https://www.guildsomm.com/research/expert_guides/w/expert-guides/2551/loire-valleyTue, 16 Jun 2026 15:11:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:f8f47b07-8807-43cf-8f35-726d267b11a9Sandra BanContents History Loire Valley Wine Law The Market Land and Climate The Grapes of the Loire Valley Pays Nantais Anjou-Saumur Touraine Central Vineyards Central France Bibliography The Loire Valley is the third largest wine region in France, yet it is also one of the country’s least well known. It follows the broad sweep of the Loire River for nearly 1,000 kilometers, from the mountains of the Massif Central in the center of France to the wild Atlantic coast in the northwest. The Loire and its tributaries are home to more than 50 appellations. Most are populated by small family winegrowers, many of whom have been farming the same land for centuries. More famous for its châteaux than its wine, the Loire is a region of evident history, but it is a region of experimentation and discovery as well, where respect for the past and a spirit of innovation exist side by side. History The Roman officer and historian Pliny the Elder completed his Natural History in 77 CE, reflecting the world he knew in the first century, including its vineyards and wines. In this text, he mentioned that vines were growing on the banks of the Loire, evidence that this region has a vinous history spanning at least two millennia. But it was not until the sixth century that Grégoire, the bishop of Tours, made the first reference to the vineyards in the local region of Touraine, which today includes Chinon and Vouvray. He also confirm ed that vineyards were growing in the Sancerre area, writing, “In the year 582, a late frost scorched the vines.” The church was a driving force in the development of the Loire’s vineyards and wine production, as it was in other parts of France and Europe, until the French Revolution. The Loire River and its tributaries have long provided a route to market for the region’s wines. On the western coast, close to the mouth of the river, Nantes has been an important trading hub for centuries. There is even a theory that in the 19 th century, the local white wine, now known as Muscadet, acquired its name from Dutch traders looking for a neutral, high-acid white wine that they could add to the botanical noix de muscade (nutmeg) prior to distillation. In the 15 th century, the Loire, rather than Paris, was the location of the French royal court. While the monarchs shifted back to Paris in the middle of the 16 th century, the Loire continued to be the summer getaway of the nobility and the wealthy, hence the region’s abundance of ornate châteaux and a love of Loire wine among the aristocracy. Charles VII (1403–1461) was one of the kings who set up court in the Loire Valley. During the Hundred Years’ War, Joan of Arc famously went to see him in Chinon to ask for an army before defeating the king of England during the siege of Orlé ans. Vines and a castle in Chinon (Credit: Stevens Frémont, InterLoire) There were other prominent Loire residents who brought fame to the local wines, including Franç ois Rabelais. Born in Chinon in the late 15 th century, he was most famous for his satirical work Gargantua and Panta gruel , although he also had a stint as both a religious man and a doctor. Some of his wine-related commentary includes the advice that Sauvignon Blanc is good for constipation and the saying “Always drink, never die.” Around the same time that Rabelais was upsetting the establishment with his scathing and comedic writing, the artist Leonardo da Vinci made the Loire his home. In 1516, at age 64, he crossed the Alps on a mule after being invited by François I to be his royal painter. In his luggage were several paintings, including the Mona Lisa. He died in the Loire in 1519 and is buried in the town of Amboise, in the Touraine region. Touraine was one of the main areas to benefit from the 1577 law by the Parlement de Paris that prohibited Parisians from purchasing wines made within a 20-league (around 88-kilometer) radius of the capital, but over the centuries the Parisian market didn’t want to pay a high price for quality. As Xavier de Planhol explains in An Historical Geography of France , this eventually led to a deterioration in the quality of wines produced in areas that were easily reached by river or the canal from Paris. “By the beginning of the seventeenth century, Orléans wine was already banned from the royal table and it lost the last shreds of its reputation over the decades that followed.” The increasing urbanization of the French population called for everyday, low-priced wines. As the railways developed in the 19 th century, the regions that had benefited from their waterway connections with Paris became pitted against the low-cost wine producers of the south. It was around this time that phylloxera arrived in the Loire. It is estimated that when the louse was first identified, in 1877, half the population in the Loire depended in some form on the vine for income. At first, the local phylloxera committees were adamant that they wouldn’t use American rootstocks and would instead inject the soil with carbon disul f ide , but it soon became clear that grafting was necessary. The replanting that followed marked a change in the flavors of the Loire: Sancerre switched from Pinot Noir to Sauvignon Blanc, while Cabernet Franc and Chenin Blanc gained popularity in Anjou-Saumur. During World War II, the Loire Valley’s wine regions were occupied by the Germans. Saumur was a center of resistance: weapons and documents were hidden in casks that crossed the line between free and occupied France, which was situated south of the river. But many men in the region became prisoners of war, including Gaston Huet, who returned to his native Vouvray having lost one-third of his body weight. Vineyards fell into disrepair, with no one to work in them, and without fungicides or pesticides to control the spread of disease. Following the war, many young people left the countryside to work in cities, while those who stayed began bottling their own wines or organized themselves into cooperatives and started selling their wines in the bistros of Paris. Vines were part of farmers’ income, not their sole income, until the 1960s and 1970s, when goats, cattle, and crops started giving way to vines—and a greater focus on quality winemaking. The 1980s brought major advances in the cellar, with better presses, stainless steel, and temperature control making their debut. Today, the Loire Valley’s wine industry is focused on improving the quality of the raw material: the grapes. There’s also increasing concern regarding the effects of climate change, whether frost, drought, or unpredictable weather events. This is paired with a greener approach; about 30% of Loire Valley vineyards are now either sustainably or organically farmed. Loire Valley Wine Law The Loire Valley; click to enlarge and zoom in (Credit: InterLoire) Loire Valley wines are subject to the Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée (AOC) system, initially established throughout France in the 1930s in response to the chaos that ensued after the phylloxera crisis, which largely destroyed the country’s vineyards. This loss of crops led to a surge in fraudulent practices, and soon the market was awash with low-quality wine produced to fulfill demand. In the absence of legal regulations, grapes and wines were routinely blended, often from different origins both within and outside France, and adulterated in numerous ways to stretch volumes further. The appellation system was an effective means of regulating production and ensuring that wines from a particular origin conformed to certain expected criteria. Many of the best-known Loire appellations were defined in 1936, in the earliest days of AOC regulation, including Muscadet, Vouvray, Bourgueil, Chinon, and Saumur. Today, 78% of the Loire Valley’s production is designated AOC and there are 53 separate AOCs. Some winemakers choose to operate outside the system, producing wines that can carry only the basic country designation of Vin de France (VdF). As is the case in other countries with similarly restrictive regulations, most of these wines are of basic quality, but some are of the highest quality, made by producers who wish to make the wines they want to make, even if they do not meet the requirements for appellation status. Wines without geographical indication account for 12% of total Loire production. 2020 figures from the Loire Valley Wines Economic Report 2021 Between AOC and VdF lies a third quality designation: Indication Géographique Protégée (IGP). IGPs are subject to similar but less strict regulations compared with AOCs. They usually cover a wider area than the AOCs, and there is typically greater flexibility on yield levels and the grape varieties that can be grown. The Loire has five IGPs for wine (and one for apple brandy), of which the most important by far is Val de Loire. This covers 4,600 hectares spread over a vast growing area that encompasses 13 different administrative departments and dozens of grape varieties. Reds, whites, and rosés are made under the Val de Loire banner, and almost all are single-variety wines. Permitted yields are 90 hectoliters per hectare, and the wines are light and early drinking in style. Nearly 300,000 hectoliters are made annually under this IGP, which accounts for 9% of all the Loire’s production. The Loire’s other IGPs are Côtes de la Charité, Coteaux de Tannay, Coteaux du Cher et de l’Arnon, and Puy de Dôme. Collectively, they account for a mere 0.2% of the region’s total production. A final style worth noting is vin gris . This term, though not legally regulated, refers to very pale rosé wines. In Coteaux du Vendômois AOC, these wines are based on minimal skin contact with Pineau D'Aunis. In Reuilly AOC, vins gris experience a short maceration with Pinot Gris' pink skins. The Market The Loire Valley is the third largest winegrowing area in France by hectarage, after Bordeaux and the Rhône. It is not easy to visit the Loire Valley in one trip—the drive from Muscadet to Sancerre takes more than four hours. Getting to know its growers takes time, too. There are 3,600 growers cultivating 56,900 hectares of vines, an area larger than the entire Austrian or New Zealand vineyard. Sales figures for 2020 show that close to three-quarters of all Loire wine, equivalent to 210 million bottles, is sold in France. Within France, supermarkets are the most important outlet for Loire Valley wines, particularly those in a low-price, négociant-dominant market, such as Muscadet and the rosé categories Rosé de Loire and Cabernet d’Anjou. For those appellations held in higher esteem, such as the sweet grand cru– designated wines of Quarts de Chaume or the steely dry whites of Savennières, the independent retail sector and on-trade are the key markets. The Loire Valley wine association reports that 26% of all wines, equivalent to 70 million bottles, were shipped overseas in 2020. The five most important export markets (both by value and volume) for the Loire Valley’s wine producers are, in order of sales, the US, the UK, Germany, Belgium, and Canada. Region-wide figures, however, hide the huge variability from one appellation to another. For example, exports account for 62% of Sancerre sales and 64% of Crémant de Loire, which has enjoyed a strong period of growth as part of a wider thirst for French crémant styles both at home and abroad. In the UK, for example, sales increased fivefold from 2012 to 2020. But just 4% of all Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil and 14% of Menetou-Salon went overseas. 2020 figures from the Loire Valley Wines Economic Report 2021 White wines take the lead in export markets, accounting for 57% of all wine shipped by volume. Reds and rosé represent 23%, and sparkling 20%. Sancerre is by far the most successful appellation internationally, particularly when it comes to value, while Muscadet, Vouvray, and the Touraine appellation (thanks to Sauvignon Blanc) have healthy volume sales, although value lags. The cost of a vineyard in each of the appellations reflects the market’s appetite for its wines. For example, the average price of a hectare of vineyard land is €7,000 in Muscadet, €26,000 in Vouvray, and €210,000 in Sancerre, according to figures from SAFER, the French rural land agency. This has implications for young winemakers wishing to start a business. In Sancerre, it is difficult to begin unless you are a member of a winegrowing family or a large wine business. The Anjou area, where a hectare costs around €18,000, has become a hotbed of talent and innovation. Here, many are making minimal-intervention wines and trialing unusual blends. Land and Climate The Land The Loire Valley is the most sprawling of French wine regions, perhaps unsurprising since it follows the flow of the country’s longest river. The geology of the vineyards is highly diverse and often immediately visible. The soil is considered a crucial part of the identity of each place and the starting point for defining an appellation. Visit any Loire winegrower and they will most likely talk about what is under the ground before anything else. Savennières Roche aux Moines (Credit: Savennières) The oldest rocks in the Loire Valley—and in all of France—are found in the far west. This is the Armorican Massif (Massif Armoricain), which covers all of northwestern France. It is the remains of the giant Hercynian range of mountains from the Precambrian era. Looking at the landscape today, it is hard to believe that mountains were once here, as the land is low-lying, with only gentle slopes. But 600 million years of weathering have resulted in soils of enormous complexity. These old rocks form the basis of the soils of Muscadet and other appellations of the Nantais region and the western half of Anjou, including Savennières. This area is known as the Anjou Noir (or Black Anjou) because of the dark soils that characterize the Armorican Massif. Granite, gneiss, multicolored schist, slate, and pudding stones are found here. The dividing line between the Anjou Noir and the Anjou Blanc runs from north to south, starting southeast of Angers. The Anjou Blanc (White Anjou) marks the beginning of the Paris Basin, a low-lying area in northern France that was covered by the sea during the Cretaceous and Jurassic periods (67 to 195 million years ago). The more recent, shallow seas that receded to leave soils based on soft, chalky Cretaceous limestone are easily visible today in the houses, castles, and cellars of the lower Loire. These are the soils of eastern Anjou and Touraine. Further eastward, the Paris Basin continues to be the bedrock of the vineyards of the Central Vineyards, around Sancerre. The seas were deeper here, however, and these older soils (from the Jurassic period) are frequently characterized by the presence of tiny fossils. The Kimmeridgian clays found in Sancerre continue to the vineyards of Chablis. A fault runs through the town of Sancerre, adding complexity to the range of soils and defining the appellations of the Central Vineyards. These include islands of flint, for example around Saint-Andelain in Pouilly-Fumé. The divide between the Armorican Massif and Paris Basin (Credit: InterLoire) To the south, back toward the source of the Loire River, the vineyards of the Auvergne have younger soils based on the decomposed volcanoes of the Massif Central. Schists and granite predominate, and Gamay is the red grape that thrives, as it does on the granite soils of Beaujolais. The Climate The vineyards of the Loire cover an area that extends more than 800 kilometers across France, but the climate of the region is dictated primarily by its northern latitude. The great majority of the vineyards lie on the 47 th parallel; only the Alsace and Champagne wine regions are further north in France. The growing environment for red wines is marginal, and even for whites it is far from reliable. But beyond the simple commonality of latitude, there is considerable climatic variation both between and within the different appellations, which explains the enormous diversity of grapes and styles produced in the Loire Valley. The Role of Altitude Altitude rarely has a significant impact on the climate of the vineyards of the Loire. Most are at or close to sea level. In Muscadet, the viewpoint of Butte de la Roche gives an extensive 360-degree view across the vineyards at less than 50 meters above sea level. Elsewhere, most vineyards are below 100 meters in altitude. There are a few exceptions, however. In Sancerre, the famed slopes of Les Monts Damnés vineyard rise to 436 meters, and many of the vines in the appellation grow between 250 and 350 meters above sea level. Another outlier is the upper Loire, where the vineyards are situated in the Massif Central. These appellations are several hundred kilometers south of the Central Vineyards region, geographically detached from the main vineyard area. Here, the latitude is more like that of southern Burgundy, but the climate is influenced by the altitude of the vines, which are situated between 200 and 600 meters above sea level. The climate is semicontinental, with cold winters and hot summers, and little precipitation. A major climatic influence is the foehn, a warm wind that descends from the mountains to the vineyards. The overall climate is maritime for the Nantais region, where the Muscadet vineyards lie, becoming more temperate-oceanic in the adjoining Anjou region immediately east. Further eastward, the Atlantic influence diminishes from Saumur toward the warmer red-wine heartland of Touraine, the vineyards of Chinon and Bourgueil. Further east from there, the climate becomes more continental in the premier Sauvignon Blanc growing areas in the Central Vineyards, where there are wider temperature variations between summer and winter. This is also the case for the vineyards of the upper Loire, situated south of the Central Vineyards. Frost is a regular hazard in this part of the world, and crop losses in recent years—notably 2021, but also 2019, 2017, and 2016—have been dramatic. Beyond frosts, there are multiple other risks to the health and quality of the harvest that are climate related, including hail, autumn rain, and the constant threat of mildew during the growing season. Throughout the appellations of the Loire, vintage variation is significant from year to year, which is one reason for the strength of the Loire sparkling wine industry, second in volume only to Champagne in France. When the weather is challenging during the growing season, it has always been useful to be able to fall back on fizz to make the best of grapes that achieve less than ideal ripeness (in Vouvray, for example). Likewise, in semisweet Anjou rosé, sugar can compensate for underripe fruit. No Loire vine is far from a river, and these rivers play a key role in determining the temperature, humidity, and airflow of the growing environment. Many of the best vineyards are on south-facing slopes next to a river—if not the Loire itself, then one of its many tributaries: the Maine, Sèvre, Vienne, Indre, Allier, Loir, Layon, Thouet, or Cher. The great sweet wines of Vouvray and Quarts de Chaume are only possible thanks to the vineyards’ proximity to the Loire and Layon Rivers, which create the autumn mists necessary for the development of botrytis in favorable years. Climate Change Temperatures have measurably increased in the Loire Valley since the 1940s. According to the Huglin index, the climate in the Loire Valley cities of Nantes, Angers, Tours, and Bourges moved from cold to temperate during the 60-year period to 2010. The average temperature over this period increased by 1.35 degrees Celsius, and an ongoing study notes that average Loire temperatures have increased by 3 degrees Celsius in the last 30 years. There have also been rises in the minimum temperature (1.4 degrees Celsius) and the maximum (1.3 degrees Celsius) over this period. Researchers have observed that the regions east of Saumur experienced higher rises in maximum temperatures because of the decreasing oceanic influence. The Atlantic serves to lower maximum temperatures in the Nantais region thanks to the presence of cloud cover, which mitigates very high temperatures but correspondingly raises minimum temperatures at night, because the continued presence of cloud is more likely to prevent heat escaping at night. Climate change has had several consequences, both positive and negative. The Loire was historically a region where grapes often failed to achieve full ripeness. Warmer temperatures and increased levels of photosynthesis have yielded better-quality wines, especially the reds. Today, there are far fewer examples of green and leafy Cabernet Franc; Pinot Noir wines have acquired a sensual richness; Gamay wines are plump and juicy. For whites, too, more reliable ripening has been welcome. The negative effect of higher temperatures is the risk that the wines are unbalanced. Grapes show higher levels of sugar—and therefore alcohol—and lower acidity. The typical profile of the wines has undoubtedly changed. That this is related to climate change is highly probable. But changes in viticultural practices have also allowed grapegrowers to achieve higher levels of ripeness in their fruit through bunch thinning and leaf removal, methods that have benefits for plant health as well. Viticulture has become more challenging with a changing climate. With higher temperatures early in the season, the vine’s growing cycle has shifted, so budbreak is earlier. As a result, when the spring frosts strike—as they have always done, to a greater or lesser extent—the vine is far more advanced than it would have been in years past and the losses more consequent. The annual fight against frost is a major concern. When frost is forecast, candles are used in the vineyards at night, although some ecologically minded growers are increasingly reluctant to resort to this practice. Using water-spraying at night is an effective solution, but few can access the quantity of water required. Frost fans are often employed as well. The surest solution seems to be using heated electric wires positioned along the training wires in the canopy, but this requires substantial investment. Most growers are seeking adaptations to their working practices, principally by pruning later, pruning longer, pruning twice, or any combination of these. Such adaptations are expensive and time consuming but appear to mitigate losses, at least in part. At the other end of the scale, heat and drought associated with climate change are problematic, especially in a region where irrigation is forbidden under AOC legislation. At temperatures much over 30 degrees Celsius, photosynthesis decreases, and eventually the vine shuts down and blocks maturation of the grapes. In 2022, early season drought and heat in May were followed by a heat wave and further drought in July, a situation that had never been seen before. The Grapes of the Loire Valley White Grapes Sauvignon Blanc: The Loire Valley is likely the birthplace of Sauvignon Blanc , and it contains around one-third of France’s Sauvignon Blanc vineyard area. The grape’s home is in the eastern part of the Touraine region and further east in the Central Vineyards, an area that includes Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé and sits around 450 kilometers from the Atlantic coast. Figures from the Loire Valley Wines Economic Report 2021 Sauvignon Blanc was first mentioned in 1534 by François Rabelais in Gargantua and Pantagruel , where he referred to the grape as Fiers. It wasn’t until almost 200 years later that Sauvignon Blanc’s existence in Bordeaux, the country’s other main Sauvignon Blanc–producing area, was recorded. Around that time, in 1783, Sauvignon Blanc was also mentioned in Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé, but it didn’t become the grape of choice until after phylloxera. Sauvignon Blanc is a fertile variety that can produce large quantities of fruit as well as large canopies. As a result, low vigor soils or low vigor rootstocks, or both, are recommended. Most Sauvignon Blanc growers in the Loire battle powdery mildew each year, and this is becoming a greater issue with increasingly warm, humid weather. Sauvignon Blanc’s naturally small-berried, tightly packed bunches make it susceptible to botrytis, and wood diseases including E utypa dieback and esca are also common challenges. The Loire Valley typically yields more restrained examples of Sauvignon Blanc compared with those of New Zealand. The two regions show some similarities in terms of growing season temperatures and annual rainfall. But the sunlight is more intense and there are more sunshine hours in New Zealand compared with the Loire. Henri Bourgeois has properties in both Marlborough and Sancerre and has found that the intensity of light in New Zealand means that extra leaf protection is crucial. The greater sunlight and higher ultraviolet light exposure may play a part in the exuberance of Sauvignon Blanc in New Zealand, while in the Loire the aromas are less overt and less tropical, often including gooseberry, elderflower, nettle, and citrus flavors. In warmer seasons, however, such as 2018, 2019, and 2020, ripeness levels were unprecedented, with ripe orchard fruit, lower acids, and high alcohol commonly found in the wines. The classic Loire Sauvignon Blanc style is dry, unoaked, and fresh. Grapes are often machine harvested and fermented relatively cool in stainless steel tanks to preserve aromatic freshness. Malolactic fermentation is typically blocked, and a short period on lees ensues before bottling. But there are many prestige and single-vineyard cuv é es that are hand-picked, whole-bunch pressed, and fermented wild in barrel (typically used barrels of varying sizes). Experimentation has also increased, with a range of fermentation vessels and different techniques (such as brief skin contact, extended lees aging, and lees stirring) used. 10,094 hectares in 2020 Chenin: Dry vs. Sweet There is a growing preference for drier styles of still Chenin Blanc. Because of climate change, producers can make wines with riper phenolics and lower acidity levels that don’t need residual sugar as a counterpoint. But there is a concern that consumer demand for dry styles is prompting producers to make dry wines even when they would be better balanced with residual sugar. The preference for drier styles is also affecting the demi-sec category, with residual sugar levels edging lower, while the sec tendre category offers an option between sec and demi-sec. In the historic and prestigious sweet wine appellations of the Loire, several producers have shifted from producing sweet wines because of financial pressure and are now making dry wines in the appellation of Quarts de Chaume. These wines cannot be labeled with the appellation name, however, as it is a designation for sweet wine only; instead they must be labeled as Anjou AOC Blanc or Vin de France. Chenin Blanc: The Loire Valley produces 93% of France’s Chenin Blanc . The grape plays a key role in Anjou-Saumur, where its best-known incarnation is in the small but significant appellation of Savennières, and in the eastern slice of the Touraine region, where the Vouvray and Montlouis-sur-Loire appellations champion this versatile variety. It seems that Chenin Blanc is a Loire native, tracing its roots back at least 1,000 years, when it was referred to as Plant d’Anjou. In the early 16 th century, an abbot and his finance minister brother-in-law, Thomas Bohier, undertook trials with different varieties from around France on the grounds of the Montchenin monastery, south of Tours. The grape now known as Chenin Blanc flourished, perhaps taking its name from the monastery—but there are various theories on the development of the name. There remain around 60 synonyms for Chenin Blanc, with Pineau d’Anjou and Pineau de la Loire the most common in the Loire Valley. The local historian Henri Galinié discovered that Plant d’Anjou and Pineau de la Loire were the most used names until the 1800s, although the peasant growers were commonly using Chenin in the fields. With the standardization of the modern French language followed by the development of the field of ampelography in the early 19 th century, there was a need to remove the confusion between Pineau and Pinot. In an 1875 dictionary, Chenin Blanc appeared as a synonym for Pineau and eventually became the more common name. Chenin Blanc is not easy to grow. It is an early budding variety, and milder winters are leading to an earlier budbreak. This, in combination with more frequent and harder frosts, puts the vine at risk in early spring. Late pruning and investment in frost protection have become common across the valley. Chenin Blanc is a vigorous variety, and growers who wish to produce quality wine must manage crop loads through removing unwanted shoots and crop thinning, which also help promote aeration in the battle against powdery mildew and bunch rot. While Chenin Blanc is a mid-ripener, traditionally maturing in early to mid-October, the harvests are coming earlier. Highly sensitive to botrytis, it is the variety behind the famed sweet wines of Quarts de Chaume and Bonnezeaux within the Coteaux du Layon. Used for sparkling styles as well as dry, demi-sec, and fully botrytized wines, Chenin Blanc is one of the finest, most versatile grapes. Depending on the season or the demands of the market, producers may opt to make dry or sweet styles—or, in some cases, different sweetness levels from the same vineyard, undertaking multiple tries (passes), to obtain the ripeness they desire. Typically, a cooler season lends itself to sparkling and taut, dry styles. Riper seasons with dry autumns allow fully mature, dry expressions and sweeter styles to be produced. 9,540 hectares in 2020 Melon B: Melon B is inextricably associated with Muscadet and is planted almost exclusively in the Nantais region. It is often referred to as Melon de Bourgogne because it originated in Burgundy, although it was rejected by its homeland many years ago. The variety has been planted in the Nantais since the 1600s, but for centuries it lived in the shadow of Folle Blanche because of the latter’s prolific production destined for eau-de-vie. Melon B was always recognized as a superior variety for making wine, however, and it is now the dominant variety. It is well-suited to this cool region because it can withstand low winter temperatures. The Melon B planted in the Nantais accounts for 99.9% of all the plantings of the variety in France. The great majority of this is planted in the Muscadet appellation, where it constitutes the largest concentration of a single variety anywhere in the Loire Valley. Basic wines made from Melon B are typically pale, light in alcohol, unoaked, neutral in flavor, and a good match for the local oysters. To give the wines more aroma and body (and often a slight spritz of carbon dioxide), the traditional practice of aging on lees until the spring following the harvest is widespread in the Muscadet region. Many producers are now taking this practice further, identifying the best sites and limiting yields to create a system of cru wines. With limited yields and extended lees aging, Melon B wines can become serious contenders for some of the best white wines from the Loire. A smaller amount of Melon B (around 18%) is blended with other varieties or made into still or sparkling wines under the Vin de France label. 8,327 hectares in 2020 Chardonnay: For a grape variety that is so ubiquitous, Chardonnay is a minor player in the Loire and rarely seen bottled as a varietal wine. Less important quantitatively and qualitatively than Chenin Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc, or Melon B, it is more often used as blending material to soften the sometimes hard edges of the more acidic Melon B or Chenin Blanc, usually for more basic wines. It also has appeal in sparkling blends with Chenin Blanc. The only place where Chardonnay takes a lead role is in the whites of the Auvergne, which must be 100% Chardonnay. It is also found in blends in the wines of Saint-Pourçain. It is the sixth most planted grape variety in the Loire. 2,902 hectares in 2020 Other White Grapes Folle Blanche: Folle Blanche, also known as Gros Plant, is a highly productive and highly acidic variety from southwestern France, traditionally used for making Cognac. This most likely explains its strong historic presence in the Nantais region, where it was grown specifically for brandy production for Dutch merchants in the 17 th century. Today, it has its own dedicated appellation for wine, Gros Plant du Pays Nantais, but the volume produced is a fraction of that of Muscadet. The vine buds early, making it susceptible to frost in this cool region. Perhaps more valued for its productivity than its quality, there are nevertheless some appealing, crisp examples to be found, usually from top producers of Muscadet. Like Muscadet, Folle Blanche’s neutral, refreshing qualities make it a popular and inexpensive choice in local seafood restaurants. Romorantin: A peculiarity of the Loire Valley, the Romorantin variety, a cross of Pinot and Gouais Blanc, is synonymous with Cour-Cheverny AOC, an appellation of 11 villages in the Loire-et-Cher department south and east of the city of Blois. The vineyard area is a tiny 50 hectares, devoted exclusively to the grape, which takes its name from the village of Romorantin. François I once resided here, and legend has it that he was the first person to order Romorantin plants from their native Burgundy, in 1519. Romorantin produces small, flavorful berries that are difficult to ripen—its major drawback. It is harvested relatively late, making very fresh, typically dry whites with notable intensity and length. Chasselas: Chasselas is an ancient variety of uncertain origins, best known in its adopted home of Switzerland. In the Loire Valley, it has its own appellation, Pouilly-sur-Loire, a mere 30 hectares sandwiched between the two Sauvignon Blanc titans of Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé. Though the region is not particularly well known, there is a long history of producing Chasselas here, and it achieved appellation status the same year as Pouilly-Fumé, in 1937. Chasselas wines are rather quieter than those from the more assertive Sauvignon Blanc. Fresh, floral, and crisp, they are easy-drinking wines generally intended for early consumption. Pinot Gris: Pinot Gris appears in interesting guises at opposite ends of the river. In the Coteaux d’Ancenis appellation, east of Nantes, it is made into a locally appreciated semisweet wine under the synonym Malvoisie. In the Central Vineyards region, south of Sancerre, the winemakers of Reuilly transform it into a vin gris , a pale and dry rosé, by using its pink skins for color. Each less than 1% of total vineyard area in 2020 Red Grapes Cabernet Franc: The most planted variety in the Loire, Cabernet Franc represents one-quarter of the Valley’s vineyard area. Rabelais was the first to mention the red grape in the Loire, in 1534, under the name of Breton. He wrote that it was not grown in Brittany, as the name suggests, but in the village of Beaumont-en-Véron, which is a very short drive from the town of Chinon and continues to be a source of excellent wines. While there is no definitive proof that this wine was Cabernet Franc, the odds are good. It’s possible that the variety came to the Loire via Brittany, hence the name Breton. Alternately, it is noted in Wine Grapes that “in 1631, Cardinal de Richelieu sent out thousands of vines of the best Bordeaux variety to his steward, Abbé Breton, who planted them in Chinon and Bourgueil. The vine was later named Plant de l’Abbé Breton, and then simply Breton.” DNA testing, however, has shown that Cabernet Franc may have its roots not in France but in the Basque country, as it is related to Hondarribi Beltza, with some similar characteristics in the glass. Cabernet Franc at Charles Joguet in Chinon (Credit: Domaine Charles Joguet) Cabernet Franc is known for its red fruit flavors and floral notes, and as the understanding of the variety progressed in the first two decades of this century, there was a growing realization that new oak is not necessarily the best partner for this fragrant variety. In terms of structure, it is typically light to medium in body, and it is less tannic than Cabernet Sauvignon, retaining a bright acidity that can imbue the best examples with the ability to age for several decades. Cabernet Franc is not used solely for red wine; it is also widely used in the rosés of Anjou and is permitted in Crémant de Loire. The variety is at home in the Saumur region as well as the western half of Touraine, particularly the appellations of Chinon, Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil, and Bourgueil. There are also plantings on the schist soils of Anjou, where it can be blended with Cabernet Sauvignon. It may also be found in a blend with Côt (Malbec) or Gamay in Touraine. Cabernet Franc has suffered from a reputation for failing to ripen properly, resulting in high methoxypyrazine levels, overtly peppery characters, and astringency. But the arrival of a generation of well-trained and well-traveled winemakers, as well as the region-wide Project Cabernet Franc in the early 2000s, prompted a new approach. Producers were encouraged to pick later to improve ripeness, decrease their fermentation temperatures to preserve the wine’s fragrance, and employ oxygen for tannin management and to minimize the variety’s reductive tendencies. They were also encouraged to use less oak, taking inspiration from Burgundy rather than pursuing a Bordeaux style of Cabernet Franc. Nature has also improved the ripeness levels of Cabernet Franc. Warmer growing seasons and better vineyard management have diminished the green-edged tannins that characterized Cabernet Franc wines of the past. In some warm vintages, however, sugar ripeness occurs before phenolic ripeness and winemakers must be careful not to overextract. 15,950 hectares in 2020 Gamay: Gamay is grown across the Loire Valley and is the second most planted black variety, albeit a long way behind Cabernet Franc. An excellent blending partner, it can also produce compelling varietal wines when carefully grown in the right place. Commonly paired with Pinot Noir (either through choice or necessity), Gamay is also one of several varieties from which growers can choose for blending into Rosé d’Anjou, Saumur Fines Bulles, or Anjou Mousseux. It is not authorized for inclusion in Crémant de Loire. In the Fiefs Vendéens and Coteaux Giennois, Gamay is blended with Pinot Noir, while the reds and rosés of the small Châteaumeillant appellation are blends that involve Gamay to a greater or lesser degree, along with Pinot Noir and Pinot Gris. On its own, Gamay is used to make pale, delicate wines in the Coteaux d’Ancenis appellation, sometimes with a small amount of Cabernet Franc. In Anjou and Touraine, too, some Gamay is vinified alone to make Anjou or Touraine Gamay, light and early-drinking styles that are sometimes labeled as primeur . The appellations of the upper Loire are where Gamay really shines, especially when grown on volcanic, granite-based soils. In Saint-Pourçain, rosés are 100% Gamay, while reds are blends with Pinot Noir. In the Côtes d’Auvergne, Gamay and Pinot Noir combine to produce easy-drinking reds and rosés. The Loire’s most exciting Gamay wines come from the appellations where the variety is the only one permitted for reds and rosés: the Côte Roannaise and Côtes du Forez. Here, the grape can produce juicy, silky, red-fruited wines that in good years combine more southerly generosity of fruit with Loire elegance and sense of place. 4,197 hectares in 2020 Pinot Noir: It might be better known as the grape of Burgundy, but Pinot Noir has a long history in the Loire’s Central Vineyards, dating to at least the 14 th century. Pinot Noir now represents around 15% of production in the area. The variety is also found further west in the Touraine region, and as far as the Atlantic coastline as a permitted grape within the Fiefs Vendéens appellation. Additionally, it can be used to produce Rosé de Loire, Crémant de Loire sparkling wine (as part of a blend), and rosé and red wines under IGP Val de Loire. Pinot Noir is vulnerable to spring frosts because of its propensity to bud early, and it is susceptible to both oidium and powdery mildew. While it was once made into crisp reds suited to by-the-glass sales in brasseries, the effects of climate change have created warmer conditions that allow it to ripen more reliably. Because a wide range of styles is produced, generalizations about Loire Pinot Noir are difficult. From oaked to unoaked, destemmed to whole cluster, there are about as many different approaches to making Pinot Noir as there are clones. 