Fortified wine is integral to the history of the world of beverages. Its legacy was established in the 1600s as the wine trade rounded the Cape of Good Hope and crossed the Atlantic Ocean. Fortification, popularized by the British, made it possible for wines to survive during these long trips.
Fortified wines have a huge diversity across the spectrum of their incarnations, and there are wide-ranging offerings within their respective categories. In terms of price, they vary as much as their unfortified counterparts. They are dry, sweet, and all points in between. They can be unaged or complexed by oxidative maturation, mass-produced or the preserve of savvy enthusiasts. Some are drunk very young, when vibrantly fruity. Others are consumed as 200-year-old vinous treasures. The variances of style are virtually limitless.
Today, fortified wines constitute 5% to 10% of global wine production, with a market value of around US$19 billion. This guide focuses on the world’s most important fortified wines, ranging from the Iberian classics to France’s vins doux naturels to Cape Port. These are the wines, appearing on restaurant lists and in retail settings in the major wine markets globally, that are important for expert-level professionals to understand.
Fortified wines are defined by the addition of distilled grape-based spirit before, during, or after alcoholic fermentation. All fortified wines have elevated alcohol, and each category is made using a distinct method of production that sets it apart from other categories. In this respect, these wines could be considered more “made,” or manipulated, than their unfortified or dry wine counterparts.
The timing of fortification is crucial in the manufacture of fortified wines as, depending on the addition of the spirit, it prevents or arrests fermentation, rendering a wine sweet because of the presence of unfermented grape sugars. Some wines are fortified after fermentation has been arrested, whether through osmotic pressure in very sweet wines or upon the completion to dryness of alcoholic fermentation. Fortification is an enabler in microbially aged wines and a stabilizer in wines destined for a long oxidative maturation.
Because of the difficulties inherent in accurately measuring the sugar in fermenting grape must, fortification is not a precise science. To fortify a wine to the desired level, the following variables must be considered:
When calculating how much alcohol to add, and when to add it, the winemaker must first know the alcohol in the fermenting (or fermented) must or wine and the degree of alcohol that the fortification should reach. The possibility of alcohol lost through evaporation during élevage must also be considered.
Although the precise origin of fortified wines is unknown, the widespread practice of adding brandy to a wine, and the popularity of the resulting styles, is attributed to the British. One of the earliest mentions of fortification references the abbot of Lamego adding spirit to the abbey’s wines to render them more stable. This technique was later exploited in 1678 by a Liverpool wine merchant who visited the abbey, in the Douro region, and shipped its fortified wines back to England, finding that they survived the trip well. Soon after, when England and France were once again at war and it was difficult for the British to purchase French wine, Douro became a reliable source of wines. Certainly, by the second decade of the 18th century, Port wine was sometimes fortified. Merchants found that these wines were more resilient to the effects of heat and oxygen during long and turbulent sea voyages, and none more so than the wines of Madeira, whose style was heavily influenced by these vinhos da roda—literally, “rolled wines,” or “wines of the round voyage.”
Both the Dutch and British navies, as well as their respective merchant fleets, were instrumental in spreading the popularity of these new wines, steadily increasing demand throughout their respective colonies and beyond. Admiral Lord Nelson was a very good customer of the Marsala-producing houses of Sicily during the struggles with France. These wines were robust and resilient during voyages at sea that frequently spanned two or more years.
While it wasn’t exclusively the British who spread the popularity of fortified wines, they certainly drove the category more than any other group, heavily influencing Australian and South African fortified wines, Port, Madeira, Marsala, and the once-prevalent fortified variants of Commandaria.
The rugged landscape of Douro, in northeastern Portugal, is fabled for its fortified wines. The delimited area covers more than a quarter of a million hectares, with roughly 26,000 hectares (64,200 acres) assigned to the production of Porto DOC wine.
The Douro is a markedly warm region that follows a continental climatic pattern, with summer temperatures topping 40 degrees Celsius (105 degrees Fahrenheit) and almost all precipitation occurring between November and April. In this area, rainfall varies according to proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, with the coast at Porto and Vila Nova de Gaia receiving at least 1,200 millimeters (47 inches) annually. Just 70 kilometers (45 miles) away, at the western end of Porto DOC, in Baixo Corgo, rainfall is 900 millimeters (35 inches) annually. Further east, and into the warmer Cima Corgo, that figure falls to around 700 millimeters (28 inches). In the remote Alto Douro, the average temperatures are the highest, as this area is farthest from the coast, and rainfall is just 400 to 500 millimeters (16 to 20 inches) annually. Throughout these subregions, the altitudes, topography, and aspects change significantly, and various rivers feed the Douro, impacting microclimates and the subsequent terroirs.
The vineyards of Douro are often steeply raked and precipitous, and the soils are free draining and shallow. Apart from elements of largely impenetrable granite around the fringes of the region, the main rock stratum is metamorphic, comprised of schist. Douro schist is relatively pale and reflective. Because of ancient tectonic activity, this hard rock has been thrown up into vertical waves, forming splits in its otherwise impenetrable layers. This enables the vines to send their roots down deep into fissures in the substrate where they can find nutrition and moisture, despite a dry environment with minimal organic matter.
Because of the steep and rugged terrain of Douro, pruning and harvesting are still mostly conducted by hand, so mechanization, where it is possible, is used instead for working the soil, spraying, mowing, weeding, and hedging the vines. One of the startling features of the Port wine region is its precipitously steep vineyards. Gradients greater than 30% are common, severely limiting the amount of land that can be planted to vines.
In Douro, as in many older winegrowing regions, terracing was the traditional solution to providing a platform on which to plant vines on an otherwise challenging slope. Here, the narrow terraces that closely follow the contours of the land are called socalcos. These intricate dry stone walls support the narrow vineyard terraces behind them. Although sloping, socalcos are much less steep than the mountainsides they occupy, and, while they are not well suited to mechanization, small machines and tractors can sometimes be used. Recently, the Symingtons have been successfully experimenting with small mechanical harvesters designed for the terraces. These harvesters, though slower than the larger machines sometimes used on the flattest vineyards in Baixo Corgo, will provide a partial solution to the labor shortage in Douro. Ultimately, the size of the narrow socalcos dictates the number of vines that can be planted on them, and anything up to 6,500 vines per hectare can be found.
From around the mid-1960s, and especially in the 1980s, with improved access afforded by better roads, a new type of terrace called patamares was developed. Unlike socalcos, patamares do not have retaining stone walls, instead relying on taludes (steep earth ramps or banks) with two or three rows of vines above on the sloping terrace. Patamares are much cheaper to create than socalcos, and, though prone to collapse and soil erosion after heavy rain, they can be repaired with small, tracked tractors or bulldozers. The ramps, however, reduce the plantable vineyard area, which drops to 3,000 to 3,500 vines per hectare, approximately half the density possible with socalcos. This reduction in usable planting space is particularly significant with the narrow, single-row patamares estreitos.
A final vineyard system is vinha ao alto, which was developed in the late 1970s. In these vineyards, rows of planted vines run up and down the contours of the land, rather than across them. This system is unsuitable to steeper slopes, particularly those above a 30% incline. Planting densities for vinha ao alto range from roughly 4,500 to 5,000 vines per hectare.
Although there are still co-planted vineyards in Douro, most Port is no longer made as a field blend. This is particularly the case with the vines planted on the newer patamares and vinha ao alto; one goal in developing these systems was to provide control and predictability through establishing well-understood single grape blocks. In their own way, however, the co-planted vineyards on the terraces also provide insurance against the vagaries of different varieties across vintages.
Most vines planted for Port wine production are in the form of single or double Guyot, set low in vertical rows.
The Instituto dos Vinhos do Douro e do Porto (IVDP) represents the interests of wine producers in the region, regulating both Port and the unfortified wines of Douro. The IVDP determines the volume of Port that can be produced in any given year via the beneficio system and the volume that can be released onto the market, with producers obliged to release no more than one-third of their stocks annually. The IVDP is also responsible for the land registry of vineyards and companies making and shipping wine, and it upholds the standards of each Port style through tasting and analysis.
Under the beneficio system, each vineyard is given a letter, from A to I, denoting its quality. Grapes from vineyards rated below F cannot be used to produce Port wine; instead, they can be made into dry wine or distilled for spirits. Each year, the beneficio sets the volume of wine that can be made from each grade of vineyard and a corresponding grape price per kilo. Prices outside the beneficio are much lower.
Vineyard owners are given a certificate for each of their vineyards, and they may trade them. Many producers feel that the tradability of these certificates does not serve the interests of either the winemakers or the industry, as there is too much incentive to exchange lower-quality grapes during trading. This is particularly true for growers who do not make their own wine and rely purely on trading certificates to make money.
While sales of Port are gradually declining, the average price of Port is steadily rising, reflecting the general premiumization of the special categories (that is, those beyond basic Ruby, Tawny, white, and rosé). In 2023, global sales of Port surpassed 65,648,800 million liters. The entry-level categories accounted for more than 80% of sales by volume, leaving just 20% to the special categories. These, however, accounted for at least 45% of sales by value.
Touriga Nacional: The mid- to late-ripening Touriga Nacional is the basis of many top-quality Ports and is considered the finest Port variety for ageworthy styles. It is relatively disease resistant and not significantly affected by powdery or downy mildew, but it can be highly vigorous, directing a lot of its energy into its canopy, and it can also suffer from poor fruit set. The hallmarks of this grape are notable acidity, marked black fruit intensity, and thick skins that produce wines of a deep color and elevated tannic structure. Touriga Nacional is the fifth most planted red grape in Portugal.
Touriga Franca (Touriga Francesa): Touriga Franca is the most planted red grape in Douro and the second most planted in Portugal. It is a late-ripening variety that is suited to sites that remain warm until later in the growing season; as a result, it is often planted in the lowest-elevation and warmest south-facing sites. Touriga Franca is prolific, but, despite its thick skins, it grows in compact bunches that can harbor fungal diseases, though this is less common in hotter, drier sites. It is popular with producers because of its deep color, its relatively firm structure, and the fragrance it brings to a blend.
Tinta Cão: Tinta Cão is a late-ripening variety with notable vigor and a long vegetative cycle. Because of this, it rarely becomes overripe. Thanks to its small, open bunches of thick-skinned berries, it is not particularly susceptible to fungal diseases. Though it does not contribute a great deal of structure or color, Tinta Cão provides marked freshness, ensuring slow evolution and longevity in Port blends.
Tinta Roriz (Aragonez, Tempranillo): Tinta Roriz is the most planted grape in Portugal. It ripens relatively early in Douro and benefits from being cultivated on cooler sites where there is not significant stress on the grape close to harvest. Despite its thick skin, Tinta Roriz can suffer from powdery mildew, and fruit set can be erratic. While it is prolific and capable of producing high yields, for optimum maturation of the berries and to prevent stemminess, yields are typically controlled. Wines made from Tinta Roriz can age well in wood and bottle.
