grape varieties.” The situation was further confounded by the phylloxera epidemic, during which a number of the more troublesome European vinifera varieties were driven close to extinction. Writing in 1876, when phylloxera was at its height, the Visconde de Villa Maior lists a total of 28 grapes commonly planted in the Douro at the time, including Pé-agudo (”pointed foot”) and Entreverde (”green between”), both of which have long since left the local lexicon. Others, including Tinta Castelloa (probably Castelão), Tinto Cão, Mureto (Moreto), Touriga, and Tinta Amarela (Trincadeira), are still widely planted either in the Douro or elsewhere in Portugal, but the Visconde de Villa Maior added a proviso that still has some validity today: “It must be borne in mind that the same kinds [of grapes] are known in different places by different names; and what still more thwarts the study of ampelography, is that the same name is often used in different places to denote very dissimilar kinds. To avoid any confusion and mistakes that might arise from this species of anarchy, the best plan would be to verify their synonymes [sic], by giving a complete description of all the kinds cultivated – an investigation quite indispensable in making a methodical classification; – yet we are still far from seeing this undertaking realised.” This daunting undertaking was partly realized at the very end of the nineteenth century by the professor Bernardino Cincinnato da Costa (1866–1930). His thorough survey of Portugal’s vineyards was written in both Portuguese and French and published in a heavy, handsome tome titled O Portugal Vinicola ( Le Portugal Vinicole ) for the Paris Exhibition in 1900. The book is illustrated with a series of detailed (and beautiful) botanical watercolors, by Alfredo Roque Gameiro, depicting the principal grape varieties of the day. These include Arinto, Moscatel de Setúbal, Roupeiro, João de Santarém, Sousão, Ramisco, Tinto Cão, and Touriga Nacional, all of which are significant to a greater or lesser extent over a century later. Cincinnato da Costa’s authoritative work has never really been equaled, but he was followed by Pedro Bravo and Duarte d’Oliveira, who traveled the country and, in a manual titled Viticultura Moderna (1916), listed the names of 900 grape varieties growing in Portuguese vineyards. Bravo and Oliveira readily admitted that many of these are the same varieties with different names and complain, like Forrester over half a century before, about the lack of research to date. On Madeira and in much of mainland Portugal, the picture was further complicated post-phylloxera by the widespread use of productive direct producers and hybrid varieties, which were planted with and among various vines of the European Vitis vinifera species. Thus, Portugal descended into an even deeper state of viticultural anarchy. Since the 1990s, much has been done by the Instituto da Vinha e do Vinho (IVV) to sort out the confusing synonyms that led ampelographers in all sorts of directions, often chasing the same grape. For example, Rabo de Ovelha (”tail of the ewe”), Rabo de Carneiro (“tail of the sheep”), and Rabigato (”tail of the cat”) were names given to the same grape planted in different parts of the country—at least the tail in the name was a clue. But within Portugal, little pockets of vineyard developed, seemingly in complete isolation from one another. Although neighboring parishes often cultivated the same or similar grape varieties, they christened them with different names. Wry amusement quickly gives way to intense frustration for those studying Portuguese vineyards, for not only are they unbeknownst to outsiders, but many of Portugal’s older vineyards are still a mystery to the growers themselves. Turbulent early twentieth-century politics meant that little was undertaken in the vineyards until the Salazar regime gained a grip on the country in the 1930s. Isolated attempts at varietal research were pursued by Port shippers in the Douro, but it was not until the Junta Nacional do Vinho (JNV) was formed in 1937 that a more coordinated approach became apparent. In the dark days of World War II, against a background of falling prices and overproduction, the JNV began drawing up a cadastro (register) of Portuguese vineyards. The introduction to the two lengthy preparatory volumes published in 1942 rather sums up the spirit of the age. Representing the Federation of Wine Producers in the Center and South of Portugal, Albano Castro Homem de Melo triumphantly declared, “We trust . . . that our determination will not slow the rhythm of our march ahead. At the end there is victory.” If there was a victory, it was Pyrrhic. Although the cadastro was eventually completed, it did little either to advance or to clarify the situation in Portuguese vineyards. In fact, the postwar march toward cooperativization proved to be a step backward. Putting quantity before quality, in the 1960s and early 1970s, the professor José Francisco de Leão Ferreira de Almeida, of the Estação Agronómica Nacional at Oeiras, near Lisbon, developed a series of grape varieties, some with less than promising names from a qualitative perspective, including Vaca Leiteira (“milk cow”) and Carrega Burros (“load the donkeys”). These varieties were widely distributed throughout Estremadura, the