2,227 hectares in 2020 Other Red Grapes Grolleau: Unique to the Loire Valley, Grolleau is the region’s fourth most planted black grape. Valued historically for its very high productivity, Grolleau has fallen in popularity in recent years as focus has shifted to quality over quantity. There are some interesting examples of varietal red Grolleau to be found, but for the most part it remains a major source of productive income in the form of lightly fruity, off-dry Rosé d’Anjou, where it is an important part of the blend. It can also be used as a blending component in sparkling wines. Grolleau plantings cover around 2,000 hectares. Pineau d ’ Aunis: Pineau d’Aunis is an unusual and ancient variety, unrelated to the Pinot family and, unlike several other grapes in the Loire Valley named Pineau, not a synonym for anything else. It is planted almost exclusively in the lesser-known Touraine vineyards of the river Loir (a tributary of the Loire), although it is occasionally featured in blends elsewhere. Susceptible to chlorosis and botrytis bunch rot, it is a difficult grape to grow, and careful management of yields is essential to maintaining quality. Usually vinified red, it produces wines that appear very pale but deliver an altogether more characterful mouthful. Good Pineau d’Aunis is aromatically enticing, with surprisingly robust tannins and peppery spice. The major appellations for Pineau d’Aunis are Coteaux du Vendômois and Coteaux du Loir, where the grape is used to produce red and rosé wines. C ôt: An old variety hailing from southwestern France, Côt is a synonym for Malbec . A cross of Magdeleine Noire des Charentes and Prunelard, the variety has significant clonal variation, and wine style is greatly affected by climate. The Côt wines of the Loire bear little resemblance to the rich and densely fruited Malbecs of Argentina—although both expressions have a distinctive, deep purple color. Côt is a vigorous grape and ripens around two weeks earlier than Cabernet Franc, making it an attractive option in areas where ripening is less than certain. Plantings are concentrated in Touraine, where it appears as a varietal wine or blended with Cabernet Franc or Gamay. Stylistically, Loire wines made from Côt are light and early drinking, falling between Gamay and Cabernet Franc in terms of structure and style. Each less than 1% of total vineyard area in 2020 Pays Nantais Muscadet is the most important wine of the Pays Nantais, or Nantais, region, and the Muscadet appellation is the largest in the Loire Valley. It covers an area of 6,863 hectares, low hills carpeted with vines around the city of Nantes. Muscadet is one of the Loire’s best-known wines and one of the easiest to understand. These white wines are light, still, and dry, and almost all are made from a single grape variety, Melon B. Muscadet’s Melon B is more consistent than its versatile Anjou neighbor, Chenin Blanc, but this makes it a surer buy from a consumer’s perspective: the style of wine in a bottle marked Muscadet will never diverge very far from what is expected. Click to enlarge and zoom in The history of Muscadet wine is not particularly illustrious. For centuries, Melon B was undervalued commercially, since the always productive Folle Blanche was so much more lucrative for use in brandy production. Melon B rose to prominence only as the brandy trade diminished and interest in wine developed. It finally became established when French vineyards were replanted at the start of the 20 th century, following the crisis of phylloxera. Similarly neutral in style to Folle Blanche, Melon B has always been recognized as a finer wine grape, with more mellow acidity and softer fruit. Yet for most of its history, wine from Melon B has been considered an inexpensive drink for local consumption. Even today, most Muscadet doesn’t travel far. Muscadet enjoyed a brief period of revived fortunes when it became a popular mainstay at the cheap end of wine lists around the UK in the 1980s and 1990s. At this time, more than 13,000 hectares of Melon B were planted, and négociants were producing large volumes of Muscadet wine. The British thirst for cheap Muscadet had led to increased plantings, higher yields, and a corresponding drop in the quality of the wine produced. At the same time, Muscadet was competing for attention in the UK with new and exciting, exuberantly flavored offerings from the New World. Muscadet fell in popularity, and a succession of poor vintages in the early 1990s further diminished demand. Vineyards were abandoned, and the area under vine has been slowly declining ever since. While some regions of the Loire have been net beneficiaries of climate change, Muscadet has suffered particularly badly from the vagaries of the climate. Viticulture in the region is increasingly precarious because of spring frosts, which are much more damaging when the vine has started its growing season early, as is increasingly the case. In 2021, average crop loss was a staggering 80% following 11 nights of subzero temperatures in April. Even so, there is a real cause for optimism in Muscadet: the wines themselves. In a world where it is difficult to find wines that are under 13% alcohol, Muscadet, which typically is 12%, is a notable exception. Exuberance is easy to find, but subtlety is much rarer, and this is where Muscadet excels. For those seeking a wine that will provide an elegant, crisp partner to lighter foods, and that won’t be too expensive or too high in alcohol, Muscadet delivers, and today there are many serious producers of the style. Aging Sur Lie Lees aging is one of the major winemaking practices distinguishing different producers and styles of Muscadet today. Winemakers who stir lees frequently and age their wines for several years will have richer, creamier, fatter styles than those who leave their wines to age untouched but protected by the reductive effect of the lees, often in the underground glass-lined vats traditional to the region. The effect of the lees will also depend on the aging vessel chosen. The old-style vats keep the aging wine in an inert environment and at a constant, cool underground temperature, but modern winemakers use all types of vessels, including oak, concrete eggs, and amphorae. Lees comprise mainly dead yeast cells from the wine’s fermentation. When lees are left in contact with wine for an extended period, they begin to break down, or autolyze, imparting flavor, aroma, and texture to the wine, as well as a mild spritz of carbon dioxide. As Muscadet does not have a strong personality of its own, lees aging can add interest and complexity. The longer a wine is left on its lees, and the more the lees are moved around, the greater their influence on the final wine’s style. Most Muscadet is aged on its lees for a short time after vinification, which gave the grower the right to add the words sur lie to the label. Traditionally, this was not a separate appellation but an addition to it. The rules state that for a wine to be labeled sur lie , it must spend no more than one winter on lees and may not be bottled before March 1 of the year following fermentation, which equates to between 5 and 14 months of aging. In 2020, Muscadet AOP removed the rights to this verbiage. Muscadet The broad, generic Muscadet AOC covers a wide swath of land running from east of the town of Ancenis all the way to the coast beyond Nantes in the southwest, a planted area that totals 6,863 hectares. This encompasses all the land in the other Muscadet appellations (outlined below), plus 1,647 hectares of land entitled only to Muscadet AOC. The generic appellation differs from the other three in terms of the laws regarding its production. Base yields are considerably higher, at 70 hectoliters per hectare compared with 55 for the others, so any of the other appellations may default to the generic appellation if yields are above 55 hectoliters per hectare. There is no right to the sur lie indication (see sidebar) after the 2020 vintage. Instead, the wines may be labeled as primeur to distinguish them as bottled in their youthful state. It is also the only appellation to have the right to include a variety other than Melon B: up to 10% Chardonnay may be added to basic Muscadet wines. The appellation was granted AOC status in 1937. Muscadet Sèvre-et-Maine One of the first AOCs granted, in 1936, the Muscadet Sèvre-et-Maine appellation is centered around the Sèvre Nantaise and Maine tributaries of the Loire. It remains the heart of all Muscadet production today, accounting for more than 70% of plantings across 4,912 hectares. The vines grow in a concentrated area just south of the city of Nantes. The soils of Muscadet comprise a highly complex and varied mixture of igneous and metamorphic rocks, including gneiss, granite, gabbro, amphibolite, mica schist, and many others. Recognizing the variations in wines produced on certain different soil types, producers applied for cru status for wines from these distinctive origins. The first crus —Clisson, Gorges, and Le Pallet—were approved by the Institut national de l’origine et de la qualité (INAO) in 2011. A further four—Goulaine, Château Thébaud, Monnières-Saint-Fiacre, and Mouzillon-Tillières—were granted cru status in 2019. The crus are not appellations in themselves but dé nominations gé ographiques c ompl é mentaires , a term describing a supplementary geographical addition that can appear on labels as an add-on to an existing appellation under certain specified conditions. Cru wines are subject to lower yields—45 rather than 55 hectoliters per hectare—and the fruit of very young vines cannot be used (although the minimum age is only six years). The grapes must come from specific identified sites and have higher ripeness (potential alcohol). The wines must be matured for a lengthy period on lees before release to qualify for the additional mention of cru . The crus Goulaine and Le Pallet must stay on lees until April 1 of the second year following harvest; the other approved crus must age for at least an additional six months, until October 1 of the second year after harvest. These wines are often of excellent quality, with the extended lees aging bringing rich texture, increased depth, and savory, autolysis-derived flavors. In bottle, they can age for decades and represent some of the best value wines in the Loire Valley. Muscadet Coteaux de la Loire The Muscadet Coteaux de la Loire AOC was granted in 1936. It covers an area almost identical to the Coteaux d’Ancenis appellation (discussed below), on hillsides running along either side of the Loire from Nantes eastward to beyond Ancenis. The planted area is 100 hectares. Muscadet Côtes de Grandlieu Muscadet Côtes de Grandlieu AOC , which received appellation status in 1994, is centered around the lake of Grandlieu, south of Nantes and west of the bulk of plantings in Sèvre-et-Maine AOC. It includes 204 planted hectares. Muscadet Coteaux de la Loire (Credit: Philippe Caharel, InterLoire) Coteaux d’Ancenis Between Nantes and Angers, the 150-hectare Coteaux d’Ancenis AOC is situated on slopes set back on either side of the Loire. Its boundaries are almost identical to those of the Muscadet appellation of Muscadet Coteaux de la Loire, and it is centered around the riverside town of Ancenis. Vineyards are scattered over a broad area where crops and cattle populate the flatter land, and vines grow at 20 to 80 meters above the river. Two-thirds of the appellation focuses on semisweet Pinot Gris, locally known as Malvoisie, with 20 to 40 grams per liter of residual sugar. Most is consumed within the region. Reds and rosés are typically 100% Gamay but may contain a small proportion of Cabernet Franc. These are light, dry, and refreshing wines that reflect the cool and mild oceanic climate. Gros Plant du Pays Nantais Extending west from Ancenis all the way to the coast is the 570-hectare Gros Plant du Pays Nantais AOC , a former Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure (VDQS) whites-only denomination for dry wines from the Folle Blanche (meaning “crazy white”) grape, less evocatively known as Gros Plant (meaning “big plant”). Both names could be reflective of the grape’s productive nature: since its 2011 AOC status, the appellation’s permitted base yield is a hefty 75 hectoliters per hectare. The wines are mild in aroma and flavor, and they are characterized by their uniformly high acidity. Gros Plant may be aged on lees for a few months in a similar fashion to Muscadet sur lie . Most wines are 100% Folle Blanche but may include up to 10% Colombard. Fiefs Vendéens The most oceanic of the Loire’s vineyards is the coastal Fiefs Vendéens AOC , an area of around 350 hectares, where 15 vignerons farm five discrete parcels of vines south of the city of Nantes. The name of each subzone forms part of the appellation: Brem, Mareuil, Chantonnay, Pissotte, or Vix. Because of the complex nature of the soils—as in Muscadet, they are derived from the Armorican Massif—each subzone has its own set of rules regarding permitted varieties and the proportions that must make up each wine. All wines must be blends. Reds and rosés, produced in similar quantities, account for more than 80% of the appellation’s wines. Rosés are blends of Pinot Noir and Gamay; reds are from Pinot Noir or Cabernet Franc blended with Négrette, the variety native to southwestern France that also has historic associations here. Whites are blends of a majority of Chenin Blanc with Chardonnay. The requirement that all wines must be blended has encouraged some growers to produce wine outside the appellation. Anjou-Saumur The Anjou-Saumur region is the Loire Valley’s largest for both production and area under vine. Its 15,463 planted hectares cover varied terroir. Nearly every style of wine can be found in Anjou, and from a surprisingly small selection of varieties. The ever-versatile Chenin Blanc dominates for white and sparkling wines, while Cabernet Franc is the primary grape for reds and rosés. Supporting varieties include Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Grolleau, and Pineau d’Aunis. Most of the vineyards lie on the left (south) bank of the Loire, between the towns of Angers and Saumur. Following a north-south line slightly west of Angers, the old rocks of the Armorican Massif give way to the younger, Jurassic rocks of the Paris Basin, which continues eastward throughout Touraine. Locally, a distinction is made between the Anjou Noir and the Anjou Blanc, reflecting the visible difference between the darker, black rocks of volcanic origin and the pale, chalky limestone. There are many individual mesoclimates in Anjou-Saumur, but overall the area has the highest cumulative temperatures and lowest rainfall of all the growing regions of the Loire. Although the area is situated east of the Nantais region, its proximity to the coast (the most easterly vineyards are less than two hours from the Atlantic) allows for an oceanic influence on its climate, especially for the more westerly vineyards. Further inland, the locals’ term for the climate—and often the overall natural milieu—is la douceur angevine , which loosely translates as “mild and comfortable Anjou,” although significant spring frosts have impacted recent vintages. The Loire and several other rivers contribute to the climate and styles of wine, notably the Layon and Aubance tributaries, which are responsible for creating conditions favorable to making the sweet wines of Anjou. A wide range of appellations is covered by the Anjou-Saumur umbrella. There is an equally wide range of quality levels, from small-scale, hand-crafted wines of international renown to large-scale, inexpensive offerings that are commercially successful in France but rarely seen elsewhere. The most important production of the region is rosé, which falls more into the second category. The rosés of Anjou are the reason that the Loire is the second highest rosé-producing region in the country, behind Provence. But in contrast with Provence’s runaway international success, consumption of Loire rosé is largely domestic. Cabernet d’Anjou and Rosé d’Anjou The rosé-focused Cabernet d’Anjou AOC accounts for 45% of the Anjou-Saumur region’s volume and Rosé d’Anjou AOC a further 17%. The two appellations cover more than 15% of all the hectarage of the entire Loire Valley. Grapes for these wines can be grown anywhere in the 128 communes that compose the Anjou appellation. Cabernet d’Anjou plantings are of Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet Franc, and any combination or single-varietal expression of the grapes can be used to make this semisweet rosé. Nearly 6,500 hectares are planted for this purpose alone. The wines must contain a minimum of 10 grams per liter of residual sugar, but there is no upper limit, and they are typically sweeter than this. Permitted yields are on the high side for an AOC, at 60 hectoliters per hectare, but this is still lower than the sister rosé appellation Rosé d’Anjou, where 65 hectoliters per hectare is the basic level. A variety of grapes can be used for Rosé d’Anjou, including Grolleau, Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pineau d’Aunis, Gamay, and Côt. Similar in style to Cabernet d’Anjou but typically less sweet, Rosé d’Anjou wines must have a minimum residual sugar content of seven grams per liter. Although its production levels are considerably lower than those of Cabernet d’Anjou, the gentle, off-dry Rosé d’Anjou is a more successful style outside France: it is the most exported of the Anjou appellations, with 37% of production destined for consumption in more than 100 countries. Rosé de Loire An additional category of rosé wine covers approximately 730 hectares spread across the Anjou-Saumur and Touraine regions. Rosé de Loire is made from the same range of grapes as Cabernet d’Anjou and Rosé d’Anjou, but it is always dry, with a maximum permitted residual sugar of three grams per liter. There is no requirement to state the sweetness level on any of these wines. Anjou In addition to rosé, the generic appellation of Anjou covers red, white, and sparkling wines from grapes grown in the same large area as those destined for rosé. Anjou was once a prosperous wine region whose renown was built around sweet white wines made from Chenin Blanc. In 1881, 45,000 hectares of vines were planted, but plantings fell to 10,000 by 1893, following the phylloxera crisis. New plantings in the early 20 th century focused on Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon, from which light reds known as rouget were made, but red production didn’t become the mainstay of the appellation until the 1960s. Today, around 60% of the generic Anjou appellation’s production is Anjou Rouge, made from Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pineau d’Aunis, and Grolleau. Wines labeled Anjou Gamay must be 100% from the variety. While these wines are undoubtedly deeper in color than the rouget styles, they are intended for consumption within a couple of years. Terre de l’Élu in the Anjou Noire (Credit: J.Y. Bardin) Chenin Blanc is the principal variety for the white wines of Anjou, which must comprise 80% or more of the variety, with an option to add Chardonnay or Sauvignon Blanc. Despite the fall in popularity of whites from Anjou, they still account for around 30% of production. At the high end, they are currently undergoing a renaissance, and consumers are increasingly seeking them out. One of the reasons for this is that several new, quality-focused producers have purchased vineyard land in appellations authorized for sweet wines only, such as Coteaux du Layon or Quarts de Chaume. Any dry white produced from these sites has the right only to the Anjou appellation, and the wines, made from 100% Chenin Blanc, are produced at yields well below the requirements for the generic appellation. A small quantity of Anjou Mousseux, accounting for only around 10% of the Anjou appellation’s production, is made from the same range of grapes (with no more than 20% Chardonnay). These bottled-fermented sparkling white or rosé wines spend at least nine months on lees before disgorgement. Anjou Brissac and Anjou-Villages Anjou Brissac and Anjou-Villages are relatively recent additions to the Anjou AOCs. Both are appellations for red wines only, made from Cabernet Franc and Cabernet Sauvignon. Anjou-Villages, an AOC since 1987, recognizes the better sites within the Anjou AOC. These sites typically have the best exposure and are earliest to ripen. Yields for Anjou-Villages are lower than those for Anjou Rouge, at 55 hectoliters per hectare, and the wines are similar in style to Anjou Rouge. Anjou Brissac, a 1998 appellation, is centered around the Aubance River area just south of Angers. It covers the same 120-hectare area as the sweet wine appellation Coteaux de l’Aubance. The rainfall here is particularly low compared with that of the surrounding area, with slightly higher elevations to the west offering protection from oceanic humidity. The vines of Anjou Brissac receive 100 millimeters less rain than the rest of the Maine-et-Loire department during the growing season, and average temperatures are higher by 1 degree Celsius. The wines of Anjou Brissac are subject to lower yields, at 50 hectoliters per hectare, and have more depth of flavor than most of the region’s reds. Coteaux du Layon Though the fortunes of Anjou-Saumur have changed over time, sweet wines made from Chenin Blanc continue to be produced in the region. The growing conditions along the Layon River, a small tributary that flows northwest through the region, joining the Loire River south of Angers, are especially favorable for production of these wines. The grapes achieve high levels of ripeness, growing on well-exposed, sunny slopes close to the river. Rainfall is low, and temperatures are so warm in places that the native vegetation is Mediterranean. The river can also help foster the perfect conditions for botrytis, which typically occurs several times a decade. Changes in taste are partly responsible for the decline in the fortunes of the sweet wines of Anjou, but, equally, increased mechanization, chaptalization, and chemical inputs in the vineyards have played a part. By the middle of the 20 th century, many of the best hillside sites around the Layon had been abandoned, considered too difficult to farm mechanically. The ability to add sugar to make wine sweet, rather than having to rely on good weather in challenging vineyards, made it possible for winegrowers to create acceptable, if not great, sweet wines from lesser, easier sites—a situation replicated in other parts of the country. The reputation of the sweet wines of the Layon declined alongside interest in drinking them. Only a very small number of producers continued to make high-quality wines. Since the mid-1980s, however, there has been a renewed energy from young producers snapping up languishing vineyards and reviving the tradition of high-end wines in the historic sites of the Layon. Recognizing that nature rarely delivers ideal conditions for making sweet wines, they have been focusing on producing dry wines as well. While raising the quality level of sweet Chenin Blanc wines, they are simultaneously creating awareness of the excellent dry wines that these vineyards can produce. Anjou-Saumur produces more sweet wine from Chenin Blanc than any other region, with eight separate appellations for sweet wine, all of which are 100% Chenin Blanc. Most of this production centers around the Layon River. The basic appellation, Coteaux du Layon AOC , covers 13 communes on both sides of the river, totaling 1,640 hectares. The appellation is solely for wines with at least 34 grams per liter of residual sugar, and permitted yields are 35 hectoliters per hectare. Coteaux du Layon Villages covers 180 hectares within the wider Coteaux du Layon appellation. Six villages—Beaulieu-sur-Layon, Faye-d’Anjou, Rablay-sur-Layon, Rochefort-sur-Loire, Saint-Aubin-de-Luigné, and Saint-Lambert-du-Lattay—can add their names to the basic appellation. To do so, yields must be slightly lower, at 30 hectoliters per hectare, and 51 grams per liter of residual sugar is required. Coteaux du Layon Premier Cru Chaume is a superior 70-hectare appellation within the commune of Rochefort-sur-Loire, where Chenin Blanc achieves higher ripeness levels. These wines will likely be sweeter than the minimum required residual sugar level of 80 grams per liter, because the sugar level at harvest needs to be higher than that of the other two appellations. The grapes in the Coteaux du Layon appellations must be harvested by hand, but chaptalization is permitted in all of them except Premier Cru Chaume. Quarts de Chaume The most prestigious of Anjou’s sweet wine appellations, and arguably the whole Loire Valley, is Quarts de Chaume Grand Cru . This is the only grand cru appellation in the Loire Valley for any style of wine. Its merit in attaining this title was hotly debated, resulting in two successful legal challenges against it, but the coveted grand cru status was finally awarded in 2011. The argument against Quarts de Chaume as a grand cru centered on the possibility that consumers would confuse the appellation with the existing Coteaux du Layon Premier Cru Chaume for reasons including the identical style of the wine, the proximity of the two vineyards (they are next to each other), and the very similar name. But it is hard to argue that the final decision was a bad one. The hill of Chaume is an exceptional site. The highest point for miles around (though it rises only 100 meters above sea level), this 40-hectare appellation sits on a bed of complex soils that include Broverian schists and pudding sandstones. The vines grow on a thin layer of clay between 25 and 75 meters above sea level, on steep, south-facing slopes overlooking the Layon River. The hill here, sheltered from north winds, follows a curve in the river, making it ideally situated for the production of sweet wines. In good years, autumnal morning mists rise uninterrupted from the river to encourage the development of botrytis in the ripe grapes. The yield requirement for Quarts de Chaume Grand Cru is 20 hl/ha, slightly lower to that of Coteaux du Layon Premier Cru Chaume, at 25 hectoliters per hectare. Minimum sweetness is similar, with Quarts de Chaume at 85 grams per liter and Coteaux du Layon Premier Cru Chaume at 80. The wines of Quarts de Chaume Grand Cru are likely to be a good deal sweeter than this, however, since the minimum required level of sugar in the Quarts de Chaume grapes at harvest is 298 grams per liter, equivalent to 18% potential ABV. In the best years, these world-renowned wines demonstrate that perfect and rare combination of site, grape variety, and human expertise, creating wines with remarkable balance and freshness that can age for decades. Bonnezeaux A little further back along the Layon toward Saumur lies Bonnezeaux AOC , another small quality appellation for sweet Chenin Blanc in the commune of Thouarcé. The appellation is just 80 hectares, with three south-facing slopes on the right (north) bank of the Layon. Yields are 25 hectoliters per hectare. Unlike Quarts de Chaume Grand Cru, but as in the greater part of the Coteaux du Layon legislation, the wines may be chaptalized. The minimum residual sugar level is 51 grams per liter, which is sweeter than basic Coteaux du Layon but below the higher-level Layon appellations. Often, the sweetness level is far higher than the minimum requirement, however, and the best of these wines can age very well. Coteaux de l’Aubance The Aubance River flows parallel to the Layon, joining the Loire slightly upstream. The Coteaux de l’Aubance AOC covers a 220-hectare area on both sides of the river. The proximity of the river supports the development of botrytis in good years. The wines, similar in style to those of Coteaux du Layon, follow very similar requirements in terms of yields (35 hectoliters per hectare) and minimum sugar levels in the finished wine (34 grams per liter). Like Coteaux du Layon wines, the best of these are good-value, medium-sweet wines. Popular locally, they are often drunk à l ’ ap é ritif and usually enjoyed in their youth. Coteaux de Saumur The last of the Anjou sweet wine appellations based on Chenin Blanc is Coteaux de Saumur . Grapes for these wines can grow over a large area of the chalky soils south of Saumur, but a mere 10 hectares are planted. The wines are fresh and medium sweet, showing the influence of the limestone soils rather than the schist-based soils of the Layon and Aubance. Yields are 35 hectoliters per hectare and grapes must be hand-picked. No chaptalization is permitted, and the final wines must have a residual sugar level of at least 34 grams per liter. Savennières Old vines in Savennières (Credit: Savennières) Savennières is a charming, tiny village situated 15 kilometers southwest of Angers. The appellation is also small, with only 150 hectares planted, all to Chenin Blanc, covering three adjoining communes on the north bank of the Loire. Though it was difficult to clear and cultivate the land, this is a natural and privileged site for vine growing. The south- and southeast-facing slopes have excellent sun exposure and ventilation from the river breezes. The number of sunshine hours is high, and rainfall is relatively low. The soils are very shallow, and the vines are never far from the rocks below. These include a wide variety of schists and volcanic rock; there are also patches of windblown sand and clay. This is Anjou Noir terrain. Yields are naturally low, and the combination of terroir and grape yields austere wines with intense texture and minerality. In more recent years, winemakers have shifted toward earlier-drinking styles, with little obvious oak use. There is also a general move to earlier picking, thus the botrytis that was a common feature of wines from Savennières in years past is avoided. The 40 or so producers within the appellation are focused on quality. All the grapes are hand-picked, and 75% of the vignerons work organically. Savennières wines attract the highest Chenin Blanc prices of all Loire Valley wines. In 2001, the vineyard was classified as a UNESCO World Heritage site in recognition of its long history of winegrowing and the perfect adaptation of vine to site through the skill of generations of wine growers. The INAO has called the vineyard a symbol of la douceur a ngevine . While Savennières AOC focuses on dry wines, demi-sec and sweet wines are also permitted. In fact, when the appellation was granted, in 1952, it was recognized principally as a vineyard for the production of wines containing residual sugar. While regulations for other appellations in the region have changed to allow production of only sweet or only dry wines, the producers of Savennières have retained the right to both. Clearly, though, it is the dry wines of Savennières that have made it a famous source of quality Chenin Blanc today, along with the tiny twin jewels of Savennières Roche aux Moines (33 hectares) and Coulée de Serrant (7 hectares), each of which is a separate appellation island within Savennières. The Savennières appellation lies across a series of coulé es (valleys), among them Coulée de Serrant . This appellation straddles both sides of the valley and adjoins Savennières Roche aux Moines to the south. These two appellations have excellent exposure and particularly thin soils, and permitted yields are even lower, at 30 hectoliters per hectare for Coulée de Serrant and 35 for Roche aux Moines. The latter is a rocky outcrop of the Armorican Massif, where vines grow on south- and southwest-facing slopes overlooking the Loire. Winegrowing was recorded here as early as the 12 th century, when monks from the order of Saint-Nicolas d’Angers planted a south-facing slope overlooking the Loire that became known as La Roche aux Moines. A priory that was home to Benedictine nuns in the same period was also surrounded by vines. Coulée de Serrant can trace its origins back to 1130, when vines were planted by Cistercian monks. Arguably, there is more that unites these tiny appellations, both in terms of history and site, than divides them, and differences in style are a reflection more of the philosophy of the winemaker than of the site. Coulée de Serrant is a monopole vineyard, owned by the biodynamic zealot Nicolas Joly, who makes a very ripe style of wine, often with botrytis and residual sugar. Savennières Roche aux Moines is divided among a handful of growers, and the wines tend to reflect an earlier-picked style. Saumur The vineyards of Saumur AOC are in the extreme southwest of the Paris Basin, planted on the chalky limestone soils characteristic of the Anjou Blanc. This 2,000-hectare area forms the eastern and southern part of the Anjou-Saumur region, which joins Touraine to the east. All the Saumur vineyards are situated south of the Loire River. The climate is broadly oceanic but warmer and drier than that of the vineyards to the west. Styles of Saumur wine include reds and rosés made predominantly from Cabernet Franc, whites from Chenin Blanc, and sparkling wines, which account for more than 60% of production. Still wines were traditionally usually white, but today reds and whites each account for close to 20% of Saumur production, with a small amount of dry rosé making up the balance. Saumur Blanc still wines are dry and made from 100% Chenin Blanc. Generally easier drinking than the fuller-bodied, savory Chenin Blanc wines of the Anjou Noir appellations, they offer elegant balance and fine, linear acidity. There are some exceptional wines from single vineyards such as Brézé. Saumur red wines must be at least 70% Cabernet Franc, with the option to add Cabernet Sauvignon and Pineau d’Aunis. These wines are light and supple, intended for early consumption and often served slightly cool. Cellar dug from tuffeau (Credit: Domaine Charles Joguet) Saumur Mousseux, also known as Fines Bulles, is made using the traditional, bottle-fermented method and must be aged for at least nine months on lees, although more-complex examples are aged for years. Whites are at least 60% Chenin Blanc and rosés 60% Cabernet Franc; the wide range of other varieties used includes Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pineau d’Aunis, Gamay, Grolleau Gris, Grolleau Noir, and Pinot Noir. Saumur benefits from the presence of extensive cellars dug from soft tuffeau limestone, used to build the houses and châteaux of the area. The cellars, which often extend hundreds of meters underground, are ideal for aging wines at a constant temperature. These fresh and early-drinking sparklers are reliable in quality, especially from the larger producers whose cellars line the river close to the town of Saumur. Centered around the town of Saumur are many of the producers of Crémant de Loire , the broader appellation for high-quality sparkling wine that covers 2,800 hectares across a wide range of growing conditions in the Anjou-Saumur and Touraine regions. In recent years, there has been a surge in the growth of these wines, as they offer a good-value alternative to pricier bottle-fermented sparkling options. Crémant de Loire is found in blanc and rosé styles, and the permitted varieties are plentiful: Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, and Orbois are the white varieties; reds include Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Grolleau Noir, Grolleau Gris, Pineau d’Aunis, and Pinot Noir. The regulations for bottle aging are the same as those for Saumur Mousseux, with a minimum of nine months on lees following a second fermentation in bottle. Permitted yields are slightly higher for Crémant de Loire (74 hectoliters per hectare) than for Saumur Mousseux (67 hectoliters per hectare), and a key difference in production is that grapes destined for crémant must be harvested by hand. Saumur Puy-Notre-Dame The geographic designation of Saumur Puy-Notre-Dame was added to Saumur AOC in 2009. It is a superior designation for a 60-hectare area centered around the small town of Le Puy-Notre-Dame, the highest point in the region, some 20 kilometers south of Saumur. These wines have higher concentration: at harvest, the grapes must have potential alcohol levels of 12%, higher than Saumur Rouge’s 10.5%. Yields are also lower (50 hectoliters per hectare versus 57 for Saumur), and the wines cannot be chaptalized. The vines are planted at around 80 meters above sea level. Composed of at least 85% Cabernet Franc, with the balance coming from Cabernet Sauvignon, these wines are deeply colored and more structured than those of Saumur. Saumur-Champigny The jewel in the Saumur crown is Saumur-Champigny AOC . This 1,600-hectare region covers nine adjoining villages on a plateau above the town of Saumur. The name derives from the Latin campus ignis (field of fire), perhaps a reference to the high temperatures in this protected location, which is bordered to the south by the forest of Fontevraud, and to the east and west by the rivers Loire and Thouet. The soil is clay and tuffeau limestone, which both provides drainage and retains moisture, creating ideal conditions for the vines to thrive. Cabernet Franc must account for at least 85% of a Saumur-Champigny wine, but this figure is almost always 100%. These wines are among the most highly regarded in the Loire Valley; the best show the elegance, freshness, fragrance, and finesse that Loire Cabernet Franc can achieve. Highly approachable when young, the wines have generous fruit and supple tannins. The finest, such as the wines of Clos Rougeard, will improve for a decade or more. Haut-Poitou The small region of Haut-Poitou , granted appellation status in 2011, covers an area of 110 hectares south of the town of Chinon. The altitude is relatively high, at up to 150 meters above sea level. Wines may be red, white, or rosé. More than 80% of production consists of whites from primarily Sauvignon Blanc, with an allowance of up to 40% Sauvignon Gris. Reds are 60% Cabernet Franc, which may be blended with Gamay, Pinot Noir, and Merlot. A small amount of rosé is made from Cabernet Franc, Pinot Noir, and Gamay. Haut-Poitou wines are fruit-driven and intended for early consumption largely within France. Touraine The Touraine wine region and catchall Touraine appellation begin a few miles east of the city of Saumur and continue eastward along the Loire until slightly beyond the town of Blois. The majority of the appellation’s 4,450 hectares of vineyard lie between the Loire and Cher rivers, which meet slightly west of the city of Tours. It is a vast area, comprising 143 wine villages. Touraine sits in the Paris Basin, where the diverse soils include tuffeau , sand, clay, and flint, and alluvial terraces also have deposits of gravel. The climate varies, becoming increasingly continental toward the east, with decreasing rainfall (650 millimeters annually in the west of the region versus 550 millimeters in the east). Within the Touraine region, there are many individual appellations that have been successful within and beyond France’s borders, particularly Vouvray, Chinon, Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil, and Bourgueil. There are several lesser-known areas that intrigue wine lovers, including the Cour-Cheverny appellation. The main grape varieties of Anjou-Saumur—Chenin Blanc and Cabernet Franc—are also grown in Touraine, particularly in the western half. But the primary white grape planted in the Touraine appellation is Sauvignon Blanc, at 43% of plantings (Chenin Blanc accounts for just 7%). The dominance of Sauvignon Blanc is largely a reflection of market demand; growers have planted it to replace less successful varieties. Gamay is the most planted red variety with 21% of vineyard area, followed by Cabernet Franc with 10% and Côt with 8%. While varietal wines dominate in Pays Nantais, Anjou-Saumur, and the Central Vineyards, blends are more common in the Touraine region, particularly red and rosé blends. Here, Cabernet Franc is joined by Côt, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir, and Gamay. Click to enlarge and zoom in Viticulture in Touraine began in the first century CE with the introduction of the vine by the Romans. Wine was first consumed locally, then boosted by the arrival of the royal court and the 1577 law banning the sale of wine made within the Paris region. Notable wine villages today, including Vouvray and Chinon, were largely unknown until the 17 th and 18 th centuries. Over time, demand grew for wines that could be transported along the many waterways to the country’s capital. By the mid-19 th century, it was calculated that two-thirds of Touraine’s wine production was drunk outside the region. Despite the positive reputation of Vouvray, Touraine reds were primarily seen as a good blending partner because of their deep color rather than their intrinsic qualities. Internationally, Touraine AOC is viewed as a source of good-value white wines compared with Sancerre or Pouilly-Fumé. In an effort to improve Touraine's reputation, five small denominations have emerged within the AOC, collectively accounting for just 7% of Touraine’s production. Touraine Oisly is a small, 12-producer appellation focused solely on lees-aged Sauvignon Blanc grown on sand and clay, with rounded styles most typical. The largest of the five denominations is Touraine Chenonceaux, whose white wines, made exclusively from Sauvignon Blanc, are produced on well-draining slopes along the Cher River. Yields for Chenonceaux are stricter than those for Touraine AOC (60 hectoliters per hectare versus 65). The wines must be approved by a tasting panel. Gentle, fruity red blends, which must be between 65% and 80% Côt with a minimum 10% Cabernet Franc, are also permitted under Touraine Chenonceaux. In Touraine-Amboise, Touraine-Azay-le-Rideau, and Touraine-Mesland, Chenin Blanc is the dominant white grape. In Touraine-Mesland, Chenin Blanc can be blended with a small amount of Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay. There are less than a dozen producers in this small appellation, and very little wine is exported. The soils are flinty sands. A small amount of rosé and red is made using Gamay and Cabernet Franc. Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil and Bourgueil Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil and Bourgueil are contiguous AOCs on the north bank of the Loire River. Both allow red and rosé styles, with Cabernet Franc dominating the final wines, though rosé accounts for only a small percentage of production. Both also require the same maximum yield (55 hectoliters per hectare). Many local producers have vineyards in both appellations and suggest that the creation of two appellations was driven more by politics than terroir. Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil (1,069 hectares), which is centered on the village of the same name, is slightly smaller than Bourgueil (1,220 hectares), to the east, which comprises six villages, including Bourgueil itself. The river is south of both appellations’ vineyards, and they are protected from cold northerly winds by a forested hilltop. The finest, most ageworthy wines are made from the vineyards that slope upward toward this forest on tuffeau -clay soils. At the bottom of this hillside, there is a large terrace dominated by well-drained sandy-gravel soils, which yields lighter-bodied, earlier-drinking wine styles in both appellations. Most of Saint-Nicolas’s vineyards and just half of Bourgueil’s sit on this alluvial terrace. The rest of Bourgueil’s vineyards are on the chalky-clay soils of the hillsides, contributing to this appellation’s greater reputation for rich yet elegant styles that can be drunk at two years, with some examples drinking well beyond two decades. Saint-Nicolas also has around 100 hectares of vineyard near the river on silty-gravel soils, further contributing to the region’s production of easy-drinking, fruity wines. A Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgueil and a Bourgueil grown on the same sandy-gravel terrace, however, are difficult to differentiate in a blind tasting. It is easier to distinguish two Bourgueil wines sourced from different soil types. Viticultural challenges in this area include frost, particularly on the flatter terraces; the slopes are less affected. Since the early 1990s, the producers of Saint-Nicolas have been working collectively to minimize frost damage, purchasing frost fans and installing sprinkler systems. Following a severe frost in 2016, the project was enlarged. At a cost of €2 million, an area of about 420 hectares, or two-fifths of the appellation, now relies on the appellation-financed frost protection systems. In the summer months, drought has been increasingly common, and those on the well-draining alluvial terraces suffer most. Irrigation is not permitted per EU rules. On the chalky-clay slopes, the vines are better able to withstand dry spells, but erosion can be a problem, particularly with storms and erratic weather conditions caused by climate change. Cover crops are often planted between the rows to reduce damage. The cooler nature of the clay-chalk soils generally means the picking begins later in these areas than in the vineyards of sandy-gravel soils, which heat up quickly. In the winery, grapes tend to be vinified according to soil. The sandy-gravel soils typically yield lighter, fruity styles; to emphasize these qualities, winemakers will ferment the grapes at cooler temperatures and extract gently to make an easy-drinking, light-in-tannin wine with little oak influence. Fermentation temperatures are likely to be a couple of degrees higher for the grapes sourced from the clay-chalk hillside, with longer maceration times and maturation in oak barrel. Chinon Chinon , located south of the Loire River, is the Loire Valley’s largest red-producing appellation. Uniquely, Chinon also allows for white and rosé wine production. The region began exporting wine via the port of Nantes in the 18 th century, and that early wine was most likely white, as demanded by Dutch traders. Today, Chinon continues to produce white wines from Chenin Blanc, but there are only 74 hectares planted, equivalent to just 3% of production. The vineyards of Chinon now cover 2,397 hectares of land, but when the region attained AOC status, in 1937, there were just 550 hectares of vines. At that time and into the next decade, it was still rebuilding its vineyards after phylloxera, Prussian occupation (1870–1871), and German occupation during World War II, and growing crops for food was more important than making wine. Today, two in five wine producers also grow other crops. From the confluence of the Vienne and Loire Rivers, Chinon’s vineyards extend southeast for more than 25 kilometers, encompassing 26 villages, from Savigny-en-Véron in the west to Crouzilles in the east, with the picturesque town of Chinon at the center. Vineyards sit on both sides of the Vienne, most on the north bank, where plantings reach an altitude of about 100 meters. There are many different exposures, including some north-facing vineyards on the south bank of the Vienne. View of Chinon from Clos du Chêne Vert (Credit: Domaine Charles Joguet) While as many as 50 different soil types were identified in a 1978 university thesis by Jacky Dupont, Chinon is best understood by its three main soils. First, alluvial terraces made of sand, silt, and river gravels can be found on lower, flatter lands close to the river, as well as in the wedge of the appellation where the Loire and Vienne meet, in western Chinon. Known as the Véron peninsula, this area has highly sandy soils that are free draining and warm up quickly, making vines in this part of the appellation early to bud and early to ripen. The second soil is tuffeau mixed with clay, found on the coteaux (hillsides), where the vineyards rise upward, away from the river and the valley floor. Here, the limestone is yellow, unlike the white chalks of Saumur. The coteaux run almost continuously from Chinon to Avon-les-Roches, nearly 20 kilometers. This is where many of the appellation’s most prized vineyards, such as Le Clos de l’Olive, Le Chêne Vert, and La Croix Boissée, are located. If there were grand cru vineyards in Chinon, the vast majority would be at these sites, which produce the most elegant, densely concentrated, chalky-textured, and ageworthy Cabernet Franc. Chinon’s third terroir is generally found at the top of the hillsides, where sand and clay mix with flint; it is also found on the hillocks, known as puys, found in the Véron peninsula. These soils, while not considered as prestigious as the clay-limestone of the coteaux , also yield high-quality wines. The climate in Chinon is influenced by nearby bodies of water: the Atlantic Ocean and the confluence of the Vienne and Loire Rivers. It is mild, with a warm summer, a high number of sunshine hours, and relatively low rainfall. Climate change is bringing challenges, however, with drought occurring more often. A lack of water particularly affects vines on the free-draining sandy-gravel soils, where moisture is not readily retained. Spring frosts and hail have wiped out some growers’ crops entirely in recent years. As a result, the maximum yield of 55 hectoliters per hectare is rarely reached. There is a focus on quality, and 45% of the vineyard area is either organic or in conversion, according to the appellation. As in Bourgueil, the wines of Chinon are generally vinified by terroir. The grapes picked from the sandy-gravel soils are suited to making fresh, fruity, unoaked wines. They are often machine harvested, fermented in inert vessels, macerated for a brief period, and bottled relatively early for consumption in the short term (two to five years). Meanwhile, the finest fruit sourced from the clay-limestone coteaux is hand-picked, gently extracted, treated to a long maceration, and fermented and aged in some oak, with a proportion of new wood. Around half of the producers use up to 25% new wood, and just 5% use a high proportion (75% to 100%). These wines are seriously concentrated, offering fragrant red and black fruit (depending on the vintage), an elegant mouthfeel, and a fine line of tension. Cabernet Franc is prone to reduction, and producers can manage this tendency by using regular racking to introduce oxygen to avoid off-flavors. Most Chinon producers make a rosé, a practice that has increased in recent years because of market demand. Only a small number of producers make their rosé from direct pressing exclusively; more often, winemakers employ the saigné e method or a combination of techniques. The color of the resulting wines is often salmon pink, with red fruit, floral, and citrus notes combining to make a refreshing style. The relatively obscure Chenin Blanc from Chinon is made in a variety of different styles, generally yielding wines with subtle orchard fruit, supple texture, and refreshing acidity. Vouvray Winemaking in the famed appellation of Vouvray , situated on the outskirts of Tours, is thought to have begun in the fourth century, though the wines didn’t enjoy export success until much later. In the 17 th century, the Dutch started to export Vouvray, which became more popular as new transport links—first the canals, then the railways—opened new markets. By the mid-19 th century, Vouvray was the shining star of the Touraine wine region, gaining international recognition. Yet in 1848, a study showed that most of its wines were still considered fairly ordinary: 7% of the vineyards were classified as first class, 7% as second class, and the rest (86%) as “very ordinary.” While many winegrowers replanted with hybrids after the arrival of phylloxera, in 1882, Chenin Blanc was most successful. In the early 20 th century, wine adulteration was widespread. In the absence of appellation laws, still white wines from the Loire were transported to Reims and Épernay, where they were made into sparkling wines and labeled as Champagne. There were also unscrupulous dealers in the Loire who were mislabeling their poor-quality whites as Vouvray, which by this time had developed a good reputation. In 1923, locals threatened to take an entire village of producers to court for misusing the Vouvray name. The appellation system aimed to remedy the issues of wine fraud, and in 1936 Vouvray became a white wine appellation based on Chenin Blanc (with the little-known Orbois contributing a maximum of 5% to the blend). Tuffeau limestone is the basis of Vouvray. Some vineyards sit almost directly on the limestone, but most have a topsoil of clay or flint, or both, in varying proportions. The slopes are referred to as premi è res c ô tes, where the topsoil is clay-flint, a soil known locally as perruches . Grapes grown here are used for the best wines, which are the most delicate and fine—although it’s difficult for an outsider to pinpoint where the c ô tes begin and end. On the rolling plateau, the deeper, clay-rich topsoils create a cooler, damper environment, and thus the grapes take longer to ripen and may not attain the same level of ripeness as those on the c ô tes . As a result, many of the grapes grown on the plateau are destined for base wines for sparkling Vouvray, which requires a potential alcohol of just 9.5% compared with 11% for still wine. The premi è res c ô tes receive better sun exposure, and the topsoil is thinner, allowing the vines to reach the limestone more easily. There are many shades of Vouvray, from sparkling