Tinta Barroca: Tinta Barroca is another early-ripening variety that benefits from the slightly cooler sites at higher elevations or on north-facing slopes, where it is less likely to dehydrate or lose acidity. The variety has long bunches with thin-skinned berries that are prone to sunburn, though not to fungal diseases. The wines demonstrate high fruit intensity and, though pale, have a fine tannic structure and do not oxidize rapidly.
Tinta Amarela (Trincadeira): A later-ripening variety, Tinta Amarela has small, tightly bunched clusters and thick-skinned grapes. It is prone to disease pressure and, because of this, is more successful on arid sites. Tinta Amarela yields wines that are not particularly concentrated or deep in color but have an attractive fragrance.
Sezão: Sezão is a mid- to late-ripening variety with a deep color intensity and elevated acidic freshness. Historically, it was used to intensify the color of Port wines; today, it is often relied on for wines intended to age.
The timing of harvest depends on the location of the vineyard and the weather. In the warm Douro Superior, harvest often begins in the middle of August. In the cooler Baixo Corgo, it can be as late as the end of September or even early October. Between the two, in Cima Corgo, harvest usually begins during the third week of September.
One of the most significant quality developments in the harvesting of Douro grapes has been the introduction of small, stackable plastic bins with slatted sides. These 25-kilogram (55-pound) baskets prevent the invariable squashing of grapes that occurred in the much larger hods, bins, bags, and baskets that were historically used, and ensure that whole clusters arrive to the winery intact.
In dry red wine production, the maceration of the grapes and juice before, during, and after fermentation can last for two weeks or significantly longer. Port wine producers, however, must arrest fermentation by mutage (the addition of grape spirit) early in the process of fermentation. Port production, then, is focused on rapid, vigorous extraction prior to fortification.
The traditional apparatus for making Port is the granite lagar. Although it is estimated that only about 2% of Port is made in these stone basins, as many of them were taken out of use in the 1960s and 1970s, they appear to be making a comeback. To make Port using the lagar, bunches are destemmed and the grapes are crushed before being poured into the lagar, which typically holds 8,000 to 14,000 liters (2,100 to 3,700 gallons), to a depth of around 45 to 60 centimeters (18 to 24 inches). Some stems are added back in with the grapes for flavor, tannin, and ease of pressing. Laborers then step in, and the rhythmic knee-lifting march begins to the sound of a rogador (a senior member of the team) ordering the corte (cut), backward and forward, left and right. This might continue for a couple of hours.
While very vigorous in its ability to extract color, tannin, sugars, and aroma and flavor precursors, foot treading is also gentle and prevents the release of bitter phenols from the pips. After a few hours, fermentation might begin spontaneously, or it might take a couple of days to begin. This depends on the temperature of the incoming grapes, the ambient conditions within the press room, and, of course, the effect of many warming feet. Today, most lagares are fitted with heat exchangers that can aid the onset of fermentation and prevent temperatures from running too high. Once the musts begin to ferment, workers known as macacos (monkeys) use mantas (monkey sticks) to prevent the cap from drying out and causing volatile off-flavors, and to encourage color extraction.
A modern variant on the lagar is the robotic lagar, a bank of polyurethane-clad robot feet that emulate the extraction afforded by foot treading. These can be operated above a traditional stone lagar or a steel lagar. The latter can be hydraulically tilted to enable rapid removal of the skins and stalks, and it can be easily cleaned. The skins and stalks left behind in these lagares are pressed and added back into the wines in small measure at a later stage. Qualitatively, the results are very similar to traditional foot treading.
Another modern system for fermentation is autovinification, which was first adopted in the 1970s, when electricity started to become commonplace throughout Douro. In autovinification, a sealed tank, usually made from concrete, houses a chamber above. CO2 produced from fermentation raises grape juice up through pipes and into the higher chamber. At a certain pressure, a valve is released, and the wine in the holding chamber is poured onto the cap—an ingenious solution for a region once beset by unreliable electrical supply. A drawback to the original autovinification system was that, before fermentation began, limited extraction was possible. Modern mechanical modifications and systems that draw the juice up and over the must have assisted in somewhat remedying this problem. Although foot treading and robotic lagares are considered the most appropriate methods for making top-quality Port, adapted autovinifiers can produce excellent wines, too.
This system has also been adapted through the addition of piston plungers, which, when fitted to temperature-controlled stainless steel vats, can achieve very high levels of extraction; and, when retrofitted to traditional concrete autovinifiers, can produce high-quality wines. Many producers operate their own proprietary variants based on these improved and adapted systems.
Pumping over alone can produce convincing Ports, though less adequately than foot treading, modern robotic lagares, or autovinifiers. Sometimes pumping over, in one form or another, is practiced jointly with piston plungers for optimal extraction.
The early-stage fermentation creates great complexity of flavors in the must and begins, in the presence of rising alcohol, to extract tannins. Once the natural alcohol reaches approximately 5% to 7% ABV, the fermenting wine is drawn off and aguardente (spirit) of 77% ABV is added. Aguardente imparts a sappy, herbal character to the wine. The spirit is now sourced by the individual shipper, pending approval by the IVDP. At this point, the wine is a fiery 19% to 22% ABV (usually around 20% ABV) and has 80 to 120 (most often 95 to 105) grams of residual sugar per liter. All microbial activity has been arrested, and the wine is ready for the appropriate maturation pathway.
Most Port is aged in oak, and the more recent wood supply is usually from France. In the past, vats were sometimes made from Brazilian mahogany (macacahuba wood). Casks were occasionally Italian chestnut, but historically oak was mostly sourced from an area that was formerly Russia (now Lithuania), as well as from northern Portugal and the southern US. Barrels vary from the small pipes, casks of around 600 liters (usually 550 to 640 liters) that are mostly used for the maturation of top Tawny and Vintage Ports, up to the balseiros, huge oak vats that can be greater than 100,000 liters and are used in the storage of earlier-drinking wines, such as Ruby Port. Because oak aromas and flavors are undesirable in Port, new vessels are seasoned in the maturation of unfortified wines. The timber of these many denominations of barrel is closely maintained and continually remade.
The cooler, more humid climate of Vila Nova de Gaia is ideal for the maturation of Port, and particularly Ruby-style wines. Until 1986, this town was the legally required location for aging because of both shipping logistics and the lack of electricity and refrigeration elsewhere in Douro. As the city of Porto grows, encroaching on the Port lodges of Vila Nova, producers are keeping more of their Tawny Ports up in Douro, where the aridity and heat have less of an effect on them than they would on their Ruby styles. Producers are also adapting their quintas in Douro to provide better temperature control and higher humidity for aging.
Ruby Port: Ruby Ports are nonvintage wines best suited to early drinking. They have spent a maximum of three years in large vats made of either wood, stainless steel, or concrete, and are approachable on release and typically fruity.
Reserve Ruby Port: Despite the name, Reserve Ruby Port is a quality designation, not an aging designation; there is no minimum age for Reserve Ruby Ports. Like Ruby Ports, these wines are made from more than one vintage, but Reserve Rubies are finer in quality and consequently more expensive.
Late Bottled Vintage (LBV) Port: LBV Ports are from a single vintage and have been matured in large-format barrels or stainless steel. They must be bottled between four and six years following the vintage. There are unfiltered variants, which have greater concentration, body, and complexity. If aged for at least three years in bottle, LBV Port can be labeled as “bottle matured.” These wines were formerly referred to as Vintage Character.
Crusted Port: These are nonvintage wines that must be aged in wood for no longer than two years. They are bottled without fining or filtration, leading to a crust forming in the bottle. They can be released immediately after bottling, though the best examples can include “bottle matured” on their labels if they have been aged for at least three years in bottle. Crusted Port is produced in very small quantities with the intention of providing an experience like that of Vintage Port but at a lower price.
Single Quinta Vintage Port: In vintages when a producer does not make a Vintage Port, a Single Quinta Vintage Port may be produced from just one of the estates, or quintas, that usually contribute to the vintage blend. Some Vintage Ports are made only from one estate, so they are always a Single Quinta (e.g., Quinta do Vesuvio).
Vintage Port: Vintage Port is the apogee of red Port production and is made from the best-quality grapes from superior sites. Producers must state their intention to release, or declare, a Vintage Port in the second year after the harvest. As the name suggests, these wines are from a single year and can age a maximum of three years. Usually, Vintage Ports are bottled in the second spring following the vintage, approximately 18 to 20 months after the harvest. Once bottled and released, Vintage Ports can be cellared for decades, improving as they mature.
Unaged Tawny Port: These basic Tawnies are nonvintage wines matured for no longer than Ruby Ports (three years) and designed for early drinking. The extraction process for unaged Tawnies is short, and they appear somewhat garnet rather than tawny (brown) in color. Inexpensive Tawnies are frequently color adjusted with the addition of caramelized grape must, or mosto torrado, to create the impression of age.
Reserve Tawny Port: Reserve Tawny Port has greater concentration and complexity than basic Tawny and must be matured in wood for at least six years. Through the aging process, these wines will eventually appear tawny.
Indication of Age Tawny Port: These are wines from a blend of many vintages that must follow an indicated time in pipe and/or toneis (large, horizontal wooden casks of 10,000–20,000 liters) and list an average age of 10, 20, 30, 40, or 50 years. Rather than strictly adhering to the average age designation, however, these wines must have a taste profile typical of the stated designation. They must be approved by an IVDP tasting panel. These wines develop in the presence of oxygen while in wood and become a tawny color, but they are topped up to avoid excessive oxidation. Their bouquet and palate are markedly tertiary and reflect dried-fruit characteristics as well as abundant nonfruit complexity. These are wines that are ready to be drunk on release. In 2022, a new category called Very, Very Old Tawnies was created for wines averaging over 80 years in cask. Older Tawnies often possess the so-called Douro bake flavor, redolent of singed fruit cake combined with a volatile quality—not an unpleasant characteristic if it doesn’t dominate.
Colheita Port: This is a Tawny Port from a single harvest that has spent at least seven years maturing in cask. Colheita Port has the singular character of a vintage wine but is oxidative, tertiary in character, and rich. These wines are also topped up to avoid uncontrolled oxidation.
Also called pink Port, rosé Port is usually made from grapes from the coolest sites in Baixo Corgo. These wines are intended to be sweet, fruity, and accessible. The must macerates for just a few hours before draining. A cooler fermentation ensues, and it is arrested with high-quality aguardente that is as neutral as possible. Rosé Port is then released onto the market as a nonvintage wine within 12 months. The first example of pink Port was from Croft in 2008.
Although Moscatel is found throughout the Douro, most of it is planted around the town of Favaios, where the local cooperative is the dominant producer. Made similarly to Port, Moscatel do Douro spends three years in larger wooden toneis and balseiros. These wines are oxidative, often intensely sweet, and reminiscent of muscovado sugar and molasses.