Ribatejo, and Dão, where growers delivering consignments of grapes to the new generation of cooperative wineries were paid by weight rather than based on any intrinsic quality. Without varietal separation, high-yielding vinifera and hybrid grapes were simply mixed with traditional varieties, and the quality of wines from the Dão region in particular took a significant turn for the worse. The revolution of 1974–1975 brought the cooperative program to a halt. When democracy was restored in 1976, Portugal’s much weakened economy was in no position to finance improvements in either the winery or the vineyard. Despite the political turmoil, Portugal’s first coordinated attempt at varietal research was undertaken privately in the Douro during the 1970s. In 1981, after five years of intensive investigation led by José Rosas and João Nicolau de Almeida, of the Port shippers Ramos Pinto, five red varieties were selected and promoted as the leading grapes in the region. Touriga Nacional, Touriga Francesa, Tinta Barroca, Tinta Roriz, and Tinto Cão became known colloquially as the top cinco, and 2,500 hectares (6,200 acres) of these varieties (mostly Touriga Francesa and Tinta Roriz) were subsequently planted in varietal plots under the Integrated Rural Development Project of Trás-os-Montes (or PDRITM, also known as the World Bank Scheme) of the 1980s. The rest of the country had to await the arrival of the European Union. Immediately prior to Portugal’s accession in 1986, the Ministry of Agriculture drew up a list of authorized and recommended grapes for each and every demarcated region. This included some strange anomalies, but it represented a significant step toward regaining control of Portugal’s chaotic vineyards. At much the same time, the professor Paul Truel, of the viticultural research station at Montpellier, in France, undertook the first thorough research into Portuguese grape varieties and their synonyms since Cincinnato da Costa’s masterful work almost a century earlier. Once the funds began to flow in from Brussels, priority was given to weeding out direct producers and hybrids to replace them with approved European stock. The Atlantic island of Madeira faced the greatest challenge. At the end of the 1980s, over half of the island’s output originated from direct producers. Most of the island’s wine was still masquerading in bottle as Sercial, Verdelho, Bual, and Malvasia, yet these so-called noble grapes made up just six percent of total production. Although this situation has improved considerably with the vinifera Tinta Negra now the main grape, Madeira is still hampered by the lack of an accurate or up-to-date cadastro of the island’s vineyards. On the mainland, the varietal planting that took place in the Douro in the 1980s has been emulated gradually elsewhere. Growers in central and southern Portugal flirted with international varieties such as Cabernet and Chardonnay, but, apart from the Ribatejo, where there is something of a precedent for these grapes, they have made relatively few inroads. Syrah is the only international variety that has been relatively widely adopted, though the varietal mix in Bairrada and the Lisboa region in particular has greatly diversified. Although Portugal maintains a considerable amount of pride in its indigenous grapes, this is not xenophobia. Varietal experiments that began in the 1970s and 1980s have revealed some high-quality grape varieties, many of which have been adopted just as enthusiastically by foreigners growing grapes in Portugal as they have been by the Portuguese themselves. Some, including Touriga Nacional, have made their way to other countries, including France. By the mid-1990s, a sufficient area of vineyard had been replanted for winemakers to consider making varietal wines from indigenous grapes. When the Portuguese trade office in London proposed to organize the first-ever tasting of Portuguese varietal wines in 1997, however, this was met with a certain amount of resistance and misunderstanding. Varietal fever subsequently became so highly contagious that many producers abandoned the time-honored blends that defined their regions. On the other hand, the move toward varietal labeling has created an international awareness of Portugal’s unique indigenous grapes. Recent climatic extremes have prompted a return to the use of traditional grape varieties in parts of Portugal. Many of the newer, and what were thought to be better, grape varieties ( cépages améliorateurs in French parlance) in the 1980s and 1990s have proved to be less heat and drought resistant than the grapes that they replaced. Parts of the Douro and Alentejo that have suffered recently from extreme heat are returning to a more traditional varietal mix, with red grapes such as Touriga Franca and Moreto and the white Antão Vaz finding favor. Another challenge posed by climate change is a lack of winter dormancy in some parts of Portugal (especially Madeira, with its mild winters). This puts much greater stress on the vine, and a lack of cold weather also harbors insects and fungal disease. It has taken nearly 250 years for Portugal to establish a workable template of wine regions. The Marquis of Pombal, the prime minister during the reign of José I, started the process when he first drew a boundary around the Douro in 1755, and demarcation has