to still, dry to botrytized, and everything in between. And within each category, there are many nuances. For example, very dry styles (less than two grams of residual sugar per liter) are very much in vogue. Dry styles are more popular than sweeter styles, but they can be lean and flinty or richly ripe and oaked, depending on the site, the season, and the producer. Sparkling wines also vary, from high-yielding, machine-harvested, traditional method fizz destined for supermarkets to hand-picked, small-batch, ancestral method cuv é es . Although 60% of Vouvray production is sparkling wine, it is rarely seen in export markets: 9 out of 10 bottles of sparkling Vouvray are consumed in France, while 2 out of 3 bottles of still Vouvray are shipped overseas. Traditionally, Vouvray producers attempted to make all styles, from dry to sweet, in the same year and sometimes from the same vines, achieved by making several passes through the vineyard during the harvest period. This was not possible, however, when the grapes did not ripen enough to make sweet styles, and thus these wines were highly prized in part for their rarity. But climate change has made it possible to achieve higher levels of ripeness more consistently and produce sweet wines annually. Improved ripeness levels and lower acidity levels also make the production of balanced dry whites much easier; there is no need for sugar to hide very high levels of acidity or harsh phenolics. In some warmer years, like 2018 and 2020, grape sugars can rise quickly, creating wines that have potential alcohol levels above 14% or even 14.5%, which are more suited to demi-sec styles than unbalanced, high-alcohol, sec styles. The cool 2021 season also produced many dry Vouvray wines that would have benefited from more residual sugar to counter their bracing acidity. The maximum permitted residual sugar for a Vouvray sec is 8 grams per liter (the level can be adjusted depending on the acidity content). Some producers claim that only dry Vouvray can provide a true expression of site; others fiercely disagree, claiming that there are no other places in the world that can make demi-sec or moelleux Chenin Blanc with such harmony and finesse. Falling between sec and demi-sec styles is sec tendre, an unofficial but widely used term for wines with a subtle sweetness that rounds out the midpalate and contributes texture. Montlouis-sur-Loire The Montlouis-sur-Loire AOC sits on the south side of the Loire River, opposite Vouvray on the north bank. It is a much smaller appellation, with just 442 hectares of vines compared with Vouvray’s 2,234 hectares. Its size is limited by the Cher River to the south, sandwiching the vineyard between two rivers. Vines have been grown here since the fifth century CE, but the wines were long sold under the name Vouvray. Like Vouvray, Montlouis-sur-Loire is an appellation for white wine only, making both still and sparkling Chenin Blanc. In addition to traditional method sparkling wines, the appellation includes a pétillant category, for delicately sparkling wines (1.5 to 2 bars), and since 2020 the cahier des charges has incorporated pétillant naturel. Vin Mousseux á Fermentation Unique, produced from just one fermentation, must spend a minimum of nine months on lees and must be disgorged, which is not always the case with pét-nat. In the Montlouis vineyards, the planting density is very similar to that of Vouvray, while the yields (52 hectoliters per hectare for still, 65 hectoliters per hectare for sparkling) are identical. Montlouis also produces the full range of styles, from dry to sweet. The vineyards of Montlouis, however, either sit on a plateau or face the Cher rather than the Loire, and the topsoils are mainly a blend of clay and flint. The bedrock is yellow limestone from the Turonian era. Montlouis has a high percentage of young producers because of the lower cost of land compared with that of Vouvray. Almost half the producers farm organically and hand-harvest. Some producers have vineyards in Vouvray, but, as the law states that Vouvray must be vinified in Vouvray, those with cellars only in Montlouis must label their wines as Vin de France. Cheverny The Cheverny appellation was created in 1993, but the area has long made wine: there are records of vineyards dating back to the Middle Ages, and Cheverny’s viticultural importance increased following the 1577 law forbidding the sale of wine made in the region around Paris. It now covers 650 hectares south and east of the city of Blois. Cheverny wines are always blends: the whites are made predominantly from Sauvignon Blanc, with Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, or Orbois. For the reds, Pinot Noir must account for 60% to 85% of a blend, with Gamay or, occasionally, Cabernet Franc or Côt included. The vineyards grow on alluvial soils. The white wines tend to be aromatic, fresh, and round, while the reds are typically fresh, fruity, and easy to drink. Cour-Cheverny The unique 50-hectare Cour-Cheverny appellation produces white wine from Romorantin. Grown here on alluvial soils of sand with either clay or gravel, Romorantin vines produce small berries and are relatively productive. The variety is high in acidity and can often be surprisingly full in body. The wines are typically dry, but late-harvest sweet wines are occasionally produced. Some of the best wines are made from old, ungrafted vines. Jasnières Jasnières is a small (70-hectare) appellation exclusively for Chenin Blanc, located 50 kilometers north of Tours on the Loir River. In this cool enclave, the grapes can ripen only because of their favorable position on southeast-facing slopes above the river. A forest to the north protects the vines from cold winds. Jasnières has a reputation for very steely, firm wines that can take years—even decades—to evolve. Climate change, however, may increase fruit maturity, helping make the wines more accessible in their youth. When conditions permit, botrytized wines can be made. Coteaux du Vendômois Sitting along the banks of the Loir River, the 120-hectare Coteaux du Vendômois AOC is named after the town of Vendôme. Chenin Blanc is the white variety of choice, with up to 20% Chardonnay permitted, but the most distinctive aspect of this appellation is its use of Pineau d’Aunis to make both its reds and vins gris . The variety typically yields pale-hued wines that are light, vivacious, and peppery. Central Vineyards Sancerre The likely birthplace of Sauvignon Blanc, Sancerre yields wines that provide the benchmark for the variety around the world. A two-hour drive south of Paris, Sancerre is a bucolic hilltop town, voted France’s favorite village in 2021. The appellation radiates outward from Sancerre and comprises 16 villages and hamlets, covering just shy of 3,000 hectares on the west (left) bank of the Loire River. Click to enlarge and zoom in It is thought that vines were first planted in the area around the second century CE in the neighboring village of Saint-Satur, then known as Gordona. Vines were again recorded by Grégoire of Tours in 582. Sancerre wines likely became more famous when Etienne I (1133–1190), the Count of Sancerre, also held the role of France’s grand bouteiller (grand butler), whose duties included sourcing the royal wine supply. Sauvignon Blanc, then referred to as Sauvignon Fumé, was first recorded as growing in Sancerre and Pouilly in 1783, and the area became known for its fine white wines, particularly those from the village of Chavignol. Following phylloxera, large swaths of the vineyard area were replanted with Chasselas, a lucrative table grape that was much desired in Paris, as well as Gamay. But Chasselas was not considered a quality wine grape, and farmers started experimenting with Sauvignon Blanc. In 1936, the Sancerre appellation was created exclusively for Sauvignon Blanc wines, and in 1959 red and rosé wines made solely from Pinot Noir were incorporated into the appellation. Today, Sancerre is an export-focused appellation. In 2020, exports totaled 82,147 hectoliters, worth €84.36 million. This is equivalent to €10.27 per liter, while Loire whites sold for, on average, €6.95 per liter. The premium on Sancerre is linked to supply and demand as well as the elevated price of land. The appellation of Sancerre rises from the river valley, culminating in La Cuesta, the town’s highest point, at 356 meters altitude. The appellation’s main divide runs through the hillside village from which it takes its name. The Sancerre and Thauvenay fault lines run north-south, with the land on the eastern side of the faults cascading toward the river. Here, flinty clay is the main soil type. West of both the town of Sancerre and these fault lines, the vineyards mainly sit at elevations between 200 and 300 meters and are planted on a rolling landscape. There are many different exposures, from north to south and east to west. The hills reveal layers of sedimentary rock, which have shifted and eroded over hundreds of millions of years. But the bedrock is generally Jurassic limestone, whether Kimmeridgian, Portlandian, or even Oxfordian. There are three main soil types in Sancerre. Terres blanches, named for the white appearance of the soils in the summer sunshine, are Kimmeridgian marls, which consist of clay and limestone. The word c aillottes (or griottes ) refers to limestone pebbles of differing sizes. The third soil, silex , is rich in flint and found mostly on the eastern slopes of Sancerre. T erres blanches are relatively cool, and grapes take longer to ripen on these soils than on caillottes . Sancerre grown on Kimmeridgian marls tends to be more complex and fuller bodied, while caillottes typically produce more open, fruity wines. Silex generally yields powerful, firm, and even lightly bitter styles. It is common for producers to blend grapes from different sites to create their main white Sancerre cuv é es . Michel Redde’s Barre à Mine vineyard in Pouilly-Fumé with a view toward the hilltop town of Sancerre (Credit: Rebecca Gibb) Since the 1990s, there has also been a rise in single-vineyard cuv é es and terroir cuv é es , which seek to express one of more than 400 lieux-dits or a specific soil type. It is increasingly common to find a vineyard name—for example, Le Chêne Marchand or Les Monts Damnés—on a Sancerre label. The name of a soil, such as terres blanches , might also appear. While it is doubtful that Sancerre drinkers are as interested in terroir as Burgundy lovers, Catherine Petrie’s Master of Wine research paper noted that both single-vineyard and terroir wines attracted a significant premium compared with a domaine’s classic, typically larger-volume white Sancerre. In his book Les t erroirs s ancerrois , Thibaut Boulay, a Sancerre vigneron and professor of history at Tours University, provides evidence that the term climat was recorded in Sancerre several centuries before the Burgundians documented it. Sancerre’s production is overwhelmingly focused on white wine, which accounts for 85% of the appellation’s production. Red wine represents around 10% of Sancerre’s production, with rosé accounting for 5%. Yet Pinot Noir has a long history in Sancerre. According to John the Magnificent (1340–1416), the duke of Auvergne and Berry, which included Sancerre, the area’s Pinot Noir wines were “the best in the kingdom.” They were also a favorite of Louis XVI (1754–1793). In 1816, the Paris wine merchant André Jullien published Topographie de tous les vignobles connus, arguably the first modern wine guide, and noted that Sancerre “is surrounded by vineyards that produce [red] wines with good color, moderate alcohol and a good taste.” Pinot Noir was the main variety and remained dominant until phylloxera wiped out the vineyards. White varieties were favored during the replanting phase, and in 1936 Sauvignon Blanc became the sole grape of the Sancerre appellation. Red and rosé wines made from Pinot Noir joined the appellation 23 years later. Fruit and freshness are key components in red Sancerre, but the range of styles is diverse. Although red Sancerre was once seen as a lowly brasserie wine, there are now fine, ageworthy examples. Pinot Noir vineyards are planted on both sides of Sancerre’s fault lines, making both limestone- and flint-based expressions, as well as on different exposures with varying clones. In the winery, there are myriad choices that can be made to yield a desired style. Winemakers often amend their approaches depending on the season’s fruit. It is clear that climate change has contributed to increasingly ripe, red styles that have the structure for oak maturation, while greater fruit maturity also enables a higher percentage of whole clusters to be used, if desired. There is a trend toward less extraction across the whole Loire Valley, producing less tannic, drying styles. Rosé Sancerre must be dry and produced solely from Pinot Noir, and the wines are generally a pale salmon hue. The saigné e method is used most often, although Alphonse Mellot’s Vingt Mille Pieds Sous Sancerre is a serious rosé, made from vines planted at the incredibly high density of 20,000 vines per hectare. Pouilly-Fumé The Pouilly-Fumé AOC is located at the midpoint of the Loire River. Sitting on the eastern (right) bank of the river, opposite Sancerre, this smaller appellation (1,333 hectares) is less prestigious than Sancerre and lacks some of its romantic allure. Today, Pouilly-Fumé focuses exclusively on still, dry white wines produced from Sauvignon Blanc, but it is believed that grapes have been grown here since at least the fifth century CE. According to the appellation’s cahier de s charges, the vineyard area boomed under the stewardship of Benedictine monks, and the opening of the Briare Canal in 1642 connected the thirsty Parisian market to Pouilly-Fumé’s winemakers. When the railway arrived in the mid-19 th century, travel time to Paris was significantly reduced, and there was great demand for table grapes, which led to widespread planting of Chasselas. Following the devastation of phylloxera, Sauvignon Blanc became the area’s signature variety, frequently blended with Chasselas. While plantings of Chasselas remain, the variety has its own appellation: Pouilly-sur-Loire. Typically, Chasselas ripens 7 to 10 days before Sauvignon Blanc. There are seven villages within Pouilly-Fumé’s borders, including Pouilly and the highest point, Saint-Andelain, which is home to its most famous producer, Domaine Didier Dagueneau (although its wines have been labeled as Vin de France since the 2017 vintage). The name Pouilly-Fumé results from Sauvignon Blanc’s historic local name, Blanc Fumé de Pouilly, literally, “smoked white of Pouilly.” The name was given not because of the wine’s flavor but because the berries developed a harmless, smoke-colored bloom at maturity. Pouilly-Fumé runs for about 20 kilometers along the river and has a variety of soils. Around the village of Saint-Andelain, home to Dagueneau’s famed Silex cuv é e , the soil composition is predominantly flint-clay. Around the unassuming village of Pouilly-sur-Loire, clay-limestone Kimmeridgian marls peppered with oyster shells are common. In these cooler soils, grapes ripen later and yield rounded, fuller-bodied wines that are typically longer lived. The vineyards in the northeast of the appellation are more likely to be planted on the limestone pebbles known as caillottes and make earlier-drinking, fruiter wines, as in Sancerre. In general, Pouilly-Fumé producers start harvest a few days after Sancerre. Many Pouilly-Fumé producers own or rent vineyards in Sancerre. It is no easy task to distinguish one appellation from the other, even for locals. Two wines grown on flint, in Pouilly and in Sancerre, may have more in common than two Sancerre wines tasted side by side. Pouilly-sur-Loire There are just 30 hectares of Chasselas planted in Pouilly-sur-Loire AOC , and the grape is used to make nonaromatic, dry white wines. Chasselas is an early ripening, vigorous variety and was favored in the past for its reliable and abundant crops. It was used as a table grape for the Parisian food market and was highly profitable in the late 1800s. According to Jacky Rigaux’s Pouilly-Fum é: Jewel of the Loire Valley (2009) , 3,000 metric tonnes of grapes were shipped from the station of Pouilly in 1865 alone. But after the railway’s extension to warm southern France, Paris no longer wanted Pouilly’s grapes, and the region returned to wine production. There are no producers specializing in the wines of Pouilly-sur-Loire, though a few fine Pouilly-Fumé producers, such as Michel Redde and Jonathan Pabiot, focus on making Chasselas wines of concentration and character through low yields and careful attention in the vineyard. Other Regions Surrounding the Loire’s twin star appellations of Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé are a further five AOC regions and two IGPs, which can provide good-value alternatives to the wines of their more renowned neighbors, often in a similar style. While Sauvignon Blanc is by far the most planted grape, red and rosé still wines are also made. These regions are small; all together, they account for only 25% of the production of the Central Vineyards area, while Pouilly-Fumé is at 25% and Sancerre at 50%. Lacking the international cachet of Sancerre or Pouilly-Fumé, relatively few of these wines are exported. Menetou-Salon The Mentetou-Salon vineyard area forms a continuation of that of Sancerre, spreading southwest, away from the Loire, toward the city of Bourges. The most significant of the satellite appellations, it covers 627 hectares across 10 villages. Vines grow on Portlandian and Kimmeridgian limestone soils, and production mirrors Sancerre in style. Sauvignon Blanc and Pinot Noir are the only permitted varieties for whites, reds, and rosés, and whites dominate. The vineyards around the charming village of Morogues, in the heart of the appellation, are densely planted on gently rolling hills interspersed with trees and hedges, and there is visible biodiversity. Menetou-Salon has more organic vineyards than any other appellation in the Central Vineyards. The hills are somewhat lower than those of Sancerre, so vines suffer less stress and grapes typically ripen a week earlier. Menetou-Salon wines are less austere than those grown closer to the Loire River, but they can be equally long lived. Quincy Southwest of Bourges, the vineyards of Quincy and Reuilly are clustered around two Loire tributaries. The Quincy vineyard is 332 hectares and entirely devoted to Sauvignon Blanc. The vines grow almost wholly on the left bank of the Cher, on an ancient terrace of sand-based soils with gravel, clay, and silt. The climate is cool, humid, and prone to frost, but crop losses from frosts these days are minimal, thanks to the farsighted co-operative investment of the vignerons of Quincy, who purchased 66 wind machines back in 2000. Because the appellation’s vineyards are so concentrated, nearly all are covered by the fans, a boon to Quincy growers in years like 2021, when the whole of France suffered enormous losses from frost. Quincy wines are popular in France, and with good reason. They are assertive and fruity, with a zesty freshness. Reuilly The 289-hectare appellation of Reuilly sits just southwest of Quincy, in the valley of the Arnon River. The landscape here is different from that of surrounding areas, with scattered parcels of vines far outnumbered by fields of cereal crops, and with sweeping vistas punctuated by wind turbines. The land is lower, and this, combined with hot, dry summers, leads to earlier harvests than in Quincy. Around half of the production is Sauvignon Blanc, and the warmer conditions produce rounder, softer whites than those of Quincy. Reuilly was granted appellation status for reds and rosés in 1961. Today, the region produces some light red wines from Pinot Noir and, perhaps most notably, pale, aromatic rosés ( vins gris ) from Pinot Gris, a rare variety in the Loire Valley. Coteaux du Giennois The Coteaux du Giennois extends across a narrow, 50-kilometer strip on the right bank of the Loire, but vines cover less than 200 hectares of this area. Named after the city of Gien to the north, the vineyards are concentrated mostly in the far south, close to the Pouilly-Fumé appellation. A relatively recent appellation, Coteaux du Giennois graduated from VDQS to AOC in 1998. Vines are planted on south- and southwest-facing flint and limestone hills, some facing Sancerre across the river. The climate is a little cooler than that of Sancerre, more like neighboring Pouilly-Fumé. Whites from Sauvignon Blanc account for 70% of production, offering early-drinking, fresh wines with varietal typicity. Reds and rosés can be light and elegant, made from blends of Pinot Noir and Gamay. Côtes de la Charité The Central Vineyards region has two small IGPs, both formerly classified as Vin de Pays and both on the right bank of the Loire. Côtes de la Charité IGP covers 50 hectares south of Pouilly, in a largely wooded area on calcareous clay soils. Slightly more white wine than red is produced, from Chardonnay and Pinot Gris. Pinot Noir is grown for reds, and a little rosé is also made. Coteaux de Tannay Coteaux de Tannay is an IGP of just 25 hectares east of the main Coteaux du Giennois vineyard area. A range of grapes are grown on calcareous soils. White wines dominate, made from Chardonnay, Pinot Blanc, Melon B, Pinot Gris, and Auxerrois. Reds, based on Pinot Noir and Gamay, account for 25% of production. A small amount of rosé is also made. Orléans Created in 2006, Orléans AOC includes vineyards on both banks of the Loire around the city of Orléans and is distinctive for its use of Pinot Meunier. This 60-hectare appellation makes red, white, and rosé styles, predominantly on sandy-gravel soils south of the river, with a small portion on the chalky north bank. In both the rosé and red wines, Pinot Meunier must compose a majority of the blend. The whites, which are generally early drinking, are Chardonnay dominant, with a small amount of Pinot Gris permitted. Orléans-Cléry The 20-hectare red wine appellation Orléans-Cléry sits southwest of the city of Orléans on the right bank of the Loire. Produced solely from Cabernet Franc on sandy-gravel terraces, the wines are light in body and gently spiced. Central France Most wine maps of the Loire Valley show a vineyard that starts in the middle of France, at Sancerre. But by the time the Loire River has reached this point, it has already flowed halfway along its course. The Loire’s source is in the Massif Central, a volcanic region far from the tourist hordes and fairy-tale castles of Touraine and Anjou. Geographically closer to Burgundy than most of the other Loire vineyards (on a clear day the vineyards of the Mâconnais are visible from the Côte Roannaise), the upper Loire focuses on a set of grape varieties also influenced by Burgundy: Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and Gamay. Even so, the winemakers consider themselves firmly part of the Loire. These far-flung pockets of vines may be hidden away, but they are arguably some of the most dynamic appellations in the Loire Valley, a region usually known more for its storied traditions than its novelty value. This area is comparatively very recently established, with the Loire Volcanique growers’ association formed in late 2019 and the oldest appellation dating to 1994, and the winemakers are driven by youthful enthusiasm. Even the soils are young here, at not even a million years old. Four appellations make up the Central France region: Saint-Pourçain, Côtes d’Auvergne, Côtes du Forez, and Côte Roannaise. There are two IGP denominations as well, IGP d’Urfé and IGP Puy de Dôme. Saint-Pourçain The Saint-Pourçain vineyards extend across 600 hectares in a rural and picturesque region of small fields, hedgerows, wildflowers, and Charolais cows, all centered around the town of Saint-Pourçain-sur-Sioule. Formerly a VDQS, it was granted appellation status in 2009. The vines grow in an area that is 30 kilometers from north to south, just west of the Allier, a Loire tributary. Soils are sandy, with islands of granite, and a band of clay-limestone runs down the center of the appellation. Wines of all colors are made here. Rosés are 100% Gamay, while reds must be blends of Pinot Noir and Gamay. Whites are from Chardonnay and Tressallier (also known as Sacy), a variety grown almost nowhere else and of which the locals are particularly proud. The requirement to blend it with Chardonnay has led some of the more independently minded growers to make 100% Tressallier as Vin de France. This unique, appealing wine sells quickly, with no apparent need of an appellation to endorse it. Côtes d’Auvergne An hour’s drive south of Saint-Pourçain is Côtes d’Auvergne , an appellation granted in 2010. Located mostly south of the industrial city of Clermont-Ferrand, it was an important winegrowing area encompassing thousands of hectares in the years before phylloxera. Now, it is just 350 hectares. The soil is volcanic here: the conic remnants of the Puy mountain chain loom all around. In some of the best vineyards, such as Corent, which is itself an old volcano, vines grow directly on volcanic ash deposits. Corent is one of the five crus of the appellation and is authorized only for production of rosé. The other four—Boudes, Madargue, Chanturgue, and Châteaugay—are authorized solely for red. All reds and rosés of the Côtes d’Auvergne are made from Gamay, possibly with a minority percentage of Pinot Noir; whites must be 100% Chardonnay. The wines are generally light and refreshing in style, with the fruit grown at altitudes of 350 to 550 meters above sea level. Côtes du Forez East of the Côtes d’Auvergne and across the Forez mountains are the remaining two vineyards of the upper Loire. Both are a short distance from the Loire, which flows north and is situated east of the vineyards. The more southerly of the two appellations is Côtes du Forez , an AOC of 150 hectares, granted in 2000. The appellation is for reds and rosés only, from 100% Gamay. Some producers grow varieties as varied as Roussanne, Viognier, Pinot Noir, Riesling, and Syrah, bottled under the IGP d’Urfé label. There are also red wines made from Gamaret, a Swiss-derived cross between Gamay and Reichensteiner that is usefully less susceptible to rot than Gamay. Côte Roannaise North of Côtes du Forez is the 215-hectare Côte Roannaise , a growing area with a 25-kilometer stretch of east-facing vineyards in the foothills of the Madeleine mountains, 400 to 500 meters above sea level. An AOC since 1994, this is Gamay country. The appellation is for reds and rosés only, made exclusively from Gamay. Like its sister appellation to the south, it is also home to a wide range of grapes made into IGP d’Urfé wines. The preferred clone is Gamay Saint-Romain, which has a conveniently upright growth habit and smaller berries than the Gamay of nearby Beaujolais, as well as a distinctly peppery quality. Producers here are using it to make serious and attention-worthy wines. Bibliography Asselin, Christian, Loïc Bienassis, Marie-Luce Demonet, François de Izarra, Alain Lecomte, Jean-Max Manceau, Laurence Peydro, Olivier Poussier, Muriel Roudaut, and Marie-Ève Scheffer. Chinon: Voyage au pays de Rabelais . Encyclopédies du Voyage. Gallimard, 2017. Boulay, Thibaut. Les t erroirs s ancerrois: Un héritage géologique, c ulturel e t i mmatériel . Loubatières, 2020. Brouard, Emmanuel. La Loire e t s es v ins: Deux m ille a ns d’ histoire(s) e t d e c ommerce . Flammarion, 2021. “Changement climatique à l'échelle de 2 vignobles en Val de Loire.” Accessed July 22, 2022. https://www.techniloire.com/fiche-technique/changement-climatique-lechelle-de-2-vignobles-en-val-de-loire . Chrétien, Philippe. “Adaptations viticoles et oenologiques aux conséquences du changement climatique en Val de Loire” (working paper, ADACLIM, 2019). https://techniloire.com/sites/default/files/mini_fiche_action_2020-21.doc.pdf . Frankel, Charles. Land and Wine: The French Terroir . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014. Friedrich, Jacqueline. Earthly Delights from the Garden of France: Wines of the Loire. Vol . 1 of The Kingdom of Sauvignon Blanc: Sancerre, Pouilly-Fumé and the Sauvignon Satellites . Paris: published by the author, 2011. Jullien, André . Togographie de tous les vignobles connus . . . suivie d ’une classification générale des vins . Paris: Mme Huzard and L. Colas, 1816. https://wellcomecollection.org/works/yqjenk6g . “Le prix des terres .” Accessed August 31, 2022. https://www.le-prix-des-terres.fr/carte/vigne/ . Leturcq, Samuel , and Lammoglia, Adrien. “La viticulture en Touraine (Moyen Âge –XXe siècle) : Dynamiques spatiales et commerciales du vignoble. ” Histoire et sociétés rurales 49 (2018): 31 –75 . https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01965661 . Loire Valley Wines . https://www.vinsvaldeloire.fr/en . Loire Valley Wines Economic Report 2021 . Accessed August 7, 2022. https://loirevalleywine.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/vins-val-de-loire-chiffres-cles-eco-2021-EN.pdf . Neethling, Etienne, Gerard Barbeau, Herve Quenol , and Cyril Bonnefoy. “Évolution du climat et de la composition des raisins des principaux cépages cultivés dans le Val de Loire.” Climatologie 8 (2011 ): 79 –92. https://doi.org/10.4267/climatologie.323 . Rigaux, Jacky. Pouilly-Fum é: Jewel of the Loire Valley . Terres en Vues , 2009. Robinson, Jancis, Julia Harding, and Jos é Vouillamoz. Wine Grapes: A Complete Guide to 1,368 Vine Varieties, Including Their Origins and Flavours . New York: Ecco/HarperCollins, 2012. Sorcelle, Laurent . Sancerre: Terre et vins d’ enchant ement . Editions l’Arcande, 2013 . Wilson, James E. Terroir: The Role of Geology, Climate, and Culture in the Making of French Wines . Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1999. Compiled by MW Rebecca Gibb and MW Beverley Blanning (November 2022) Edited by Stacy Ladenburger and Sandra BanPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/research/expert_guides/w/expert-guides/2428/spainSun, 14 Jun 2026 22:59:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:248f644e-847a-44ae-9384-9265f384d4d4Jonathan Eichholz"I would sooner be a foreigner in Spain than in most countries. How easy it is to make friends in Spain!" - George Orwell, "Homage to Catalonia," 1938 Contents History of Spain Land & Climate Spanish Wine Law The Grapes of Spain Atlantic Coast Duero River Valley Ebro River Valley Mediterranean Coast Central Plateau Andalucía The Islands Bibliography Home to the world’s largest vineyard area, Spain boasts a winegrowing history that is ancient and discontinuous. Several events throughout its three millennia of viticulture have threatened the industry, including the Moorish conquest of Iberia, the phylloxera crisis, a devastating Civil War, and several decades under a fascist regime, during which winemaking customs lost favor to bulk production and cooperatives. Today, Spain’s languages, cultures, and food and wine traditions remain distinct—long after the country's unification in the late 15 th and early 16 th centuries. Spain’s heritage styles—its deep-hued rosados , nutty rancios , and slowly aged gran reservas —are now joined by more contemporary aesthetics. While some growers have adapted to a modern palate, others hold to tradition. Others still seek to reimagine classic Spanish wines for the 21 st century, reclaiming indigenous grape varieties and marrying innovation to ancestry. Born from these varied philosophical approaches is a Spanish wine industry equipped with the diversity and talent to capture new generations of consumers while safeguarding a long-cherished identity. History of Spain Ancient History Anthropological studies have found trace evidence of Vitis vinifera in Spain dating as early as 3000 BCE. Fragments of vine wood and other vestiges of ancient grapes have been identified at three sites in Southern Spain. The introduction of viticulture to Iberia, however, is widely attributed to the Phoenicians, who arrived and established what would become Cádiz in today’s Andalucía approximately two millennia later, around 1100 or 800 BCE, depending on the account. A seafaring and mercantile people, the Phoenicians, whose borders corresponded roughly to modern-day Lebanon, traveled across the Mediterranean basin trading goods, among them wine. Examples of lagares (stone troughs used for crushing grapes) dating to the period have been found in several locations in southern Spain. Evidence also suggests that Jerez’s famed Macharnudo vineyard was planted soon after Phoenician colonization. But the Phoenicians weren’t the first to settle Iberia. By the Bronze Age, two distinct cultures had been established—the Iberians, who had arrived from North Africa, and the Celts, who came from further north. The Greeks were next to arrive. Their first major outpost, however, was more northern, near the Pyrenees, a city they called Emporion (today Ampurias, or Empúries in Catalan). The Carthaginians descended from the Phoenician people and succeeded them in trade relations between the Eastern and Western Mediterranean. They clashed with the Romans, both in Iberia and beyond. Tensions escalated into the Second Punic War, where Greeks, Iberians, and Celts fought for both the Carthaginians (led by the general Hannibal) and the Romans. Ultimately, Rome prevailed, by 206 BCE driving the Carthaginians from what the Romans then called Hispania. The Romans expanded upon the traditions of winegrowing already established on the Iberian Peninsula, bringing modern technologies and improved wine quality. They introduced various innovations, including the implementation of smaller amphorae constructed from finer, more durable, and less porous clays. The Romans also exported some Iberian wines back to Rome and the Italian Peninsula. Rome’s stronghold over Iberia began to crumble in the late fourth and early fifth centuries CE, less than 100 years before the Western Roman Empire’s fall. The Visigoths, after sacking Rome in 410, settled in Gaul and Spain. Other Germanic tribes, including the Vandals, Suevi, and Alans, also invaded Iberia. The Visigoths, who had already converted to Arian Christianity (not Catholicism, as the Franks had), triumphed over the other tribes and extended their reach throughout the peninsula, which they would rule for the next three centuries. Medieval Times to Early Modern Period In 711, Ṭāriq ibn Ziyād led a Muslim Berber army across the Strait of Gibraltar, and the following year, he defeated King Roderick, Spain’s last Visigoth monarch. This began the Moorish conquest of Spain, and within a half decade, nearly all of Iberia had fallen under Muslim rule, save some stretches in the north. The Moors offered some degree of religious tolerance toward the Jews and Christians they had conquered. While alcohol is strictly forbidden in Islamic scripture, viticulture and winemaking persisted in Iberia over the course of their leadership. In addition to wine, grapes were cultivated for raisins and distillation—a science mastered by the Moors, though its applications were for medicine, perfume, and other goods, never for consumption. The Reconquista (reconquest) of Spain by Christian forces began almost immediately upon the Moors’ arrival. Though it would take almost eight centuries for the peninsula to completely come into Catholic reign, they slowly chipped away at Moorish territory over this timespan. Notably, Porto was reconquered in 868, a date typically given to the initial establishment of Portugal as separate from Spain. This piecemeal Reconquista of Iberia allowed for a series of autonomous kingdoms, which would only later unify and form what is now considered Spain. As Moorish reach waned, French monks crossed the Pyrenees to establish monasteries in these newly independent areas, bringing with them winemaking knowledge. Some of the earliest monasteries were in Galicia’s Ribeiro area, and their grapegrowing success led the English to import their wines across the Bay of Biscay. In 1469, Isabella I of Castile married Ferdinand II of Aragon, both heirs to their respective kingdoms, representing the de facto unification of Spain once Ferdinand succeeded the throne in 1479. The joint rulers expelled the remaining Moors (as well as the Jews) from Granada in 1492, the same year Christopher Columbus set sail for the Americas in Ferdinand and Isabella’s name. The Renaissance years also brought a renaissance for Spain’s wines. Despite the ongoing conflict with England, including its devastating defeat of Spain’s armada in 1588, the country became a critical export market for Iberian wines. English influence and investment in Sherry (as well as Port) remains clear today. England gained a palate for sack , considered a forerunner of Sherry, though important examples of Málaga sack and Canary sack are also well documented. Scholars debate exactly what sack was—particularly its degree of sweetness and whether or not the wines were fortified. It was likely an inexpensive imitation of the dried-grape wines that had reemerged in Italy and Greece in the Middle Ages (such as Tuscan vin santo ). While the Italian and Greek examples were highly prized and incredibly expensive, the Spanish diluted the market and likely the wines themselves, blending raisinated grapes with fresh must to yield a poorer-quality product. The remarkable expansion of European wine stocks following the end of the Reconquista favored these less expensive sacks over their eastern counterparts. Those wines were primarily accessed by nobility, while sack achieved a wider audience, including England’s middle class. Fortification likely came later, but by the time of the Age of Exploration, it was an important preservative, allowing Spain’s wines to cross the Atlantic. The high amounts of residual sugar in some wines, as well as intentionally oxidative rancio styles, also prevented spoilage on these long voyages. In its early years, Spain forbade its new colonies from producing their own wines, with the purpose of bolstering Spanish transatlantic exports (still, early wine industries were created in Argentina and Chile). The Spanish achieved other technological advancements during this timeframe, such as the transition from animal skins and amphorae to wooden butts and casks as storage vessels. Toward the late 1700s, Manuel Esteban Quintano Quintano, a priest from Rioja, traveled to Bordeaux and observed the oenological practices there. Upon returning, he began to experiment with cask-aging, a completely foreign practice locally. He went on to export his wines to Cuba in barrel, receiving a positive response. Yet financial challenges—such as the cost of investment and aging before sale—and cultural pushback stopped barriques from catching on. That would change in the mid-1800s, when two prominent Spaniards were exiled during the Carlist Wars, a series of civil wars throughout that century. Peruvian-born Luciano de Murrieta García-Lemoine, later the Marqués de Murrieta, spent part of his exile in Bordeaux studying the region’s wines. He would later adopt Bordeaux’s élevage techniques at his own Logroño property, with his first oaked vintage in 1852. Camilo Hurtado de Amézaga y Balmaseda, the Marqués de Riscal, similarly returned from exile in Bordeaux. Along with knowledge of Bordeaux winemaking, he brought cuttings of Cabernet Sauvignon, first harvesting the resulting vines in 1860. Phylloxera to Franco The great phylloxera crisis that ravaged vineyards worldwide throughout the mid- to late 19 th century initially proved beneficial to the Spanish wine industry. It wasn’t the first scourge to hit Europe; oidium arrived in France in the late 1840s, and during its devastation, the French relied on their southern neighbor to fill their wine deficit. The railway had not yet been constructed, so Spanish vineyard growth was concentrated around port cities such as Alicante. When phylloxera first took hold in France in the 1860s, the country needed replenishment once again but could look to the interior, using rail transport. Rioja was one of the chief beneficiaries, and its cultural and financial exchange with the French during the last decades of the 19 th century allowed for the evolution of Rioja wine as it is generally understood today. An 1877 trade deal between France and Spain reduced tariffs on the outgoing wines, further allowing Spain’s industry to boom. In all, Spain’s vineyard area rose 40% between 1860 and 1888. This expansion, however, amplified the tremendous bust that followed once phylloxera entered Spain in the late 1880s. Trade agreements were lifted, and in 1892, tariffs were imposed on Spanish wines coming into France, whose own vineyards began to recover and who also found in Algeria a new source of wine. Spain had experienced a 32-fold increase in exports between 1850 and 1891. At the peak during the phylloxera crisis, Spain provided 80% of imports into France, a number that dwindled to 26% in the 1930s. By the time phylloxera arrived in Spain, its treatment was understood—grafting onto phylloxera-resistant American rootstock—though the country was left little time for recovery between its own epidemic and World War I. At the onset of the war, Spain had lost one-third of its national vineyard. The industry was further stifled as France recovered, no longer needing droves of Spanish imports. The 20 th century offered little relief to Spain and its wines. The king went into exile in 1931 after local elections that gave a majority to republican parties, and the Second Republic was proclaimed. In 1936, Francisco Franco led the Nationalist uprising against the Republicans and became head of state. The Civil War lasted until 1939, and Franco would rule as dictator until his death in 1975. In the decades following the Spanish Civil War, Spain’s wine industry struggled to modernize. As poverty swept rural winegrowing areas, production was centralized under local cooperatives that emphasized quantity over quality. Other than Sherry and a few select wineries, including the iconic but elusive Vega Sicilia, Spanish wine was largely ignored by international audiences. Poorer-quality grapes like Palomino (vinified as a table wine) gained widespread plantings due to their vigor. Spain continues to suffer from the reputation established during this time, as well as the persistent bulk industry that dominates production. Toward the end of Franco’s regime, there were signs of a new era for Spanish wine. In the 1960s, Miguel Torres introduced stainless steel and temperature-controlled fermentation to his family’s winery in Catalonia. In 1972, famed French enologist and winemaker Émile Peynaud, working as a consultant for the Marqués de Riscal, identified Rueda and its grape Verdejo for the possibility of creating a more contemporary style of non-oxidative white wine. He also suggested planting Sauvignon Blanc in the region. Spain’s transition to democracy began in 1975. The first general election since 1936 was held in 1977, and the country started its return to greater economic prosperity with more potential international business. In 1986, Spain joined the European Union; in 1999, it adopted the euro, which began circulating in 2002. Its democratization opened opportunities for Spain’s aspiring winemakers to travel and study in France, California, and beyond, returning with contemporary practices. Fit with a global perspective, these younger generations also sparked a new passion for Spain’s heritage styles and indigenous varieties. As a result, Spanish wine today is more diverse and internationally accessible than ever. Spanish Wine in Context According to the International Organisation of Vine and Wine, in 2018, Spain harvested 969,000 hectares of vines, equal to 13% of the global vineyard surface and more than any other country. That also corresponds to roughly 2% of Spain’s total land being dedicated to viticulture. Spain, however, is not the world’s largest producer of wine. It comes in third, with 44.4 million hectoliters, trailing Italy and France. The discrepancy in these two rankings might be accounted for through low yields, the wide vineyard spacing of Spain’s plentiful old vine sites, and the distillation of grapes for brandy. Spain does eclipse all other nations as the world’s largest exporter of wine, shipping 21.1 million hectoliters outside its borders. Yet the total value of Spain’s exports is less than a third of France’s and less than half of Italy’s. This is due to Spain’s substantial bulk industry, comprising more than 50% of total output, a great deal of which is sold to France and bottled as Vin de France. Land & Climate The Land Iberia represents the meeting of the Atlantic Ocean with the Mediterranean Sea through the Strait of Gibraltar, which halts the near convergence of Europe with Northern Africa. This has allowed the peninsula a cultural mixing unique in Western Europe and has significant implications on geological and climatic conditions. The Iberian peninsula (Click to enlarge and zoom in) Spain is separated from France by the Pyrenees Mountains, the small nation of Andorra nestled within that border as well. It shares the Iberian Peninsula with Portugal, which occupies the southwestern corner. Mainland Spain’s latitude is roughly between 36° and 44° N, placing it squarely within the range of 30° to 50° N considered standard for quality viticulture. It follows only Switzerland in having the highest average elevation in Europe, and this elevation proves essential to maintaining freshness for many regions. According to The World Atlas of Wine , “a good 90% of all Spanish vineyards are higher in altitude than any major French wine region.” Spain’s autonomous communities (Click to enlarge and zoom in) At the heart of Iberia, Spain sits atop the Meseta Central, a large plateau that includes the capital Madrid, which has an average elevation of 660 meters above sea level. The country is bisected by the Sistema Central, a mountain range that effectively separates the Meseta in two. The northern section is both higher and smaller than the southern portion. In addition to the Pyrenees and the Sistema Central, several mountain ranges cut through the Spanish countryside. The Cantabrian Mountains begin in Galicia and continue parallel to the northern coast. The Sistema Ibérico runs perpendicular to the Sistema Central, stretching from Castilla y León to Valencia. The Sierra Morena range borders the Meseta Central to the south, and the Sistema Penibético, which includes the Sierra Nevada range, lines the southeast of the peninsula. Water surrounds Spain, with the Mediterranean to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and its gulf, the Bay of Biscay, forming a right triangle with northern Iberia, western France, and the British Isles. Several major rivers flow through Spain, and vineyards are cultivated on many of their banks. Some of the most important, from north to south, are the Miño, Ebro, Duero, Tagus, Guadiana, and Guadalquivir. Legally, Spain is divided into 17 autonomous communities, or comunidades autónomas , further split into 50 provinces. Fifteen of Spain’s autonomous communities compose the mainland, while