Once an afterthought of the Port world, often used as an adjustment to Tawny Ports, white Port wines have vastly improved over the past decade through more thoughtful grape selections, more protective handling, cooler fermentation temperatures, and a greater reliance on stainless steel maturation. Producers of white Port favor Malvasia Fina and Moscatel Galego Branco (Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains), though the usual Douro white grapes, including Arinto, Codega, Gouveio, Loureiro, Rabigato, and Viosinho are also used in these wines.
At the more modest end of the spectrum, the grapes, often led by Moscatel, are crushed and cold-macerated for a couple of hours before being pressed, and a cool fermentation of the juice alone begins. Fermentation is arrested with the highest-quality aguardente. These wines range in residual sugar from around 40 to over 100 grams per liter. They are reductively made, and wood is typically not used in their short maturation. Higher-end, invariably oxidative styles of white Port are usually based on Malvasia. They macerate on their skins slightly longer than the standard blends before being pressed and then fermented at a higher temperature to extract greater levels of phenols that assist their maturation. Once fortified, they are matured in small oak pipes. Thanks to notable evaporation and concentration during their cask maturation, aged white Ports are often amber and bordering on orange. They are luscious wines that typically have at least 100 grams of residual sugar per liter, and often much more.
White Port may be released as standard white Port or with the same designations as Tawny Ports, following the same requirements.
The history of wine on Madeira is an old and colorful one. The island was reached in 1419 by three explorers, João Gonçalves Zarco, Tristão Vaz Teixeira, and Bartolomeu Perestrelo, early in the period of Portuguese voyages of discovery. Prince Henry the Navigator immediately gave them license to begin cultivating the land.
The early colonists were Portuguese nobility. They started populating the island with agriculturalists and craftsmen from the north of the mainland. Merchants from Portugal and Italy soon joined them. During this time, the first system of levadas, water channels from the mountainous center of the island, were constructed; they are still used today. Agriculture was heavily focused on the cultivation of sugarcane, and vines were planted as well. Historical records from 1450 suggest that various varieties, including Malvasia Cândida (Malmsey), brought from Candia in Crete, had already been planted.
At the beginning of the 16th century, there was a decrease in sugarcane cultivation, with most of this land converted to vineyards. Voyages to the New World stopped at Madeira, and much of the island’s wine was sent onward to the Americas. Throughout the 17th century, British influence in North America contributed to an increase in Madeira wine exports, which tripled during these years. British merchants on the island benefited from significant concessions, and the island’s wines became part of the triangular commerce between Madeira, the New World, and Europe.
During the war between France and England, the signing of the Methuen Treaty between England and Portugal in 1703 reduced duties on Portuguese wines imported to England and its colonies by two-thirds. By the middle of this century, most of the island’s producers were fortifying their wines. To replicate the vinho da roda that had made the island’s wines so popular, the estufagem process, in which wines were heated, had been developed. This, in tandem with fortification, created a stable and robust style of wine particularly popular in England’s North American and Indian colonies.
The production and export of Madeira wine boomed in the early 19th century, mostly attributed to the Napoleonic Wars. But after the conflict ended, Madeira fell into a postwar depression, facing new competition from French and Spanish ports reopened to trade, then impacted by the insecurities surrounding the American Civil War. Perhaps the biggest single negative impact on the island’s trade, however, came from the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. Even as Russian demand for Madeira grew, far fewer ships were calling at the island. The joint horrors of oidium and phylloxera substantially reduced vineyard coverage and further compounded these problems.
Despite these many obstacles, Madeira wine had largely recovered by the start of the 20th century, with Germany becoming the foremost export market, followed by Sweden and Denmark. Many shippers joined forces in the middle of the century, and, at this time, regulation surrounding the production and sale of Madeira became enshrined. The modern Madeira market was established by the 1980s. Although the hectares under vine and the volume of Madeira produced have decreased since its peak, today, the absolute quality of Madeira has never been better.
In 2023, approximately 29,800 hectoliters of Madeira wine were sold, with EU countries purchasing 70.6% by volume and 59% by value. The top markets were France (27.9%), Portugal (20.6%), Germany (9.6%), and Belgium (4.5%). Other markets, including the UK, the US, Japan, and Switzerland, exert value far above their market share by volume.
Vineyards extend across Madeira and the nearby island of Porto Santo, with 403 hectares (996 acres) in the production of Madeira DOC fortified wines and Terras Madeirenses IGP light wines. The main communes are Câmara de Lobos, on the south coast of Madeira, with 149 hectares (368 acres); and, on the north coast, São Vicente, with 111 hectares (274 acres), and Santana, with 53 hectares (131 acres).
Madeira has acidic volcanic soils, predominantly basaltic, rich in organic matter, iron, and magnesium. This basalt resulted from a fracture or split in the Atlantic plate, forming a huge upwelling from the ocean floor. The island’s mountains, rising to over 1,800 meters (5,900 feet), are just the tip of this prominence. The basaltic soils, the proximity of the sea, and the climatic conditions on the island result in Madeira’s unique terroir.
Madeira has warm and humid summers and mild winters that have varied impacts on the island’s numerous microclimates. In the center of the island, annual rainfall is over 3,000 millimeters (118 inches); on the south coast, it is close to 500 millimeters (20 inches). Vineyards on the northern portion of the island receive more than double this. Average annual temperatures vary from about 15.5 degrees Celsius (60 degrees Fahrenheit) to 21 degrees Celsius (70 degrees Fahrenheit). Mean humidity is 69%, though 75% of the total annual rainfall occurs in autumn and winter.
Because of the island’s mountainous topography, most agriculture requires terraces, here called poios, held in place by walls of basalt blocks. In line with both the nature of the terrain and the fractured ownership of land, most vineyard plots are very small. The vineyards on Madeira and Porto Santo are cultivated by 1,775 growers, who are represented by the Instituto do Vinho, do Bordado e do Artesanato da Madeira (IVBAM). Most vineyard plots belong to multiple growers, and the average vineyard is just 0.3 hectares (0.7 acres). Mechanization is nearly impossible, except in larger vineyards that have shallower gradients.
The most common training system is the latada, a version of pergola. These are often only one to two meters (3.3 to 6.6 feet) off the ground, trained on wires or stakes, with roughly 2,500 to 4,000 vines per hectare. On flatter land, espalier, a form of easier-to-service vertical shoot positioning, with vine densities up to 5,000 vines per hectare, is used. With both methods, pruning occurs near the end of February and the beginning of March. Harvest is an arduous and completely manual process.
Madeira’s grape production has, in recent years, ranged from 3,500 to 4,000 metric tons annually. There are many accredited and recommended grape varieties for Madeira, but those that are the most used and have the longest tradition on the island are the red grape Tinta Negra and the white grapes Verdelho, Sercial, Boal, and Malvasia. In addition to these primary grapes, it is worth noting the white grape Terrantez, usually made in a medium-dry style, and occasionally a medium-sweet style, and the red Bastardo, a now-rare grape typically used for medium-sweet wines.
Tinta Negra: The versatile Tinta Negra grape is by far the most widely planted grape on Madeira. It constitutes at least 52% of plantings, even without including its many virtually unknown vineyard companions. Tinta Negra grows at all altitudes up to 600 meters (2,000 feet) and can yield a range of grape styles as a result of its many clones and the impacts of diverse growing conditions.
Verdelho: Distinct from Verdelho Branco and Gouveio on the mainland, and the same as its namesake in the Azores, Verdelho is Madeira’s second most widely planted variety and the most planted white grape, making up about 13% of the vineyard area. Interestingly, until phylloxera, Verdelho comprised two-thirds of the island’s vines. It grows mostly in the north-central and northwest areas of the island, at altitudes up to 400 meters (1,300 feet) and in well-drained soils, trained low to the ground.
Sercial (Esgano Cão): The name Esgano Cão translates to “dog strangler” and refers to the grape’s mouth-puckering acidity. Sercial can grow at the highest altitudes in Madeira, at 600 to 700 meters (2,200 to 2,300 feet). It, along with Malvasia, is among the last varieties to be harvested.
Boal (Bual, Malvasia Fina): Boal grows at relatively low altitudes, below 300 meters (1,000 feet), in the southern portion of the island. It is low yielding but robust and is a popular table grape.
Malvasia: Madeira’s Malvasia is mostly Malvasia Branca de São Jorge, along with the much rarer but historic Malvasia Cândida. IVBAM does not distinguish between the two grapes, though they are ampelographically quite different. Malvasia grows at altitudes below 150 meters (500 feet), usually close to the sea and predominantly on the south coast. It is one of the last grapes to be harvested.
To make Madeira, once the grapes have been brought to the winery and pressed, fermentation begins and runs to the degree of sweetness desired. A neutral grape spirit of 96% ABV is used to arrest fermentation at the appropriate point, which differs between “dry” (technically, there are no dry Madeiras), medium-dry, medium-rich, and rich styles. The wines are then sent to the heating systems, according to the quality of the grapes.
Entry-level wines are typically heated through the estufagem system. These wines are mostly or entirely made from the workhorse Tinta Negra grape; when not varietal, they typically include many of the other accepted grapes. The wines are placed in an estufa, a stainless steel tank heated by hot water coils to 45 to 50 degrees Celsius (113 to 122 degrees Fahrenheit) for a minimum of three months. Once this estufagem is complete, the wine is rested for a further three months. The wines may not be bottled until October 31 of the second year following the harvest, though they are usually aged in wood and then bottle for three years.
Better-quality wines are put in casks that are placed on wooden supports or trestles called canteiros for a minimum of two years. Compared with the forced estufagem method, this is a gentler aging process that takes advantage of seasonal ambient temperatures, encouraging oxidative maturation, concentration, and complexity through evaporation. These wines can be sold only at least three years from January 1 following harvest. Most Vinho de Canteiro wines spend far longer in wood.
Dry extract in fortified wines, and particularly those destined for long maturation in cask and bottle, such as top Madeira categories, is of paramount importance. (The OIV requires at least 12 grams of dry extract per liter in any beverage labeled as wine.) The dry extract of a wine is composed of nonvolatilizable organic compounds that increase over time because of concentration. It is therefore considered a quality parameter indicative of a wine’s aging potential. Long aging with elevated temperatures might deplete or even destroy some organic compounds in the wine. To counter any loss of these compounds, winemakers extract as many grape components as possible, primarily mineral salts, aroma and flavor precursors, and polyphenols. This is achieved through maceration, gentle extraction methods, and, where necessary, the addition of pectolytic enzymes.