continued in fits and starts ever since. Ten regions were demarcated between 1908 and 1979, but, until the mid-1980s, many of the best Portuguese wines continued to be sold without any regional identity. Merchant firms scoured the country for good wine and blended and bottled their finest as garrafeiras . This category put the merchant’s own name before either grape variety or regional provenance. Only when the Portuguese joined the ranks of the European Union in 1986 were they given notice to change their ways, and, over the recent decades, an entirely new pyramid of wine regions emerged: Denominação de Origem Controlada (DOC) or Denominação de Origem Protegida (DOP), Indicação Geográfica Protegida (IGP) or Vinho Regional, and Vinho de Mesa (table wine). The control of Portugal’s wine sector (with the exception of Port, Douro wine, and Madeira) is the remit of the IVV. Based in Lisbon but with regional representation, the IVV’s responsibilities are wide-ranging. In its own words, the IVV is responsible for “participating in and accompanying the wine sector with the object of improving quality, reinforcing competitiveness at an international level as well as the sustainable development of viticulture and wine production.” It is also responsible for the Sistema Nacional Integrado de Informação da Vinha e do Vinho (i.e., information and statistics, including the national vineyard register), the collection of taxes from the sector, and the coordination and application of measures to manage Portugal’s vineyard heritage. One area where the IVV made useful progress is in the naming of individual grape varieties. In accordance with the International Code of Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi, and Plants and the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, it has drawn up a list of permitted grapes, the names of which can appear on the labels of wines designated as DOC and Vinho Regional. The IVV currently lists over 340 grape varieties, over half of which are red, with the majority indigenous to Portugal (it claims that at least 250 are indigenous). The Grapes of Portugal My book profiles over 130 different grape varieties, including quality assessments and some of the best and most representative wines and their producers. The grape profile that follows is for Ramisco, a variety still mostly ungrafted and planted on its own roots, and surely one of the most distinctive in Portugal. Ramisco Virtually confined to the region of Colares, northwest of Lisbon, Ramisco is thought to be related to the red Trincadeira and white Sercial, which is also known locally as Esgana Cão (”dog strangler”). Cincinnato da Costa lavished praise on this remarkable grape, describing it as capable of making wines with “freshness, finesse, perfume, flavor and softness – lacking nothing.” Back in the nineteenth century, this was quite easy to say, but, in the twentieth century, this grape suffered a steady decline until, by the 1990s, it was hard to describe Ramisco with any certainty. Fortunately, Ramisco has made a comeback, and Cincinnato da Costa was right in that it is capable of remarkable perfume; but it can also show an astringency verging on meanness if not handled correctly. In Colares, with its roots embedded in calcareous clay below a thick layer of protective sand, Ramisco resisted phylloxera in the nineteenth century, and vineyards that remain there are still ungrafted ( pé franco ). It is not known how much Ramisco remains, but there can be no more than about 15 hectares (37 acres) in Colares, with a few more scattered plots between Sintra and Mafra. Ramisco has open bunches and is therefore resistant to rot on the mild but humid Atlantic coast; however, it has a tendency to become top-heavy and topple over, with the grapes dragging on the sand unless they are propped up by either pontões (bamboo props) or wires. Ramisco is late ripening, often harvested in October, and rarely ripens much more than 12 Baumé (although in 2025, Ramilo Wines harvested Ramisco at 13.2 Baumé). The legal minimum alcohol for red Colares is just 10% ABV, and, in the past, many of the wines could be thin and mean. Ramisco wines rarely have much color, but they are capable of great finesse, usually after aging in seasoned wood (oak or sometimes mahogany or chestnut) for up to five years. A well-made red Colares is capable of development in bottle over many years: a 1965 Collares [sic] from Viúva Gomes tasted in 2019 was still magnificent, suave and elegant while retaining its characteristic Atlantic astringency. Ramisco is capable of greatness, as a new generation of growers and winemakers in Colares will attest. This excerpt first appeared in The Wines of Portugal , written by Richard Mayson and published by Académie du Vin Library in June 2026. It has been edited and adapted for style, length, and audience. Used with permission. Richard Mayson is also the author of the Académie du Vin Library books Port and the Douro and Madeira: The Islands and Their Wines . GuildSomm members receive 25% off Académie du Vin Library books with the code found on the Member Discounts page . Some exceptions apply; see details on the Member Discounts page. You Might Also Like Colares: Wines by the Waves , by Jens Peter Nebsbjerg Portugal: Dry Wines Expert Guide Fortified Wine Expert GuidePortugal-Feature