two involve a series of islands: the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean and the Canary Islands off the coast of Northern Africa. All but two, Cantabria and Asturias, have DO wine regions. Additionally, Spain has two autonomous cities, Melilla and Ceuta, both interrupting Morocco’s northern coastline. Climate Despite the common image of arid, windmill-dotted plains, the climate across Spain varies widely. Generalizations might specify some pockets as Mediterranean, continental, or maritime, but it is difficult to make broad assumptions. The country generally grows warmer toward the south, with the Sistema Central providing a marked shift in temperatures. Exceptions exist, such as the warmer pockets of the Catalan coast and cold, high-elevation sites in Andalucía. Spain experiences seasonality, especially beyond the Mediterranean coastline, with both scorching summers and harsh winters in some regions. Diurnal swings can be wide, particularly at higher elevations. Several wind patterns also affect temperatures. The Poniente blows from the west, bringing cold air from the Atlantic, while the Leveche brings in hot, drying currents from the African desert. Another warm—but humid—wind, the Levante, comes in from the east, funnels through Gibraltar, and can be felt throughout southeast Spain. The northern coast, extending through Galicia and narrowing to its end in Basque Country, encompasses what is often called Green Spain. Rainfall here is the highest in the country, with parts of Galicia receiving more than 2,000 millimeters per year. Precipitation drops dramatically just outside Green Spain’s boundaries, with much of the country receiving less than 500 millimeters annually. Dry-farming remains standard, though irrigation for viticulture was legalized in 1996 in certain circumstances. Spanish Wine Law Spain’s wines are organized under a quality pyramid similar to the Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée system in France, Denominazione di Origine Controllata in Italy, or Denominação de Origem Controlada in Portugal. The first Spanish Denominaciones de Origen (DOs) were awarded in 1932, four years before the codification of France’s first AOCs. DO Defectors In December 2015, the modernist winery Artadi withdrew from the Rioja DOCa, citing an inability to express specificity of site under the appellation scheme. Its defection reflected widespread questioning of the DO system. Many argued that even the best-known DOs and DOCas, like Cava and Rioja, sacrificed consistent quality to appease the interests of larger producers. A number of producers in different DOs hoped to break down their appellations into smaller tiers in the tradition of Burgundy. The month following Artadi’s departure, influential winemaker Telmo Rodríguez published his “terroir manifesto,” addressing these concerns and calling for a nationwide pivot toward quality over quantity. It was signed by about 150 Spanish winegrowers and others in the industry. That same year, 40 wineries in Rioja Alavesa pitched a new and separate Viñedos de Álava DO. The motion has since been retracted, following Rioja’s new categories, which were first voted upon in 2017. Many, however, still view these as an insufficient solution. The conversation isn’t limited to Rioja, as evidenced by recent movements in Cava. The 2019 establishment of Corpinnat in response to mass-produced Cava has presented the DO with an identity crisis. It lost many top-shelf producers who contributed to the Cava de Paraje category, in addition to those producers who had already left and belong to Clàssic Penedès. The lowest-quality tier of Spanish wine is Vino de Mesa (or VdM), translating to “table wine.” These wines can be blended from various areas of the country but by law will bear no region on the label, although they can list the address of the registered bottler or, if within an established DO, only the postal code. Since 2008, these wines have been allowed to state both vintage and variety. A step above, Vino de la Tierra (VdlT) will come from within a confined area of varying size, from a collection of villages to a whole autonomous community. The VdlT might also be used for quality wines made by experimental winemakers looking to operate outside the confines of higher-tier regulations. Both VdM and VdlT wines fall under the broader table wine umbrella within European Union law, while VdlT wines are also designated Protected Geographical Indication (PGI), which mandates that 85% of grapes derive from a given area. The remaining tiers all qualify as PDOs (Protected Denominations of Origin) under the European Union. Spain continues to legislate several further sub-designations within that category: Vino de Calidad con Indicación Geográfica (VC or VCIG), Denominación de Origen (DO), Denominación de Origen Calificada (DOCa), and Vino de Pago (VP). The most basic PDO wine is VCIG. While still overseen by a governing body, or órgano de gestion , VCIGs adhere to less rigid regulations than higher tiers. The VCIG tier also operates as a stepping stone between VdlT areas aspiring for Denominación de Origen status. Regions must wait a minimum five years before applying for elevation to DO. The DO rung encompasses most regions familiar to wine consumers. Rías Baixas, Sherry, Ribera del Duero, and more than 60 others are DO wines. In general, DO regions refer to a single, confined winegrowing area, but non-contiguous appellations can be designated as well (the widest-spanning example being Cava). Each DO is governed by a consejo regulador, to which wineries must submit samples of all of their wines to make sure they adhere to regional standards. It is also the role of the consejo to enforce the pliego de condiciones , the official document that dictates appellation regulations. The pliego de condiciones clarifies every aspect of winegrowing, including yields, vine training, viticultural practices, vinification techniques, and permitted varieties. Spain's quality tier above DO is DOCa. While DOCa has no equivalent in France, it could be compared to Italy’s Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita classification. Unlike Italy’s DOCGs, however, Spain only has two DOCa regions. The first, Rioja, was granted DOCa status in 1991, three years after the category was established. Priorat followed and was recognized by Spain in 2009 (after elevation at the Catalan level in 2000). It usually features the Catalan translation Denominació d’Origen Qualificada (DOQ) on its labels. A final PDO category, Vino de Pago , was established in 2003. Vinos de Pago were first conceptualized in Castilla-La Mancha, which still has the highest concentration of these appellations. A Vino de Pago is a designation awarded to a single estate that may exist within or outside of a DO. Few Vinos de Pago are found within prestigious appellations. Vinos de Pago must be estate bottled and the vineyard owned by the winery operating in its bounds. The estate must be in production for a minimum of 10 years before applying for Vino de Pago status. Regulations within Vinos de Pago are very specific and often more stringent than those of DOs that surround them. For example, Vinos de Pago, in setting their own pliegos, might allow for the use of less-traditional varieties or methods, ­in contrast to nearby DOs. In theory, a Vino de Pago should transcend the quality of wines vinified in its broader DO, should there be one, or at least show distinction. In reality, many contest the effectiveness of the Vino de Pago scheme, debating the overall quality of these wines and how many cater to more international palates. Others point to the relatively large size of individual Pagos, the smallest being 1.5 hectares (Vallegarcía), and how some might use the category to skirt other restrictions under DO law, such as the prohibition against irrigation. Spain's Vinos de Pago A hypothetical Vino de Pago Calificado category is also primed should an estate within Rioja or Priorat (or any future DOCas) apply for Pago status. As of 2025, 27 Vino de Pago estates are active. They should not be confused with Grandes Pagos de España, a separate non-governmental consortium of Spanish wineries who co-market their wines with minimal overlap. Beyond appellations, Spain also conforms to a series of aging designations that are regulated on its bottles. Historically, Spanish wines have been associated with long-term aging in oak, particularly American, barrels. The aging classification scheme attempts to formalize the different styles of wine that emerged under that tradition, and each will require a minimum amount of time spent in barrel, as well as total time aging, before release to the market. While these regulations exist for the whole of Spain, several regions, including Rioja and Ribera del Duero, have drafted their own, stricter minimums for aging requirements. Yet even in regions that still champion these terms, the aging classification has become less popular, as producers favor shorter aging in newer French oak vessels, or less oak influence altogether. They are particularly rare for white and especially rosado wines. Wineries that do continue to bottle age-designated wines might far exceed these minimum requirements by years or even decades, including at the crianza tier. Aging requirements for Spain, Rioja, and Ribera del Duero (Credit: Brandon Lee Wise) In recent years, Spanish winegrowers have shown interest in creating further regional breakdowns with the aim of communicating greater specificity of place on their labels, beyond often wide-reaching appellations. The movement takes inspiration from Burgundy and its pyramid of regional, village, premier cru , and grand cru wines. The first to make such strides was Priorat in 2009, with the creation of the Vi de Vila category, allowing for wines to be labeled by village. Bierzo and Rioja followed suit in 2017, as did Rueda in 2019. These village programs break with traditions of blending, long viewed as fundamental in many Spanish wine regions. The Grapes of Spain White Grapes Airén: The fifth most planted wine grape globally, and second among white grapes (according to the International Organisation of Vine and Wine’s 2017 report), Airén is better recognized for its quantity than its potential quality. Suggested to be indigenous to Cuenca in Castilla-La Mancha, Airén is extremely vigorous, in addition to being both drought and disease resistant. As a result, the variety allows for extensive plantings, in 2017 covering more than 22% of Spain’s vineyard area. Airén is, however, on the decline, as vine-pull incentives have reduced its hectarage. Historically, it has been used as a blending component to soften Tempranillo in various appellations. When fermented on its own, Airén delivers inoffensive but indistinctive white wines. Today, it is widely distilled into brandy, drawing parallels to Cognac’s rather neutral Ugni Blanc. A 200-year-old Albariño vine in Rías Baixas (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak) Albariño: Considered one of Iberia’s finest white grapes, Albariño is most notably cultivated in Galicia and primarily Rías Baixas, whose appellation name was once simply Albariño. Just south of Galicia is the Portuguese region of Minho, where the grape—there referred to as Alvarinho—is often a key quality component in Vinho Verde production. Formerly misidentified as Savagnin, Albariño displays a degree of genetic diversity in northwestern Iberia that suggests it is quite ancient. Its offspring include Caíño Blanco, a crossing with Amaral. In the vineyard, Albariño is susceptible to mildew, but its thicker skins make it less prone to botrytis, allowing it to succeed in the damp climate of Rías Baixas. It proves particularly well adapted to granite soils and ripens early to mid-season. In Rías Baixas, some Albariño vines as old as 300 years remain in production. Wines vinified from Albariño are often identified by their elevated acidity and saline, peachy flavors. Also typical are gentle floral aromatics and bitterness on the palate. Depending on style, Albariño can be crafted into lighter, crisp white wines intended for immediate consumption, as well as more structured renditions, with extended lees contact and capacity to age. A few producers ferment and mature in oak. While Albariño is most recognized in monovarietal bottlings, it was historically only blended. Today, the grape can still be used in blends, both in Rías Baixas and elsewhere in Galicia. Godello: Though less well known than Albariño, Godello is Galicia’s other exemplary white variety and can yield wines of equal pedigree. While the grape faced the possibility of extinction in the 1970s, it soon after experienced a resurgence in Valdeorras, its most noted region. It is also found in all other Galician appellations, as well as Bierzo. The early-ripening Godello offers small-berried, compact clusters with thick skins but is more vigorous than Albariño. It shows susceptibility to botrytis and powdery mildew. Godello is widely praised for its freshness and stony, savory character, which is matched with a medium-full body. The grape also has the potential for longevity. Macabeo: Also known as Viura in Rioja and Macabeu in Catalonia, Macabeo is believed to originate near Penedès. Research has identified obscure varieties Hebén and Brustiano Faux as Macabeo’s parents and a possible genetic relationship to common blending partner Xarel·lo. Producing large, compact, and late-ripening bunches, Macabeo can readily be infected by botrytis, especially in less-suitable, wetter environments. Macabeo’s adaptability to an array of winemaking techniques allows it to be grown in a number of appellations. However, when bottled as a simple white wine, either alone or in blends, it can lack distinction. In Rioja, it provides the backbone to traditional oak-aged, semi-oxidative white wines; though scarce, these are extremely long lived. There are also examples of fresher, more modern white Riojas crafted by a new generation. Macabeo is a traditional ingredient in the Cava blend, along with Xarel·lo and Parellada. Palomino Fino: Palomino Fino, or simply Palomino, is most recognized for its contributions to Sherry. The ancient variety is native to Andalucía and has been documented in the Canary Islands, where it is called Listán Blanco (no relation to Listán Prieto), since the 15 th century. It purportedly earns its name from the knight Fernán Yáñez Palomino, who first brought the grape there. Palomino can also be found in France, albeit in declining hectarage, where it historically has been distilled into Armagnac. Palomino is a vigorous variety, amassing high yields of large clusters with large, thin-skinned berries. The grape performs best in hot, dry climates, such as those found in the Jerez triangle, but can suffer from low acidity. As a still table wine, Palomino results in a rather flavorless white with diminished alcohol. Yet it can accomplish great complexity in dry generoso styles of Sherry and provides the core of blended sweet Sherry, mixed with Pedro Ximénez, Moscatel, or other grape-derived sweetening agents. Producers in Andalucía continue to experiment with unfortified styles, with or without the influence of flor. On the Canary Islands, Palomino can yield white table wines of higher quality. Parellada: Though almost entirely confined to Catalonia, the vigorous, late-ripening Parellada is native to Aragon. It may be related to Albillo Real. Parellada is one of the three primary Cava varieties and is appreciated as a softening agent. Its more moderate acidity, as well as its apple flavors and delicate floral aromas, can add delicacy to the more muscular Xarel·lo and Macabeo. Parellada is also harvested for still wines intended for early consumption in several Catalan DOs, and small plantings are found in Mallorca, where it is permitted for still and sparkling wines. Verdejo: While Albariño carries broader international recognition, Verdejo is one of the most popular white varieties in Spain, with plantings increasing tremendously over recent decades. It is believed to be indigenous to Rueda, its most famous appellation, and has been shown to share a sibling relationship with Godello. Verdejo’s name comes from verde , referencing its green hue. Verdejo should not be mistaken for Verdelho, the noble Madeira variety. Verdejo yields small-to-medium clusters, and its berries are thin skinned. While it demonstrates resistance to drought, it is prone to powdery mildew. Its wines show a juicy mid-palate with flavors of ripe orchard fruits, complemented by an almond skin-like bitterness. Verdejo is often bottled on its own but can be blended with Sauvignon Blanc. Most Verdejo bottlings are made using stainless steel, selected yeast, and minimal time on lees, but some winemakers are incorporating new oak, skin contact, and more lees work to explore the grape’s range of expression. Verdejo is also vinified into sparkling wines and can still be found in its original incarnation as a fortified rancio -style wine. The variety was better associated with this historic product until more modern winemaking techniques introduced by Émile Peynaud gave way to a new dry table wine style that has become the preferred expression among consumers. Xarel·lo: Thought to be indigenous to Catalonia, Xarel·lo is most widely utilized as a key grape in the production of Cava. It is employed to add structure and increase aging capacity, as well as for its persistent acidity. With richer fruit flavors, Xarel·lo can add body to Cava’s mid-palate. Such attributes are also enjoyed in Xarel·lo’s still wines; for these, it is generally considered one of the most distinguished white varieties of Catalonia. With thick-skinned berries, Xarel·lo is relatively botrytis resistant but prone to coulure and mildew. Xarel·lo Vermell is a pigmented mutation cultivated in Alella. Other Varieties: Classic white varieties of other origins play a minor role in Spain, with Sauvignon Blanc among the most successful. It is planted in Castilla-La Mancha and Castilla y Léon, where it can be bottled monovarietally in Rueda or blended with Verdejo. Sauvignon Blanc is now authorized as a principle white grape in Rioja, as is Chardonnay. Somontano cultivates Chardonnay and Gewürztraminer. Both Muscat Blanc à Petit Grains , here called Moscatel de Grano Menudo, and Moscatel de Alejandría (Muscat of Alexandria) are grown in Spain. The latter produces the better-known wines, with exceptional sweet bottlings found in the Sherry region, particularly around Chipiona, and in Málaga. Red Grapes Bobal: Tied with Garnacha as Spain’s third most planted variety (behind Airén and Tempranillo), Bobal is slowly repairing a poor reputation of lower-quality wines. It is native to Utiel-Requena in Valencia, which leads in terms of top examples of the grape. Bobal is high yielding, has large clusters, and often ripens unevenly. It has long been consigned to cooperative and bulk wine production, especially for rosado , but at its best, particularly when harvested from old bush vines at higher-elevation sites, Bobal can offer deep wines with a firm tannic structure. Cariñena: Cariñena, or Carignan in France and elsewhere, is known as Carinyena or Mazuelo in various Spanish regions and also has the less-often used regional names of Mazuela, Crujillón, and Samsó. Widespread plantings across Europe suggest it is an ancient variety. Ironically, in the Aragon DO Cariñena, Garnacha is the primary grape, although Cariñena is planted there. Cariñena can be found in various pockets throughout Spain but has gained traction in Catalonia, including in Priorat, where it can offer serious monovarietal wines and contribute to blends. It serves as a minor blending variety in Rioja. Cariñena achieves high yields, elevated acidity, and elevated tannins. Accordingly, it has been used as a workhouse grape around the globe. Ripening late, Cariñena requires a warm climate. In cooler vintages or climates, it can struggle to ripen and result in overly acidic wines. Its best examples, harvested from old bush vines, show great depth and ability to age. Garnacha: While the variety might be more recognized as Grenache in Mediterranean France and the New World, it appears to be indigenous to Spain (likely Aragon or Catalonia), where it is known as Garnacha. Though Italian researchers have argued for Sardinia as its origin (there, it is known as Cannonau), Spain contains the greatest degree of genetic diversity for the grape, which typically connotes the true source. Debate is also given to Garnacha’s etymology, with some believing it is a derivation of Vernaccia, a family of Italian varieties, while others contest it comes from garnaxa , the Catalan word for a historic red gown worn by legal officials. Garnacha is the eighth most planted grape in the world. It is cultivated throughout Aragon and Catalonia, where it is called Garnatxa, and finds prestige in Priorat and Montsant, as well as such regions as Navarra, Galicia, and La Mancha. In Rioja, specifically Rioja Oriental, Garnacha is an important blending grape for Tempranillo, for which it supplies alcohol, body, and fruitiness. Across Spain, an abundance of old vine, head-trained material can be found. Garnacha requires a long growing season, budding early and ripening late. It is prone to a number of diseases, as well as millerandage, but shows good resistance to wood diseases—one factor accounting for the longevity of many of its vines. By the time Garnacha reaches phenological ripeness, it will potentially have accumulated a significant amount of sugar, leading to elevated alcohol levels, though often reduced acidity. In the cellar, Garnacha is susceptible to oxidation. Like Pinot Noir, Blanc, and Gris, Garnacha involves various color mutations (the red grape more precisely referred to as Garnacha Tinta), though technically all constitute a single variety. Garnacha Blanca (Grenache Blanc) is a significant contributor to Spanish whites and yields high-quality wines in Aragon and Catalonia. The pink-skinned variant, Garnacha Roja (Grenache Gris), is also grown, though it is less prevalent in Spain than in France. The red Garnacha Peluda (Garnatxa Peluda or Lladoner Pelut in Catalonia), another mutation of the same variety, features hairy undersides to its leaves and finds favor for its thicker skins and higher acidity as compared to Garnacha Tinta. As a monovarietal red table wine, Garnacha tends to show a low to moderate level of tannins, as well as an array of fruit characters that can vary from crunchy to jammy depending on ripeness. It is also blended with a range of partners, both in Spain and abroad. Garnacha carries a long history of quality fortified sweet wines, in Catalonia and across the border in Roussillon and southern France. It is a common choice for rosado production. Garnacha Tintorera: Garnacha Tintorera, also known as Alicante Bouschet, is the offspring of Garnacha and Petit Bouschet. It was first crossed by Henri Bouschet at Domaine de la Calmette, just north of Nîmes, between 1855 and 1865. Technically, plantings include two sibling varieties. Still grown in southern France, it has found tremendous success in Spain. Its most significant Spanish strongholds stretch from Valencia to Castilla-La Mancha to Galicia. Garnacha Tintorera is a teinturier variety, meaning both its skins and flesh are red. As a result, its wines can be deeply pigmented, to the point of inkiness, and very tannic. Its yields are high; the best examples result from severe crop management or older, less-productive vines. With an early budbreak, the grape is vulnerable to spring frosts and a variety of maladies throughout the growing season, in particular bacterial threats. Listán Negro: Though often mistakenly believed to be related to Listán Prieto (also known as País, Mission, and Criolla Chica) or to be a pigmented mutation of Listán Blanco, Listán Negro is not related to either, nor has a genetic relationship to any other variety been discovered. In contrast to both Listán Blanco and Prieto, Listán Negro is native to the Canary Islands, where it is the most planted red grape and produces its most noteworthy red wines. A highly productive variety, Listán Negro is vinified using a number of practices, including carbonic maceration and oak aging, and results in perfumed wines. Mencía: Mencía has attracted recent attention for its medium-bodied red wines. The grape likely originates in Bierzo, the appellation in northwestern Castilla y León where it continues to be cultivated. Mencía is successful in all of Galicia’s DO regions and particularly in Ribeira Sacra, where it grows on steeply terraced vineyards. In Portugal, it is known as Jaen. Mencía clusters are small, though the berries of average size. Finicky in the vineyard, Mencía faces challenges with wind, mildew, and botrytis. Its wines typically pair fresh, precise red fruit flavors with stonier, savory qualities. Although new oak is occasionally employed, several of Mencía’s most complex, longest-lived wines are aged in neutral barrels or other inert vessels. The most celebrated examples regularly come from century-old vineyards such as Las Lamas and Moncerbal in Bierzo and Pombeiras in Ribera Sacra. Old vine Monastrell in Alicante (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak) Monastrell: Monastrell is believed to be indigenous to the Valencian town Sagunto. Its historic Catalan name Morvedre gave way to its more recognized French moniker, Mourvèdre. The Spanish name, however, derives from monasteriellu , Latin for “small monastery.” Genetic studies have shown a potential sibling relationship to Graciano, also a blending grape in Rioja. In Spain, Monastrell plantings are most concentrated to the southeast, in Valencia, Murcia, and Castilla-La Mancha. It finds particular success in the appellations Jumilla and Alicante, where many old vine plantings can be found. Monastrell ripens quite late and features thick-skinned, small- to average-size berries, in compact bunches that are also small to average in size. While the grape resists botrytis, it is difficult to cultivate due to its need for heat later in the growing season and its susceptibility to drought. During vinification, Monastrell demonstrates strong reductive tendencies. When bottled alone, it can yield full-bodied, intense wines with elevated tannins, alcohol, ripe fruit flavors (both red and black), and, often, a spicy herbaceous character—one of its important contributions in blends. Monastrell is also used in Fondillón, the historic oxidative and off-dry late-harvest wine of Alicante. Tempranillo: Tempranillo is generally regarded as Spain’s signature grape and it is the country's most planted grape. Globally, Tempranillo is the fourth most planted variety among wine grapes, trailing only Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot among reds. It can be found across Spain under many aliases, but it is believed to reach the apex of its expression in Rioja and Ribera del Duero. Tempranillo Synonyms Cencibel (Valdepeñas) Tinto del País (Ribera del Duero) Tinta de Toro (Toro) Tinto Fino (Ribera del Duero) Tinto Roriz/Aragonez (Portugal) Ull de Llebre (Catalonia) Genetic profiling has suggested that Tempranillo shares a parent-offspring relationship with Albillo Mayor, a white variety cultivated in Ribera del Duero and sometimes blended with Tempranillo. It is believed to originate in either Rioja or Navarra. Tempranillo means “little early one,” likely a reference to its small berry size and its early budding and ripening. Across Spain, Tempranillo enjoys broad clonal diversity, with morphological differences adapted to specific locations. The variety is capable of average to higher yields but can be prone to various vine maladies, including Eutypa dieback and powdery mildew. Clusters are average to large in size, consisting of small, compact berries with thick skins. Tempranillo also has a white mutation, Tempranillo Blanco, which is authorized and harvested in Rioja. Depending on style, Tempranillo can produce a broad array of red to black fruit notes, though its more savory flavors, including leather, earth, and dried herbs, are most often identified. It is responsive to a variety of winemaking techniques, and top-flight examples might be aged in century-old or new American or European oak barrels, among other vessels. Simpler, unoaked examples are abundant as well, as are traditions of carbonic maceration. Tempranillo can be bottled monovarietally but is sometimes blended with various French and Spanish grapes. Other Varieties: A selection of non-native red grapes is also grown in Spain. Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Malbec are all blending partners for Tempranillo, most famously in Ribera del Duero. Cabernet can frequently be found in varietal bottlings as well. Spanish investment in Syrah grew exponentially in the 2000s, with most plantings concentrated in Castilla-La Mancha. Pinot Noir is poorly suited to Spain’s hotter climate, though some exists, especially for Cava production. Rosado Spain produces roughly 25% of rosé globally, ranking second behind France. It is also the world’s largest exporter of rosé, though more than 60% is sold in bulk. The tradition of Spanish rosado stretches back several centuries. The light-bodied red wines enjoyed by pilgrims traveling the Camino de Santiago during the Middle Ages were likely akin to what is considered a dark-hued rosado today. They’re often referred to as claretes , analogous to the clairets of France. Several DOs carry longstanding histories of rosado production, namely Cigales, Navarra, and Valdepeñas, where the wines were known as aloques . Garnacha is an important grape for rosado, though varieties vary throughout the country. Expressions of rosado in Spain, though diverse, show marked distinction from the Provençal examples that have popularized global rosé consumption in the 21 st century. The most traditional rosados are aged for long periods in American oak and are higher in alcohol and deeper in pigment than more contemporary bottlings. They might also employ the crianza, reserva , and gran reserva quality labels. These wines usually blend both red and white varieties and implement a period of skin maceration. Spanish cooperatives during the Franco regime transitioned to the saignée method, not necessarily with additional barrel age, for rosado production, while more recent examples have chased the Provençal style, with direct-to-press techniques and an aim for more lightly colored wines. Atlantic Coast Galicia Galicia juts out like a handle from the rest of Spain, occupying the country’s northwestern corner, just above Portugal. Its culture, like its wines, carries a strong regional identity, combining many Portuguese traditions with Celtic foundations derived from its first inhabitants. Celtic religions once largely coexisted with Catholicism, but today, Galicia might be best known as the end of the Camino de Santiago, a pilgrimage route to the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, where Saint James is said to be buried. Many of Galicia’s wines resemble those grown across the border, such as the Vinho Verdes of Portugal’s Minho region (also the name for the river separating the two countries). Galicia is often referred to as Green Spain for its vibrant landscape, a vast departure from the arid oranges and browns that define much of the rest of Iberia. Galicia's DOs (Click to enlarge and zoom in) Rías Baixas Many Galician wines have attracted recent attention, but Rías Baixas was the first to come to modern prominence. Its Albariño wines helped redefine the global perception of Spanish winemaking. While the country was primarily perceived as an incubator for big, oaked red wines, Rías Baixas delivered a snappy white, as refreshing as it could be serious. While Albariño is believed to be indigenous to the general area (Galicia or northern Portugal), quality winemaking in Rías Baixas was initiated by the Cistercian monks, arriving from Burgundy either during their pilgrimage to Santiago or for the wedding of Queen Urraca of León to Raymond of Burgundy. The many monasteries that were subsequently set up in the area were dissolved starting in the early 1800s, leading to the privatization of Rías Baixas’ vineyard area. Pazos , as local estates are called, were established, many giving name to the producers who occupy their structures today. Each pazo was outfitted with an hórreo , a granary hoisted above ground by stone pillars. Palacio de Fefiñanes was Rías Baixas’ first commercial winery, founded in 1904, though the palace itself dates to the 17 th century. The DO was not created until the 1980s, first called Denominación Específica Albariño and later Rías Baixas DO upon Spain’s admission into the European Union, as varietal appellation names were forbidden by EU law. In 1987, just 14 wineries existed in the DO. Since that time, the region has received global attention and grown tremendously—it is now home to more than 180 producers. Significant investment has come from other major players in Spanish wine, namely those growing reds in other key regions who seek a quality white for their portfolios. Rías Baixas takes its names from the “low estuaries” that flow through the region before eventually reaching the ocean. Lush and green, the area is very humid, with between 1,200 and 1,800 millimeters of precipitation annually. Disease pressure is lowered due to Albariño’s thick-skinned nature, and climate change has purportedly mitigated some of the appellation’s more extreme Atlantic influences in recent vintages. Much of the region is planted on decomposed granite, called xabre , with low water retention that serves the rainy environment well. The subzones of Rias Baixas (Click to enlarge and zoom in) A non-contiguous region, Rías Baixas is separated into five subzones: Val do Salnés, Ribeira do Ulla, Soutomaior, O Rosal, and Condado do Tea. Val do Salnés is the most historic as well as the largest, containing more than half of the region’s planted hectarage and the majority of its most heralded estates. It is the coldest and wettest area of the appellation, situated on the Atlantic coast north of Pontevedra, and yields wines often identified by a marked salinity. Ribeira do Ulla sits northeast, between Val do Salnés and Santiago de Compostela along the Ulla River. Though it occupies a large swath of land, this is the youngest subzone and only a small contributor to Rías Baixas’ total output. Some, however, posit its northerly positioning may prove advantageous with the progression of climate change. Soutomaior is smallest in both production and size, lying just beneath the Verdugo River near the beginning of the wide Ría de Vigo. O Rosal and Condado do Tea both border Portugal, separated by the Miño River and settling its northern banks. O Rosal reaches the Atlantic Ocean, while Condado do Tea goes further inland. O Rosal is regarded for a broader, richer style of Albariño. Condado do Tea is the warmest and driest subzone, as well as the largest contributor to red wine production (though still minimal). Rías Baixas, like much of Galicia, is a region of minifundios , small plots of vineyard, on average 0.6 hectares split into approximately four parcels, owned by independent growers. Largescale operations are challenging here, as stitching together substantial patches of land is difficult. Vines are historically trained to a parral , or “pergola,” system. Granite posts hold up the pergolas, and the overhead canopy provides grapes with shelter from the region’s marginal weather and the opportunity to cultivate other crops between vines. This training system also enables greater airflow to combat mildew and rot, encourages greater photosynthesis and ripening by maximizing leaf surface, and protects grapes from sunburn. Younger plantings, however, might be trellised instead. While Rías Baixas has seen a recent boom in development, several old vine Albariño parcels remain, some over 200 or 300 years in age and still in production. The parral system in Val do Salnés (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak) Albariño accounts for more than 96% of Rías Baixas’ total plantings, with Loureira, Treixadura, Caíño Blanco, Torrontés, and Godello also cultivated. A wine must be composed exclusively of Albariño to be varietally labeled. While blended white wines are authorized and demonstrate high quality, the marketing advantages of listing Albariño on labels has inhibited the growth of white blends. On its own, Albariño can produce varied wines. For an entry-level Albariño, Rías Baixas producers will typically employ exclusively stainless steel before bottling, usually the spring after harvest. These wines are crisp, fruity, and meant for early consumption. A step above will see a more textured Albariño with noted lees impact, from extended sur lie aging and possible bâtonnage . Top Albariños will likely come from older vines and experience lees aging. They may be barrel fermented or aged. These will be the most structured and longest lived Albariños. Some producers may also let their Albariño undergo full malolactic conversion. Rías Baixas wines can be labeled by subzone. Val do Salnés and Ribeira do Ulla wines must be composed of at minimum 70% Albariño, Loureira, Treixadura, and Caíño Blanco. Those labeled O Rosal must be at least 70% Albariño and Loureira, while Condado do Tea must contain a minimum 70% Albariño and Treixadura. An exceptionally small amount of sparkling and red wine is made from any combination of Caíño Tinto, Espadeiro, Loureira Tinta, Sousón, Mencía, and Brancellao. Vino Tostado Vino tostado is a historic style, highly sought after by the English until their defeat of the Spanish Armada and gaining traction once again in the 19 th century. Translating to “toasted wine” or “roasted wine,” vino tostado is a dried grape wine similar to Tuscan vin santo . Red or white grapes are left to dry for a minimum of three months following harvest in covered rooms with consistent ventilation to avoid rot. They must be dried to a minimum must weight of 350 grams per liter. Drying can be performed using various tactics, from hanging the clusters to resting them on shelves or in plastic bins. The wines are then fermented and aged in oak or cherry casks for at minimum six months, followed by a minimum three in bottle before release. Ribeiro Ribeiro’s reputation for quality wines dates back to Roman rule and was later continued by the Benedictine and Cistercian monks who tended to its vines. The region’s focal point is the town of Ribadavia, where the rivers Miño and Avia converge, and the Arnoia joins just south. Heavily fragmented vineyard parcels, rooted mostly in decomposed granite, are harvested in these three rivers’ valleys at various elevations. With high humidity and elevated levels of precipitation, Ribeiro is also dangerously susceptible to spring frost; it lost nearly a third of its crop in 2017. Ribeiro’s southwestern border connects to Rías Baixas’ Condado do Tea. Production in Ribeiro is almost entirely focused upon white wine, with 9 of 10 bottles being white. Though the region was largely replanted to Palomino in the years following the oidium and phylloxera crises, the best whites today come from various local grapes, most importantly the semi-aromatic Treixadura, but also Albariño, Loureiro, Godello, Caíño Blanco, Lado, and Torrontés (of no relation to the Argentine varieties), blended in various combinations. Most of the remaining output is dedicated to red wine from an array of native and Spanish varieties. A final single percent of Ribeiro’s wines is either sparkling or vino tostado . Ribeira Sacra Ribeira Sacra forms a crescent shape through the nexus of Galicia’s two major rivers, the Sil and the Miño. The region’s name translates to “sacred riverbanks,” an allusion to the many monasteries once housed here that established the region’s winegrowing traditions in the Middle Ages. The landscape is dramatic, with ancient terraces carved into the steeply descending hillside plantings, resulting in viticultural challenges on par with those of the Mosel, Douro, and Northern Rhône. A young appellation only officially recognized in 1996, Ribeira Sacra has also been responsible for much of Galicia’s recent attention, with producers such as Guímaro, Algueira, and Dominio do Bibei giving a face to the region’s red wine capabilities in addition to its long-admired whites. Ribeira Sacra is further divided into five subzones: Chantada, Ribeiras do Miño, Amandi, Ribeiras do Sil, and Quiroga-Bibei. Amandi, which sits at the appellation’s center on the steep northern slopes of the Sil, is most historic and most often viewed as highest in quality. Chantada is located on the Miño’s right bank, opposite Ribeiras do Miño. Ribeiras do Sil lies on the left bank of the Sil until just after its confluence with the Miño around the town of Los Peares. Quiroga-Bibei occupies the region’s eastern sector and is carved in half by the Sil. Vineyards along the Sil and near its lower sections tend to be grounded in granitic soils, while the Upper Sil has more slate. The Sil Valley is drier and slightly cooler than the Miño. The Amandi subzone in Ribeira Sacra (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak) Wines produced in Ribeira Sacra are predominately red, with Mencía as the most important grape, covering 90% of vineyards. Here, Mencía can achieve wines perceived as crunchier and lighter in body than those from Bierzo—but often just as complex. Many additional varieties are permitted and can yield exciting wines under the renewed enthusiasm of local producers. Bastardo, locally called Merenzao, has a few varietal examples, typically very floral. Sousón (Vinhão in Portugal) is more deeply pigmented and tannic, while Brancellao (Alvarelhão in Portugal) is more elegant. Caíño Tinto and Tempranillo are also recommended by the consejo , as are Galicia’s three great whites, Albariño, Godello, and Treixadura. The rare labeling term Summum identifies the use of at least 85% principal grapes for both whites and reds. Many are monovarietal, and there are no strict rules surrounding ripeness levels, oak aging, length of aging, or specific quality. Valdeorras Valdeorras , Galicia’s easternmost appellation, bridges Ribeira Sacra with Castilla y León’s Bierzo. While it concentrates its red production on Mencía like its neighbors, the region is most praised for its white wines made from Godello. Valdeorras’s name translates to “valley of Gigguri” a nod to the pre-latin tribe of the area. The Sil River flows through the appellation, but the region has a more continental climate than elsewhere in Galicia—less humid, and with drier, hotter summers. Valdeorras is composed of thousands of small vineyard plots, scattered at various elevations from high hillside plantings to lower parcels closer to the riverbanks. Yet it is home to relatively few wineries, which assemble fruit from the many growers operating here. Though various soils can be found in Valdeorras, the region is largely associated with slate, not only in terms of winegrowing but also for roof tiles, an important export. Godello produces Valdeorras’s most heralded wines, which for some critics can compete with Rías Baixas as Galicia’s finest whites. Often described as mineral , for lack of a better term, Godello wines can achieve marked concentration and complexity both with and without barrel fermentation and aging. Godello might be blended with Doña Blanca (called Dona Branca in Galicia) and Palomino or bottled monovarietally. Reds from Mencía are also produced, as are wines from other Galician and Spanish varieties. Only Mencía (min. 85%) and Godello (min. 100%) can be varietally labeled. In addition to white and red wines, sparkling wine based on Godello and vino tostado (from Godello or red varieties) are also permitted, though the latter style is less associated with Valdeorras than with Ribeiro. Monterrei Monterrei lies south of Ribeira Sacra, hugging the Portuguese border. Its river, the Támega, runs south toward the Douro (as the Duero is called once it enters Portugal). Like Valdeorras, the appellation experiences both Atlantic and Continental influences, resulting in hot, dry summers and cold winters. The region contains diverse soils, but the best soil for white wines is granitic sand, and clay and slate are preferable for reds. Despite its ancient tradition of viticulture (Galicia’s oldest winemaking evidence is found here), only a very small number of wineries operate within Monterrei today. However, recent investment in the area suggests future growth for the DO. Monterrei exclusively makes white and red wines, its whites produced from Dona Branca, Godello, and Treixadura, among other regional varieties, and its reds primarily from Mencía and Bastardo, with blending grapes. Cantabria & Asturias Cantabria and Asturias do not contain DO regions but both cultivate vines. In the southwestern corner of Asturias, Cangas VCIG (which has its own PDO under European law) borders Galicia and Castilla y León. Though it only has six wineries, the region was once more bountiful, before oidium, phylloxera, and 20 th -century challenges such as a burgeoning coal mining industry (with palates favoring more robust drinks) and catastrophic hailstorms in 1959. Whites are harvested from Albarín Blanco, Albillo, and Moscatel de Grano Menudo. Mencía is used for reds, as are the more obscure varieties Carrasquín, Verdejo Negro, and Albarín Negro. There are two VdlT regions in Cantabria. One is the Costa de Cantabria, which climbs from the Atlantic Coast to elevations of 600 meters but doesn’t include those municipalities covered in Liébana, a separate VdlT that borders Asturias. Costa de Cantabria permits Albariño, Chardonnay, Godello, Hondarrabi Zuri, Riesling, Gewürztraminer, and Treixadura for whites, while reds are made from Hondarrabi Beltza. Liébana veers more toward standard Spanish and international varieties, with Palomino, Godello, Chardonnay, Gewürztraminer, Mencía, Tempranillo, Garnacha, Graciano, Syrah, and Cabernet Sauvignon. Like neighboring Galicia and the Basque Country, both Cantabria and Asturias have vibrant cider cultures. Spanish sidra is often cited as more sour than other European examples, distinguished by flavor contributions of Brettanomyces, though varied styles exist. Basque Country Tucked into the western Pyrenees and Iberia’s northern Atlantic Coast, the Basque Country was first inhabited by the Vascones during the Stone Age and remained relatively separate from Roman, Visigoth, and Moorish forces as they dominated the peninsula. The Basque Country remained independent throughout the Spanish Civil War, until Franco, with Hitler’s aid, bombed Guernica in 1937. The Basques maintain a strong sense of cultural identity, and their language, Basque (Euskara), bears no relation to any other. The Basque Country (País Vasco in Spanish and Euskadi in Basque) also holds one of Spain’s most admired culinary heritages. Particularly revered for their seafood, the Basques have made gastronomic destinations out of Michelin-heavy San Sebastián (Donostia) and Bilbao, while also enjoying more casual traditions, namely