Rainwater: Although the precise origins of Rainwater Madeira are uncertain, the legend is that rainwater made its way into a cask of Madeira that was ready to be shipped. The resulting wine, slightly lighter in style than the norm, proved pleasing to the market, and the name stuck. Rainwater was a popular style of Madeira in the late 18th century and gained notable market traction in the US in the early 20th century. The fame of the style persisted long after the market for the wine had diminished. Today, most shippers still make this style of wine but in much-reduced quantities. Perhaps the most celebrated are those of Vinhos Barbeito, elaborated differently for each market. The wine is almost always made from Tinta Negra as an unaged (three-year-old) medium-dry style that is between 1 and 1.5 Baumé, around 18% ABV, and pale in color.
Indications of Age: Designations are available for blends with an age of 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, and over 50 years, when deemed to be in conformity with standards of quality and typicity.
Colheita: These are wines from a single harvest with special organoleptic characteristics, and that have been matured in cask for at least five years.
Frasqueira: Frasqueira wines are from a single vintage and recommended variety, produced in the canteiro method and aged continuously in cask for at least 20 years, showing exceptional organoleptic characteristics. The year of bottling must be indicated on the back label. Garrafeira refers to a private cellar or collection of wines of Frasqueira quality.
Other notable terms include the following:
Madeira’s stylistic designations range from extra dry to sweet. Tinta Negra can be used to make wines across these labels, at any level of sweetness. When white varieties are used, however, there are specific requirements for sweetness levels. Sercial must be extra dry (0 to 0.5 Baumé, or 30 grams of residual sugar per liter) or dry (0 to 1.5 Baumé, or 40 to 55 grams of residual sugar per liter). Verdelho must be medium dry (1 to 2.5 Baumé, or 60 to 70 grams of residual sugar per liter), and Boal must be medium sweet (2.5 to 3.5 Baumé, or 70 to 95 grams of residual sugar per liter ). Malmsey is the sweetest and must exceed 3.5 Baumé (over 90 grams of residual sugar per liter). Although extra dry wines are allowed, few are produced. While there is no maximum for residual sugar in sweet wines, 125 grams per liter is considered the upper limit.
The history of Moscatel de Setúbal and its most famous wine stretches back to the ancient Greeks and Phoenicians, who likely introduced the Moscatel grape to the Sado estuary. Richard II of England was an enthusiastic drinker of the wine, as was Louis XIV of France. Another Frenchman, Léon Douarche, described Moscatel de Setúbal with the now-famous phrase “the sun in a bottle.”
Located to the southeast of Portugal’s capital city, Lisbon, Setúbal Peninsula has 13 municipalities. Four of these are included in Palmela DO: Montijo, Palmela, Setúbal, and Sesimbra. Since 1989, they have been regulated to produce red, white, rosé, sparkling, and fortified wines. When fortified, these wines are labeled Setúbal DO.
Setúbal DO, established in 1908, is exclusively for fortified wine. The region can be divided into two main areas inland from the Sado estuary. The flatter lands lie inland to the east and south and have clay subsoils between 1 and 2 meters (3.3 and 6.6 feet) above sea level. Above these, there is a band of sandy soils between 50 and 80 meters (165 and 260 feet). In this flatter region, which constitutes approximately 80% of the total production area, there is a large diurnal temperature range, and the resulting wines are rich, concentrated, and full bodied.
The hillier sites are between 150 and 250 meters (490 and 820 feet) in altitude and are heavily influenced by the mountains of Serra da Arrábida, São Luís, and São Francisco. These more elevated vineyards are composed of clay and limestone. Here, there is a more moderate maritime climate with a smaller diurnal range and greater humidity. Ripening is slower, and the wines are lighter bodied and more aromatic.
Moscatel de Setúbal must be made from at least 85% of that grape, also known as Graúdo and Muscat of Alexandria. Its characteristic perfume is redolent of lychee, rose petal, citrus blossom, and citrus peel. There are 634 hectares (1,570 acres) planted. The other permitted grapes that can make up the remainder of the blend are Antão Vaz, Arinto, Fernão Pires, Malvasia Fina, Moscatel Galego Branco, Rabo de Ovelha, Roupeiro, Verdelho, and Viosinho.
The red grape Moscatel Roxo de Setúbal, also known as Galego or Purple Muscat, is a mutation of Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains (though some in the region believe that it’s a red mutation of Moscatel de Setúbal), with compact bunches of round berries with a pale purple hue. Its grapes are intensely sweet and aromatic. Just 62 hectares (153 acres) of this grape are planted, and they are used to make the wine of the same name, which must include 85% Moscatel Roxo de Setúbal. Other permitted grapes are Aragonez, Bastardo, Castelão, Touriga Franca, Touriga Nacional, and Trincadeira.
In 2023, production of Moscatel de Setúbal was roughly 1,837,400 liters, and 193,300 liters of Moscatel Roxo de Setúbal were made.
To make these wines, once the grapes are harvested, destemmed, and crushed, the juice and berries are cold-macerated. Fermentation is arrested by aguardente of 52% to 86% ABV. Alternatively, a pure neutral grape spirit of no less than 96% ABV may be used. The wine must spend at least three months macerating on its skins. After pressing, the skins are added back to the wine. Both colors of Moscatel must spend a minimum of 18 months in either steel or oak.
Moscatel de Setúbal of both colors must spend a minimum of 18 months maturing before it can be labeled Setúbal DO. Younger wines are matured in wood or stainless steel for up to five years and are light and fresh, with notable fruit intensity and floral aromas. Setúbal DO may be labeled with a vintage or a stated age: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, or 40-plus years. Moscatel de Setúbal wines must be at least five years of age, are usually matured in wood, and are bottled unfiltered. Further designations might appear on the label, including Superior, for wines with a minimum aging of five years; Reserva, for wines deemed to be of outstanding quality by the Chamber of Tasters; Moscatel de Setúbal Datado, 100% Moscatel wines from a stated vintage; and Moscatel de Setúbal Não Datado, a blend of grapes and a blend of vintages.
The Sherry region is in southwestern Andalucía, in the provinces of Cádiz and Seville, with the Guadalquivir River to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and vineyards extending to the hills inland. The region is prone to extended bouts of heat, particularly in areas farther from the estuary, but the sea provides cooling breezes. The approximately 7,150 hectares (17,670 acres) of vineyards within the delimited area of the Jerez-Xérès-Sherry DO are divided among 10 towns: Jerez de la Frontera, El Puerto de Santa María, Sanlúcar de Barrameda, and the less well-known towns of Chiclana de la Frontera, Puerto Real, Trebujena, Chipiona, Lebrija, Rota, and San José del Valle. Cooperatives run 47% of the DO’s vineyards, 22% are owned by independent growers, and 31% are owned by the bodegas/shippers.
It is believed that the Phoenicians started growing vines around Jerez toward the end of the second millennium BCE and later gave the name Xera to the town that still bears a derivation of its name. The Phoenician colonies along the Mediterranean, principally Carthage, and the Greek colonies in Spain heavily influenced the culture of wine from the eighth to the first centuries BCE. The Romans, however, who referred to the region as Ceret, propelled the export of local wine, olive oil, and the much-loved fish sauce called garum.
The Moors crossed the Strait of Gibraltar in 711 CE, and their 500-year rule significantly impacted the region they called Sherish. Grapegrowing was allowed only for raisin production and grapes used for medical purposes, but wine consumption seems to have continued, if not prospered, during this period, and the science of distillation was introduced.
Even before the Reconquista of Jerez in 1264 by Alfonso X, king of Castile and Léon, who rapidly expanded vineyard area, the wines of Sherish became popular abroad, principally in England, where they were often traded for wool. In the succeeding centuries, following Spanish colonization of the New World, the wines of the region were often brought to the Americas. This trade sometimes resulted in English piracy, as in the case of Sir Francis Drake seizing 3,000 casks of wine as booty in 1587, making Sherry very popular in England. The foreign thirst for Sherry led to entrepreneurs embedding themselves in the region. By the beginning of the 18th century, Sherry bodegas had adapted their winemaking to meet the demands of the Dutch and British markets. The need to supply the market with the volume, consistency, and quality that it required led to the innovation of the solera based on criaderas, or tiers. The practice of fortification soon followed, as a means of stabilizing and preserving the wines during and after transit.
Sherry was quick to recover after the devastation of phylloxera, and British merchants were responsible for the international spread of the region’s many wine styles. They also developed many imitation products in their colonies around the world. This resulted, in 1933, in the establishment of Jerez-Xérès-Sherry DO, followed in 1935 by the consejo regulador, one of the first organizations of its type in Spain.
In 2025, Jerez-Xérès-Sherry DO made the monumental decision to allow unfortified wine to be designated as Sherry, bringing the history of the appellation full circle. This significant change in appellation rules was driven by climate change, economic and labor factors, and recognition that traditional Sherry winemaking practices have a stronger impact on the wines than fortification.
The historic winemaking economy of Jerez is based on the symbiotic relationships between landowners, winemakers, those with storage capacity, and shipping businesses. The following three types of specialized bodegas, or houses, drive this economy.
Bodegas de la Zona de Producción (production bodegas): These are typically large cooperatives that will process the must up to the base wine stage, then sell it to the aging bodegas. If they do mature and sell their own wines, those wines are not permitted to be part of the DO.
Bodegas de Crianza y Almacenado (aging and storing bodegas): The almacenistas mature wine before selling it to the Bodegas de Crianza y Expedición. Almost all almacenistas are very small operations.
Bodegas de Crianza y Expedición (aging and shipping bodegas): These bodegas, also known as shippers, are the only bodegas permitted to sell and export bottled Sherry. Traditionally, they were situated in the towns of Jerez de la Frontera, El Puerto de Santa María, and Sanlúcar de Barrameda. Because of a decline in the Sherry market, larger almacenistas have been permitted to register as aging and shipping bodegas as well.
Sherry is located at one of Europe’s most southerly viticultural latitudes and is low in altitude, resulting in warm and sunny conditions, with well over 3,000 sunshine hours during the growing season. Temperatures are extremely high in the summer, often reaching over 40 degrees Celsius (104 degrees Fahrenheit), with some moderation from the Atlantic Ocean. Although annual rainfall is only 600 millimeters (23.5 inches), nighttime humidity from the sea mitigates evapotranspiration. Winters here are mild, with very limited danger of frost. The average annual temperature is 17.3 degrees Celsius (63 degrees Fahrenheit). Within the Marco de Jerez (the winegrowing area), there are many climatic variations.
Much of the rolling downland of Jerez is composed of a chalky limestone known locally as albariza. Characteristically white, soft, and friable, these soils, the most prized of the region, are very rich in calcium carbonate, silica, and clay, the proceeds of an ancient seabed. They retain moisture and enable extensive root systems—both vital in this dry climate—and they are easy to work.
While albariza soils are principally composed of the exoskeletons of marine algae deposited during the Oligocene period (roughly 33.9 million to 23 million years ago), there are varying types of albariza soils, each with its own characteristics. Antehojuelas are loose, crumbly soils, with notable porosity. These, along with lentejuelas, are coastal soils. Lentejuelas contain more sand and limestone, and they are even more friable. These latter soils are associated with wines of great precision and slightly more elevated acidity. Some of the best Finos and Manzanillas are grown on these two types of albariza soil.
Tosca cerrada soils are less chalky, though denser, albarizas. Covering over three-quarters of the Jerez vineyards, these are the constituent soils of several famous vineyards, including Pago Miraflores. Tosca de barajuelas contain the most limestone of any albariza formation. Consequently, they are dense, layered, and less penetrable by vine roots. Palomino vines grown on these hard soils, notably around Carrascal in Jerez, produce wines of delicacy and intensity. Albariza parda soils are the sandiest in this family. The wines from them are fruity, but less fine. They can be found in Rota and Chiclana. Albariza tajón soils are the hardest, most compact, and most agglomerated albarizas. They contain the most active limestone. Vineyards are rarely planted on these soils.
The other main soil types are barros—clay-rich, fertile soils containing some organic matter—and free-draining sandy loams known as arenas. They are principally found in the coastal areas, valleys, and lower-lying areas, such as Chipiona.
The specific areas of production (though not necessarily single vineyards) are termed pagos. These areas display distinct terroir personalities. There are approximately 70 pagos, but only 40 are currently used on labels.
The most important Sherry grapes are Palomino, Pedro Ximénez, and Moscatel, but since 2022 three others have also been permitted: Perruno, Beba, and Vigiriega.
Palomino: Often referred to as Listán Blanco, Palomino is the most widely used and traditional of the permitted varieties. It has great affinity for the albariza soils, is relatively drought and disease resistant, and is crucial to the history and character of the region. Its bunches are long and cylindrical, with medium-sized, thin-skinned berries that are juicy and sweet but relatively neutral in character. A cultivar of Palomino, Palomino Fino, is the most used variant and produces dry base wines of around 11% to 12% ABV. Palomino of Jerez produces lower yields, but its grapes have more elevated acidity and sugar. The consejo regulador classifies dry wines from Palomino with a maximum residual sugar of four grams per liter as Generoso.
Pedro Ximénez: Often referred to as PX, Pedro Ximénez, or Alamis y Pedro Ximén, is another traditional and historic grape of Andalucía. It produces grapes with a potential alcohol of 12% to 13.5% ABV and higher acidity than Palomino. PX grapes are often dried in the sun prior to pressing, and the variety is closely associated with the great sweet wines of the same name. PX accounts for less than 1% of production within the DO, and the name can also apply to grapes or wine brought in from the Montilla district of neighboring Córdoba.
Moscatel: Also known as Muscat of Alexandria, Moscatel de Alejandría, Moscatel Gordo, and Moscatel de España, Moscatel is an ancient aromatic grape grown in vineyards on arenas soils close to the sea. Moscatel requires far less water than Palomino and is well suited to these arid vineyards. Typically, the grapes are sun-dried and fashioned into the unctuous sweet wines associated with Chipiona.
Although the practice of fortifying Sherry was originally for stabilization, enabling the wines to successfully travel to export markets, the practice continued for other reasons; today, some producers have moved away from fortification. Manzanillas and Finos are vinified to 15% ABV to encourage the microbiological growth of a film-forming yeast, flor, that will dictate the style of the wines. This level of alcohol also inhibits the growth of undesirable microbes, while leaving flor, tolerant of this level of alcohol, to flourish and cover the wine, preventing oxidation. Wines destined for oxidative maturation are legally required to be at least 17% ABV, preventing the formation and growth of flor and other microbes. In this environment, the wine can age oxidatively over a long period.
The first classification of Sherry wines is conducted after fermentation and prior to any fortification that takes place. Those wines that are considered sufficiently pale, light, and elegant, made mostly from free-run musts or from those expressed with light pressure, are designated to become Finos or Manzanillas, and their tanks are marked with a single slash (/), known as a palo. Those base wines with greater body, structure, or character are marked with a circle (o), called a gordura, and designated as appropriate for Oloroso Sherry.
Producers who choose for fortify do so using 96% neutral grape spirit. Following this step, the second classification takes place. The young wines are transferred from tank to 600-liter used American oak butts. The wines destined for oxidative aging as Olorosos begin their maturation in solera. Wines from the same harvest and classified as Olorosos are stored together, then transferred to an Oloroso solera.
Wines destined to be aged biologically are handled differently. At this stage, those wines, at 15% ABV, are termed sobretablas (on the table). They are transferred to butt and tasted again. Should they remain destined for biological aging under flor, the butt will be marked with the palma, a mark resembling a reversed Y.
Sometimes wines destined for biological aging are deemed best suited to another pathway and are marked with the symbol for Palo Cortado, a horizontal line across the original slash. These wines must reach 17% ABV and be aged oxidatively. (The style is further discussed below.) Occasionally during the sobretablas stage, if the flor has weakened or failed altogether, wines are fortified to 17% and then aged oxidatively as future Olorosos.
Once the young wines have been classified and assigned their respective pathway, they enter the criaderas and solera system. This system enables the fractional blending of wines from different stages of their maturation to promote specific elements that are characteristic of a particular style of Sherry. The Sherry butts are arranged with the oldest wines, ready for bottling, in a solera level on the floor. Although the whole edifice of tiered butts is referred to as a solera, the levels above the actual solera level are referred to as criaderas. The wines older than those in the solera level are held above them, in the first criadera. Above them, the younger wines are in the second criadera, and there may be a third criadera above that. The sobretablas wines enter at the top.
Periodically, an element of the solera will be removed for bottling (the consejo regulador does not permit wines under two years of age to enter the market), a process known as saca. The same volume of the first criadera’s butts is transferred to replace this void; an equivalent amount is taken from the second criadera and from the sobretablas butts. This process of topping up, or replenishment, is referred to as rocio.
The skilled bodega workers who conduct it are called trasegadores. Their work (trasiegos) is particularly delicate, as they must not disturb the flor. The constant replenishment with new wine feeds the flor and enables it to continue covering the wines. In solera wines aged oxidatively, the oxygen introduced during trasiegos accelerates the oxidative development of the wines. Whether biological or oxidative, the butts are never filled entirely. They are usually about five-sixths full, leaving approximately dos puños (two fists) to either enable the growth of flor or aid the effect of oxygen.
Sampling Sherry is conducted in a practical yet showy way by a venenciador. The instrument lowered through the bojo, or bunghole, of a Sherry butt is called a venencia. Once made of silver and whalebone, this tool is composed of a long rod with a small metal capsule on the end.
Most Sherry is aged either biologically or oxidatively. Biologically aged wines are aged under flor in a solera. The yeast protects the wine from oxidation, releases acetaldehyde aromas and flavors, and metabolizes most of the wine’s glycerol. It might also digest some alcohol and acidity, though the process of evaporation and subsequent concentration largely reverses these losses.
Flor is a unique element of terroir, as each town’s climate creates a different growing environment. Towns closer to the water tend to have thicker flor than those farther inland, where there is a drier and warmer environment with slightly cooler winters. Oxidatively aged wines do not use flor and develop complex flavors through the long interaction of oxygen with the wine.
Fino wines are aged biologically and can be produced throughout the DO. These wines focus on brightness and freshness and must spend a minimum of two years under flor in a solera. Finos are permitted to have 15% to 18% ABV, though they are typically around 15% ABV.
The term en rama (raw) is used to describe dry wines, usually Finos, that have been bottled without any stabilization, clarification, or fining, and with minimal filtration.
Manzanilla Sanlúcar de Barrameda is a DO located within the greater Jerez-Xérès-Sherry DO. It sits on two natural features, the Barrio Bajo (low quarter) and the Barrio Alto (high quarter). The DO is associated with the town of Sanlúcar de Barrameda, which sits at the mouth of the Guadalquivir River. The only authorized grape for DO Manzanilla Sanlúcar de Barrameda is Palomino, and the same production techniques used for Sherry are used here, though all wines bearing the Manzanilla name must be aged within Sanlúcar de Barrameda.
Traditionally, the wines are fermented dry to around 12% ABV before being fortified with 96% ABV neutral grape spirit to around 15% to 15.5% ABV. Producers choosing not to fortify must ferment their wines to at least 15% ABV. Because of the humidity and mild winters of Sanlúcar, flor grows more thickly, adding to the DO’s unique terroir.
To earn the designation of Manzanilla, wines must be aged a minimum of two years in solera. Wines matured in solera for at least seven years can be labeled as Manzanilla Pasada. These take on a slightly oxidative character as the flor weakens and breaks down. The DO also allows for añada, or vintage, wines, which must be aged in a static system without interruption until bottling.
When the flor of Fino or Manzanilla wines dies away naturally, through lack of nutrition or because the alcohol in the evaporating and concentrating wine has risen to a level at which the yeast cannot survive, the wines can be refortified to 17% ABV (or as low as 16%) and begin an oxidative stage of development. This process darkens the wines and lends them a nutty complexity, layered on top of the subtleties already created by maturation under flor. These Amontillado wines become much more concentrated over time, often more than 20 or 30 years, and, through evaporation and the resulting concentration, can rise to as much as 22% ABV.
Although originally destined to be biologically aged as Finos or Manzanillas, Palo Cortado wines are marked, prior to any fortification and before aging in solera, as special. They must reach 17% ABV, traditionally achieved through refortification, and matured oxidatively. They possess more glycerol than a biologically aged wine, resembling Oloroso Sherry in roundness, though they are generally more delicate and elegant than Oloroso. There are several possible pathways to the creation of a Palo Cortado, as there are no fixed rules to their manufacture, but they are rare. Palo Cortado wines grow in finesse and complexity as they mature. They range in alcohol from 17% to 22% ABV.
These wines, destined from the outset to be matured oxidatively, are the fullest and roundest of the dry styles of Sherry. As with Amontillados and Palo Cortados, they can age for a very long time; oxygen gains ingress through the oak of the barrels, increasing the alcohol of the wines to as much as 22% ABV and intensifying the flavor profile.
Vinos de Pasto are unfortified white table wines that reflect their unique terroirs and share some of the same winemaking traditions as their fortified relations but are creatively vinified outside of the DO. They cannot be fortified and must originate from albariza soils, be composed principally (though by no means exclusively) of Palomino grapes, and follow traditional winemaking practices, such as fermentation in cask. Because they undergo a brief period of biological aging in used Sherry casks, they show a close olfactory link to Sherry. An industry group called Territorio Albariza comprises nine winery members who work together to promote the category.
Pale Cream: Pale Cream wine is young, biologically aged Fino or Manzanilla to which rectified concentrated grape must (RCGM) has been added. Pale Cream typically ranges from 45 grams of residual sugar per liter to 115 grams of residual sugar per liter and is generally 17% to 17.5% ABV, though 15.5% to 22% ABV is permitted.