pintxos , skewered Basque snacks similar to tapas. In addition to Rioja Alavesa DOCa, the Basque Country contains three DO regions that focus on Chacolí, here called Txakoli, all of them impacted by proximity to the Atlantic. The name translates to "farm wine," a reference to the home winemaking practices prevalent throughout the region’s history. Yet Txakoli, traditionally a fresh, sometimes spritzy white wine, has attracted more commercial interest in recent years. Hondarrabi Zuri (or Ondarrabi Zuri) dominates white plantings, though some have theorized that this name represents three different grape varieties. The DOs of Basque Country also employ various international white grapes for blending, including Folle Blanche, Petit Manseng, Gros Manseng, Riesling, Chardonnay, and Sauvignon Blanc, depending on the appellation. The indigenous red grape Hondarrabi Beltza (Ondarrabi Beltza, of no relation to Hondarrabi Zuri) is grown to a smaller extent, yielding fresh, light-bodied reds. Sparkling and rosado Txakoli also exist, though in the shadow of the region’s white wines. While all share commonalities, there are distinguishing traits to the three Txakoli DOs: Txakoli de Bizkaia (Bizkaiko Txakolina) , Txakoli de Getaria (Getariako Txakolina) , and Txakoli de Álava (Arabako Txakolina) . Getaria and Bizkaia are more humid, influenced heavily by the Bay of Biscay, requiring careful viticulture to avoid moisture-related disease and to achieve ripeness. Vineyards are planted on sandy, alluvial soils and lie at lower elevations, often close to sea level, though certain sites are planted on well-drained slopes. Getaria was the first established Txakoli DO and remains the most traditional. Bizkaia, centered to the west around Bilbao, has amassed a concentration of many of the Basque Country’s leading producers, benefiting from looser regulations and greater varietal diversity. Established in 2001, Txakoli de Álava is the newest and smallest appellation, its winegrowing area once nearing extinction despite historic significance. Further inland, the DO experiences less coastal influence and humidity pressure. Duero River Valley Castilla y León Castilla y León is still colloquially referred to as Old Castile, as it once comprised the heart of that powerful kingdom. While many of Castilla y León’s wine regions have ancient origins, most have only recently come to prominence as sources of fine wine. In fact, several appellations—Arlanza, Arribes, León, and Tierra del Vino de Zamora—only earned DO status in 2007. Castilla y León sits on the upper portion of the Meseta, a higher plateau than neighboring Castilla-La Mancha, from which it is separated by the mountains of the Sistema Central. Elevations are high (700 to 1,000 meters), and most regions are concentrated along the banks of the Duero River, before it crosses into Portugal. Much of Castilla y León is susceptible to a dramatic continental climate, matching scorching summers with frigid winters. Frost can be a challenge at both the beginning of the growing season and harvest, as can drought in the hotter months. The DOs of Castilla y León (Click to enlarge and zoom in) Bierzo Bierzo DO has little resemblance to the rest of Castilla y León. Lying just opposite Valdeorras on the Galician border, Bierzo might be considered a transitional appellation into Castilla y León’s more continental climate, and the wines have much more in common with its neighbors to the west. Romans first settled in the area to mine for gold, and with them began the region’s longstanding history of winemaking. Both Pliny the Elder and Greek historian-geographer Strabo document the ancient wines grown here. The region continued as an important source of wine through the Middle Ages for pilgrims making their way to Santiago, and the habitation of the Cistercian order helped advance viticulture. Mining continues in Bierzo, namely for coal and iron, though only recently has the region realized its capacity for excellence. The phylloxera crisis resulted in increased plantings of Palomino (here, as in many regions, innocuous in character), and cooperatives dominated for much of the 20 th century. The DO was officially established in 1989, largely due to the efforts of José Luis Prada, whose winery Prada a Tope was an early leader in the new quality wave. The movement gained traction in the 1990s with acclaimed winemaker Raúl Pérez, who later lent winery space to Álvaro Palacios (of Rioja and Priorat) and his nephew Ricardo Pérez Palacios for their first vintages of Descendientes de José Palacios. Today, Bierzo’s wines, primarily made from Mencía, help redefine the image of Spanish reds by providing a light-bodied foil to premium examples made from Tempranillo. Climatically, Bierzo experiences a degree of the humidity and rainfall from Green Spain, as well as the continental conditions of the Duero River Valley, but is more moderate. The Sierra de los Ancares shields much of the Atlantic’s effects, but cold springs can still lead to challenges with frost. Running through the region is the Sil River, as well as several tributaries. The landscape of Bierzo forms an amphitheater, stretching from around 450 to 800 meters in elevation and dividing the region into two general unofficial zones: the low-lying, flatter Bajo Bierzo at the base and the mountainside plantings of Alto Bierzo. Quality winegrowing is favored in the latter’s higher, sloped sites, often composed of quartz and slate. Vines in Bajo Bierzo are typically planted in deeper, clay-alluvial soils. Old vines can be found throughout the region, though are mostly owned in small plots, requiring producers to piece together sources from many growers. Bierzo announced its own village wine category in 2017 and created a full vineyard quality pyramid. Above the Vino de Villa (village wine) category, Vino de Paraje is seen as analogous to Burgundy’s lieux-dits , designated to specific parcels. Those parajes might further be deemed to produce either Vino de Viña Clasificada (essentially a classified cru wine) or Gran Vino de Viña Clasificada (or grand cru ). It is not yet clear exactly how these schemes will play out. Bierzo’s vineyard quality pyramid (Credit: Brandon Lee Wise) Mencía fills roughly three-quarters of Bierzo’s planted area and here, along with Ribeira Sacra, finds its highest expression. The variety, along with Garnacha Tintorera, Estaldiña, and Merenzao, must contribute a minimum 85% to Bierzo’s red wines. Mencía must also compose at least half of any rosado . White wines of quality are also bottled in Bierzo, most successfully from Godello and Doña Blanca, though Malvasía and Palomino are permitted, too. Rueda Further west along the river from Ribera del Duero, Rueda DO has witnessed one of Spain’s most significant success stories for white wine. Today, the region boasts the most consumed white in Spain, though that was certainly not always the case. The Moors incinerated the area that is today Rueda upon their retreat, leading to a long fallow period. Once fertility was restored, in the 11 th century, King Alfonso VI issued an edict incentivizing a return to that land. Eventually, the region came to specialize in oxidative white wines, and following the phylloxera crisis, much of the vineyard area was replanted to the vigorous Palomino, further likening Rueda’s wines to Sherry. By the 20 th century, Rueda’s dorado (literally “golden”) wines, fortified and sometimes flor-affected rancios aged in a solera system or demijohns, fell far out of fashion, and their lack of export market gave little hope for the region’s future. That changed in 1970, when Rioja bodega Marqués de Riscal and its director Francisco Hurtado de Amézaga y Dolagaray sought to add a white to its portfolio. Inexperienced and uninterested in the traditional white wines of Rioja, the estate enlisted Bordeaux professor and consultant Émile Peynaud to search for alternatives. Peynaud predicted the aptitude of Verdejo grown in Rueda for producing contemporary white wines of commercial appeal and also recommended the cultivation of Sauvignon Blanc. Peynaud’s instincts proved correct, bringing Rueda several decades of investment and expansion. Between 1996 and 2012 alone, vineyard hectarage grew nearly sixfold, and the proportion dedicated to Palomino dwindled, overtaken by more favorable varieties. Rueda’s vineyards, though mainly flat, benefit from elevations around 600 to 700 meters. The Duero just runs through the very north of the region, but its tributaries extend throughout Rueda. The soil has a high portion of limestone and is famously gravelly, allowing for good drainage. Rueda has the same extreme continental climate as its neighbors, often requiring irrigation. Old vine material is available, though a large portion of the new plantings is mechanically harvested. The flat landscape of Rueda (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak) Rueda’s wines are most often juicy, boisterous white Verdejos, bountiful in orchard fruit flavor and a refreshing stoniness. White wines are bottled as Rueda, and may also include a mention of one or more varieties. They must be composed of a minimum 75% principal varieties with producers typically leaning on Verdejo and Sauvignon Blanc, the latter capable of adding acidity and an herbaceous quality. Palomino, Viura, Chardonnay, and Viognier are also authorized for blending. Sparkling wines of various sweetness levels, each requiring different percentages of Verdejo, are produced, and those aged 36 months or longer sur lie can be titled gran añada . Though rare, a few dorado wines can be found, from producers eager to reclaim that part of the region’s heritage. Pálido references a heritage style of biologically aged and fortified Rueda wine, only recently recognized again by the consejo . The region’s red wines, first permitted in 2001, are vinified from Tempranillo, alongside the permitted Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, and Garnacha. Rosado wines can also be bottled. As of the 2019 vintage, two additional categories of Rueda have been created: Gran vino de Rueda must come from vines at least 30 years old and adhering to stricter yields; Vino de Pueblo is a new village wine classification, where 85% of grapes must be harvested for nearly 70 permitted municipalities. Ribera del Duero Much more emblematic of wines from Castilla y Léon is Ribera del Duero . Evidence of viticulture in Ribera del Duero dates back to the Roman period, though there is reason to believe that earlier Celtic settlers grew vines as well. Ancient Roman and medieval wineries and lagares can still be visited throughout the region. For much of its history, Ribera del Duero was a winegrowing area of little prestige. Monasteries would tend to grapes, and locals would cultivate small patches of vineyard for home winemaking—making rustic, light-hued claretes of little semblance to the wines the appellation is known for today. The first to recognize the potential of Ribera del Duero was Don Eloy Lecanda y Chaves, who founded in 1864 what would later be named Vega Sicilia, an estate many cite as the finest in Spain. In that year, he brought all the traditional red grapes of Bordeaux as well as Pinot Noir to be planted alongside Tempranillo. Carmenère and Pinot Noir are no longer cultivated at Vega Sicilia, though Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Malbec remain for various programs. Vega Sicilia did not achieve instant success, but under the stewardship of cellar master Domingo Garramiola Txomin, who conceived the winery’s flagship Unico, the estate began to demonstrate excellence. Tall oak fermenters at Vega Sicilia (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak) Still, Vega Sicilia remained an anomaly in what was an otherwise unremarkable region. Ribera del Duero did not enjoy the same bolster to its industry as Rioja did during the French phylloxera crisis. Once phylloxera reached Ribera del Duero, and following its recovery, only Vega Sicilia and the local cooperative (now the winery Protos) bottled wine until the Spanish Civil War. The number of cooperatives then exploded to more than 30 during the Franco regime. In 1972, Alejandro Fernández established Tinto Pesquera, where he helped return focus to Tempranillo and produced acclaimed monovarietal renditions. The region, however, wasn’t granted DO status until 1982. But beginning in that decade, Ribera del Duero began growing rapidly, expanding from 24 wineries in 1982 to more than 300 today. In addition to its growth in vineyard area and producers, the region gained global esteem, with projects like Peter Sisseck’s Pingus in 1995 solidifying a set of new top-shelf wines for Spain. Ribera del Duero’s borders span four provinces: Soria, Segovia, Burgos, and Valladolid (from east to west). The Duero River runs west through the center of the roughly 110-kilometer-long region. Soils are heterogeneous, with more than 30 types identified. More limestone can be found in the eastern reaches of the appellation, with a significant portion on the opposite side as well, but less in middle zones. Ribera del Duero generally grows warmer moving west, and the western portion also finds denser clay, while the rest of the region has sandy or silty-sandy earth. The elevation is more uniform, with vineyards planted between 700 and 1,000 meters above sea level, with an average of 800 to 850 meters. This amplifies the region’s diurnal swing, allowing grapes to preserve freshness and acidity through the hottest months. Ribera del Duero has one of the most extreme continental climates in Spain—its summers swelteringly hot, its winters icy cold. Grapegrowing can prove challenging, with the risk of frost both in spring and near harvest threatening grapes that demand a long growing season. Hail, too, is not uncommon. A small majority of Ribera del Duero is planted to bush vines, with trellising and mechanical harvesting more prevalent in flatter western areas. Tempranillo bush vine in Ribera del Duero (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak) Tempranillo covers approximately 95% of Ribera del Duero’s vineyards and locally is referred to as Tinto Fino or Tinta del País. Such names can also connote the genetic distinction between the selection of clones found here as compared to other parts of Spain. Following Vega Sicilia’s lead, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Malbec are also permitted and cultivated by many producers. Among additional Spanish red varieties, only Garnacha is authorized, though Bobal can still be found throughout the region. Albillo Mayor, genetically distinct from other Albillos, is the sole white grape permitted in Ribera del Duero. Only since 2019 has the consejo allowed white wine to carry the name Ribera del Duero. Previously, Albillo Mayor was only allowed in red wine blends, though many producers have long bottled Albillo Mayor wines. The grape is believed to share a parent-offspring relationship with Tempranillo (as well as with Doradilla, an esoteric grape from Málaga). In addition to the new white wines, rosado and clarete wines can be made employing a minimum 50% of authorized red varieties. Red wines must be composed of a minimum of 95% authorized red grapes, with a minimum of 75% devoted to Tempranillo. Albillo must comprise a minimum 75% of whites. Ribera del Duero has enacted strict minimum requirements for its aging designations. Most wines, however, don't carry these aging designations, and many producers have adjusted their style to be less informed by extended maturation in oak. Ribera del Duero often conjures comparisons to Rioja, as the two are the world’s most notable regions for Tempranillo. Organoleptically, Ribera del Duero tends to be considered darker fruited and more austerely tannic. This character is said to come not only from the land and the complementary Bordeaux varieties but also from the specific biotypes of Tinto Fino cultivated here. One exception might be near the province of Soria, where wines can often show a brighter, redder, and more acidic profile. Still, Ribera del Duero offers stylistic breadth, despite language often used to refer to “traditional” or “modern” winemaking . Both French and American oak have historically been used in the region, each long a part of Vega Sicilia’s formula, and many wines are amplified by a high dosage of new wood. More “modern” wineries might eschew the aging designations and veer toward monovarietal Tempranillo, but stereotyping proves difficult in this relatively young region. Other DOs Just north of Ribera del Duero, the Arlanza DO was only created in 2007, though its winemaking history originates with monastic traditions in the 12 th century, if not earlier. As with much of Spain, phylloxera devastated the region. Labor was lost in the 1950s as workers emigrated to larger industrial centers. The Arlanza River passes through the region of the same name, before joining the Arlanzón (which will later join the Pisuerga, and ultimately the Duero). Climatically, Arlanza shares the continental extremes of Ribera del Duero, and its soils are mostly sandy, with more of a clay structure near the center. White wines can be made from Albillo Mayor and Macabeo, while rosado and red wine must be composed of at least half Tempranillo. Other permitted red varieties include Garnacha, Mencía, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Petit Verdot. Further down the Pisuerga River, before it meets the Duero, is the Cigales DO . Cigales’s wine origins are believed to be just as old as Ribera del Duero’s, though historically it has been most associated with rosados and claretes . Vineyards are high in elevation, between 700 and 800 meters, planted to soils that often have significant limestone content. As with Châteauneuf-du-Pape and its galets roulés , large rounded stones dot the vineyards here, reflecting heat and benefiting ripening. A vast network of underground cellars sits beneath the region, and visitors can spot the cellars' luceras , tall air vents that help light the facilities below. Rosado remains an important product for Cigales, though the trend toward Provençal-style pale rosés has proven a challenge for these darker-hued pink wines, and some producers have moved toward lighter-colored wines. White, red, sparkling, and sweet wines are also permitted. Grapes include Verdejo, Sauvignon Blanc, Albillo Mayor, and Viura among whites, and for reds, Garnacha, Garnacha Gris, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, and, most importantly, Tempranillo. The large León DO , roughly halfway between Cigales and Bierzo, held 14,000 hectares of vineyard as recently as the mid-1980s, but just over 1,400 remain. The vineyards sit around 800 to 900 meters in elevation, planted on brownish alluvial terraces with limestone influence. León, known as Tierra de León until 2019, is most distinguished for its cultivation of the indigenous red Prieto Picudo, which makes up roughly 70% of vineyards. The variety, recognized by its oval-shaped berries, produces lighter-colored, aromatic red wines with high acidity. Mencía is also recommended and Garnacha and Tempranillo authorized. For white grapes, Verdejo, Albarín Blanco (distinct from Albariño and all Albillos), Godello, Malvasía Castellana (also known as Síria or Doña Blanca, unrelated to Dona Branca), and Palomino (though not in new plantings) are authorized. Red, white, and rosado wines are all produced. Along the Duero, Toro sits adjacent to Rueda, with a small section overlapping at the town of Villafranca de Duero. Toro’s reputation of quality winegrowing precedes that of Ribera del Duero, its wines exported to both the Americas following colonization and France during the phylloxera epidemic. Until the end of the 20 th century, much of Toro’s wine was also sent elsewhere in Spain to give muscle to cheaper blends. A pivot in quality occurred in the 1980s, reflected in investment from top Spanish estates, including Vega Sicilia with its project Pintia, and the emergence of new bodegas. Toro sits at around 620 to 840 meters above sea level, and its cold continental nights prove critical to preserving balance in the region’s ripe wines. Vines are usually bush-trained and widely spaced, in part due to the drought conditions common here. Soils are inconsistent, though brown limestone can frequently be found atop both sandy and clay structures. Tempranillo earns the local name Tinta de Toro, also a reference to the regional clonal types of the variety, which contribute to a full-throttle, rustic nature in the wines. Toro can be comparatively massive in flavor and alcohol when juxtaposed with Rioja or even Ribera del Duero, earning the moniker “bull’s blood” ( toro translates to “bull”). Reds must contain at least 75% Tempranillo or 85% Garnacha, with the balance of the blend coming from those two grapes. Rosado and white wine also come from Toro, the latter from Verdejo, Malvasía Castellana, Albillo Real, and/or Muscat à Petit Grains. As of 2024, the DO also allows for quality sparkling wines vinified as red, white, or rosé. Tierra del Vino de Zamora DO forms an L-shape around Toro, just touching Rueda at its eastern edge. The Duero flows through the northern sector of the appellation, and many other rivers traverse the region. As with the rest of the area, vineyards are planted high at an average of 750 meters above sea level, and soils are predominately alluvial. Tempranillo is the most planted grape variety and must constitute 75% of all red wines, 60% of rosados, and 30% of claretes . Cabernet Sauvignon and Garnacha are also grown, as are Malvasía Castellana, Verdejo, Moscatel de Grano Menudo, Albillo Mayor, Palomino, and Godello. Arribes DO follows the path of the Duero River along the northeastern Portuguese border. The appellation is partially opposite the Douro Superior subzone of the Douro, an area of increasing significance in both Port and dry wine production. Vineyards range in elevation between 550 and 820 meters, and the soils are a mixture of sandy quartz and granite, as well as slate. The star grapes are reds Bruñal and its progeny Juan García. Bruñal yields ample-bodied wines with intense berry flavors, while Juan García veers more herbal and aromatic. Tempranillo, Rufete, Garnacha, and Mencía are permitted as well, along with Malvasía Castellana (a minimum 60% required for white wines), Verdejo, Albillo Mayor, and Albillo Real. Red, white, and rosado are bottled. Ebro River Valley Rioja Winegrowing in Rioja is believed to predate the Roman conquest. The Celtiberians (Celtic tribes settled in Iberia) likely had already established a viticultural tradition, one that proved attractive to the newly arrived Romans who would bring their own knowledge and improve upon the local industry. Some even postulate that the Romans came to Rioja a century before reaching Bordeaux, and it is from Riojano cuttings that Bordeaux was first planted. The name, Rioja (or Rioxa, as it was originally written), didn’t appear until 1092. Many speculate that Rioja is a portmanteau of Río Oja, a river that joins with the Tirón and later the Ebro. Others believe it might come from the Basque erriotxa , “land of bread,” or arrioxa , “land of rocks.” Regardless, by the time the region’s name emerged, Rioja had gained monastic importance, allowing an ongoing commitment to its vineyards. Winemaking, however, remained crude during this early history, and for much of the second millennium, white wines were prized over the reds and more widely grown. A pivot toward Tempranillo and Cariñena (called Mazuelo here) began in the 18 th century, at the end of which growers established the Real Sociedad Económica de Cosecheros de Rioja in 1787, an association that allowed them to jointly market the region and seek other advancements. The disasters of oidium and phylloxera in France were the catalysts for change in Rioja. The devastation of French vineyards pushed its vignerons south, looking for sources of wine. Not only did the French bring barrels, their investment in the region also provided the financial capital for much-needed infrastructure. An inland area, Rioja had been quite inaccessible, isolated from larger economic centers by lack of major road access. In 1880, Rioja completed its railway, connecting Logroño to Haro and ultimately Bilbao, providing its wines a route out of the region and to France. Wineries were established around the train station in Haro. The town’s Barrio de la Estación (train station district) still serves as the brain center for the region, housing such centenary wineries as López de Heredia, Compañía Vinícola del Norte de España (CVNE), and La Rioja Alta. The wines, too, continued to modernize. The Spanish crown established Haro’s Estación Enológica in 1888, a wine research facility that continues in operation. In 1890, Haro became only the second electrified city in Spain, following Jerez. Yet Rioja’s reign was short lived. Bordeaux’s vineyards began to recover by the end of the century, replanted onto American rootstocks. Exports reached a record nine million liters in 1891, but just three years later receded to two million. And while it was better armed with the antidote, Rioja also suffered from phylloxera beginning in 1899, losing more than two-thirds of its vine area. The region had begun to experience fraud as well, prompting the application of wire cages (or mallas ) to bottles to guarantee authenticity. In 1925, Rioja established its consejo regulador, the first in Spain, to govern and protect the region’s wine industry. Subzones, cities, and key wineries in Rioja (Click to enlarge and zoom in) Following the hardships of the Civil War and World War II, Rioja formed a second consejo to more success than the first. The region recovered its markets during the 1950s and 1960s, and by the 1970s, France’s wines became prohibitively expensive for many. Rioja provided a popular alternative and one that was ready to drink upon release (after many years of cellaring at the winery), in contrast to many French counterparts. The latter half of the 20 th century would also bring about several new wine styles in Rioja. In the 1960s, Enrique Forner of Marqués de Cáceres had hired Émile Peynaud, who advocated for the use of new French oak in Rioja. Michel Rolland arrived in 1987, hired by Bodegas Palacio, where he created a new flagship, Cosme Palacio y Hermanos Reserva Especial, matured for a shorter duration in new French barrels. Several producers would go on to craft similar vinos de autor , wines more internationally styled to the palate of critics like Robert Parker. In short, the image of a “typical” Rioja diversified. Following Spain’s entrance into the European Union, Rioja was declared the country’s first DOCa region in 1991. While Rioja takes its name from La Rioja, the DOCa in fact traverses four autonomous communities: La Rioja, Basque Country, Navarra, and Castilla y Léon. (The inclusion of territory from Castilla y Léon results from the fact that two small areas within La Rioja belong to Castilla y Léon; a single estate sits in the DOCa.) Across its expanse, approximately 100 kilometers long and 40 wide, the appellation is rather heterogeneous. The Sierra de Cantabria range barricades the northern areas of Rioja from Atlantic winds, while the Ebro River splits the region. Vintages are often described as Atlantic or Mediterranean, the former years being cooler and wetter and the latter warmer and drier. The climate can vary dramatically across the region, with eastern areas experiencing more continental conditions with Mediterranean influences and the west a more maritime effect. In part based on these climatic differences, Rioja is divided into three subzones: Rioja Alta, Rioja Alavesa, and Rioja Oriental. Rioja Alta sits the furthest west, with its two production hubs, Haro and Logroño, nearly bookending the area. The largest subzone in terms of area planted (over 40% of Rioja’s vineyards, with more than 27,000 hectares), Rioja Alta is also home to many of Rioja’s most well-recognized names, including López de Heredia, Muga, CVNE, and La Rioja Alta S.A. The Oja and Najerilla Rivers, both tributaries of the Ebro, form valleys where many of Rioja Alta’s grapes are harvested. Vineyards in the Oja Valley feature a higher concentration of chalky, alluvial soils, while those further east in the Najerilla Valley lie on iron-rich clay. A non-contiguous subzone, Rioja Alavesa sandwiches a small section of Rioja Alta north of the Ebro River, surrounding the town of San Vicente de la Sonsierra. Rioja Alavesa is located entirely along the northern bank of the Ebro, as well as within Basque Country, and the subzones’ differences are as much cultural as they are geographical. Rioja Alavesa has more limestone in its soils and is also home to Rioja’s highest elevation vineyards on average, found near Labastida. The subzone relies most heavily on Tempranillo, with lower production of its blending partners. While bottling some of Rioja’s most expensive wines, Rioja Alavesa also has a tradition for carbonic-macerated Tempranillo that predates the introduction of Bordelais techniques. The most easterly subzone, Rioja Oriental, has long been associated with Garnacha, which achieves more consistent ripeness in its warmer climes. Both drier and hotter than Rioja Alta and Alavesa, Rioja Oriental, renamed from Rioja Baja in 2018, will typically be the first subzone to harvest grapes. Stretching into the autonomous community of Navarra, many of Rioja Oriental’s vineyards sit at higher elevations in the Yerga Mountains. Varietal breakdown in icon Rioja wines; click to enlarge and zoom in (Credit: Mike Ryan) Tempranillo is Rioja’s dominant grape variety, and here, along with Ribera del Duero, it accomplishes its most recognized expressions. While increasingly vinified into monovarietal wines, Tempranillo was traditionally blended with several other varieties. In 1973, Garnacha was more widely planted in Rioja than Tempranillo; the varieties covered 39% and 31% of the landscape, respectively. Producers in Rioja Alta will still source Garnacha—used to add alcohol, body, and fruitiness—from Rioja Oriental as a sort of insurance policy should Tempranillo not ripen correctly. Today, it is also admired for its contributions to quality, with several Garnacha-dominant Rioja wines being bottled. A grape that once neared extinction, Graciano has found champions in recent decades as well. It supplies acidity, tannin, and exotic spice flavors, and in a select few cellars, it is bottled on its own into characterful yet serious wines. Mazuelo (Cariñena) is similarly employed in small quantities for acid and tannin, while Maturana Tinta (Jura's Trousseau) is also allowed. Rioja might best be known for Tempranillo, but the appellation allows for other varietal red wines, as well as rosados , whites, and traditional method espumosos (which must be aged a minimum 15 months sur lie ). Viura (Macabeo) is most prevalent among white varieties and can achieve tremendous structure balanced by acidity. It is commonly blended with Malvasía for its floral aromas, and together these yield the great, traditional white Riojas, of which only a couple stewards remain. Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Verdejo, Garnacha Blanca, Maturana Blanca, Tempranillo Blanco, and Turruntés are also permitted. The wines of Rioja have long been typified by aging in American oak barrels, partly due to Spain’s longstanding trade ties with North America, but also because these could be sourced more cheaply than expensive French barrels. Several Rioja wineries, particularly those in Haro, house cooperages on-site to either fashion new barrels or to repair their ancient casks, often nearing a century in age. The wines tend to be distinguished less by the flavors of American oak than they are with the oxidative effects of long-term aging in barrel. According to Rioja regulations, barrels must hold approximately 225 liters, the same as Bordeaux barriques. Many producers today have shifted toward newer European oaks and blends of French and American oak. Rioja’s minimum requirements for its age-designated wines are stricter than those of general Spain. Top producers might far exceed these minimums, on occasion longer than an additional decade. Further, many producers, particularly those favoring new French oak, have abandoned the labeling of these aging terms outright, in favor of simple cosecha or genérico classification. This allows them the freedom to use larger wooden vessels, and occasionally amphorae, further expanding Rioja’s stylistic diversity. Rioja’s consejo regulador passed new regulations in 2017 allowing village names to appear on its bottles, a concept first pioneered in Spain by Priorat in 2009. Rioja features 144 different villages, but only the village of the vineyard and cellar can be written on the bottle, meaning that wineries cannot feature a full portfolio of different village wines unless they have production facilities in each. The consejo regulador also created a Viñedo Singular, or “single vineyard,” category for wines coming from hand-harvested individual sites where vines are at least 35 years old. These wines must achieve nearly 30% lower yields, with whites dropping from 63 to 45 hectoliters per hectare and reds moving from 45.5 to 32.5 hectoliters per hectare. They must also pass approval by the consejo tasting committee. Such efforts have been lauded by the global wine community, though many producers question if they go far enough to ensure quality. In 2017, the consejo authorized the production of Vino Espumoso de Calidad de Rioja, a new Rioja DOCa category for traditional method sparkling wines. The designation applies to both white wines and rosados , and grapes must be manually harvested. Those wines labeled crianza must age a minimum 15 months sur lie prior to disgorgement, reserva must age 24 months, and gran añada , 36 months. Dosage levels must be consistent with brut, extra brut , and brut nature styles. Yet even with the addition of this new category, there are still authorized villages that instead choose to produce Cava. As with Ribera del Duero, Rioja wines are often generalized as either “traditional” or “modern” in style. Wineries considered traditional will typically adhere to practices made popular in the late 19 th and early 20 th centuries, with a high concentration located in Haro’s Barrio de la Estación. Modernist-leaning wineries can be found throughout the Rioja region (including Haro). Yet the schism between traditional and modern wineries has grown more blurred in recent years, and certain wineries bottle both wines seen as traditional and others deemed modern. Practices often considered traditional include blending from multiple subregions (often dominated by Tempranillo from Rioja Alta), varietal blending, adherence to the aging classification system, open-top fermentation, and, most significantly, the reliance on older 225-liter American oak casks for long, semi-oxidative maturation. Modernist techniques might refer to monovarietal Tempranillo wines, single-subregion and single-vineyard wines, avoidance of the aging classification system, cold soaking, temperature-controlled fermentation in stainless steel, and shorter élevage in newer, often European oak vessels. Navarra Winegrowing in Navarra is first documented in Roman history, though its early inhabitants, the Vascones, also provided the area with cultural Basque influence. The region has a long tradition of bullfighting, and for nine days each July, in celebration of San Fermín, a daily encierro, or running of the bulls, takes place in Pamplona. Residents and tourists, dressed in white clothing and red scarves, sprint through the streets in front of the bulls to be fought that evening. Navarra existed as an independent kingdom until 1512, when it joined with King Ferdinand and his dominion. Its wines had already found commercial success, popular with annual pilgrims traveling to Santiago de Compostela. The region later gained an export market, both in France and the New World. It fell under French rule in 1791, in the early years of France’s long revolution, and French kings enjoyed the title of King of France and Navarre. Such a relationship proved beneficial upon the arrival of oidium and phylloxera in France, and like Rioja, Navarra flourished in the mid- to late 1800s when selling vast quantities of its wines across the Pyrenees. When phylloxera finally reached Navarra at the end of that century, its vineyards were decimated as well, falling to less than 2% of pre-phylloxera plantings in just a half decade. The 20 th century saw some recovery of Navarra’s vineyard area, though the World Wars and Civil War led to an association with cooperative and bulk wine production during the Franco era. Continued plantings of Tempranillo, an attempt to bank on Rioja’s success despite less suitable conditions, only resulted in less impressive wines and poor comparisons to its neighbor. The 1970s and ’80s observed heavy investment in French varieties, especially Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Chardonnay, often at the expense of old vine Garnacha—a decision many lament today. The shift pitted Navarra’s modern, internationally styled wines against New World countries working with the same varieties, and interest accelerated for the region. More recently, a young generation has begun to revive Navarra’s local varieties and styles. However, the international rosé boom of the 2000s in favor of pale Proven ç al styles has threatened consumer interest in Navarra’s long tradition of rosado , a deeply pigmented pink wine. With the exception of its small share of DOCa Rioja, Navarra only holds one appellation, DO Navarra . The large and heterogeneous DO is divided into five distinct zones: Baja Montaña, Tierra Estella, Valdizarbe, Ribera Alta, and Ribera Baja. Ribera Alta and Baja comprise nearly two-thirds of Navarra’s grapegrowing area. The region grows drier toward the south, while the Ebro River bisects Ribera Baja. In the northwestern corner of the appellation, the hilly Tierra Estella cultivates vines at elevations around 560 meters, as does the adjacent Valdizarbe subzone, which lies just beneath Pamplona. Baja Montaña, in the northeast, concentrates almost entirely on red wine production, with treasured old vine Garnacha vineyards. Navarra permits red, white, rosado, and sweet wine production. White wine constitutes the smallest percentage, vinified from Garnacha Blanca, Macabeo, and Malvasía, as well as Moscatel de Grano Menudo, Chardonnay, and Sauvignon Blanc. Moscatel de Grano Menudo is also utilized for sweet and fortified wines, notably from Ribera Baja. The appellation’s most distinct product is its deeply colored rosados , a centuries-old delicacy best fermented from Garnacha. The DO mandates that rosados are produced using the saignée method and forbids direct pressing, arguing that it reduces complexity. Serious red wines are also bottled in Navarra, also most successfully from old vine Garnacha, though Tempranillo, Cariñena, Graciano, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, and Pinot Noir are all authorized as well. While the rest of Navarra’s minimum aging requirements match those of Spain overall, its red crianzas must be aged for at least two years, with a minimum nine months in barrel. Aragon Aragon (in Spanish, Aragón) was first declared its own kingdom in 1035 and absorbed Navarra later that century. It ascended as a political powerhouse in 1469, upon the marriage of its Prince Ferdinand to Isabella of Castile. Aragon’s early political advantages helped establish export markets for its wines from Renaissance times. By the time phylloxera struck France, however, the area had not adapted to more contemporary styles, and the wines lost favor to those of nearby areas, namely Rioja and Navarra. During the 20 th century, the region experienced further decline in quality, as production was largely relegated to cooperatives. Recent years have brought new energy to Aragon, including revitalized attention to its old vine Garnacha. Four DOs are housed within Aragon: Calatayud, Cariñena, Campo de Borja, and Somontano. The first three are located south and west of Zaragoza, Aragon’s capital. Calatayud is largest, split by the Jalón River that flows north to meet the Ebro. The river does little to alleviate the region’s arid climate, but vineyards are usually planted at higher elevations, above 500 meters, on a variety of soils. Garnacha occupies nearly two-thirds of the vineyard area, followed by Tempranillo and Syrah. Numerous other French and Spanish red grapes are permitted, as are Macabeo, Malvasía, Garnacha Blanca, and international white varieties. While 92% of plantings are dedicated to red grapes, white, red, sparkling, semi-sparkling, sweet, and fortified wines are all permitted. Calatayud also necessitates a minimum 35 years for wines designated Viñas Viejas, or “old vines.” Those deemed Calatayud Superior must be composed of at least 85% Garnacha from vines that surpass 50 years in age. Garnacha harvest in Calatayud (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak) East of Calatayud, Cariñena’s landscape is divided by the Huerva River, which also joins the Ebro. This is perhaps Aragon’s most historic appellation, established in 1932, the first year of DOs, and with winegrowing standards enacted as early as 1696. It is also the namesake for Cariñena, and while that grape is still cultivated within its bounds, there is far more production of Garnacha (at 27%) and Tempranillo (at 22%). The rest of the vineyard area is dedicated to mostly typical white and red grapes, both Spanish and foreign. Red, white, rosado , sparkling, semi-sparkling, sweet, and fortified are permitted. Due west of Zaragoza, Campo de Borja shares its name with the Italian Borgias; Alfonso de Borgia, named pope in 1455, is the namesake for both. The appellation extends from southern Navarra, sitting in the Ebro River Valley, before scaling to the foothills of the Moncayo Massif. Garnacha reigns supreme, planted in approximately three-quarters of the vine space, as do cooperatives, nearly monopolizing all production. Tempranillo and Macabeo see sizeable cultivation, while a number of white and red accessory varieties are also allowed. The appellation has recently built a reputation for quality, good-value young reds. Rosado, white, sparkling, fortified Moscatel, and late-harvest wines can also be crafted. Somontano has the least in common with Aragon’s other DOs. Far removed in the north of the autonomous community, located between the Ebro River Valley and the Pyrenees, Somontano housed a cluster of monasteries in the Middle Ages, allowing winegrowing to prosper. Proximity to France offered preferential trade opportunities as well as stylistic influence. The appellation is less arid than the rest of Aragon, but well-drained soils help balance the increased rainfall. The youngest of Aragon’s DOs, Somontano is also the least bound to Garnacha, although the grape does grow here in both red and white forms. Instead, some of Somontano’s most successful wines come from Gewürztraminer, Riesling, and Chardonnay, as well as Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot. Several additional French and Spanish grapes are cultivated, including the local white Alcañón, and reds Parraleta (not to be confused with the white Parellada) and Moristel. The consejo allows white, red, sparkling, fortified, and sweet wines. Mediterranean Coast Catalonia The DOs of Catalonia (Click to enlarge and zoom in) Catalonia’s history has often diverged from that of the rest of Spain. Upon being relinquished from Moorish rule by Charlemagne, the region was joined to the Frankish Kingdom, and it still shares many similarities with neighboring Roussillon. In 1137, the Kingdom of Aragon was created as Catalonia was joined with Aragon through the marriage of Count Berenguer IV of Barcelona to Petronilla, future Queen of Aragon. (Spain's formation would come later, with the marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon.) Catalan separatist movements have continued throughout the centuries, the most recent uprising in 2017. The spirit of independence extends into many Catalan institutions. The local Catalan language is spoken by many in favor of Spanish, and several hallmarks of national culture are either not present or, as is the case with bullfighting, forbidden by law. With Barcelona as its capital, Catalonia is a popular tourist destination, with visitors flocking to Gaudí’s modernist architecture and the beaches of the Costa Brava and Costa Daurada. In addition to its local cuisine, Catalonia has been at the forefront of the global molecular gastronomy movement, with Michelin-starred restaurants such as El Celler de Can Roca and El Bulli (now closed) leading the charge. Such cultural distinctiveness extends to Catalonia’s winemaking traditions, which are often different from those of the rest of Spain and more influenced by France. Cava, Penedès, & Catalan Sparkling Wines Catalonia crafts a wide assortment of wines, but its most globally significant is Cava . Spain’s history of sparkling wine production began in 1851, when Antoni Galí Comas entered his bottle of sparkling to a competition in Madrid. Luis Justo I Villanueva, a laboratory director at Catalonia’s Agricultural Institute of Sant Isidre, taught the first generation of sparkling winemakers, three of whom entered a Barcelona wine competition in 1872. In that same year, Josep Raventós i Fatjó of Codorníu Raventós, upon returning from France, made the first traditional method sparkling wine using Macabeo, Xarel·lo, and Parellada, widely considered to be the forerunner of all Cava. He made his wine in Sant Sadurní d’Anoia, the town that continues to serve as the industrial center of Spain’s sparkling wine industry. Cava is Spain’s answer to Champagne and in its earlier iterations would even bear the name Champán or Xampany (in Catalan). Champaña briefly benefited from France’s phylloxera crisis, before the louse reached the young category’s soils in the 1880s. Much later, this terminology was forbidden on labels, at French insistence and as part of global efforts to recognize designations of origin. Instead, the wines were redubbed in 1970 as Cava, which simply translates to “cellar,” more specifically one below ground. As is true with the crayères beneath Reims, the Spanish recognized the advantages of an underground environment and its consistent temperatures for the maturation of sparkling wines experiencing extended lees contact. All Cava is made in the traditional method, and disgorgement is widely carried out via a gyropalette, or girasol . A mechanized riddling system that Catalonia was first to use in the 1970s, the gyropalette can perform remuage in as fast as three days, a task that would take hand-riddlers six weeks. To call Cava a Catalan wine requires some annotation, as the DO is administered at the Spanish, not Catalan, level. Approximately 95% of Cava originates within Catalonia, and roughly three-quarters of Catalonia’s Cava near Sant Sadurní d’Anoia, where many of the larger production houses—including the largest, Freixenet and Codorníu Raventós—can be found. The identity of Cava has been significantly shaped by such houses. Yet Cava can be vinified in various patches across Spain and in seven of its autonomous communities: Catalonia, Valencia, Aragon, Basque Country, La Rioja, Navarra, and Extremadura. The typical varietal composition of Cava might also change depending on region: Monastrell, for example, is used in Valencia, and Chardonnay and Pinot Noir have been widely adopted by many. The traditional Cava blend, however, is comprised of Macabeu (Macabeo), Xarel·lo, and Parellada. Macabeo is the most planted and typically serves as Cava’s foundation and its largest component, contributing fruity breadth and structure. Xarel·lo will further strengthen the wine, adding earthy flavors, broadening the mid-palate, and extending its aging potential. Parellada is used to soften a Cava with its more moderate acidity, favored for its floral finesse. Though styles of Cava will differ, the bubbles are generally considered angular and savory in character. Cava can sell at very low prices, though more premium examples are also available. All three of Cava’s classic grapes are white, and so most Cava is as well. However, some rosado (or rosat in Catalan) is produced employing the region’s red grapes, Garnacha Tinta, Monastrell, Pinot Noir, and Trepat, with these red grapes comprising a minimum of 25% of the blend. Rosado Cava can be produced through brief maceration of red skins, saignée , or blending red and white base wines. Though the color spectrum varies, rosado Cava is often darker hued and more tannic in style than most rosé Champagne. Sweetness levels in Cava (Credit: Brandon Lee Wise) Basic Cava must age a minimum of nine months from the date of tirage until disgorgement, a requirement that echoes that of French Crémant sur lie aging. Reserva Cava extends that period to a minimum 18 months, while gran reserva requires at least 30 months of aging. As a result, autolytic character becomes more prevalent moving up Cava’s quality pyramid. In 2014, the consejo regulador introduced a new category, Cava de Paraje Calificado, with its first crop of wines arriving in 2017 on the market. Cava de Paraje must originate from a single parcel whose vines are at least 10 years old. Wines must be vintage dated, unacidified, and aged in bottle for a minimum 36 months before being disgorged. They must also adhere to stricter yields, hand-harvesting, and quality control. The Cava de Paraje category applies exclusively to brut , extra brut , and brut nature wines. Despite the addition of this higher-quality tier, Cava has long come under scrutiny for its largescale production. In 2013, a number of high-profile producers abandoned the Cava DO to bottle their wines under Penedès DO, where sparkling wine is now also permitted under the label Clàssic Penedès . This subclassification was authorized shortly after Raventós i Blanc departed in 2012, stating its intention to establish a DO (as yet unrealized) for the small Conca del Riu Anoia subzone of Penedès. An additional exodus of top wineries occurred in 2019 through the Corpinnat association, its name a portmanteau that roughly translates to “heart of Penedès.” This abandonment of the Cava label has meant the loss of nearly half of the existing Cavas de Paraje Calificado. Corpinnat wines adhere to more stringent regulations than those of Cava, vinified from hand-harvested, organically grown grapes, of which at least 90% are indigenous, within a delineated zone. Minimum bottle aging is 18 months prior to disgorgement. The center of Cava production lies within the Penedès DO , established in 1960. Its landscape is extraordinarily diverse in microclimates, yielding an equally varied portfolio of wines. The region can be divided into three narrower areas. Penedès Marítim, also referred to as Baix- (low) Penedès, rises from sea level to 250 meters. Monastrell, Garnacha, and Cariñena perform well, moderated by the proximity to the Mediterranean, while Macabeo, Xarel·lo, and Parellada will often produce simpler white wines. In the transitional sector of Penedès Central, or Mitja- (middle) Penedès, Cava’s trio of grapes, as well as Tempranillo and red Bordeaux varieties, are successful. Here, vineyards lie between 250 and 500 meters. The highest elevation plots are found in Penedès Superior, or Alt- (high) Penedès, between 500 and 850 meters as the vineyards ascend into the Montserrat mountain range. With increased precipitation and a more dramatic diurnal swing, Penedès Superior grows an assortment of cooler-climate international grapes, including Pinot Noir, Cabernet Franc, Chardonnay, Riesling, and Gewürztraminer. Also permitted are a number of other grape varieties, such as Chenin Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc, Garnacha Blanca, and Moscatel de Alejandría and de Grano Menudo—though examples are few. Many wine styles are produced: white, red, rosado , sparkling, semi-sparkling, late harvest, and fortified wines. Priorat Priorat , or the rarely seen Priorato in Spanish, derives its name from priory , a reference to the monastery founded there in the 12 th century. A Provençal Carthusian order migrated to the region, purportedly after word reached them of a young local shepherd’s vision of a ladder used by angels to ascend to heaven. The monks settled at the supposed site of the Scala Dei, or “Stairway of God,” and there made wine. Wine is still produced near the site of the original monastery, at Cellers de Scala Dei. The vineyards were purchased by four families in the 19 th century, a union that was known as the Societat Agrícola la Unió; the Codorníu Raventós group acquired a 25% share in 2000. Cellers de Scala Dei in Priorat (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak) The region at large has continually produced wine since the Middle Ages. Yet while approximately 10,000 hectares were harvested before phylloxera, only about 500 remained in use by the end of the 1970s. The region’s steep slopes demanded skilled and expensive labor, making revival appear unlikely. But a group of vintners committed to Priorat’s survival and optimistic about the region’s quality achieved just that. René Barbier (Clos Mogador) and his recruits Álvaro Palacios (Clos Dofí, now Finca Dofí), Daphne Glorian (Clos Erasmus), José Luis Pérez (Clos Martinet, now Mas Martinet), and Carlos Pastrana and Mariona Jarque (Clos de l’Obac) produced a set of red wines that were structured, modern, and ultimately unrecognizable from the more oxidatively oaked prestige bottlings typically identified with Spain. This group of five, who beginning in 1989 shared a facility in the town of Gratallops, worked to refurbish esteemed sites and very quickly received high marks from critics, placing Priorat back on the world map. After the 1991 vintage, the original Gratallops producers moved into separate facilities, and following their lead, Priorat received an influx of both local and foreign investment, with younger winemakers devoting themselves to the region. In 2000, the Catalan government upgraded Priorat to the status of Denominació d'Origen Qualificada. The Spanish government recognized the region in 2009, making it the country’s second DOQ or DOCa after Rioja, a title the two regions still exclusively share. Priorat’s reds firmly count among Spain’s most expensive, and bottlings such as Álvaro Palacios' L’Ermita can regularly fetch four digits. Even beyond its Carthusian monastic origins, Priorat has been influenced by French winemaking. The use of terminology such as clos serves as a clear nod to Burgundy (despite no analogous walls separating vineyard sites), and Palacios and Barbier, along with other pioneering winemakers, have long championed specificity of site as a key component to Priorat’s future. In 2009, the consejo introduced the Vi de Vila, or “village wine” category, comparable to the various villages in Burgundy whose names can be featured on labels. Currently, 12 villages are recognized: La Morera de Montsant, Gratallops, Bellmunt del Priorat, Escaladei, Porrera, Poboleda, La Vilella Baixa, La Vilella Alta, El Lloar, Masos del Terme de Falset, Solanes del Terme de El Molar, and Torroja del Priorat. Though the concept might be considered decidedly un-Spanish in philosophy ( assemblage across large swaths of land has been fundamental to many of Spain’s most successful regions), Bierzo, Rioja, and Rueda have all followed in Priorat’s path with their own village classifications. Priorat’s vineyards are planted on steep hillsides, carved with narrow terraces that typically fit only a row or two. The region is bordered to its northwest by the taller Serra de Montsant, protecting this inland Mediterranean area from fierce winds. The appellation experiences wide diurnal swings and low annual rainfall. The Siurana River cuts diagonally through the landscape before meeting the Ebro, though it mostly runs dry, as water is redirected to a nearby reservoir—to many growers’ dismay. Priorat’s distinctive llicorella soil, composed of schistose mica and quartzite, allows roots to stretch deep to find water, and its reflective black-red surface radiates heat back onto the vines, similar to the Mosel’s blue slate. Yields are very low, leading to incredibly concentrated wines. Priorat’s steep hillsides (Photo credit: Bryce Wiatrak) Garnacha (Garnatxa) arguably performs best in this part of Spain, and Cariñena (here Carinyena) also occupies significant hectarage. There are old vine examples of both grapes, and the two are often blended together, with Garnacha offering body, alcohol, and complexity and Cariñena amplifying brightness and acidity. Tempranillo, Syrah, and Bordeaux varieties, among others, are also permitted, though grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon are being regrafted to Garnacha. Vi de Vila wines must hold 60% Garnacha and Cariñena, or 50% if only one is included in the blend. In 2019, Priorat announced a new vineyard classification pyramid. This is in addition to the Vi de Finca scheme that already exists for Catalonia more broadly. Established in 2002, Vi de Finca recognizes specific growing zones and single vineyards. (Priorat's first two Vi de Finca wines were Clos Mogador and Vall Llach’s Mas de la Rosa.) Similar to Burgundy’s lieux-dits , Vi de Paratge refers to wines from 459 named delimited zones. Additional Vi de Vinya categories, yet to be enacted, refer primarily to age and will essentially replicate Burgundian premier cru and grand cru tiers. Vi de Vinya Classificada will recognize single vineyards with minimum 20-year-old vines, and Vi de Gran Vinya Classificada will identify minimum 35-year-old vines. Priorat has also defined the term velles vinyes , or “old vines,” to mean those planted before 1945 or vines at least 75 years of age. White wines of complexity can also be achieved in Priorat, particularly those grounded in Garnacha Blanca. Macabeo, Pedro Ximénez, and a variety of Spanish and French whites are also permitted. Rosado wines are also bottled, as are the typical fortified vi dolç natural (usually sweet reds with added grape spirit) , rancio , and mistela wines. Monstant Montsant DO forms a near-complete ring around Priorat. The region is frequently, if unfairly, acknowledged as a source for high-quality but cheaper wines made in the same style as those found to its interior. Montsant has seen investment from high-profile Priorat producers seeking land at reduced costs. But while Montsant can present value comparatively to Priorat, the region deserves recognition on its own merits. Formerly the Falset subzone of Tarragona, Montsant was awarded its separate appellation in 2001. It is shaped by a series of adjoining mountain ranges, with the one named Montsant at the north of the circle. The southwestern corridor descends nearly to the Ebro River Valley and enjoys the warmest temperatures of the region, with portions planted in the same llicorella soils as Priorat. The northern areas have cooler conditions, as well as more limestone, while vineyards in the south around Falset, the appellation’s main town, are sandier. Like Priorat, Montsant is largely identified for its Garnacha and Cariñena blends. Other Spanish and French red grapes are vinified, as are whites with increasing promise. Montsant bottles an array of fortified sweet wines, in both oxidative and reductive styles. Other DOs Tarragona lies south of Penedès, surrounding the ancient Roman port city of the same name. It is divided into the Camp de Tarragona and Comarca Ribera d’Ebre subzones. The Camp de Tarragona subzone sits along the Mediterranean, in the plains and at lower elevations. Ribera d’Ebre surrounds the Ebro River near its mouth. Here, there is more continental influence, and vineyards are planted at various elevations from the river’s banks to higher up the hillsides. Tarragona enjoys just as wide a set of grapes to work with as Penedès, and similarly is not associated with a single style or variety (though many grapes are shipped north to Sant Sadurní for Cava production). Additionally, Tarragona bottles a number of sweet wines. These include mistelas ; rancio -style wines; Moscatel de Tarragona, a fortified wine from Moscatel de Grano Menudo or de Alejandría; Garnatxa de Tarragona, a fortified Garnacha (white or red); and Vimblanc, a non-fortified wine made from overripe berries. North of Tarragona, though inland from Penedès, Conca de Barberà historically earned praise for the quality of its grapes destined for Cava. Today, roughly two-thirds of its plantings are white grapes—predominately Macabeo and Parellada, along with Chardonnay, among others. Likewise, among red varieties, there is a similar mix of Spanish and French, though pride is taken in the local Trepat, used for Cava, rosados , and lighter-bodied, slightly spicy reds. The region rests on mainly calcareous, alluvial soils alongside the Francolí River and its tributary, the Anguera, and is surrounded by a series of mountains. Red, white, rosado , and various sweet and sparkling styles are permitted. To Conca de Barberà’s northwest continues one section of the non-contiguous Costers del Segre DO , which is scattered across much of Catalonia’s central western reaches. It contains seven subzones: Urgell, Garrigues, Pallars Jussà, Raimat, Artesa de Segre, Segrià, and Vall del Riucorb. Raimat is most historic. In 1914, Manuel Raventós of Codorníu purchased a 2,245-hectare estate, what would become Raimat, and launched the region’s industry by way of advanced viticultural technologies that rehabilitated the landscape as well as identifying grapes best suited for quality winegrowing. Here, these were Tempranillo and international grapes, as opposed to those native to Catalonia. Raimat sits at the foot of the Pyrenees, not far from the Segre River, which feeds into the Ebro River to the south. Soils are generally sandy limestone, while elevations extend between 200 and 1,000 meters. Many grapes are authorized within Costers del Segre, made into all major styles. At Tarragona DO’s western boundary, along the Aragon border and nearly touching Valencia at Catalonia’s bottom corner, Terra Alta is an exciting area for Garnacha Blanca. Cooperatives still play an important role in the local industry, as do traditional styles of sweet and fortified wines, such as rancios and mistelas . But in recent years, there has been renewed interest in Terra Alta’s dry whites, some of exceptional quality, as well as Garnacha’s other shades. Terra Alta’s soils are rich in limestone and have good drainage; as the name suggests, elevations are relatively high, between 350 and 800 meters above sea level. Many varieties are allowed, as are essentially all wine styles. Just northeast of Barcelona on the coast, the small Alella DO , once a fairly established winegrowing region, has steadily succumbed to the encroachment of suburban development. Despite its size, the appellation contains diverse winegrowing conditions and can be considered in three subareas. From east to west, and ascending in elevation as the vineyards approach the Sierra de Montseny, they are comprised of a coastal sector, favored for Garnacha Blanca; a transitional zone, where Xarel·lo (known locally as Pansa Blanca), Garnacha, and Tempranillo perform well; and the schistose limestone-rich Vallés area, coolest of the three and revered for Xarel·lo as well as non-Spanish varieties. Historically, Alella was associated with a style of semi-sweet white wines, but today, while still a prominently white-wine appellation, its wines are most often fermented dry. The region is known for its sauló soils, a sandy granite topsoil. The vineyards of Pla de Bages DO , located northwest and further inland, are predominately alongside the Llobregat River and in the surrounding area. Experiencing a wider diurnal swing than regions closer to the coast, Pla de Bages is most known for Macabeo and Picapoll Blanco, often mistaken for but distinct from Piquepoul Blanc. Picapoll Blanco does, however, show close genetic ties to Clairette, another variety from southern France. Its wines are often soft, floral, and slightly herbal. Beyond these whites, a selection of additional foreign and local grapes (such as the red Sumoll) can also be grown for a wide variety of wine styles. Empordà DO occupies Catalonia’s northeast, flanked on one side by the Mediterranean and on another by the Pyrenees and the French border. The appellation is deeply impacted by the fierce and cold Tramontana wind coming from the Massif Central. Empordà is sliced into two non-contiguous halves: the windswept Alt Empordà, along the Albera and Rodes ranges, and Baix Empordà, along the coast, more tranquil, and denser with clay. Just opposite the DO is Roussillon, specifically the overlapping Banyuls and Collioure AOPs; Empordà shares much of its winemaking ethos with these regions. For one, vi de licor , from Garnacha (Blanca, Negra, or Roja) or Moscatel, resembles the vins doux naturels of Banyuls and Rivesaltes. Old vines, too, abound here, though the total vineyard area is less than one-tenth its pre-phylloxera size (roughly 2,000 hectares today). Among still wines, Cariñena (here Carinyena) and Garnacha can produce quality reds, as can Garnacha Blanca, Macabeo, and Cariñena Blanca (here Carinyena Blanca), among whites. Several additional varieties are permitted, as are most wine styles. The Catalunya DO (as Catalonia is spelled in Catalan) also serves as a catch-all region both for Catalan vineyards existing outside of established appellations and wines from existing DOs whose practices diverge from consejo requirements. The concept is similar to the Sicilia DOC in Italy but remained unique within Spain until the recent arrival of the Islas Canarias DO. Regulations in the Catalunya DO are rather loose, allowing for a wide array of Spanish and foreign grape varieties and a degree of experimentation. Red, white, rosado , fortified, and semi-sparkling wines are permitted, though fully espumoso wines are not. Several Cava producers use the Catalunya DO designation for their still wines. Valencia South of Catalonia is Valencia . Key elements of Spain’s gastronomic image derive from this region, with the famed paella originating here. Three DOs can be found within Valencia’s boundaries: Valencia, Alicante, and Utiel-Requena. Valencia The Valencia DO surrounds the city of the same name, the third largest city in Spain. The appellation can be further divided into four distinct subzones, forming the shape of a diamond. The northern tip, Alto Turia, cultivates predominately white varieties, namely Merseguera and Macabeo, at elevations between 700 and 1,100 meters. To the south, the Moscatel subregion takes its name from the family of grapes it utilizes for the production of sweet mistelas and fortified wines (Moscatel de Alejandría being the most significant). Merseguera and Macabeo similarly find success closer to the coast in the Valentino subzone, as do Sémillon, Chardonnay, Garnacha Tintorera, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Tempranillo. Clariano, the unattached most southerly winegrowing area, sees diverse styles and varieties. Garnacha Tintorera, Monastrell, and Tempranillo offer noteworthy wines, as can international grapes. Alicante Alicante is Valencia’s most southerly appellation. As in Andalucía, the Phoenicians likely introduced viticulture to Alicante sometime within the first millennium BCE. The region achieved commercial success shortly after the end of the Spanish Reconquista, with a 1510 decree by King Ferdinand forbidding the importation of other wines into the region. Such privileges for the local wine industry were not fully rescinded until 1834, and Alicante’s wines earned acclaim throughout the Renaissance era. Phylloxera came late to Valencia, allowing wine production to flourish in the latter half of the 19 th century. With France’s vineyards decimated, large quantities of Alicante wine were shipped north across the Pyrenees, and plantings grew to 93,000 hectares. Phylloxera eventually arrived in the early 20 th century, leaving Alicante little time to recover before Spain and Europe’s tumultuous decades. Today, there are just 10,000 planted hectares left. While the region spent much of the 1900s associated with the production of bulk wine, recent years have seen the rise of a new generation of winemakers that has redrawn attention to the area. Valencia's DOs (Click to enlarge and zoom in) Alicante faces a more arid, continental climate in its western winegrowing areas. Alicante has eight distinct subregions. Most wineries are concentrated in the inland subzone of Vinalopó, which is further divided into the Medio, Alto, and Baja areas. Vines grown closer to the coast, in the La Marina subzone north of the city of Alicante, face higher humidity. La Marina is divided into two more specific subregions, Alta and Baja. El Comtat and L’Alcoia are home to mountains that scale to elevations of over 1,500 meters, the highest in the province, though vineyards are planted in the valleys. Alicante is most often associated with full-bodied red wines made from Monastrell, accounting for roughly 75% of the vineyard area. The wide availability of old vine material allows for concentrated, deeply colored red wines with marked complexity when in the right hands. The region does, however, yield a variety of other wines. Red wines vinified from Garnacha, Garnacha Tintorera, and Tempranillo can all be found, as can examples from mainstream international varieties. Alicante also produces white wines from Airén, Moscatel de Alejandría, Macabeo, and the local grape Merseguera, among others. Beyond table wines, the coastal sector of La Marina specializes in sweet Moscatel wines. The region’s most unique wine is Fondillón, which France’s King Louis XIV is said to have requested, soaked into cakes, on his deathbed. Its production declined drastically upon the arrival of phylloxera in France, when large quantities of red wine were demanded from Alicante, leaving the long-aged Fondillón a less viable product. Today, only a handful of producers continue the tradition, centered around the town of Monóvar at the most inland area of the DO. Monastrell grapes for Fondillón are harvested in early to mid-November, by which point the berries will naturally experience significant dehydration (although no botrytis or additional post-harvest drying will inform the wine’s character). Fermentation naturally halts off-dry, with roughly 20 to 50 grams per liter of residual sugar. Similar to Sherry production, but without fortification, the wines will eventually enter a modified solera system in large oak barrels, wherein wines are fractionally blended and bottled over time but lack an orderly criadera system. With barrel age, Fondillón develops a distinctive rancio character due to the long wood maturation. The wines are bottled with a minimum a­verage age of 10 years (the name Fondillón likely originates with al fondo, or “at the bottom,” a reference to drawing out the wines at the end of this fractional blending system). Yet bodegas might keep wines much longer, with the historic producer Primitivo Quiles maintaining a solera founded in the late 19 th century. Fondillón demonstrates a marked Oloroso-like character, although with faint sweetness and without the heft of fortification. Utiel-Requena At approximately 72%, Bobal dominates plantings in Utiel-Requena , a DO adjacent to the northern subzones of Valencia DO and the Castilla-La Mancha border. With plentiful old vineyards (the average age being 40 years), Bobal can produce full-bodied red wines with a rustic, earthy tannic structure complemented by a bright acidity. The DO is split between the towns of Utiel and Requena. Requena produces the higher volume of wine and also contains a portion of the Cava DO. In addition to Bobal, Garnacha and Tempranillo are grown, as are several international varieties. Murcia Small in comparison to its neighbors Valencia, Castilla-La Mancha, and Andalucía, Murcia can be seen as a transitional autonomous community between the Catalan-influenced Mediterranean Coast and Southern Spain. Murcia has long enjoyed a rich agricultural heritage. The Moors, who settled there in the ninth century, grew not only grapes for table and raisin consumption but also a variety of fruits, vegetables, and rice. A strong fruit industry continues in the area today, and almonds, olives, and flowers are also important crops. There are three DOs within Murcia’s boundaries: Yecla, Jumilla, and Bullas. Yecla and Jumilla are adjacent to Alicante’s western edge and share similar winegrowing cultures. Yecla , named for the city at its center, is the smaller of the two. Vines are planted at relatively high elevation, between 400 and 800 meters above sea level, and the loamy, well-drained soil sits atop limestone bedrock. As with the general area, red wine is the major focus and Monastrell the most prominent grape. Regulations additionally permit Garnacha, Garnacha Tintorera, Tempranillo, and a selection of international varieties, in addition to Macabeo, Airén, and Merseguera, among others. White wine, rosado , sparkling, and fortified sweet wines are also allowed. Jumilla surrounds Yecla to the west, with similar elevations, 400 to 800 meters, albeit sandier soils above limestone. Phylloxera didn’t infect Jumilla until extremely late, arriving in the late 1980s and decimating the local industry to one-third its previous vineyard size. The consejo regulador, along with a few ambitious producers, saw replanting as an opportunity to modernize the appellation, too long associated with bulk and cooperative wine production. Vines were replaced with material uninfected by virus, and new technologies were installed. Winemakers also enacted strategies such as carbonic maceration, earlier harvests, and longer bottle aging to craft more contemporary wines. Monastrell is by far Jumilla’s most important grape, and varietally labeled reds and rosados are permitted when Monastrell comprises a minimum 85%. Monastrell is the sole grape used to make the appellation’s vinos de licor . Jumilla also authorizes numerous other red and white grape varieties, both Spanish and international, to make red, white, and rosado wines, as well as sweet wines of all three shades. The youngest of Murcia’s DOs, Bullas is also principally known for Monastrell. The appellation is divided into three subzones—northeast, central, and western—that decrease in elevation, 600 to 900 meters, moving east. Plantings are most heavily concentrated in the higher vineyards in Bullas’s western sector, and wines grown here are generally of better quality. While once associated with cheaper rosados , Bullas has set an example for other Monastrell appellations of how to create more acid-driven, fresh red wines. Monastrell must still compose at least 60% of Bullas’s rosado and red wines, though Tempranillo, Garnacha, Syrah, and Bordeaux varieties are also permitted. Macabeo is the only recommended white grape, but others are authorized. Sparkling and fortified sweet wines are also produced. Central Plateau Madrid Madrid gives its name not only to the autonomous community that surrounds the nation’s capital, but also to the area’s sole DO, Vinos de Madrid . Vines can be found as close as 11 kilometers to the city proper, and the appellation has skyrocketed in quality, quantity, and global recognition in recent years. Madrid’s documented viticultural history begins in the 1200s, and within two centuries, its wines had become well regarded. The phylloxera crisis arrived around the onset of World War I. Just as Madrid’s vineyards began to recover, focus shifted under Franco’s regime toward grapes that would provide quantity and high alcohol, namely Garnacha and Airén, over quality and over grapes more historically associated with the area. The Vinos de Madrid DO was officially established in 1990, and since that time, innovative producers have shifted the region’s reputation. Vinos de Madrid is comprised of four subzones: Arganda, Navalcarnero, San Martín de Valdeiglesias, and El Molar. Arganda is the largest in terms of both size and plantings, with just over 50% of the region’s vineyards and 60% of total production. Here, Tempranillo is suggested over Garnacha. The subzone lies southeast of the city, and its landscape features varied soils and a few coveted limestone plateaus. To the southwest, Navalcarnero is flat and loamy, while further west, San Martín is more granitic. San Martín is protected from cold northern winds by the Sierra de Gredos range and has a less arid climate and more verdant landscape than the rest of the appellation. El Molar is the newest subzone, designated in 2019. While Garnacha’s origins in Madrid may not have focused on quality, today the appellation yields some of Spain’s most exciting examples. The Albillos y Garnachas de Gredos association imposes stricter standards than appellation regulations, and its members have become leaders for the variety, and for the white Albillo Real, in the area. Among reds, Tempranillo, Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Syrah are also cultivated; Malvar, Airén, Viura, Torrontés, Parellada, and Moscatel de Grano Menudo are other whites. White, red, rosado , and sparkling wines are all produced, as are sobremadre wines—a traditional style for both red and effectively orange wines, where skin contact is permitted without racking for up to 180 days. Castilla-La Mancha Castilla-La Mancha takes its name from manxa , an epithet given to its land by the Moors, meaning “parched earth.” It’s an appropriate descriptor for the region’s dramatic continental climate, as summers can reach excruciatingly high temperatures, with an extreme lack of rainfall. Winters, in contrast, can be freezing. As a result, disease pressure is very low. Castilla-La Mancha’s vines sit atop the Meseta Central. Cervantes set Spain’s most canonical literary masterwork Don Quixote in this region, and the novel’s fabled windmills still dot the landscape. In addition to abundant viticulture, sheep farming is the largest industry in Castilla-La Mancha, with Manchego cheese an important product. Though Castilla-La Mancha’s wines have only recently earned praise for their rising quality, the autonomous community has long been a considerable contributor to Spain’s wine production. Eight DO appellations are located here: La Mancha, Almansa, Ribera del Júcar, Manchuela, Méntrida, Mondéjar, Uclés, and Valdepeñas. La Mancha DO is one of the largest continuous winegrowing areas in the world, with more than 160,000 hectares under vine. A large portion of its wine, however, is ultimately distilled into spirits for either brandy or use as fortifying agents. Over the course of the past half-century, several efforts have been made to further partition the vast La Mancha DO. It was, in fact, once larger; Almansa, Méntrida, and Ribera del Júcar are all carved from territory formerly belonging to the appellation. Vines are mostly head trained and planted in the traditional system called marco real , where each vine is spaced 2.5 meters from the next to reduce competition for water. La Mancha has achieved commercial success through its supply of affordable, consistent, basic-quality wines. Airén is its most prevalent white, and while not the most complex grape, it can be fashioned into enjoyable, fruity wines meant for immediate consumption. Tempranillo, here called Cencibel, is most important among reds and will be vinified into supermarket wines without the influence of oak, as well as more serious examples. A laundry list of permitted varieties, both foreign and Spanish, can also be used to make DO wine in every style. Ribera del Júcar was created from land at La Mancha’s eastern edge in the early 21 st century, decades after Méntrida and Almansa were established. It experiences more Mediterranean influence than its western neighbor and approximately 20% higher rainfall. Tempranillo makes the appellation’s most notable wines, though Syrah and Bordeaux grapes are also permitted for reds and rosados . Only Sauvignon Blanc and Moscatel de Grano Menudo are utilized for white wine production. To the east, on the opposite side of the Júcar River, Manchuela also borders Utiel-Requena, with which it shares Bobal as a dominant variety. Sitting between the Júcar and Cabriel river valleys, Manchuela has a more Mediterranean climate, with greater humidity and rain than both La Mancha and Ribera del Júcar. While Bobal dominates vineyard plantings at more than two-thirds, Macabeo can also yield quality whites, while a collection of additional grapes is permitted for white, red, rosado , and sparkling wines. Further east, Almansa similarly offers a middle ground between the Meseta and the Levant. Almansa is semi-arid, with limestone soils, and spans a series of hills at an average of 700 meters elevation. Its primary variety is Monastrell, followed by Garnacha Tintorera. Tempranillo and Cabernet Sauvignon are also grown, among others, and production is heavily weighted toward red wine over white and rosado . Tucked within a southern enclave of La Mancha DO, Valdepeñas achieved explosive growth in the 1800s due to the construction of a railway linking the region to Madrid and the French phylloxera crisis. During recovery from phylloxera, which reached Valdepeñas in the early 20 th century, winegrowers placed a heavy emphasis on Airén due to its productivity. But the region is best associated with its easy-drinking Tempranillo-based wines. Historically, the variety was vinified into aloques or claretes, light-bodied reds in line with traditional clairet from Bordeaux, and frequently blended with both white and red varieties. Today, more robust Tempranillo takes precedence, though white, rosado , and sparkling wines are also bottled and a number of French and Spanish grapes harvested. The region itself occupies a plain and its surrounding mountains, with the finest grapes said to derive from the Los Llanos (literally “the flats”) western sector, or in the north on the sloped plantings of Las Aberturas (meaning “the passes”). To La Mancha DO’s northwest, Méntrida has long suffered a poor reputation for its bulk Garnacha. However, there are promising wines now emerging from the region, particularly from the area near the Gredos range, to the northwest. The appellation, dominated by sandy granitic soils, experiences extreme continental conditions, though the Gredos Mountains will guard from colder winds. While Garnacha remains the face of the region, Tempranillo and international varieties are also permitted for both red and rosado wines, and as of 2000, several white grapes are approved. Established in 2005, the Uclés DO sits within a crevice of La Mancha DO’s northern edge. The region is separated in half by the Sierra de Altomira range, with the western sector, which surpasses 1,000 meters, higher in elevation than the east. Tempranillo is most important to production, though Bordeaux varieties have also found success. Garnacha, Syrah, and staple white varieties are grown as well, collectively allowing for white, red, rosado , and sparkling production. With the Tagus River flowing through, Mondéjar rests between Uclés to its south and Vinos de Madrid to its west, though it has never achieved the prestige of the latter. Like Uclés, Mondéjar is most associated with Tempranillo, but Malvar, Macabeo, Sauvignon Blanc, and Torrontés have yielded successful whites. A handful of additional varieties, including Cabernet Sauvignon, are permitted for white, red, and rosado wines. Extremadura As its name implies, Extremadura is a place of extremes—a hard, punishing climate with resilient inhabitants, including the conquistadors who sailed to the New World. Also facing economic challenges, it is less famous for winegrowing than the other autonomous communities. It does, however, boast a rich agricultural heritage. Much land is also dedicated to sheep grazing, as well as black-legged pigs, whose jamón serrano is one of Spain’s gastronomic treasures. The area is also home to most of Spain’s cork production. The name Extremadura translates to “extreme limit of the land beyond the Duero,” and the region sits south of the Duero’s greater river valley. The Guadiana River cuts through Extremadura and gives its name to the sole DO, Ribera del Guadiana. To the west lies Portugal’s Alentejo, another important hub for cork production. Ribera del Guadiana DO comprises six former Vino de la Tierra winegrowing areas, now subzones united and elevated under a single umbrella appellation. Tierra de Barros is located in the middle of the region, south of the Guadiana, and is the largest subzone with approximately four-fifths of all vineyard space. It has dry conditions and sits at high elevations—though not as high as Montánchez and Cañamero, the most elevated subzones and the only two north of the river. The Ribera Baja and Ribera Alta subzones line the appellation south of the Guadiana to the west and east, respectively, while Matanegra sits furthest south. Red, white, and rosado wines are all crafted in Ribera del Guadiana. The appellation grows classic Spanish varieties, such as Macabeo, Verdejo, Parellada, Tempranillo, Bobal, Garnacha, Monastrell, and Alicante, as well as Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Syrah, Cabernet Sauvignon, and other French staples. Several indigenous grapes grow within the DO, including whites Alarije, Eva, and Montúa, among Portuguese and other more regional varieties. Ribera del Guadiana permits a diversity of wines and styles, but an Extremadura Vino de la Tierra designation allows for more experimental practices. Beyond commercial wine, Extremadura has long been a source of base wines to be distilled into brandy. Andalucía Andalucía Iberia’s winegrowing origins lie in Andalucía , with the arrival of the Phoenicians and the founding of Gadir (today Cádiz) in 1100 BCE. The wines were already celebrated in ancient times, as was the region’s distinctive albariza (chalk soil). Due to Islamic conquest in 711 CE, Andalucía demonstrates Spain’s Moorish influence at its most opulent, visible today in the grandiose architecture of Seville, Córdoba, and Granada. After the Reconquista, it was also here that Spain revitalized its wine industry, as the sack from Jerez and Málaga reached global markets. The distinctive fortified wine styles of the Jerez triangle still dominate Andalucía, despite their dramatic fall from popularity in the late 20 th century. (This guide will not cover Sherry and Montilla-Moriles, extensive topics on their own.) Andalucía (often Anglicized to Andalusia) occupies the bottom tip of the Iberian Peninsula, the southern extreme of Western Europe. It is only separated from Morocco by the Strait of Gibraltar (though technically Gibraltar itself is a British overseas territory). Andalucía finds a variety of climatic influences, merging the Mediterranean’s warmth with the colder winds from the Atlantic. Moving inland, Andalucía transitions to more continental conditions, especially as it scales in elevation to its various mountainous zones. Condado de Huelva Beyond Jerez-Xérès-Sherry and Montilla-Moriles , Andalucía has four additional DO regions. Condado de Huelva DO sits just northwest of the Jerez triangle along the Atlantic coastline. Its history is intertwined with that of Sherry, and wines from the two regions were frequently blended together in the soleras of Jerez before appellation boundaries were drawn and the practice forbidden. Yet Condado de Huelva profited from the global demand for sack in the 16 th and 17 th centuries. Even earlier, Christopher Columbus is said to have stocked his ships with Condado wines before setting sail for the Americas. More recent times, however, have brought little attention to Condado de Huelva, and any decline that devastates Sherry is only amplified in this region that lacks name recognition and healthy export markets. The name condado translates to “county,” and the wines here come from the municipality of Huelva. Vineyards are hardly above sea level and mostly planted on sand and clay, though the best grapes are harvested from the albariza soils so prized for Sherry. The traditional wines resemble Sherry as well. There are two major styles of Condado: pálido and viejo. Condado Pálido (or “pale”) is the lighter of the two, aged biologically under flor like a Fino Sherry, and similarly fortified to approximately 15.5% alcohol. Condado Viejo (or “old”) is the more distinctive. Fortified between 17 and 22% alcohol, the wines are aged oxidatively and better resemble Oloroso Sherry at their finest. Sweetened versions, such as “cream” and “medium,” analogous to those in Jerez are also bottled. These styles, too, are aged in American oak butts (up to 650 liters in capacity) for at least two years, though the best far exceed the required minimum. Palomino is cultivated for Condado de Huelva, as are Moscatel de Alejandría and Pedro Ximénez. But the most prominent grape for generoso wines is the local Zalema, a white variety that, like Palomino, is rather neutral when vinified as an unfortified wine. Condado de Huelva nonetheless has proceeded to experiment with dry table winemaking. Both white and red wines are permitted, and among them, international varieties such as Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, Syrah, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, and Merlot are authorized, as is Tempranillo. Málaga & Sierras de Málaga On the opposite side of the Strait of Gibraltar, Málaga DO , a non-contiguous appellation, stands between the Mediterranean and Montilla-Moriles. Málaga DO is designated for sweet wines, while Sierras de Málaga DO refers to dry table white, rosado , and red wines made in the same area. Málaga’s fortified wines once competed with those of Jerez in terms of prestige—prized during the Renaissance era as Málaga sack. The region benefited from declining Sherry sales in the 18 th century, at which time Málaga’s greatest wines were called mountain , named for the terrain surrounding the town of Cuevas de San Marcos, from which the most pedigreed wines were born. Phylloxera first reached Spain by way of Málaga in 1876. The damage was catastrophic, wiping out nearly all of the region’s vineyard area. By the time Málaga established its DO in 1933, many of its export markets had been lost, including the once-important Russia. Málaga has yet to recover its former glory, especially as resorts and development prevail, but a handful of stalwart producers and new arrivals maintain its traditions. Málaga’s bodegas are concentrated in the city itself, which is nestled right against the beach. The vineyards, however, can be divided into several subareas. Closest to the city proper is Montes de Málaga, while the vines surrounding Estepona, a seaside town closer to Gibraltar than to Málaga, are predominately Moscatel in the Manilva subzone. Axarquía, a coastal sector between Málaga and the town of Nerja reaching inland toward Granada, also dedicates itself to Moscatel. The so-called mountain vineyards, including those of Cuevas de San Marcos, lie north of the city, a subzone simply called Norte, and have more limestone. This area is best known for the cultivation of Pedro Ximénez, unsurprising given the proximity to Montilla. Finally, north of Estepona, Serranía de Ronda is the primary source for Sierras de Málaga DO wines, dry wines of less than 12 grams per liter residual sugar aged for a minimum of two years (six months in oak). These vineyards sit at the highest elevations, at 750 meters above sea level. Soils throughout the region are diverse, though Norte has more limestone content and Axarquía gravelly chalk. The climate, too, shifts from Mediterranean nearer the water to continental at higher sites, where there is a wider diurnal shift. Many varieties thrive in Málaga. Its most traditional sweet wines are harvested from Pedro Ximénez, but both Moscatel de Alejandría and Moscatel Morisco (Moscatel de Grano Menudo) can produce high-quality wines as well. For example, Telmo Rodríguez and US importer Jorge Ordóñez, in a collaboration with Austrian sweet wine producer Kracher, bottle Málaga wines from Moscatel de Alejandría. Rare local varieties Lairén, Doradilla, and the sole red Romé are also permitted. Sierras de Málaga DO adds a number of major French and Spanish grapes to the mix, including Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Macabeo, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, and Tempranillo. While Sierras de Málaga yields a dynamic portfolio of red, white, and rosado styles, traditional Málaga DO wines are more complicated. The most famous sweet wines are made via the soleo process from sun-dried grapes, with clusters left to raisinate outdoors on grass mats, or espartos . These highly concentrated wines can either be unfortified, as is the case with vino de uvas pasificadas dulce , or fortified, as with vino de licor, made in both dry and sweet styles. Of the sweet vinos de licor , those made with sun-dried grapes can be labeled vino tierno , while those fortified before fermentation ( mistelas ) from fresh grapes can be called vino maestro and those from partially fermented fresh grapes, vino dulce natural . The latter should not be confused with vino naturalmente dulce , which comes from overripe Pedro Ximénez or the Moscatels and is unfortified. More broadly, late harvest wine, vino de uvas sobremaduradas , can also be made from overripe grapes left to dehydrate on the vine. Dry white wines can also be produced under the Málaga DO, so long as they are comprised of 70% Pedro Ximénez, Moscatel de Alejandría, or Moscatel de Grano Menudo. For vinos de licor , Málaga DO has a set of additional aging designations. All wines must spend a minimum six months in cask unless labeled pálido ( a separate style from that of the same name for Condado de Huelva with no aging requirement) ; noble must be aged two to three years; añejo , three to five years; and transañejo, five years or longer. The wines will grow more oxidative in barrel, but a full solera system is only in place for the oldest of Málaga wines. A variety of additional terms for sugar level and color indications are