Medium Cream: Any Sherry above five grams of residual sugar per liter can be termed Medium Cream. Below 45 grams of residual sugar per liter, they can be labeled as medium dry; from that level up to 115 grams of residual sugar per liter, they can be labeled as medium sweet. These wines can be sweetened with RCGM or a Naturally Sweet Wine (see below). They can be made from wines that were oxidatively matured for part or all of their development. They must be 15% to 22% ABV; most are around 18% ABV.
Cream: Ranging from 15.5% to 22% ABV, though usually around 20% ABV, and with 115 grams of residual sugar per liter to 140 or more grams of residual sugar per liter, Cream Sherries are oxidatively matured wines, mainly Olorosos, sweetened with RCGM or a Naturally Sweet Wine.
Moscatel: Moscatel vineyards are planted on arenas soils close to the sea, primarily around Chipiona. Ranging from 15% to 22% ABV, though usually 15% to 16% ABV, Moscatels are produced from either fresh or raisined grapes. They are either protectively or, more often, oxidatively aged, and they have remarkable aromatic intensity. They must contain at least 160 grams of residual sugar per liter, though usually they have closer to 350 grams of residual sugar per liter. They are always unctuously sweet. When Moscatel grapes are dried under the sun on straw mats, a process termed asoleo, soleo, or “sunning,” the wines develop a distinctly raisiny perfume and are known as Moscatel de Pasas. Moscatel is also used as a sweetening component.
Pedro Ximénez (PX): Most Sherry producers make a varietal PX wine. Many use the grape as a sweetening agent in their Cream Sherries. PX grapes are thoroughly ripened on the vine and then dried in the sun until raisined. This takes anywhere from a week to a month. The resulting berries have a greater concentration of acidity as well as towering levels of sugar. Once they are pressed, fermentation begins. The wines are typically fortified, then transferred to a solera of their own. Over time, evaporation in barrel further concentrates the sugars, and it is not uncommon to find PX wines with more than 400 grams of residual sugar per liter. (The minimum permitted is 212 grams of residual sugar per liter, though it is always far exceeded.) The oxidative maturation gives these viscous and intensely unctuous wines a tertiary character counterbalanced by notable grapiness, and they have flavors redolent of molasses, muscovado sugar, fruitcake, and nuts. As with Moscatels, PX Sherries are usually 15% to 16% ABV.
There are several permitted average ages that might be displayed on the label of a bottle of Sherry, including 12 or 15 years. As with the 20- and 30-year-old wines described below, these must be assessed by an official tasting panel. Older wines might have a small amount of PX added to them, for balance rather than sweetness, as they can be quite fiery and astringent after decades in butt.
VOS (Vinum Optimum Signature or Very Old Sherry): This term denotes a wine with an average maturation in cask of at least 20 years.
VORS (Vinum Optimum Rare Signature or Very Old Rare Sherry): This term denotes a wine with an average age of at least 30 years.
The progeny of a very ancient winemaking heritage that dates back to the eighth century BCE, Montilla-Moriles DO is centered around the towns of Montilla and Moriles, and it is the most northerly of Andalucía’s DO regions. The DO includes all of Doña Mencía, Montalbán, Monturque, Nueva Carteya, and Puente Genil, and it extends in part into 10 other villages.
Located about 150 kilometers (90 miles) inland from Jerez, Montilla-Moriles DO is similarly dry and warm, with extensive albariza soils and a flat topography. Its wines are similar to many Sherries, though the region is best known for its unctuous dessert wines. Montilla-Moriles wines are not always fortified, as they are easily able to reach natural alcohol levels of 14% to 15% ABV. Although Moscatel makes some luscious dessert wines here, the principal grape is Pedro Ximénez (PX), which is used to make wines that can be labeled as follows.
Fino: These Finos are made much like those in Jerez, but, because of Montilla-Moriles’s hot and arid continental climate, the flor grows less strongly, resulting in wines with less of the characteristic aromas and flavors of flor.
Amontillado: Amontillado, meaning “Montilla style,” refers to wines that start their maturation under flor and, as the flor weakens and dies, begin to oxidize. After extensive oxidative maturation, these dry wines are blended with sweet PX.
Palo Cortado: Like its Sherry counterpart, Palo Cortado from Montilla is stylistically halfway between Amontillado and Oloroso.
Oloroso: Because they are made from PX, these Oloroso wines are richer, fuller, and deeper in color than their Sherry counterparts, which are made from Palomino. They are almost always fortified.
Pedro Ximénez (PX): PX wines from Montilla-Moriles are deep, viscous, and incredibly sweet. As with the Moscatels, they are made by drying grapes in the sun on straw mats. When the grapes are almost completely raisined, they are pressed.
Gained shortly after Jerez-Xérès-Sherry DO, Málaga DO dates to 1933, but the area’s vinous history stretches back to the time when the Phoenicians and Greeks established vineyards here. Following the Reconquista in 1487, the Catholic monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella developed a regulation and codifying system for the ordering of vineyards as well as the trading and hierarchy of wines sold. In succeeding centuries, the wines of the region became as famed as those of Sherry, but they fell into obscurity during the 19th century. Although they are revered on the domestic market, the lusciously sweet wines of the region have not received the same acclaim and export success as those of Jerez.
Málaga DO is for naturally sweet wines, including fortified wine. The fortified variants are termed Vinos de Licor (liqueur wine) and are made from the two main local white grapes, Moscatel and Pedro Ximénez. The names of these grapes may appear on the bottle. Other permitted varieties include Moscatel Morisco (Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains) and the local Doradilla grape. There is also a minority red variant, made mostly from the black grape Romé.
The soils of this nearly 1,000-hectare (2,470-acre) region range from alluvial to iron-rich clay, limestone, and slate. The terrain varies from low-altitude flatland near the sea to elevations above 750 meters (2,460 feet). This is one of the hottest and driest vineyard areas in Spain. Unsurprisingly, the wines are made from sun-dried berries, pressed, fermented, and fortified with neutral grape spirit by the process of mutage to 15% to 22% ABV. Arrope (concentrated PX grape juice) might be added, and the wines may be aged in wood. The following color and sweetness classification is for liqueur and unfortified variants unless otherwise specified:
Sweetness levels vary and might be described as follows:
Catalunya’s fortified wines, though among the most traditional wines of the region, receive minimal attention. Whether Moscatel or Garnacha, the fortified wines here resemble the vins doux naturels of the South of France. Garnatxa de l’Empordà, in the far north of Catalunya, is fashioned from very ripe Garnacha, partially dried in the sun, and fortified with neutral grape spirit to around 15% ABV. In Tarragona, in the south, and in Priorat, in the east, vi ranci (vino rancio) is made from both white and black Garnacha that is deliberately oxidized in demijohns under the strong Catalan sun before spending several years in cask. These wines have a distinct rancio flavor.
After the Greeks colonized the regions along the Mediterranean Sea, the Romans extended the spread of the vine. France’s fortified wines, the vins doux naturels (VDN), “naturally sweet wines,” likely originated in Roussillon. The technique of arresting fermentation with grape distillate was perfected by Arnaldus de Villa Nova in the late 13th century, a time when southwestern France and its southeastern coast were contested by the French, the English, and various Spanish and Catalan kingdoms. By the late 19th century, the process of arresting fermentation with neutral grape spirit, creating a vin doux naturel, was widespread in the South of France and varied in its application and influences. In 1936, the first Appellation d’Origine Controlée (AOC) for vin doux naturel was created.
There are myriad styles within the vin doux naturel category:
Rasteau Vin Doux Naturel constitutes just five hectares (12 acres) of the warmer south-facing sites of Rasteau, Cairanne, and Sablet, in the southern Rhône. The effect of the mistral is evident here, and the region’s grapes receive high levels of heat and sunlight. The soils, similar to those of the Côtes du Rhône Rasteau appellation, include calcareous brown soils over marl and red clay soils over sandstone. Most vines are 50 to 80 years old.
Rasteau Vin Doux Naturel AOC was awarded in 1944, a year before Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise AOC. Yields here are 23 hectoliters per hectare on average, and sugar in the grapes must reach at least 252 grams per liter prior to harvest. Fortification is by mutage, using neutral grape spirit of at least 95% ABV that arrests fermentation and leaves a minimum of 45 grams of residual sugar per liter in the wine. Most wines, however, have around 90 grams of residual sugar per liter. At least 15% ABV is required; it is common for wines to reach 16% ABV.
Rasteau VDN is focused on Grenache, including Gris, Blanc, and Noir. The accessory varieties, used in up to 10%, are Bourboulenc, Brun Argenté, Carignan, Cinsault, Clairette, Clairette Rose, Counoise, Marsanne, Muscardin, Piquepoul Blanc, Piquepoul Noir, Roussanne, Terret Noir, Ugni Blanc, and Viognier.
There are essentially two styles of Rasteau Vin Doux Naturel. For Rasteau Doré, grapes are macerated for a short time on skins before the juice is run off, similarly to the saignée method. For Rasteau Rancio, either red or white wine is aged very oxidatively for at least 12 months in cask, usually for much longer, with a sizable ullage. The resulting aromas and flavors are reminiscent of rancid butter, overripe fruit, nuts, and sometimes animal notes.
Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise AOC has existed since 1945 (applied retrospectively to include the 1943 vintage). Its production region is an old one, first planted with vines by the ancient Greeks, then flourishing as a source of high-quality Muscat under Roman rule. Grape plantings increased in the 14th century under Pope Clement V before nearly disappearing during the Wars of Religion in the latter half of the 16th century. In the 18th century, the region was established in its more modern form, but it was wiped out by phylloxera in the late 19th century. The vineyards were revived once again when they were grafted onto American rootstocks in the early 20th century.
The vineyards of Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise are in the communes of Beaumes-de-Venise and Aubignan, on the southern slopes of the Dentelles de Montmirail, sharp-peaked mountains in the southern Rhône’s Vaucluse department. This is one of the hottest and driest parts of France, heavily influenced by the both the mistral wind that blows down the Rhône valley for much of the year and the Mediterranean. Cooler air from the mountains provides some relief to the vines. The soils throughout Beaumes-de-Venise vary, including Jurassic Oxfordian marls, complex calcareous soils from the Triassic and Upper Cretaceous epochs, and safre (decayed sandstone) from the Miocene epoch. Safre is most prominent in the vineyards of Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise.
Muscat de Frontignan (Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains) is the primary grape here, though a small amount of the vineyard is planted to its black mutation, Muscat Noir à Petits Grains. With about 305 hectares (754 acres) of production, and an average yield of just 16 hectoliters per hectare, wine production is limited. Of this, 84% is white, 15% is rosé (containing some Muscat Noir), and 1% is red.