given to sweetened or blended Málaga wines, such as those that see the addition of arrope , syrupy boiled-down must; pantomima , further concentrated arrope ; and vino borracho , or “drunk wine,” a fortifying agent consisting of both wine and spirit. Granada Granada was promoted from VCIG to DO in 2021. The delimited area encompasses the entire province of Granada, which is located just east of Málàga. Granada produces white, rosé, and red wines, and may be still or sparkling, and dry or sweet. A single subregion, Contraviesa-Alpujarra, is located along the Mediterranean Coast. Sparkling wine from the subregion must include at least 70% of the white grape Vijiriego. Solera system (Credit: Brandon Lee Wise) The Islands Balearic Islands The Balearics (or Baleares) are a group of islands forming an archipelago off the coast of Valencia in the western Mediterranean Sea. The four primary islands, from west to east, are Ibiza, Formentera, Mallorca, and Menorca. Culturally, the Balearic Islands most identify with Catalonia, and they speak a Balearic dialect of Catalan that originated in Empordà. Historically, however, the Kingdom of Mallorca (often Anglicized as Majorca) paid fealty to the Kingdom of Aragon, despite a brief period of independence at its inception during the Reconquista, at which time it was tied to Montpellier and Roussillon. While larger Vino de la Tierra zones grow grapes across the islands, DO production is limited to Mallorca. Two appellations exist there, Binissalem and Pla i Llevant. Both enjoy a Mediterranean climate, though with generally cooler summers than mainland Spain. Binissalem was the first DO to be established, in 1991, and houses the oldest winery on the island, Hereus de Ribas, founded in 1711. Mallorca, at that time, had already cemented a reputation of quality wine for those traveling through but struggled to find an export market. Binissalem’s vineyards are confined to the center of the island, northeast of the capital, Palma de Mallorca. The Serra de Tramuntana range shields Binissalem’s vines from cold northerly winds. Red, white, rosado , and sparkling wines are made from a series of classic Spanish and international varieties. Most prized, however, are the indigenous red Manto Negro and white Moll (also called Prensal Blanc) and, to a lesser extent, red grapes Gorgollosa and Callet. Manto Negro must constitute at least 30% of a red wine’s blend. Its wines are often low in pigment and high in alcohol, inviting the addition of more structured varieties. White wines must be comprised of a minimum 50% Moll or 50% Moscatel (either de Grano Menudo or de Alejandría). Moll’s naturally low acidity similarly mandates the contributions of other grapes. Pla i Llevant covers a larger area, roughly the entire southeastern half of Mallorca, though plantings are fewer. The landscape is rather flat ( pla translates to “plain”), and elevations hardly rise above sea level. In comparison to Binissalem, Pla i Llevant’s soils are more fertile and its vines more exposed to wind and frost damage. French grapes, such as Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Chardonnay, dominate the appellation, though Moll, Manto Negro, Callet, and the red native Fogoneu are also authorized. Like Binissalem, Pla i Llevant can produce red, white, rosado , and sparkling wines, as well as sweet fortifieds. While challenging to find outside the area, Mallorcan wine can command relatively high prices in its local market. Canary Islands Both physically and stylistically, the Canary Islands are an outlier in the tradition of Spanish wine . Though politically European, the Canary Islands are much closer to Northern Africa, just 100 kilometers west of Morocco. They’re also due south of Madeira, making the Canaries one of the most southerly major winegrowing region in the Northern Hemisphere. European discovery of the Canaries can be documented from the second century CE, when, according to legend, Romans found packs of wild dogs inhabiting the island of Fuerteventura. Accordingly, one translation of Islas Canarias is “islands of dogs.” Visitors occasionally passed through the archipelago in the following millennium, but it wasn’t until 1402 that French explorer Jean de Béthencourt claimed the area for Castile. The conquest over the Canaries’ native people, the Guanches, lasted until 1496, and winegrowing here began around this time. The Canary Islands provided a valuable stopping point during the triangular trade, en route from Western Africa or Europe to the American colonies or elsewhere. Ships passing through were stocked with sweet wine styles that were able to withstand long sea travel. Canary sack, as the British called the islands’ fortified Malvasía, achieved popularity, particularly in Northern Europe. DOs of the Canary Islands (Click to enlarge and zoom in) Traversing the 28 th parallel, the Canary Islands fall just outside the range considered optimal for quality viticulture, making elevation an important asset (some vineyards are as high as 1,500 meters). Such positioning also allows for less seasonal variation, as well as narrower oscillation in daylight hours throughout the year. As the islands were created by a series of volcanoes, several still active, much of the area is covered in volcanic-derived soils. Mostly, these are very fertile, leading to many additional crops and a lush topography. Seven major islands comprise the Canary Islands, each carrying its own DO or DOs, with the exception of Fuerteventura. The overarching Islas Canarias DO spreads across the autonomous community. On the Canary Islands, Listán Blanco (Palomino) achieves unfortified, fresh wines of complexity—rare for the grape on the Spanish mainland. Its history in the Canaries began in the late 1400s and, unsurprisingly, it was first recommended for the production of sack, to be made in the image of Sherry. Today, it is the Canary Islands’ most planted variety and yields semi-aromatic dry whites of medium body, with a subtle nutty, savory profile. Marmajuelo, also called Bermejuela, is likely native to the region and offers richer, more tropical-leaning whites. Several grapes called Malvasía have found their way to the Canaries. The one simply referred to as Malvasía is identical to Malvasia di Lipari, named after the Sicilian islands, where it is also cultivated. The grape also served as the original “Malmsey” of Madeira, though it is nearly extinct there in favor of Malvasia Branca de São Jorge. It is similarly revered for sweet wines in the Canary Islands, as well as dry styles, and favored for its exuberant fragrance and stone fruit and citrus aromas. A pink-skinned mutation of Malvasía, Malvasía Rosada, is also grown across the Canaries. In addition, Malvasía Volcánica (or Malvasía de Lanzarote) is an autochthonous cross of Malvasia di Lipari and Marmajuelo. It’s less floral than its parent Malvasia di Lipari. Other Canary white varieties include Moscatel de Alejandría, Albillo Real, Gual (Madeira’s Bual), Verdello (Madeira’s Verdelho), Forastera Blanca, and Vijariego Blanco (called Diego on Lanzarote), a high-acid grape first introduced around the 15 th or 16 th century and used for both still and sparkling wines. Listán Negro is native to the Canary Islands and covers the most vineyard area of all reds. It is unrelated to Listán Prieto, a highly vigorous variety that also grows in the Canaries, arriving from the Spanish mainland later than it did in the Americas. Listán Prieto produces wines that are often rather humble and rustic. Negramoll, native to Andalucía, is the same as Madeira’s Tinta Negra. Its wines are light, fruity, aromatic, and slightly herbal. The Canaries also cultivate the red varieties Bastardo (Trousseau, and also called Tintilla on the Canary Islands), Baboso Negro (the same as Bruñal in Arribes and Alfrocheiro in Portugal), Vijariego Negro (Sumoll), and Castella Negra. The Canary Islands yield a diversity of wine styles, including red, white, and rosé table wines, as well as sparkling. Due to the area’s long tradition of sweet winemaking, with wines vinified from sun-dried grapes and bottled in both fortified and unfortified expressions, most Canary DOs permit the majority of these options, although some regional specialties are noted. Tenerife The largest of the Canary Islands is Tenerife, which rests in the middle of the archipelago. Mount Teide stands at the island’s center, an active volcano and Spain’s tallest peak at 3,718 meters. Teide and its foothills have proven critical to Tenerife’s quality winegrowing, allowing for high-elevation, slope-side plantings at cooler sites. Wind patterns usually blow from north to south, creating a sort of rain shadow effect on the island. Teide traps the humid air on the north side of the island, leaving hotter, more arid conditions to the south. Rather than owning large swaths of land, most wineries source from numerous small family growers, whose tiny plots, called suertes , were historically cultivated for home winemaking and today risk abandonment from less-invested younger generations. Tenerife is also the only Canary Island to hold multiple DOs. It has five: Tacoronte-Acentejo, Valle de la Orotava, and Ycoden-Daute-Isora in the north, and Abona and Valle de Güímar in the south. Tacoronte-Acentejo DO is Tenerife’s oldest and largest DO, occupying the northeastern stretch of the island. Vines are cultivated up to 1,000 meters, with the layer of reddish, loamy topsoil thinning with increased elevation and exposing more of the volcanic subsoil. Reds are heavily favored, with particular attention to Listán Negro and Negramoll, among other staples. To the southwest, Valle de la Orotava DO ’s vineyards rise between 200 and 800 meters. Here, vines are historically trained in the dramatic trenzado or cordón system. The method involves braiding vines for several meters—often more than 10—and raising the cordons at regular intervals with small sticks so that grape clusters don’t touch the earth. Several of these vines exceed one or two centuries in age. During dormancy, the braided vines can be moved to the side to allow for additional crops. Most planted in Valle de la Orotava are Listán Blanco and Listán Negro; here, soils have higher proportions of clay. The Ycoden-Daute-Isora DO also gives preference to Listán Blanco, which covers approximately 70% of the DO. Elevations can reach 1,000 meters, though the appellation is overall hotter, wetter, and sandier, especially vineyards near the coast. The Valle de Güímar DO , which follows the coastline south of Tacoronte-Acentejo, experiences much drier conditions than vineyards on the opposite side of Teide. Elevation proves vital for quality viticulture, with the top sites ranging between 800 and 1,400 meters. White wine dominates, with Listán Blanco as the most planted variety. The Abona DO creates a u -shape on the southern half of Tenerife. Europe’s highest vineyards are here, scaling beyond 1,600 meters. White wine and Listán Blanco are again most important, though Listán Negro enjoys significant plantings as well. Lanzarote The furthest east of the Canary Islands, Lanzarote is also perhaps the most distinctive. The entire landscape is blanketed in striking black volcanic topsoil, or ceniza , a sandy substance derived from the ash and lava of a six-year eruption from the 1730s. The catastrophic event marks the commencement of Lanzarote’s viticultural heritage; previously, its topography largely resembled the rest of the Canaries and yielded other crops—grapes not among them. Today, however, the island is inhospitable to almost all plants other than grapes, save a few pockets where fig or palm trees might be grown. There are over 30 active volcanoes. Winegrowers have developed creative practices for cultivating grapes on Lanzarote’s otherwise barren grounds. Vines are rooted in hoyos , pits deep enough to penetrate a layer of subsoil that can carry sufficient moisture for the plants. The hoyos are quite wide, measuring as large as 10 meters in diameter to 5 meters in depth, and each hoyo houses just one or two vines. The shallow basins also help shelter the vines from fiercely hot and humid winds from the west that would shrivel their berries and coat them in the ash. To amplify protection, each hoyo is outlined by a semi-circular cairn. Younger vineyards might opt instead for the linear zanjas , a series of trenches similarly protected by rows of stone mounds. Lanzarote’s surreal vineyard is frequently likened to a moonscape. A hoyo in Lanzarote (Photo credit: Kelli White) The Timanfaya National Park occupies the center west of Lanzarote, while its winegrowing area can be divided into three subzones. La Geria is furthest south, bordering Masdache, which is split between Tinajo and Masdache proper. Ye-Lajares is unconnected to the other winegrowing areas at the far north of the island. Hoyos are most often found in La Geria, which also sees the widest spacing and lowest densities. Zanjas can be observed in the other zones. Lanzarote is known for its historic sweet wines, both fortified and unfortified, but it also produces a full palette of Canary grapes as dry wines, most notably from Listán Blanco, Malvasía, Listán Negro (Negro Común), and Negramoll. Other DOs El Hierro DO is the westernmost of the Canary Islands. Its landscape emerges as the above-surface fragment of a much larger subaquatic volcanic rim. Unsurprisingly, soils are volcanic of various consistencies. Vineyards are carved into terraces, reaching up to 700 meters in elevation. Historically, El Hierro’s sweet wines were celebrated during the Renaissance era, its first vines purportedly planted by Englishman John Hill in 1526. Today, the island still enjoys an important export market in Central and South America, particularly Venezuela. Of its many grapes, Listán Blanco, both red and white Verijadiego, Listán Negro, and Baboso Negro are most important. To El Hierro’s north is the La Palma DO , referred to as La Isla Bonita or “the beautiful island” due to its lush topography. Vines are said to have been first planted in 1505; today, La Palma’s other major crop is bananas. Many producers will not accept grapes grown at banana farms, as the banana palms cause nearby vines to suffer and yield poor fruit. The island is still actively volcanic, with its last major eruption in 2021. Three subzones comprise La Palma. Fuencaliente, in the south and center east, is home to some of the island’s best whites, especially Malvasía Volcánica. Hoyo de Mazo in the center west is better known for reds, and Norte de la Palma is located in the north. Vineyards here can reach as high as 1,100 meters. La Palma’s most distinctive product is vino de tea , a rancio style in any hue aged in 500-liter pine casks. Botrytized wines are also bottled on La Palma, and the island’s most widely planted grapes are Listán Blanco and Negramoll, among whites and reds, respectively. Other varieties, beyond the local specialty Malvasía, include Sabro, a grape used for sweet wines and believed to be harvested nowhere else in the world. La Gomera DO follows to La Palma’s east. The mountainous landscape, with plunging cliffs and deep ravines, renders viticulture challenging, and the island’s output remains small. It is best recognized for Forastera Blanca, La Gomera’s most cultivated grape variety and an indigenous specialty (unrelated to what is called Forastera in Italy’s Campania). Listán Blanco, Marmajuelo, Listán Negro, Tintilla, Tempranillo, and Negramoll are also well represented, along with many other varieties grown in limited quantities. Gran Canaria DO was established in 2005, after absorbing the former DO Monte Lentiscal, which existed only for a handful of years around the town of Santa Brígada. As in Tenerife, a central volcano effectively divides the island in two, with poorer-quality wines coming from the hotter southern half and better examples coming from the more northern vineyards, particularly at higher elevations. As with each of the islands, myriad styles and varieties abound on Gran Canaria. Among reds, Listán Negro, here called Negro Común, remains the dominant variety, where it is used to make what is locally called tinto del monte, or “mountain wine.” Negramoll, Tintilla, and Malvasía Rosada also see significant plantings. Listán Blanco is the most important of white varieties, with contributions from Malvasía, Moscatel de Alejandría, Albillo, Marmajuelo, and Vijariego. Gran Canaria is also recognized for its sweet and often fortified wines, predominately from Malvasía and Moscatel. Bibliography Barnes, Amanda. “Corpinnat—an Emerging Category of Spanish Sparkling Wine.” SevenFifty Daily . March 1, 2019. https://daily.sevenfifty.com/corpinnat-an-emerging-category-of-spanish-sparkling-wine . Barquín, Jesús, et al. The Finest Wines of Rioja and Northwest Spain: A Regional Guide to the Best Producers and Their Wines . Oakland: University of California Press, 2015. Brook, Stephen. “Priorat.” Decanter . May 30, 2007. https://www.decanter.com/features/priorat-247387 . Cervera, Amaya. “Bierzo approves a Burgundy-inspired classification.” Spanish Wine Lover . July 10, 2017. https://www.spanishwinelover.com/learn-259-bierzo-approves-a-burgundy-inspired-classification . Evans, Sarah Jane. The Wines of Northern Spain: From Galicia to the Pyrenees and Rioja to the Basque Country . Oxford: Infinite Ideas, 2018. Fabiano, Ana. The Wine Region of Rioja . New York: Sterling Epicure, 2012. Foods and Wines from Spain . Accessed May 18, 2020. https://www.foodswinesfromspain.com/spanishfoodwine/foot/site-map/index.html . Gabay, Elizabeth. Rosé: Understanding the pink wine revolution . Oxford: Infinite Ideas, 2018. Hudin, Miquel. “Priorat’s new structure.” Meininger’s Wine Business International . May 22, 2017. https://www.wine-business-international.com/wine/general/priorats-new-structure . Hudin, Miquel. “The release of the ‘Paratge’. DOQ Priorat’s newest step up the Burgundian pyramid.” Hudin.com . May 13, 2019. https://www.hudin.com/the-release-of-the-paratge-doq-priorats-newest-step-up-the-burgundian-pyramid . Hudin, Miquel. “Velles Vinyes: DOQ Priorat releases the most stringent ‘old vines’ definition in Spain & maybe the world.” Hudin.com . May 30, 2019. https://www.hudin.com/velles-vinyes-doq-priorat-releases-the-most-stringent-old-vines-definition-in-spain-maybe-the-world . Hudin, Miquel. “What the new DO Rueda classifications mean.” Hudin,com . December 12, 2019. https://www.hudin.com/what-the-new-do-rueda-classifications-mean . Jefford, Andrew. “Jefford on Monday: Montsant – silence and beyond.” Decanter . December 11, 2017. https://www.decanter.com/wine-news/opinion/jefford-on-monday/montsant-wines-profile-spain-381352 . Jefford, Andrew. “Jefford on Monday: The white question.” Decanter . November 20, 2017. https://www.decanter.com/wine-news/opinion/jefford-on-monday/priorat-white-wines-380008 . Jefford, Andrew. “Jefford on Monday: ‘Wind, stone . . .’” Decanter . March 12, 2018. https://www.decanter.com/wine-news/opinion/jefford-on-monday/emporda-wine-catalonia-385922-385922 . Jeffs, Julian. The Wines of Spain . London: Mitchell Beazley, 2006. Johnson, Hugh and Jancis Robinson, eds. The World Atlas of Wine . 8th ed. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2019. Liem, Peter, and Jesús Barquín. Sherry, Manzanilla & Montilla: A Guide to the Traditional Wines of Andalucía . New York: Manutius, 2012. Lukacs, Paul. Inventing Wine: A New History of One of the World’s Most Ancient Pleasures . New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2012. McGovern, Patrick E. Ancient Wine: The Search for the Origins of Viniculture . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2003. Phillips, Jr., William D., and Carla Rahn Phillips. A Concise History of Spain . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Radford, John. The New Spain: A Complete Guide to Contemporary Spanish Wine . 2nd ed. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2006. Robinson, Jancis. “Castilla-La Mancha.” Jancis Robinson . Accessed May 18, 2020. https://www.jancisrobinson.com/learn/wine-regions/spain/castilla-la-mancha . Robinson, Jancis, ed. The Oxford Companion to Wine . 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. Robinson, Jancis, Julia Harding, and José Vouillamoz. Wine Grapes . New York: Harper Collins, 2012. “2019 Statistical Report on World Vitiviniculture.” International Organisation of Vine and Wine . 2019. http://www.oiv.int/public/medias/6782/oiv-2019-statistical-report-on-world-vitiviniculture.pdf . White, Kelli. “Considering the Canaries.” GuildSomm . February 15, 2018. https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/kelli-white/posts/canary-islands . White, Kelli. “Forgotten Spain: Valencia.” GuildSomm . October 19, 2017. https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/kelli-white/posts/forgotten-spain-valencia . White, Kelli. “The Devastator: Phylloxera Vastatrix & The Remaking of the World of Wine.” GuildSomm . December 29, 2017. https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/kelli-white/posts/phylloxera-vastatrix . Wiatrak, Bryce. “Tempranillo Wars: Rethinking the Traditional-Modern Schism in Rioja & Ribera del Duero.” GuildSomm . May 11, 2018. https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/bryce-wiatrak/posts/tempranillo-wars . Yoshida, David. “Rías Baixas and Ribeira Sacra.” Lecture. GuildSomm Masterclass Series. May 2019. Special thanks to Sarah Jane Evans and Miquel Hudin for their help in reviewing this guide. Compiled by Bryce Wiatrak MW (June 2020) Edited by Stacy LadenburgerPreviewhttps://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/bryce-wiatrak/posts/what-makes-a-modern-sauternesFri, 12 Jun 2026 18:30:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:aca67137-b0ea-4d91-a659-5a6002747af7Bryce Wiatrak MWTo many, Sauternes is a sort of relic—a window into the great wines of the 19 th century and a region whose style remains eternal. The bottles can, indeed, be time capsules, wines that can easily outlive most of their purchasers and gracefully age in the corners of cellars, with no rush to be uncorked. But such thinking belies the real Sauternes of today: a region whose quiet dynamism deserves attention and renewed understanding. This is an appellation not in a state of stasis but one actively fighting various crises and pursuing diverse avenues to recapture public attention. While it is widely understood as one of the greatest sweet wine regions in the world, its wines still present almost shocking value, considering the low volumes and high labor required to make them. The average price for a hectare of Sauternes today is around €30,000; in Saint-Émilion, a hectare costs around €3,000,000. Sauternes is a region that is evolving before our eyes. There are the obvious changes—the emergence of dry white wines, the contemporary (and polarizing) new branding for Rieussec—but many of the region’s changes are subtler yet significant. So, what defines a modern Sauternes winery in 2026? An Update on Sauternes Sec I have already written extensively on the topic of dry wines produced in Sauternes , but the quality and importance of dry wines for many Sauternes producers have accelerated in recent years. While the category has diversified, winegrowers are also circling a unique identity for the dry whites coming from their soils, seeking to imbue their wines with a distinctive sauternais character. Largely, these wines are still driven by Sémillon, often more than one might expect in the typical white Bordeaux blend. The wines might also have a touch of botrytis, lending a dried honeycomb or marmalade quality that binds them to their sweet counterparts. In some cases, as with Château d’Yquem’s Ygrec, that botrytis amounts to a few grams of residual sugar, while, in most, the wine is fermented fully dry. Château Climens now goes as far as producing three dry wines—Asphodèle, Lilium, and Petite Lily—an expansion initiated by Bérénice Lurton and spearheaded under new ownership since the winery’s sale in 2022. The CEO Jérôme Moitry explains, “In the current market context of lower sweet wine demand, it makes absolute sense to balance the production between sweet and dry wines.” He also points to the historic precedent of winemaking in the region that existed for centuries before producers’ mastery of noble rot, noting, “There is a perfect logic, as it is the same Sémillon that will produce dry wine when young and sweet wine when older.” Moitry’s family has eliminated Climens’s second sweet wine and purchased a second vineyard exclusively for dry wine production. Château Climens, dry and sweet (Credit: Bryce Wiatrak) The dry wines of Sauternes are also separated from generic Bordeaux blanc by quality. As dry whites take up an increasing share of many estates’ portfolios, several producers seek to create a wine that strives for the pedigree of their grand vin and far surpasses that of the typical white Bordeaux. Naturally, that has shifted the conversation toward formalizing these dry wines of Sauternes into French wine law. At present, however, producers can label them only as Bordeaux blanc , not even permitted to attach the surrounding Graves appellation to their bottles. Some in favor of amending appellation guidelines imagine something along the lines of Vouvray or Jurançon, where, under one name, wines can come in both sweet and dry forms. But the movement is not without its serious detractors. While the style continues to garner attention and is now made by many of the region’s most famous names, the total number of producers making dry wine remains small. Jean-Jacques Dubourdieu, the appellation copresident and general director of Château Doisy-Daëne (where his grandfather Georges pioneered the first recognized dry Sauternes wine in 1948), counts only 17 châteaux, of the region’s 140, making a dry wine. Those opposed to codifying Sauternes sec into law point to consumer confusion regarding regions whose wines span the sweetness spectrum and the difficulty of communicating that diversity of styles on a label. One producer points to Champagne, whose still wine cannot be called by the same name. Houses can, however, bottle such wines as Côteaux Champenois and have been able to for more than a half century. Perhaps a similar compromise might be reached in Sauternes. First Things First To the untrained eye, the grands vins of Sauternes appear as classical and consistent as ever. Many of the more dramatic changes in the region are applied outside these flagship wines, leaving the marquee product seemingly untouched. Yet within the past two decades, there have been subtle movements at this highest tier, in both the vineyard and the cellar, that have significant consequences for the future of the category. At the turn of the millennium, no vineyard in Sauternes had earned organic certification. The 2000s and 2010s ushered in an era of organic farming, starting at the very top. Château Guiraud was first to achieve organic certification, with its status confirmed in 2011. Château Climens followed suit in 2013, then fully converted to biodynamics, with Biodyvin approval in 2014 and Demeter approval in 2016. Outside the classified growths, the esteemed Château Bastor-Lamontagne also gained organic accreditation in 2016, a year after the small, quality producer Château La Clotte-Cazalis. Finally, Château d’Yquem began its three-year process toward organic conversion in 2019, harvesting its first certified organic vintage in 2022. The estate continues to experiment with biodynamic adoption. Sheep grazing in the vineyards of Barsac (Credit: Bryce Wiatrak) Although these represent only a small fraction of Sauternes producers, such signals from the region’s top ranks suggest more properties will likely follow in their footsteps. Château Lafaurie-Peyraguey is in mid-conversion, and other châteaux may be adjusting their practices more quietly as well. And while the embrace of organic principles may simply appear aligned with the various viticultural sustainability movements of the 21 st century, its significance feels slightly different in Sauternes—an appellation whose ability to meticulously control an unruly fungus is the chief determinant in the quality of its wines. Moitry explains, “The fundamental change in adopting biodynamic cultivation is to move out from the sole curative approach when faced with new problems, to enter into a more prophylactic approach, using natural products to reinforce the natural defenses of the plant. This [has] turned out to be very good for the vineyard.” The estate’s analyses have reflected increased microbial activity and mycorrhizal networks in its soils. Importantly, none of Sauternes’s organic and biodynamic producers can cite any difference, either positive or negative, in noble rot development since conversion. In addition to vineyard practices, changes are also afoot in vineyard composition. Muscadelle, the third member of the trio of Sauternes grapes and historically the smallest contributor to the appellation’s blends, is on the decline. Winegrowers cite challenges in the vineyard because of the variety’s susceptibility to powdery mildew and an assortment of viticultural ailments as leading factors in their abandonment of the cultivar. Others simply don’t like Muscadelle’s organoleptic qualities. Its more flamboyant floral, terpenic character delivers heady aromas to a Sauternes, but some find it disrupts a wine’s balance. This philosophy is diametrically opposite that of nearby Monbazillac, where winegrowers seem less challenged by the grape variety in the vineyard and whose wines are largely differentiated from Sauternes through increasing proportions of Muscadelle versus Sauvignon Blanc and Sémillon. In Muscadelle’s stead, more producers are turning to Sauvignon Gris to fill their cuvées. The pink-skinned variant of Sauvignon Blanc has gained increasing traction in Sauternes for its comparative ease in the vineyard and its positive contributions to a Sauternes blend. (Technically, Sauvignon Gris is the same grape variety as and simply a clonal variant of Sauvignon Blanc—the same relationship of Pinot Blanc, Pinot Gris, and Pinot Noir as well as Grenache Blanc, Grenache Gris, and Grenache Noir.) Sauvignon Gris delivers the same tropical fruit notes, perhaps in higher concentration, as Sauvignon Blanc, which are expected in many Sauternes wines, and it has lower levels of pyrazine. Structurally, its acidity brings important lift to counterbalance the wines’ residual sugar, while Sauvignon Gris’s darker skins provide some phenolic grip. Finally, residual sugar levels for some Sauternes grands vins have been decreasing. For much of the late 20 th and early 21 st centuries, Sauternes adopted a maximalist approach to winemaking, chasing greater botrytization that yielded wines of intense concentration and elevated sweetness. This philosophy measured quality by sugar, and the results could be impressive in their sheer viscosity and density of noble rot character. In more recent vintages, the pendulum has swung toward balance and freshness. Some producers see this as a de-Parkerization of Sauternes. Whereas other regions are dialing back on alcohol or oak, the equivalent in Sauternes is more restrained residual sugar. This lands many of the grands vins in the range of 125 to 150 grams of residual sugar per liter—a healthy notch above Port, which sits around 100 grams per liter, but notably less sweet than many of the other great botrytized wines, such as typical Tokaji Aszú or German and Austrian Beerenauslesen and Trockenbeerenauslesen. Still, modern residual sugar levels do represent a notable increase from pre-1990s Sauternes, which commonly ran around or even well below 100 grams per liter. In all, such adjustments to sweetness are part of a larger discussion of “drinkability” in Sauternes. While these wines are among the longest lived in the world, châteaux are fighting the notion that their grands vins need be aged to be enjoyed. A March visit to Château d’Yquem corresponded with the release day for the estate’s 2023 vintage. By lunchtime, 70% of its production had sold, and central to d’Yquem’s messaging was the vintage’s readiness to drink. That value proposition echoes similar sentiments among the crus classés at large across Bordeaux. Facing consumers’ decreased storage capacity for holding wines in the long term, along with dwindling en primeur sales to incentivize advance purchasing (Sauternes producers have long relied less on en primeur campaigns than their colleagues making red fine wines), winegrowers are increasingly both vinifying and positioning their wines for potential early consumption. The immediate pleasures of a youthful Sauternes are not difficult to grasp; fruity, succulent, and candied in its sweetness, Sauternes does not have the same challenge of impenetrable tannin that one might find in Saint-Estèphe or Pauillac. Here, the issue is less barrier to entry than it is volume. Many producers mention a sort of second-glass test: can a Sauternes be enjoyed beyond a small pour, with its drinker going back for a refill? This is where reduced sugar levels come back into play: an overly opulent Sauternes that offers initial deliciousness can easily turn cloying with a larger serving. More recent grands vins aim to be not quite as quickly satiating. The ability to slowly nurse a bottle of Sauternes, one that can keep in the fridge over the course of weeks or months, with any decline imperceptible to most palates, has become a double-edged sword for the region. The more quickly consumers finish a glass, the quicker they will finish a bottle—and the more Sauternes they will ultimately need to purchase, or so is the hope. Second Things Second Still, the shift in profile of the grands vins has been gradual, and most drinkers will not quickly discern it. More obvious transformation is apparent in the second wines, which have long been thought of as baby versions of the flagships, not dissimilar to the corresponding category for red wines throughout the region. For Sauternes, second wines have been made with grapes that were less consistently affected by botrytis, leading to slightly lower residual sugars; have been used to declassify fruit from younger vines or with less scrupulous selection; and have required fewer of the expensive new barriques needed for élevage . And, of course, these wines are also priced lower. Many of those core tenets remain true for second wines of Sauternes today but have been taken to such extremes that the product has become virtually unrecognizable. Less botrytis might mean no botrytis. Less new oak might mean maturation entirely in stainless steel. Some deem this the modern style of Sauternes, an aesthetic meant to capture a youthful freshness distinct from the character of the flagship wines. These are wines that not only can be consumed young but largely should be to capture their boisterous primary fruit character. Cynthia Capelaere, the director of Château Bastor-Lamontagne, explains, “The goal is to favor the expression of fruit and the vibrancy of this lively wine.” Château Bastor-Lamontagne’s second wine, SO, is intended to be “accessible and easy-drinking,” made for a “wider audience looking for a versatile wine that can be enjoyed as an apéro Sauternes.” The library at Château Coutet (Credit: Bryce Wiatrak) Curiously, these are wines that several producers say are designed for the domestic Gen Z market. While a parallel is not yet obvious in the United States, the French are finding success reaching younger consumers with sweet but fresh fine wines. (The Germans are finding a similar revival for Kabinett Riesling among their national Gen Z consumers, with the added value of lower alcohol.) These so-called modern Sauternes lack the seriousness of their elder siblings, but they are still made by many of the world’s greatest sweet wineries. The liqueur-like intensity that defines so many Sauternes wines is replaced with a flamboyant ease and purity. In 2015, Thomas Dejean, the general director of Château Rabaud-Promis, abandoned making dry wine, instead focusing the château’s energy toward a second sweet wine, Omega. He says, “I think the second wine should be a little less concentrated and is aimed at a young, dynamic clientele who want to discover sweet wines.” Rather than being lusciously sweet, Omega has around 45 grams of residual sugar per liter, with only about 10% noble rot infection, to produce a moelleux style. The wine is aged in amphora, lending a distinctive stoniness to the wine, and is less the second wine of the estate and more an entirely different expression—so much so that the wine is not even labeled as Sauternes but declassified to Vin de France. Still, “modern” Sauternes is not the only way that producers are expanding their range of sweet products. At Château Sigalas Rabaud, Laure de Lambert Compeyrot has begun bottling a Sauternes without added sulfites. Such a practice is virtually unheard of in the world of dessert wines, which regularly rely on higher sulfur dioxide additions and filtration levels to preserve microbial stability. De Lambert Compeyrot’s explanation for how she makes this wine is quite simple: she seeks balance and stability in the grapes at harvest and expects that equilibrium to translate into the bottled wine. Vigilant tracking of oxidation in the cellar and thorough mechanical filtration are also necessary in the absence of added sulfites. That’s not to say that these wines do not have any funk—there is a distinctive musty, chalky character alongside the cloudy appearance. But that profile fits for a Sauternes breaking into the realm of the natural wine world. Bienvenue à Sauternes Beyond changes in the wines, producers in Sauternes have also sought opportunities to build relationships with consumers and develop additional revenue streams. For many, this includes an increased focus on enotourism. Sauternes’s tourism industry is among the most developed in Bordeaux, even though obstacles are, in many ways, greater for Sauternes than other pockets of the region. In addition to the challenge of inconsistent interest in sweet wines, Sauternes is relatively far from the city of Bordeaux. Pessac-Léognan is basically right on the outskirts of the city center; Sauternes can be more than an hour’s drive away. Many of the top châteaux of Sauternes are now not only open to the public but also offering unique experiences to draw visitors south. Château Guiraud operates two restaurants, one with Michelin Bib recognition, the other with a Michelin star. Château Lafaurie-Peyraguey has the two-starred restaurant Lalique, named after the famous glass company that was also acquired by its owner, Silvio Denz. The restaurant is decked out in luxurious glass furnishings, but those not dining on-site can also see the mesmerizing crystal barrel Lalique fashioned for the estate. At Rabaud-Promis, Thomas Dejean recently installed a hexagonal shed that acts as a giant hive to 300,000 bees. Guests can (safely) enter and taste the château’s wines among the buzzing and find parallels in the honeyed notes of Sauternes. After nearly a decade at Château Guiraud, most recently as its director, Luc Planty left to acquire the lesser-known classified growth Château de Malle, a winery and historic home once held by the Lur Saluces family, which had begun to fall into disrepair. What was the draw? Says Planty, “The property’s potential. We took over a property that had been lying dormant but held great potential for both winemaking and tourism—a true dual-purpose venture. It’s also a property with incredible charm.” Planty sees a whole segment of visitors coming specifically for the château, which has been a historic monument since 1943 and whose ornate architectural flourishes extend into the lush, manicured gardens. For Planty, such interest provides stability, as does the estate’s ability to make dry white and red wines from adjoining vineyards that lie outside Sauternes’s boundaries in Graves. The Heart of Sauternes The story of Sauternes today is so much more than just the new dry whites or the same stoic consistency of its grands vins . While such wines certainly continue to add to the pedigree of the appellation, producers understand the need to modernize in this shifting wine landscape. Fortunately, none of the changes need impede the quality of its great wines; any sacrifices in volume for dry or second wines should only increase the quality of the flagships. Sauternes might adapt to survive, but adaptation is not abandonment of what the region knows it does best: pristine noble rot wines that set the precedent for the global sweet wine industry. You Might Also Like The Dessert Desert: Dry Wines from Historic Sweet Regions , by Bryce Wiatrak Sauternes AOC Compendium Bordeaux Study Guide Bibliography Anson, Jane. Inside Bordeaux: The Châteaux, Their wines and the Terroir . Berry Bros. & Rudd Press, 2020. Anson, Jane. “10 Minute Masterclass: Sauternes, Jane Anson.” Conversation with Sarah Kemp. The Wine Conversation. Accessed June 10, 2026. Audio, 11:21. https://www.wine-conversation.com/conversations/10minute-masterclass-sauternes . Brook, Stephen. The Complete Bordeaux . 3rd ed. Mitchell Beazley, 2017. Vins de Bordeaux (website). Accessed June 10, 2026. https://www.bordeaux.com/en . Wiatrak, Bryce. “The Dessert Desert.” GuildSomm, January 3, 2019. https://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/articles/b/bryce-wiatrak/posts/dry-wines-from-sweet-regions .Bordeaux-Featurehttps://www.guildsomm.com/public_content/features/podcasts/b/guild_podcasts/posts/building-a-spirits-brand-with-holly-robinsonTue, 09 Jun 2026 20:53:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:393d9caf-3fcf-4ea1-9a74-0838568a1cd2GuildSomm AdminIn this episode, host and Master Sommelier Chris Tanghe interviews Holly Robinson on building a spirits brand. Holly worked in restaurants before cofounding Seattle-based Captive Spirits in 2011 with partner Ben Capdevielle. Together they developed Big Gin, a London Dry style that has won many awards since its inception, then expanded their bottlings to include Bourbon Barreled Big Gin and Peat Barreled Big Gin. In 2016, Hood River Distillers acquired the brand. Holly next launched Fast Penny Spirits , an American Amaro lineup also produced in Seattle, with business partner Jamie Hunt. Dubbed Amaricano, it uses Pacific Northwest ingredients while paying homage to Jamie's Sicilian roots. Today, Holly consults for numerous PNW companies with her latest company, Fathom 35 , and owns Sunny Hill restaurant in Seattle's Ballard neighborhood. Thanks for listening. If you enjoy this episode, please leave us a review, as it helps us connect and grow the GuildSomm community. Cheers! traffic.libsyn.com/.../GSI_Podcast_Building_a_Spirit_Brand_with_Holly_Robinson_6_9_2026.mp3 In this episode: Holly Robinson Holly Robinson is a food and beverage marketing consultant and the founder of Fathom35, a Seattle-based boutique consultancy specializing in brand strategy, creative direction, and PR for CPG, restaurant, and hospitality clients across the Pacific Northwest and beyond. Holly cofounded Captive Spirits Distilling, known for its Big Gin, leading national sales and marketing through its acquisition by Hood River Distillers in 2016. She later cofounded Fast Penny Spirits, serving as COO until 2022. Today, she runs Fathom35, supporting food and beverage businesses at every stage and helping them find their voice through marketing efforts that build brand loyalty for sustained growth. Holly is also a coowner of Sunny Hill, a neighborhood pizza restaurant in North Seattle. Outside of her work, Holly is an avid gardener and novice potter. Follow Holly on LinkedIn . Follow Holly on Instagram . Learn more about Fathom35 .Spirits-PodcastBusiness-Podcasthttps://www.guildsomm.com/learn/study/w/study-wiki/166/greece-and-eastern-europeMon, 08 Jun 2026 13:31:00 GMT8277e151-5ba9-4335-93f0-6f497ffb8dc4:be262527-6dee-4f4a-815a-8be20e64bdb7Jonathan EichholzContents Greece Hungary Bulgaria Romania Slovenia and Croatia Czech Republic and Slovakia The Russian Federation Ukraine and Georgia Greece In its infancy, wine was produced in regions where the vine grew wild. From its origins in the Near East, cultivation of the grapevine spread to the Old Kingdom of Egypt, and, around 2500 BCE, the vine was brought, via trade, to the Minoan Bronze Age civilization of Crete. Despite Crete’s latitude, the island ’ s moderate climate proved suitable for the vine, and in viticulture the Minoans surpassed all their contemporaries. (They also developed indoor plumbing—clearly a civilization ahead of the times.) The practice was passed to their successors, the Mycenaeans, to other islands in the Aegean, and to the mainland of Greece. The Greeks spread cultivation of the vine throughout much of Europe. The first vineyards in France were in Massalia, a Greek colony at modern-day Marseilles, and Southern Italy’s modern varieties Greco and Aglianico may be Greek in origin. The Greeks took viticulture northward as well, to the banks of the Danube and the coastline of the Black Sea. Ultimately, the Greeks were responsible for not only spreading the vine geographically but also democratizing the consumption of wine. In ancient Egypt, wine was regarded as the sweat of the sun god Ra; the Greeks drank wine at religious and ceremonial events, but they also drank socially. As wine consumption in Greece spread to new social classes, additional vineyards were needed. The Romans carried the Greeks’ vines even farther, but the tradition of many modern-day European wine regions extends back to ancient Greece. While preeminent in the ancient world, Greek wines languished until a late 20th-century surge in interest and quality. Greece’s vinous reputation had long been rooted in r etsina, an aromatized wine flavored with Aleppo pine resin. Wine was transported through ancient Greece in amphorae, often sealed with pine resin to prevent spoilage, and over time the resulting flavor became an acquired taste. Some believe, however, that the resin was always added specifically for its flavor, as ancient Greek wine was often mixed with a variety of substances, including honey, seawater, and herbs. Today, retsina is generally produced as a white wine, from Savatiano grapes, and flavored with the addition of pine resin, rather than stored in resin-sealed casks. Per Greek law, it cannot be labeled with a vintage. Retsina is a traditional appellation protected by the EU (as a PGI) and is rarely encountered outside Greece, though the wine continues to shape perceptions of the Greek wine industry overall. For many years, Greece was thought of as a country producing lesser quality, oxidized wines, but a new generation of winemakers is striving to redefine Greek wine. Although larger producers, such as Boutari and Tsantali, continue to dominate the Greek wine industry, it is the newer, smaller producers who are generating excitement. With over 300 indigenous varieties in the country, the future for high-quality but uniquely Greek wines is bright. Greece first implemented wine laws in 1969 and 1970, with most of the country ’ s appellations established in 1971. Refined in the 1980s and overseen by the Greek Wine Institute, these appellation laws conform to EU standards and resemble the French model. There are two levels of PDO (Protected Designation of Origin) quality wine: Controlled Appellation of Origin, or Οίνοι Ονομασίας Προελεύσεως Eλεγχόμενης (AOC/OPE), a status reserved for traditional sweet wines; and Appellation of Superior Quality, or Οίνοι Ονομασίας Προελεύσεως Ανωτέρας Ποιότητος (AOSQ/OPAP). While these two separate categories might be found on labels, they are seen as archaic as most producers prefer the EU's PDO and PGi designations. PDO Wines of Greece will appear on current and future bottles of wines featuring a designation of origin, especially those destined for export. PDO wines may carry an aging designation. Réserve indicates a minimum one year of aging for white wines, with at least six months in barrel and three months in bottle, and a minimum two years of aging for red wines, with at least one year in barrel and six months in bottle. Grande Réserve requires a minimum two-year aging period for white wines, including at least one year in barrel and six months in bottle, and a minimum four-year aging period for red wines, including at least 18 months in barrel and 18 months in bottle. Below the PDO category are PGI (Protected Geographical Indication) wines, Varietal wines, and Table wines. The Varietal category comprises table wines that carry a vintage and variety on the label, whereas ordinary Table wines cannot; neither Varietal nor Table wines may list a geographical indication. The PGI category includes the Traditional Appellations (Ονομασία κατά Παράδοση) of Retsina and Verdea (an oxidative white wine produced on the island of Zakynthos, in the Ionian Sea), and integrates the wines of Greece’s former vin de pays category, Topikos Inos (Τοπικοί Οίνοι). The PGI zones are divided into regional, district, and area levels: PGI regions are equivalent to the major regions of Greece, such as Peloponnese and Crete, whereas PGI areas are so small they may only include a single estate. PGI districts correspond to the peripheral units of Greece, a form of political state that replaced prefectures during administrative reform in 2010. Cava indicates at least one year of aging for white and rosé PGI wines, and a minimum three years of aging for reds. White and rosé Cava wines spend at least six months in oak prior to bottling, and reds rest in barrel for at least one year. Palaiomenos se vareli may be added to the label of Cava, Réserve, or Grande Réserve wines to indicate oak aging beyond the required minimums. The Greek mainland includes the regions of Macedonia, Epirus, Peloponnese, Thessalia, Thrace, and Central Greece (Sterea Ellada). The Greek islands are broadly categorized into the Aegean and Ionian Islands. Although Thrace , in northeastern Greece, cannot claim any PDO appellations, neighboring Macedonia is home to some of Greece’s best dry red wines. In Macedonia’s PDO regions of Naoussa and Amynteo, red wines are produced solely from the firmly tannic red grape Xinomavro (“acid black”). In Goumenissa PDO, lighter Xinomavro wines are produced, requiring the addition of at least 20% Negoska. Naoussa PDO, established in 1971, is one of Greece’s most successful appellations and is the home of Boutari, one of Greece’s two largest producers and a major force in the modern rejuvenation of Greek winemaking. Amynteo is Greece’s coolest region and one of the few PDOs allowing the production of rosé wines; these may range from dry to semisweet, and be still or sparkling. A fourth PDO, Slopes of Meliton (Plagies Melitona), is a single appellation for Domaine Porto Carras, a trailblazing, ambitious Greek estate. Red PDO wines from the estate are blends of Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, and the native Limnio; white PDO wines are blends of the Greek varieties Assyrtiko, Athiri, and Roditis. Evangelos Gerovassiliou, the winemaker who launched Domaine Carras to international acclaim under the guidance of Émile Peynaud, nurtured the native white Malagousia grape from the brink of extinction and now produces varietal wines of high aromatic intensity from the grape at his own domaine in the PGI district of Thessaloniki, in central Macedonia. Moschofilero in Mantinia In Thessalia , south of Macedonia, Rapsani PDO includes four villages on the lower slopes of Mount Olympus. The appellation is the southernmost outpost of the Xinomavro grape, whose tannins and acid structure are softened by the warmer climate and blending with the Krassato and Stavroto varieties. Red wines from Mavro Messenikola are produced in Messenikola PDO , whereas only white wines, blended from Roditis and Savvatiano grapes from higher-altitude vineyards, are allowed in Anchialos PDO . These wines may be dry, off-dry, or semisweet. On the Ionian coast to the west of Thessalia, the region of Epirus contains only one PDO: Zitsa . Dry, semisweet, and sparkling wines are produced from the Debina grape. Central Greece , or Sterea Ellada, is a bastion of retsina; Attiki, the region surrounding Athens, is the center of production. The low-acid Savvatiano, preferred for retsina because it retains some varietal character when resinated, is the chief grape in the region, and the second most planted variety is Roditis, the common name for a closely linked family of pink-skinned grapes. There are no PDO zones. Peloponnese , a peninsula only by virtue of the narrow Isthmus of Corinth, is directly south of Sterea Ellada. Vine cultivation is concentrated in the north, around the three PDO zones of Nemea , Mantinia , and Patras . Both dry and sweet Nemean wines are produced exclusively from Agiorgitiko (Saint George), a softly tannic, intensely fruity black grape and one of Greece’s most noble native varieties. Agiorgitiko performs differently throughout the wide range of elevations and terrains in Nemea, reflected in the appellation’s division into several recognizable subzones; the commune of Koutsi is one of the most famous. The wines of Nemea are sometimes called the blood of Hercules (or blood of the lion), a reference to the first of Hercules’s 12 legendary labors. In the other PDO zones of the Peloponnese, only white wines are allowed. Moschofilero, a red-skinned grape that is aromatically similar to Muscat, is the principal component of Mantinia PDO wines, one of Greece’s most exciting white wines. Patras is an appellation for dry to semisweet white wines produced from 100% Roditis, but there are also three dessert wine PDO zones connected to the region: Muscat of Patras , Muscat of Rio Patras , and Mavrodaphne of Patras . Muscat of Patras and Muscat of Rio Patras may be either vin doux naturel or naturally sweet in style, and are produced from Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains. Mavrodaphne (“black laurel”) of Patras is a sweet, fortified red wine produced from Mavrodaphne and Mavri Korinthiaki, a currant grape useful for enriching the sugar content of the wine. Mavrodaphne of Patras is aged for at least one year in wood prior to release, but the wine may sometimes rest in cask for a decade or more prior to bottling. Both vintage and nonvintage versions are produced. The estate of Achaia Clauss, progenitor of the style, has a Mavrodaphne solera dating to 1882. The Greeks often drink Mavrodaphne of Patras as an aperitif—a tradition developed to temper the briny, salty character of Greek first courses—and the wine is used for the communion sacrament in Greek Orthodox services. In 2010, the Greeks awarded PDO status to the wines of Monemvassia-Malvasia, a small zone on the southeastern coast of the Peloponnese. Although Monemvassia is the name of the grape used here and elsewhere in Greece, it is also the name of an old port town governed variously by the Greeks, Byzantines, Venetians, and Turks. Evidence of the brisk trade of Monemvassia’s sweet wines dates back to the 13th century. During their rule, Venetians rechristened the port and its wines Malvasia. In deference to the historic importance of the area’s malvasios oenos , the new appellation’s wines must be sweet in style. As the wines must be aged in an oxidative environment for at least two years, the first releases, produced from a minimum 51% Monemvassia, went on the market in 2012. Agiorgitiko growing in the hills of Nemea There are four wine-producing Ionian Islands off the west coast of Greece: Cephalonia, Kerkyra (Corfu), Lefkada, and Zakynthos. Cephalonia is the only Ionian island that has any PDOs. Robola of Cephalonia PDO is for dry white wines produced from Robola, a variety unrelated to the Ribolla or Rebula found in Friuli or Slovenia. PDO sweet wines are also produced on the island, from Mavrodaphne and Muscat . Zakynthos, an island of breathtaking beauty, visible from the Peloponnesian coast, is the home of Verdea traditional appellation wines. Verdea, produced from obscure and autochthonous grapes such as Skiadopoulo, Pavlos, and Avgoustiatis, may share similarities with Jura's vin jaune and sherry, but even to Greeks it is often unknown. A greater number of PDO appellations exist for the Aegean Islands , to the south and east of the mainland. Crete , the largest and southernmost Greek isle, accounts for approximately 10% of Greek wine production. Crete is home to the red wine PDO zones Archanes and Daphnes , and the PDO zones Sitia and Peza , which permit both red and white wines. In 2012, three new PDO zones debuted on the island: Candia , Malvasia Candia , and Malvasia Sitia . The Vilana grape, used for the majority of dry white Sitia wines and the entirety of Peza whites, is Crete’s most cultivated white grape. Despite Vilana's status in the PDO wines of the island, many of Crete's most talented winemakers prefer to showcase Vidiano, a white grape that retains more acidity. Liatiko, the dominant grape in the red Sitia and Daphnes PDO wines, is found only on Crete and a handful of neighboring islands. It is one of the most ancient varieties under cultivation, it ripens in mid-July, and it delivers a distinctively orange-hued wine. Mandilaria, the most common red variety throughout the Aegean, is blended with Kotsifali to produce the Archanes and red Peza wines. On Crete, however, many winemakers are more excited to blend Kotsifali with Syrah—a recipe that may successfully mirror international tastes yet sacrifices some of the character of Crete in the process. North of Crete are the Cycladic islands of Santorini and Paros. Santorini PDO is an appellation producing white wines from the Assyrtiko grape, sometimes blended with Athiri and Aidani. The vines must be trained close to the ground, in the stefani shape of baskets or wreaths, in order to protect them from the fierce Aegean winds and to collect the little moisture that becomes available as morning dew. Assyrtiko, grown in the island’s poor, volcanic soils, is one of Greece’s most compelling white grapes: the wines are distinctively mineral, powerful, and high in acidity. Paris Sigalas is a master of the variety, producing Assyrtiko in both barrel-aged and fresher versions. Also produced on the island is a sweet, dried grape wine, Vinsanto—a name likely appropriated by the Italians when Venetians ruled the island in the Middle Ages. In Paros PDO , red and white wines are produced from the Mandilaria and white Monemvassia varieties. Paros is the only Greek appellation that mandates use of a white grape (Monemvassia) in red blends. The isle of Samos, to the northeast of Paros, is home to one of the nation’s most famous wines: the famed Muscat of Samos, now a PDO, received a form of appellation protection as early as 1934, when the island’s growers were united under the Union of Vinicultural Cooperatives of Samos (EOSS). Unlike many Greek wine regions, Samos was not considered a propitious place for viticulture in the ancient world; only after constant harassment from pirates led to a near-total depopulation of the island (around 1475) did newcomers to the island begin to plant Muscat. The island rises sharply from the sea, and vineyards are planted on high altitude, terraced slopes. On Samos, Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains is known as Moscato Aspro, and is produced in vin de liqueur , vin doux naturel and naturally sweet versions. The naturally sweet version is called Samos Nectar, and is similar to vin de paille —the wine is produced from dried grapes and aged for a minimum of three years prior to release. The islands of Lemnos and Rhodes, to the north and east of the Cyclades respectively, each have two PDO appellations. Lemnos wines are white, dominated by Muscat, and may be dry or sweet. The ancient red Lemnio grape utilized in the wines of Domaine Carras originated on Lemnos, but its importance on the island has greatly diminished. Rhodes, an island much closer to southern Asia Minor than Greece itself, produces PDO red, white, and rosé varietal wines from Mandilaria and Athiri. Muscat of Rhodes PDO wines are rarely encountered. Greece today is focused on building a reputation with indigenous grapes as well as international varieties. Winemaker education is vastly improving, and phylloxera, which did not strike the Peloponnese until the 1960s and Crete until the 1970s, has enabled producers to rethink and reshape their vineyards. As the Greeks experiment and become more confident with the inherent strengths of native grapes, the quality and uniqueness of Greek wines continues to expand. (Various spellings of the regions and grapes are often encountered because of the inexact nature of translating from the Greek alphabet; there are no definitive translations.) BACK TO TOP Hungary In the northeastern corner of Hungary, at the confluence of the Tisza and Bodrog Rivers, producers in the Tokaj region (formerly Tokaj-Hegyalja, or the Tokaj “foothills”) have long been crafting some of Europe’s most exemplary and longest-lived dessert wines. Vineyards in Tokaj The region was one of the first in modern Europe to undergo a vineyard classification; in 1700, the Transylvanian Prince Rákóczy delimited 28 villages in the region, inaugurating a golden age for the wine that would last through the next two centuries. Some sources alternatively date Tokaj’s classification to 1730, with a final legal recognition in 1772—definitive evidence of the 1700 classification remains elusive. Aszú grapes are a fundamental component of the best Tokaji wines; although the term originally signified desiccated grapes, it has evolved to indicate grapes of high sugar levels afflicted with botrytis cinerea —the noble rot. Aszú appears in works published as early as 1571, and Szepsi Laczkó Máté definitively produced botrytis-affected aszú wine by the mid-17th century. Thus, the aszú wines of Tokaj predated the botrytised wines of Germany, and probably Sauternes as well. Legend attributes the mid-16th century declaration—“These wines are fit for a pope”—to either Pope Julius III or Pope Pius IV, and King Louis XIV of France praised Tokaji as (another) “wine of kings and king of wines” during his 17th century reign. Catherine the Great of Russia enjoyed Tokaji so emphatically that she left a permanent detachment of her Cossack guard in Tokaj to guard royal shipments, whereas the 19th century Queen Victoria of England received an annual birthday gift of a dozen bottles, courtesy of the Austro-Hungarian Emperor. Unfortunately, the Iron Curtain closed the door on quality for Tokaji in the 20th century, but the region rebounded quickly after the fall of communism with an immense amount of foreign interest and investors eager to see their beloved Tokaji restored to its former glory. Estates such as the Royal Tokaji Company, Vega Sicilia’s Tokaj Oremus, Disznókõ, and Királyudvar are leading the way. Tokaj is both the name of the overall region and the commune at the convergence of the two rivers; Tokaji is an adjectival form used to indicate the wine. The Tokaj region, sheltered by the Carpathian Mountains, enjoys a warm continental climate with long, humid autumns: perfect encouragement for botrytis. Soils are predominantly volcanic loess and clay, and many of the better vineyards occupy south-facing slopes. Rákóczy’s original classification, which divided the vineyards of Tokaj and its neighboring villages into 1st, 2nd, and 3rd growths, remains relevant today through the efforts of the Tokaj Renaissance, a producers’ association devoted to the protection of the concept. 74 vineyards are recognized as first growths; Szarvas and Mézes Mály, near the communes of Tokaj and Tarcal, respectively, share the superlative designation of Great First Growths. The two principal grapes of the region are Furmint and Hárslevelű; Sárgamuskotály (Muscat Blanc à Petite Grains), Zéta (Oremus), Kabar and Kövérszőlő are authorized but generally used in small quantities. Furmint is key to the production of Tokaji Aszú, as it is particularly susceptible to botrytis and high in acidity. Traditionally, the aszú grapes are handpicked individually and gathered in containers called puttony — puttonyos is an adjective rather than the plural form—which hold roughly 25 kg. As in Sauternes, yields are miniscule. A tiny fraction of syrupy, free-run juice is allowed to settle out of the aszú must—this will be vinified separately as Esszencia . The aszú is then trampled into a paste, or dough, and a number of puttony containing aszú paste is mixed with gönci barrels of must or base wine from non- aszú grapes. The number of puttony added to a gönc (a Hungarian oak cask of approximately 136 L) determines the final sweetness of the Tokaji Aszú wine, and Tokaj Aszú was labeled with 3-6 puttonyos to indicate sweetness—until major revisions eliminated these categories in time for the 2013 harvest. Modern Tokaj Aszú is simply labeled "Aszú"; it ages for just over two years prior to release (with a minimum 18 months in barrel) and must contain at least 120 g/l of residual sugar and achieve an actual alcohol content of at least 9%. Meanwhile, the sugar-rich Esszencia—the preferred Tokaji of the czars—ferments at a glacial pace, sometimes taking decades to reach 4-6% alcohol. Richer than honey, the wine retains at least 450 grams per liter of residual sugar. Esszencia, or Natúresszencia, is rarely available commercially, and it is everlasting nectar, unique in the entire world of wine. Several styles of Tokaji beyond Tokaji Aszú exist. Tokaji Szamorodni (“as it comes”) is produced from a mixture of aszú and non- aszú grapes and is often oxidative in style as it is matured in cask for a minimum of six months, sometimes under a film-forming yeast similar to flor . Szamorodni wines may be édes (sweet) or száraz (dry). Fordítás and Máslás wines are the product of refermenting wine with the pressed paste or spent lees, respectively, of Tokaji Aszú. Tokaji wines may also be produced as late harvest wines (in a wide range of styles) without the extended aging of Tokaji Aszú, or as dry varietal wines, made from non- aszú grapes. The talented Hungarian winemaker István Szepsy, a key figure in the establishment of Hugh Johnson’s Royal Tokaji Company and Királyudvar, is a founding member of the Circle of Mád, a small contingent of producers committed to elevating the stature of dry wines in the region. Tokaj, like Jerez and Champagne, has successfully faced a challenge over the provenance of its name and as of 2007 all other countries in the European Union are prohibited from using the term “Tokaj” or its derivatives (Tokay, Tocai) on labels, regardless of any actual similarity to the wine. Alsatian producers lost the right to produce Pinot Gris as Tokay d’Alsace and Italian producers rechristened Tocai Friulano as simply Friulano. While Tokaj is certainly Hungary’s most famous product of the vine, wine is produced throughout the country. In 2000, two decades after the fall of Communism, 22 total wine appellations were identified in Hungary. With the EU's recent reforms, this number of regions qualifying for PDO status has increased to 31, with 6 additional PGI areas. These are divided among three major geographical zones of production: the Northern Massif, the western region of Transdanubia, and the southern Great Plain. The Northern Massif includes Tokaj and Eger , a region famous for Egri Bikavér—the “Bull’s Blood of Eger.” Historically dominated by Kadarka—an indigenous, low-tannin, light-bodied and not particularly sanguine grape—modern Egri Bikavér is a blend of at least four varieties, incorporating Kékfrankos (Blaufränkisch), and other Hungarian and international grapes. Only Eger and Szekszárd in Transdanubia are permitted to use the term “Bikavér” on labels. (In Szekszárd, Bikavér also requires four varieties.) To the west of Eger is Mátra, Hungary’s second largest winegrowing region. Though the area is most known for white wines, red grapes like Kékfrankos and Kadarka are gaining in reputation. Further west, in Transdanubia, other regions beyond Szekszárd include Badacsony and Balatonfüred-Csopak on the shores of Lake Balaton, one of Europe’s largest lakes. Somló lies to the northwest, on the slopes of the extinct volcano. White wines dominate production in these three areas; grapes include Furmint, Juhfark, Olaszrizling (Welschriesling), and a number of international varieties. Red wines are more common in both the extreme south and north of Transdanubia. On the northern border, Sopron is contiguous with Austria’s Burgenland, and Kékfrankos is cultivated in both regions. To the east of Transdanubia, the Great Plain contains nearly half of Hungary’s acreage under vine. The region’s sandy soils provided a welcome habitat after phylloxera struck in the 19th century. Most of the wines of this region are of everyday quality and consumed locally. Kunság, Hungary’s largest region, is located in the Great Plain and produces a sizable amount of mass production white wine (and some reds) from indigenous grapes. Finally, just south along the Croatian border is Villány, Hungary’s hottest region, which produces good-quality wines from Bordeaux varieties, Kékfrankos, and Kékoportó (Blauer Portugieser). BACK TO TOP Bulgaria Bulgaria’s wine history dates back about 3,000 years. Although the Ottoman Empire impeded the industry’s growth, existing vineyards continued to be maintained from the 15 th to 19 th centuries. Wine culture resumed upon the fall of the Ottomans, and cooperatives were swiftly established. After World War II, the Soviets saw the economic potential in wine, and they took to developing land for grape production on collective, state-run farms. They formed Vinprom in 1948 to manage vineyard expansion and promotion. Vineyards were established on flatter, more fertile grounds in an effort to produce higher yields and allow for mechanized farming. By the late 1950s, Russia was importing much of Bulgaria’s wine production, and Bulgaria grew to become the fourth largest global wine exporter shortly thereafter. The 1970s ushered in more investment and outside consultation. PepsiCo, for example, was eager to reach Communist countries with its product. In Bulgaria, because of the low value of the local currency, the company was paid for its cola concentrate with Bulgarian wine. However, finding quality lacking, PepsiCo hired consultants, including Professor Maynard Amerine of UC Davis, to help improve the product. This influenced Bulgaria's growing industry and encouraged the planting of grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay. However, Gorbachev’s anti-alcohol reforms, launched in 1985, stymied the huge industry, raising and fixing grape prices so cooperatives had little choice but to turn to more profitable crops. Privatization following the collapse of the Communist regime in 1990 moved at a slow pace. Foreign investment from quality-minded wine and spirits companies was more difficult to achieve than in neighboring Hungary. France’s Belvedere Group lent the country some prestige when it stepped into Bulgaria in 2002 but sold many of its Bulgarian assets in 2009 during the global economic crisis. The dawn of the 21 st century brought positive changes to the Bulgarian wine industry, leading up to its entry into the EU in 2007. Agricultural funding became available to small wineries to establish wineries as well as improve existing vineyard and winery operations; subsidies attracted foreign interest and investment in the wine industry as well. By 2018, there were over 250 producers. Bulgarian wine law dates back to the Wine Act of 1978, with the establishment of a Controliran system outlining the best regions and styles. Rules were developed to dictate particular grapes, vineyard techniques, winemaking practices, and tastings to verify typicity and overall quality. By 2000, however, quality categories tended toward the French model and EU regulations. Finally, by 2007, Bulgaria fully adopted EU law, and the Controliran system has since become obsolete. There are two defined levels of quality for Bulgarian wine: table wine and quality wine. Within the quality category, Bulgaria has only two PGIs, the Danubian Plain and the Thracian Lowlands. Bulgaria has 52 PDOs, but as few as 5 or 6 are in use. In Bulgaria, a winery’s reputation carries more value than a PDO on the label, and thus PDOs are rarely listed. Less than 1% of the 2016 harvest was declared PDO wine, with 70% considered table wine. As a whole, Bulgaria contains five large regions of wine production: the northern Danubian Plain, the eastern Black Sea coast, the southern Thracian Plain and Sub-Balkan zone referred to as the Valley of the Roses, and the southwestern Struma River Valley. The last of these enjoys a Mediterranean climate, whereas most of Bulgaria is continental. All quality wines may be labeled “barik” if the fermentation occurred in oak casks of 500L or less in volume. The terms “Reserve” and “Special Selection” indicate that a single variety has seen one or two years, respectively, of aging before release. Red grapes account for about 60% of Bulgaria’s area under vine; Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot are responsible for over half of all reds planted. The thin-skinned Pamid, a very historic grape, accounts for 10% of all plantings and is one of the first red varieties to be harvested. It produces a fresh style suitable for youthful consumption. The native Gamza (Kadarka) and deep-colored Mavrud compose about 3% of plantings. Rubin, a crossing of Nebbiolo and Syrah, shows great potential. Native white grapes include Red Misket (Misket Cherven), an aromatic specialty of Sungurlare—and of no relation to Muscat. Red Misket, Rkatsiteli, and Dimiat are the most planted white varieties in Bulgaria. BACK TO TOP Romania Like its neighbors in Eastern Europe, Romania fell behind the Iron Curtain after World War II, and viticulture—an ancient tradition in this part of the world—changed abruptly under the Communists. The new government emphasized quantity and equality, which in winemaking terms translated to poorer quality. Vineyard acreage greatly expanded with substandard grapes and frost- and disease-resistant hybrids. Winemaking was in the hands of huge cooperatives, which by the end of the 1980s constituted over 60% of production. Since the fall of Communism in 1989, Romania has shifted to privatize its industry and refocus on quality. The lead-up to EU accession in 2007 marked a significant transition. Better plant material, optimal clones, VSP training, closer spacing, and better overall hygiene awareness in the winery vastly improved wine quality. Though quantity was prioritized under Soviet control and plantings greatly expanded during this time, vineyard area has decreased in recent years, stabilizing around 180,000 hectares in 2017. In part, this was a response to Gorbachev’s reforms, but the shift toward quality contributed as well. Five wineries are responsible for nearly 70% of production, with about 97% of growers owning less than a half hectare of land. Despite a domestic preference for white wines (about 60% of its production), Romania is increasing plantings of red grapes and turning toward more international varieties like Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Pinot Noir to satisfy export markets. As of 2017, Merlot leads red grapes in overall plantings. However, Romania still harnesses an incredible number of indigenous grapes, which can be an advantage in mature niche markets that have taken an increasing interest in experiencing native grapes throughout the world. The most cultivated grapes in the country are the indigenous white grapes Fetească Albă and Fetească Regală. Riesling Italico (Welschriesling), Chardonnay, Sauvignon, Muscat Ottonel, and Pinot Gris also enjoy significant acreage. The indigenous red grapes Fetească Neagră, Burgund Mare, and Băbească Neagră can achieve higher quality, while Rosioara (Bulgaria’s Pamid) is generally reserved for table wine production. Romanian wine law follows EU legislation and has two broad categories: Wines for Current Consumption (table wines) and Quality Wines. Table wines are subdivided into VM (table wine/Vin de Masa) and VMS (superior table wine/Vin de Masa Superior). Quality Wines are classified as either Vin cu Indicaţie Geografică (a PGI designation) or Denumire de Origine Controlată (or DOC, a PDO designation). For Vin cu Indicaţie wines, a minimum of 85% of the grapes must be produced and vinified in the area specified on the label. Romania’s 12 PGIs are responsible for about 9% of production. There are 35 DOC wines, and they may be produced from recommended and authorized Vitis vinifera varieties (excluding hybrids). DOC wines have been growing in recent years, comprising nearly 30% of overall production in 2017, and seven of the eight major wine zones contain DOCs. These wines may be further subcategorized as follows: DOC-CMD: grapes harvested at full maturity DOC-CT: late-harvested grapes DOC-CIB: botrytis-affected grapes Additional regulated quality aging terms include: Rezervă and Vin de Vinotecă. Rezervă indicates a minimum of six months in oak and six months in bottle. Vin de Vinotecă ensures a wine has been matured for at least one year in oak and four years in the bottle before release. Although Romania lies on the same latitude as France, its climate is continental and moderated by the Black Sea. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of the country, and the Danube River marks the southern border with Serbia, flowing eastward into the Black Sea. Many of Romania’s wine regions form a ring along the outer slopes of the Carpathians, including the Moldavan Hills in the east, Muntenia-Oltenia toward the south, and Banat and Crişana-Maramureş in the northwest. Dobrogea and the Danube Terraces are on the eastern Black Sea Coast; the Transylvanian Plateau, in the center of the country, contains Romania’s highest vineyards, buffered by the Carpathian peaks. A final region, Sands, is a minor area for quality wine production. In Transylvania, the Jidvei DOC nested in Târnave DOC is one of Romania’s coolest and most important wine regions, producing white wines of high acidity from several varieties, including the Fetească grapes and Traminer Rosé. The sweet white wines of Cotnari DOC in Moldavia are the country’s most famous vinous product, having once enjoyed a reputation on par with Tokaji and Constantia. Grasă de Cotnari—which possibly shares a common lineage with Furmint—is capable of reaching extreme ripeness levels and is the region’s most prominent grape. Frâncusa, Tămâioasă Românească—a grape with a unique, resiny aroma comparable to frankincense—and Fetească Albă may be blended with Grasă or vinified and bottled separately as varietal wines. Cotnari may be dry, but the sweet Grasă-based interpretations are the most complex and long-lived. The elevated (200–350 meters) south-facing slopes of the Dealu Mare DOC (meaning “big hill”) within Muntenia-Oltenia are gaining a reputation for red wines, particularly from Cabernet Sauvignon and Pinot Noir. Once known for its late-harvest Chardonnay, Murfatlar DOC in Dobrogea is developing a reputation for its soft styles of Cabernet Sauvignon and Pinot Noir. Its dry climate has also encouraged more organic farming in recent years. BACK TO TOP Slovenia and Croatia From Austro-Hungarian rule to Yugoslavian control that lasted for much of the 20 th century, Slovenia finally became independent in 1991. It was the first nation to emerge from the wreckage of Tito’s Yugoslavia and establish a successful wine industry built on well-defined and enforced quality laws. Slovenia joined the EU in 2004 and is a rapidly improving producer of wine. With nearly 30,000 registered growers and just over 21,000 hectares of vines, grapegrowing is very fragmented, though this is beginning to shift. Cooperatives are still responsible for the majority of production. Grapes are known by their Slovenian names: Refosk (Refosco), Rebula (Ribolla), Sivi Pinot (Pinot Grigio). International varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot are also common, and some indigenous varieties such as the white Pinela and Zelen (a relative of Verduzzo Gialla) persist. Overall, the focus is on white wine, at over 70% of production. In line with EU wine law, wines of quality include PDO and PGI wines. PDO wines are referred to as Zaščitena Označa Porekla (ZOP) and constitute much of Slovenia’s production. PGIs, which are not as common, are labeled here as Zaščitena Geografska Označba (ZGO). Table wine is simply namizmo vino . There are three regions in the country: Primorska (Primorje) in the west bordering Friuli in Italy, Podravje in the extreme northeast, and Posavje, at Slovenia’s southeastern border with Croatia. Primorska, the country’s best region for both red and white wine, is subdivided into four districts: Goriška Brda, Kras, Slovenska Istra, and the Vipava Valley. The proximity to Friuli is clear: Goriška Brda (Brda translates to “hills”) becomes Collio Goriziano across the Italian border, and Kras becomes Carso. Primorska (especially Slovenska Istra) has a more mild, Mediterranean-influenced climate that is similar to that of Friuli, as compared to the rest of Slovenia, which is generally continental. The vineyards and geography are blind to political division: Ales Kristancic of Movia, Slovenia’s star producer, has to cross the border to harvest nearly half of his vineyards. His contemporary and aesthetic kin, Josko Gravner, has to cross the Slovenian border to access some of his vineyards as well. Podravje is the country’s largest region, with nearly 9,000 hectares under vine. It contains two districts: Štajerska Slovenija (Styrian Slovenia) and Prekmurje, the latter comparatively much warmer and producing more generous, full-bodied styles. One of the oldest vines in the world exists in Maribor, the capital of Stajerska Slovenija, at over 400 years old. Nearly 95% of the wines here are white. Laski Rizling (Welschriesling) leads the plantings but is largely destined for bulk production. Higher-quality wine come from Diseci Traminer (Gewürztraminer), Renski Rizling (Riesling), Chardonnay, and Sauvignon Blanc. Posavje is third in production, with slightly more than half of Primorska’s total acreage under vine. Posavje borders the Croatian Inland region, which is characterized overwhelmingly by white wine production. There are three wine districts here: Bizeljsko Sremič (sought after for its sparkling wines), Bela Krajin (home to sweet Rumeni Muškat), and Doljenska (known for Cviček, a fashionable, tart blend of white and red grapes). The coast of Croatia stretches from the Italian border southward and includes four wine regions: Slavonia and the Danube, the Croatian Uplands, Istria and Kvarner, and Dalmatia. These are then subdivided further into 12 subregions. The coastal regions include Istria and Kvarner to the north, where mostly white production takes place. Here, a distinct Malvasia grape called Malvazija Istarska is grown. The southern coastal region of Dalmatia, on the other hand, is home to mostly reds. Inland, where Slavonia and the Danube are located, the climate is warmest. Graševina (Welschriesling), Croatia’s most planted grape, is widely grown here. The cool, mountainous Croatian Uplands account for a small percentage of production, with an established tradition of sweet wine production, though aromatic whites are gaining in reputation. Though white wine dominates overall, there is an increasing interest in red Bordeaux varieties and the native Crljenak Kastelanski (Zinfandel) and its offshoot Plavac Mali. Mike Grgich, legendary Napa Valley winemaker and a native Croatian, produces Plavac Mali wines at his Grgic Vina estate in the Dingac subzone of Dalmatia. His personal recollection of Croatia’s coastal vineyards was the impetus that led UC Davis’s Carole Meredith to establish the definitive correlation between Zinfandel and Crljenak. BACK TO TOP Czech Republic and Slovakia Slovakia and the Czech Republic , the two independent entities that once formed Czechoslovakia, are not major wine-producing countries, yet both are attempting to elevate quality and production. Slovakia’s wine industry has been slowly rebuilding since achieving independence from Czechoslovakia in 1993. Slovakia is divided into six main wine regions spanning its entire southern border: Malé Karpaty Hills (Small Carpathian), Južnoslovenská (Southern Slovakia), Nitrianska (Nitra wine region), Stredoslovenská (Central Slovakia), Východoslovenská (Eastern Slovakia), and Tokaj. Malé Karpaty Hills is among the most important. Toward the Czech border, more white wine production takes place with grapes like Silvaner, Veltliner, Welschriesling, and Riesling; toward Hungary, where it is warmer, red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon and Blaufränkish are successful. Tokaj is contiguous with Tokaj in Hungary, and the two regions share a common winemaking tradition. Slovak vintners may use Tokajský/-á/-é (“of Tokaj”) on the label if they abide by revised Hungarian production regulations. Slovakia’s wine law came into effect in 2009, influenced by both France and Germany. The Czech Republic has two principal regions: Moravia in the south and Bohemia in the north. Over 96% of the Republic’s land under vine is located in Moravia, where Welschriesling, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Gruner Veltliner, and Riesling shine. Moravia is just north of Austria’s Weinviertel, where Bohemia is located in the northwest, on the same latitude as the Rheingau in Germany. Geologically, the two are quite different, as granite, clay, and sand characterize much of Moravia, where limestone and basalt typify Bohemia. Many international and Germanic varieties are common in the Czech Republic, including Müller-Thurgau, Frankovka (Blaufränkisch), Svatovavnnecké (St. Laurent), Ryzlink Vlassky (Welschriesling), Chardonnay, and Cabernet Sauvignon. Quality Wines with Special Attributes (Akostné vino s Prívlastkom) resemble German Prädikatswein, with an accompanying scale of Kabinett through Trockenbeerenauslese and Eiswein. Instead of the Oechsle scale, both countries use the Czecho-Slovak Normalized Must Weight Scale (NM), which measures the natural sugar in 100 liters of grape juice, where 1 degree CNM is equivalent to 1 kilogram of sugar. After gaining its independence, and in preparation for EU accession, the Czech Republic fashioned its wine law after Germany’s, by ripeness level. In 2008, the new EU categories resulted in the terms CHZO for PGI wines and CHOP for PDO wines. As of 2018, 10 official geographical appellations (Vína Originální Certifikace, or VOC) were introduced: VOC Znojmo, VOC Mikulov, VOC Blue Mountains, VOC Blatnice, VOC Valtice, VOC Melnik, VOC Palava, VOC Slovácko, VOC Kraví Hora, and, most recently, VOC Bzenec. VOC Znojmo in Moravia was the first to receive this designation, in 2009. In order to display the VOC name on the neck of the bottle, a producer must abide by certain criteria, including hand-harvesting, minimum must weights, low maximum yields, and defined alcohol levels. As the new appellation concept evolves in the Czech Republic, it is intended to complement, rather than replace, the existing Germanic system. BACK TO TOP The Russian Federation Russian czars were famous for their conspicuous vinous consumption, with czars from Peter the Great forward sipping Tokaji Esszencia. Louis Roederer created its tête de cuvée Cristal for the exclusive enjoyment of Czar Alexander II—bottled in clear glass so as not to provoke the unpopular czar’s suspicion of foul play. The country eventually developed its own successful industry. In 1980, the former Soviet Union was the world’s fourth largest producer of wine, trailing only France, Italy, and Spain. The country’s viticulture was a model of commercial efficiency, but in the ensuing decade, production declined by over three billion liters annually, due to Gorbachev’s propagandistic anti-alcohol campaign. Today, little Russian wine is seen in the West, and the domestic market in Russia, awash in cheap imported juice, struggles to highlight quality. Only the southern portion of the country, particularly the region between the Black and Caspian Seas, is suitable for viticulture. Krasnodar, on the Black Sea Coast, is Russia’s most important region with over 50% of the federation’s vineyards. Krasnodar’s climate is one of Russia’s most moderate maritime-influenced climates, evidenced by the number of wealthy coastal resorts. Neighboring Dagestan and Stavropol, where many grapes are distilled into brandy, are notable regions, although each experiences extreme cold, requiring the vines to be buried in soil to survive the cold winter months. Rostov, Kabardino-Balkaria, and the war-torn Chechnya produce smaller amounts of wine. Over 70% of Russian grapes grown are dedicated to wine. While over 100 varieties are approved, nearly half of the plantings are Cabernet Sauvignon. Other grapes that enjoy higher percentages include those that are grown for the burgeoning sparkling wine industry, such as Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, and Riesling. The local grape Rkatsiteli enjoys some prominence as well. BACK TO TOP Ukraine and Georgia Ukraine is one of the most important wine-producing nations of the former Soviet Republic, although domestic consumption of wine pales in comparison to beer and vodka. If Crimea is considered part of Ukraine, a point disputed since its annexation by Russia in 2014, then there are four major regions of production: Crimea (Krim), Odessa, Nikolayev-Kherson, and the Transcarpathian region. Rkatsiteli continues to be a significant variety, and while Vitis vinifiera has always been preferred (with popular varieties including Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, Welschriesling, and Furmint), hybrids like Isabella are beginning to gain ground. Odessa and Crimea account for nearly 80% of the total annual wine production. Both regions produce a lot of sparkling wine—often made in the traditional method—in addition to red and white still wines. Fortified wines are produced in Crimea, and Massandra, near Yalta, is famous for its huge collection of Crimean wines produced in the style of Sherry and Madeira. The former Soviet republic of Georgia has one of the world’s oldest winemaking traditions, with archaeological evidence dating back to 6,000 BCE and wild vines ( Vitis vinifera silvestris ) common in the country. Over 500 indigenous grapes and clones exist here. There are 37 authorized varieties; of these, the indigenous red Saperavi and white Rkatsiteli are the most cultivated. Georgia is also known for its qvevri winemaking techniques, referring to the amphorae pots used for fermentation and aging wine beneath the ground. Traditionally, all components of the grape clusters (known as chacha ) go into the qvevri . The earth moderates the temperature, and the wines are left to settle and clarify naturally. Georgia has 18 recognized appellations and 10 wine regions: Kakheti, Kartli, Imereti, Racha, Lechkhumi, and Meskheti, and the Black Sea subregions of Adjara, Guria, Samegrelo, and Apkhazeti. The southeastern region of Kakheti is responsible for about 80% of Georgia’s production. South of Georgia, Armenia—where over 80% of grape production is distilled for local grape brandy—has experienced a recent revival in winemaking. Over half of its 50 wineries were registered in the past decade. Recent investment and modern winemaking technology have helped in this recovery. The climate is incredibly challenging. Nearly all vineyards require irrigation to combat the dry summers, and most have to bury vines for winter protection. There are five winegrowing regions in Armenia: Ararat Valley, Ararat Valley foothills, the Northeast zone, Vaiots Dzor, and Zangezur. Ararat Valley, including the foothills, is where nearly 80% of grapegrowing occurs. The local Areni Noir from the Vaiots Dzor region is showing great promise. To the west of Ukraine, Moldova shares a winemaking tradition with neighboring Moldavia in Romania. While Moldova is one of the smallest of the former Soviet republics, it has the greatest number of vines per capita in the world. Moldova has optimal conditions for grapegrowing. It is situated on the same latitude as Burgundy, with an overall temperate climate and rolling hills. The Black Sea offers a moderating cooling influence. There are four wine regions, three of which are PGIs: Codru (central), Ștefan Vodă (southeast), and Valul lui Trajan (southwest). Codru has a more continental climate, producing fragrant, fresh whites and restrained reds. Valul lui Trajan enjoys a Mediterranean climate and is valued for its full-bodied reds. Purcari in Ștefan Vodă is known for its ageworthy reds. Bălti, the fourth region, located in the north, produces a small percentage of grapes that are primarily meant for distillation. A wide array of varieties are planted, but only about 10% are considered local, including Fetească Albă, Fetească Regală, and Fetească Neagră. French varieties represent the most vineyard land; Aligoté, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Pinot Noir are among those found in the region. The Western Balkans are a patchwork of potential. Bosnia and Herzegovina, situated in the mountains, deliver sweet whites and table reds made from Blatina. While two businesses dominate Serbia’s wine industry, a handful of small family estates continue respected artisan production. There is a vibrant, youthful scene in Vojvodin, in northern Serbia, where producers are experimenting with aging vessels, biodynamic viticulture, and minimal intervention winemaking. The climate of the region is similar to that of Hungary. Albania holds promise for indigenous varieties in a Mediterranean climate. Structured Vranec and Kratosija (Zinfandel) can be found in Montenegro. Finally, North Macedonia is improving its winemaking and reputation throughout its three regions, of which the Vardar Valley is the most significant. Selected Resources Gilby, Caroline. Wines of Bulgaria, Romania, and Moldova . Oxford: Infinite Ideas, 2018. Johnson, Hugh, and Jancis Robinson, eds. The World Atlas of Wine. 8 th ed. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2019. Robinson, Jancis, ed. The Oxford Companion to Wine , 4 th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. BACK TO TOPPreview