The grapes are harvested ripe, though not overripe or shriveled, to maintain fresh acidity. Juice is handled protectively and, once fermentation begins, after about four to six degrees of natural alcohol, fortification occurs by mutage, with a minimum of 96% ABV neutral grape spirit. The resulting wines must be at least 15% ABV, are reductively matured, and are released early to market in a youthful and vibrantly fruity state. They must have at least 100 grams of residual sugar per liter. Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise is best drunk as a fresh wine. It is lighter than VDN from Languedoc. The slightly rosé-colored wines are enhanced by the inclusion of a small amount of Muscat Noir.
Languedoc has four AOCs for vin doux naturel: Muscat de Frontignan, Muscat de Saint-Jean-de-Minervois, Muscat de Mireval, and Muscat de Lunel. They are all for white VDN and have similar requirements, mandating 100% Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains, which must reach 252 grams of residual sugar per liter (equating to roughly 15% potential alcohol) before harvest. Mutage occurs with a minimum 96% ABV neutral grape spirit that constitutes 5% to 10% of the volume of the fermenting wine. The finished wines must have a minimum of 15% ABV, with at least 110 grams of residual sugar per liter in all but Muscat de Saint-Jean-de-Minervois, which requires 125 grams of residual sugar per liter.
Muscat de Frontignan AOC is near the town of Frontignan, between the Mediterranean and the Gardiole hills. Granted AOC status in 1936, Muscat de Frontignan has a production area of nearly 800 hectares (1,980 acres). It is dominated by a single cooperative, the Frontignan Cooperative Cellar, which includes around 150 members. There are approximately 26 independent producers.
The region’s clay-limestone soils are increasingly sandy closer to the sea. Maximum permitted yields are just 30 hectoliters per hectare. Roughly 38,000 hectoliters of this luscious wine are made in a variety of styles, from unaged wines to those with a stated average age exceeding 10 years.
Muscat de Saint-Jean-de-Minervois AOC was established in 1949. It is situated around the village of Saint-Jean, to the east of Minervois AOC, at the southern end of the Massif Central in the Hérault department. The 200 hectares (490 acres) of the AOC are largely composed of calcareous clay at around 250 to 280 meters (820 to 920 feet) in elevation, resulting in a cooler climate than that of the neighboring light-wine AOC of Minervois. Here, Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains benefits from a longer maturation and extended time on the vine. This builds complexity in the grapes, yielding a wine with finesse, elegance, and lightness, similar to that of Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise. Unlike the other Languedoc VDN appellations, which require 110 grams of residual sugar per liter, Muscat de Saint-Jean-de-Minervois mandates 125 grams of residual sugar per liter.
Muscat de Noël is a substyle of wine also produced here, with origins dating to the 14th century. These wines were originally intended to be enjoyed young, fresh, sweet, and sometimes very slightly sparkling, for imbibing over the Christmas feast in the same year as the harvest. Muscat de Noël must be bottled by December 1 in the year of the harvest, resulting in a youthful, vibrant wine.
Muscat de Mireval gained AOC status in 1959 and consists of 260 hectares (640 acres) across two villages: Mireval and Vic-la-Gardiole. It sits on a Jurassic limestone plateau to the south of the Gardiole massif and to the east of Frontignan.
Muscat de Lunel AOC comprises the area around the town of Lunel northeast of Montepellier, in coastal eastern Languedoc. Granted AOC status in 1943, Muscat de Lunel includes the four communes of Lunel, Lunel-Viel, Vérargues, and Saturargues. Its 340 hectares (840 acres) are dominated by the 80 or so growers of the Vignerons de Muscat de Lunel cooperative.
The soils here are predominantly sandstone with a high level of iron oxide and red silicious pebbles. Rhône fluvial deposits containing quartz are also found. Although the area is low lying and subject to Mediterranean drought and high temperatures in summer, the extremes of heat are tempered by the cooling effect of humid winds from the sea.
Roussillon is west of the Mediterranean, north of the Albères mountains, and east of the Canigou mountain. It has five AOCs for sweet wine: Rivesaltes, Muscat de Rivesaltes, Banyuls, Banyuls Grand Cru, and Maury.
In all five appellations, the wines are made by arresting fermentation with 96% neutral grape spirit that composes 5% to 10% of the volume of the fermenting wine. The finished wines must have a minimum of 15% ABV and, in all regions but Muscat de Rivesaltes, 45 grams of residual sugar per liter; in Muscat de Rivesaltes, the minimum is significantly higher, at 100 grams per liter. Across all five AOCs, however, many wines have a much higher level of residual sugar than the minimum.
In these regions, solera wines are made, though they are much rarer than in decades past. For these wines, 10% of a vintage wine is removed and replaced with a younger component. This can continue at various intervals up to a maximum of 10 fractions.
Rivesaltes AOC is one of the oldest appellations in France, awarded in 1936. It constitutes 5,180 hectares (12,800 acres), comprising 94 communes in the eastern Pyrenees and 9 communes in the Aude department of Roussillon. It is west of the sea, north of Spain, and east of the Canigou mountain. The soils are complex, with granitic sand and gneiss, as well as black and brown schist in the Fenouillèdes region of the northwest part of the zone. There is red calcareous clay and limestone in the foothills of Corbières, sandy clay in Aspres, rocky fluvial terraces along the rivers, and gneiss and siliceous clay in Albères.
Vin Doux Naturel Ambré and Tuilé, aged oxidatively, and Vin Doux Naturel Rosé, aged reductively, are made from Grenache Blanc, Grenache Gris, Grenache Noir, Macabeu, Tourbat (Malvoisie du Roussillon), Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains, and Muscat d’Alexandrie. VDN Ambré and Tuilé wines are released on September 1 of the second year following the harvest year. Rosé wines must be bottled no later than December 31 of the year following harvest. Rivesaltes VDN Grenat (Garnet) is fresh, fruity, and made from Grenache Noir. It is aged in a reductive environment until at least May 1 of the year following harvest, then bottled no later than June 30 of the second year after harvest.
Rivesaltes VDN Hors d’Âge and Rancio wines are also allowed here. Most Rivesaltes wines are nonvintage, which here refers to a wine that is a blend of vintages with a specific average age.
Muscat de Rivesaltes, awarded its AOC in 1956, includes 5,221 hectares (12,900 acres) of vineyards across 98 communes in the eastern Pyrenees and 9 communes in the Aude. The appellation covers roughly the same area as Rivesaltes.
There are two permitted grape varieties here, Muscat d’Alexandrie and Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains, usually blended in even amounts. Potential alcohol in the grapes must be at least 21.5%. Unlike the other VDN appellations of Roussillon, which require a minimum of 45 grams of residual sugar per liter, Muscat de Rivesaltes mandates at least 100 grams of residual sugar per liter. The wines may be sent to the market beginning on February 1 of the year following harvest.
As in Saint-Jean-de-Minervois, in Languedoc, Muscat de Noël is produced here; the name can be applied to wines that are bottled no later than December 1 of the year of harvest.
Banyuls AOC was established in 1936, with Banyuls Grand Cru AOC following in 1962. The two AOCs cover the same 1,160 hectares (2,870 acres), planted in four communes alongside the Spanish border: Collioure, Port-Vendres, Banyuls-sur-Mer, and Cerbère. The soils are composed of ancient Cambrian gray schist, and the vineyards are situated on steeply sloped terraces facing the sea.
All three Grenache cultivars are used here. The region’s other grapes include Macabeu, Tourbat, Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains, Muscat d’Alexandrie, Carignan, Cinsault, and Syrah. The hierarchy is similar to that of Rivesaltes. Banyuls Rimage is a youthful, primary red wine made from Grenache Noir; Banyuls Traditionnel is also made from Grenache Noir but aged oxidatively in cask. Banyuls Grand Cru Rouge must be made from at least 75% Grenache Noir and oxidatively aged in cask for at least 30 months; Rancio and Hors d’Âge wines are allowed as well. Banyuls AOC Blanc, Ambré, and Rosé wines can be made from both white and red grapes.
Maury became an AOC in 1936, with significant revision in 2011. With garigue-covered hills and forests over black marl and black schist soils, its terrain is very different from that of Banyuls. Maury AOC includes 280 hectares (690 acres) that extend across the four communes of Maury, Tautavel, Saint-Paul-de-Fenouillet, and Rasiguères.
Like the other Roussillon VDNs, Maury permits wines in the styles of blanc, ambré, grenat, and tuilé, with similar production requirements. Maury Blanc and Maury Ambré must be made from Grenache Blanc and Grenache Gris, supported by Macabeu, Tourbat, and the two Muscats. Maury Grenat and Maury Tuilé must be made from a minimum of 75% Grenache Noir (though frequently above 90%), supported by Grenache Blanc and Grenache Gris, with up to 10% combined Carignan, Syrah, and Macabeu. Maury Tuilé must be aged in glass or another sealed container and may not be released until March 1 of the third year following harvest. The short-aged Maury Grenat must be bottled no later than June 30 of the second year following harvest and may not be released until May 1 of the year following harvest. Maury Grenat is considerably more tannic than its Banyuls Rimage counterpart in youth, with the best examples requiring a few years in bottle to show at their best.
A mistelle (also called mistella, mistela, and vin de liqueur, depending on region) is a grape must that has been fortified with an unaged brandy. Some mistelles are aged in cask to add flavor. Mistelles are used as a sweetening agent in various fortified wines, including Pale Cream Sherry and vermouth; as unfermented products, they are the sweetest possible additions. They sometimes are standalone fortified wines styles, as with Pineau des Charentes.
It should be noted that the term vin de liqueur is also used by the European Union in reference to any fortified wine.
Maury Hors d’Âge and Maury Rancio have the same rules as those of Banyuls and Rivesaltes. Many other styles are allowed, including solera and vintage wines.
Pineau des Charentes is a mistelle made in the Charente, Charente-Maritime, and Dordogne departments and allegedly discovered by accident in the late 16th century when spirit was mistakenly added to a cask of grape juice. Pineau des Charentes AOC covers almost the entire area delimited by Cognac; most producers of the category also make Cognac. It is produced by combining fresh or slightly fermented grape juice and Cognac eau-de-vie in a process known as assemblage. The finished wines can be 16% to 22% ABV, but around 17% ABV is most common.
There are white, rosé, and red styles. Pineau des Charentes Blanc is usually made from Ugni Blanc, Folle Blanche, and Colombard, and Sémillon and Sauvignon Blanc are sometimes used. The wines must be aged for at least 18 months, including a minimum of 8 months in cask. They are frequently at least two years old when released. Finer examples are aged in barrel for at least five years and are labeled as Vieux Pineau. When aged for more than 12 years in wood, they can be termed Très Vieux (Extra Vieux) Pineau.
Pineau des Charentes Rosé and Rouge must be made from Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, and/or Merlot. They must spend a minimum of eight months in oak.
The story of the city of Marsala, which possibly gained its name from the Arabic for “Ali’s harbor,” began in 397 BCE when the Carthaginians created a new colony situated in western Sicily in a place that the Greeks would refer to as Lilibaion and the Romans would later call Lilybaeum. Long before the city became famed for its fortified wine, it was renowned for the exceptional quality of its salt. Marsala’s salt flats are still harvested today.
The story of Marsala wine, however, is a relatively recent one. In 1773, the British merchant John Woodhouse sheltered his ship in the Marsala harbor during a storm. During his time in the city, Woodhouse became enthused by the local wine, referred to as Perpetuum. He brought some back home and, wishing to protect his wine in transit, added spirit. This is the origin of Marsala wine as it is known today.
Marsala DOC includes most of the Trapani province and sits just above sea level. It is famed for the near-constant breezes that mitigate the often extreme heat and high humidity. Soils here vary from terra rossa clay to volcanic tuff to shell-rich agglomerate.
The roughly 1,500-hectare (3,700-acre) Marsala DOC is exclusively for fortified wines. The Consorzio Vino Marsala was reestablished in 2023 and has 11 producers and 6 cooperatives. Three utilizzatori (“at-large” producers) are not in the consorzio. In 2023, total production of Marsala DOC was 5,835,000 bottles, of which the great majority was Ambra Semisecco, followed by Ambra Dolce.
Marsala DOC wines are made by blending base wines with mistella or mosto cotto. The legally designated grapes for Marsala Oro and Ambra base wines are the white varieties Grillo, Catarratto, Inzolia, and Damaschino (which is rarely used). Grillo, harvested in late September, is the most-used variety, at 50% of all grapes fermented, and Catarratto and Inzolia each constitute roughly 25%. Grillo is the majority component of most base wines. The relatively rare Marsala Rubino is made from the red grapes Perricone (Pignatello), Calabrese (Nero d’Avola), and Nerello Mascalese, plus a maximum of 30% white grapes.
The best Marsala wines are produced from white grapes grown in the superior locations of Triglia Scaletta and Spagnola, in the coastal area. The grapes are grown on a combination of bush and trellised vines, the latter being more common but the former resulting in lower yields of an arguably higher quality. The wines are fermented dry and fortified with a small amount of 96% ABV neutral grape spirit. Fine wines must be at least 17.5% ABV, and all other styles require 18% ABV. During the winemaking process, some producers use extended skin maceration to obtain more extract for aging, tannin, flavor, and aroma.
Mistella and mosto cotto may be added to Marsala. Marsala mistella is made from fresh must from Marsala DOC that has been fortified. It is sweet and grapey. Cooked grape must, or mosto cotto, can also be added. The must is simmered for at least 36 hours, reducing significantly and concentrating sugar as well as caramel and molasses flavors. Marsala Ambra wines must include a minimum of 1% mosto cotto, but it cannot be added to Marsala Oro or Rubino styles. Wines are typically matured in traditional Slavonian oak casks, though sometimes French or American oak is used, according to the maker’s style.
Secco (dry) Marsala can have 0 to 40 grams of residual sugar per liter. Semisecco (semidry) refers to wines with 41 to 100 grams of residual sugar per liter, and dolce (sweet) refers to wines with over 100 grams of residual sugar per liter.
There are several designations for aging. Aging must take place in oak or cherry wood following the first four months, a period when alternative containers can be used.
Several historic label indications are also available. These labels pay homage to the traditional styles of the region, which were blended to the preference of the destination.
According to legend, the god Dionysus instructed the ancient Samians in the culture of vines and in winemaking as a reward for helping him defeat the Amazons. Today, Samos is famous for its wines and the high-quality clay pitharia (amphorae) that were historically used to transport it.
Samos is a beautiful, mountainous island in the eastern Aegean Sea, and across the Samos Strait from Turkey. It has almost 1,500 hectares (3,700 acres) of vineyards, of which 98% are Samos Muscat, known internationally as Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains but sometimes also called White Muscat and Moschoudi in Greece. This ancient Greek variety is closely associated with the island.
Samos PDO is only for the island’s sweet wines, made from 100% Samos Muscat. More than half of the wines are fortified, but there are also unfortified examples. Medium-sweet and dry wines made on the island are labeled Aegean Sea PGI or Table Wine. These are made from either Samos Muscat or the red grapes Fokiano, Ritino, and Avgoustiatis, which together make up 2% of plantings.
The vineyards, rising to an altitude of 900 meters (2,950 feet) on the flanks of Mount Ampelos, are sited on narrow terraces retained by dry stone walls and often only one vine deep. The soils are free draining and predominantly composed of gravel and schistoliths, with elements of iron-rich clay. The vineyards are mostly composed of cup-shaped bush vines, and vines over a century old are not uncommon. The dry Mediterranean climate of Samos is tempered by sea breezes and proximity to the coast of Turkey, where rainfall is higher and mean temperatures lower than in the Aegean Islands to the west.
Founded in 1934, the island’s cooperative, the United Winemaking Agricultural Cooperative of Samos (UWC Samos), is by far the biggest producer on the island. It includes over 2,200 growers who cultivate over 90% of grapes grown. UWC Samos produces about 5,500,000 liters of wine annually, over 3,000,000 liters of which are fortified.
Samos PDO allows for the style called unfortified Naturally Sweet Wine (Sun Dried) but mostly focuses on fortified wines labeled as Natural Sweet Wine (VDN), Natural Sweet Wine from Specified Vineyards (VDN Grand Cru), and Sweet Wine (VDL). These fortified wines can be 15% to 22% ABV.
Samos VDN: For Samos VDN, freshly harvested grapes are fermented, and, by process of mutage, the fermentation is arrested with by neutral grape spirit that has a minimum of 95% ABV, and that must be 5% to 10% of the must volume and not more than 40% of the total alcoholic strength of the wine. These wines are not aged. They are intensely sweet and grapey. VDN Grand Cru wines are sourced from a select group of vineyards that are generally at a high elevation and are subject to stricter maximum yields.
Samos VDL: Essentially a mistelle, Samos VDL is made by fortifying grape must with neutral grape spirit before alcoholic fermentation. Base musts, however, can have up to 1% ABV before they are fortified. The fortified wine is then aged for up to five years in large-format used oak barrels before release.
Mavrodaphne of Patras PDO, located in the north of the Peloponnese region, is focused on Mavrodaphne of Patras, a sweet, fortified wine made here since the 19th century. The local black variety of Mavrodaphne is the primary grape, and Mavri Korinthiaki may be used for up to 49% of the blend. Mavri Korinthiaki is used for making currants, and some producers choose to partially dry it when making these wines. Mavrodaphne has good color and marked tannic grip, while Mavri Korinthiaki has low tannic structure and refreshing acidity, and develops high sugar levels.
The vineyards for Mavrodaphne of Patras are mostly composed of limestone and clay, and they are typically at lower elevation than the vineyards used for unfortified Patras PDO wines. The Peloponnese has an extreme Mediterranean climate, with the heat largely mitigated by elevation and the nearby Gulf of Corinth, which provides sea breezes that reduce the extremes of the daytime temperatures.
The process of fortification is by mutage with neutral grape spirit once fermentation has raised natural alcohol levels a few degrees. The wines can have 15% to 22% ABV, with residual sugar levels ranging from 50 grams per liter to over 100 grams per liter. Time in barrel increases the concentration of the wines.
Muscat of Patras PDO wines are made from Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains. The PDO, established in 1971, is only for dessert wines, which may be sun-dried or fortified; as in Muscat of Samos, Naturally Sweet Wine (Sun Dried), Natural Sweet Wine (VDN), Natural Sweet Wine from Specified Vineyards (VDN Grand Cru), and Sweet Wine (VDL) can be made. The PDO includes part of the area of Mavrodaphne of Patras PDO, as well as an area overlapping the dry white wine PDO of Patras and parts of the city of Patras.
In the smaller, neighboring Muscat of Rio Patras PDO, Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains is used to make the same four categories of wine, though most are the unfortified Naturally Sweet Wine (Sun Dried). Provided that the vineyards are privately owned and the vines low yielding, the wines may also include the suffix grand cru.
Monemvasia-Malvasia PDO permits its sweet wines to be fortified as VDN, but this is rare; most wines are Naturally Sweet Wine made from the process of liasta stafilia, or sun-drying grapes.
Similarly, in Santorini PDO, Sweet Dried Grape Wine (vinsanto/liastos) is made, and Fortified Dried Grape Wine (vinsanto) is allowed but not currently produced.
Commandaria takes its name from La Grande Commanderie, the great farming estate on Cyprus during the Lusignan occupation (1192–1489). Its wealth came mostly from grapegrowing and winemaking, and it was at one point the fief of both the Knights Templar and the Knights Hospitaller (of St. John). During the wedding of King Richard I of England to Berengaria of Navarre in Limassol, Cyprus, Richard declared the famous sweet wine of the island, “The wine of kings and the king of wines”—not the last time that these words would be uttered.
The original name of Commandaria was Nama. It was an altar wine made in Cyprus for thousands of years and played a role in the worship of both the Olympian deities and the Christian God. Hesiod referred to it around 700 BCE in his Works and Days, describing the dried-grape production process used to make it. While Nama still exists as sacramental wine, Commandaria is a finer wine made only in the 14 villages of the Commandaria PDO zone, which is exclusively focused on this wine. It is often referred to as the oldest continually produced wine style in the world. Roughly 200,000 to 280,000 liters of Commandaria are produced annually, depending on vintage conditions.
The Commandaria region’s vineyards are 500 to 900 meters (1,600 to 3,000 feet) in elevation in the remote and mountainous southern range of the Troodos Mountains. The soils are almost exclusively chalky limestone with clay elements.
Commandaria is made from the indigenous Xynisteri (white) and Mavro (black). The two grapes can be used on their own or together, in any ratio. The grapes can be harvested up to a maximum of 6,000 kilograms per hectare. Xynisteri must reach 204 grams of sugar per liter (12 Baumé), and Mavro must reach 230 grams of sugar per liter (13.5 Baumé) at harvest, with the earliest picking date announced each year. The grapes can then be dried and fermented in the Commandaria PDO zone. After drying, the potential alcohol of the grapes must reach 374 grams of residual sugar per liter (22 Baumé).
In the 20th century, possibly because of British rule, Commandaria was often fortified. Today, fortification is uncommon, with the wine returning to its origins as an unfortified wine made from sun-dried grapes. The process of liasta stafilia, equivalent to the passito process in Italian winemaking, lasts up to 30 days and further concentrates the sugars in the grapes. During this process, approximately 60% of the grape’s original weight is lost, and, of that, 55% to 60% is juice. About three kilograms (6.5 pounds) of grapes, then, are required for every liter of juice.
Fermentation begins slowly, whether spontaneously with native yeasts or through inoculation with selected strains. Eventually, because the wine is so sweet, osmotic pressure forces the fermentation to arrest. Neutral 96% ABV grape spirit is added only when the fermentation has ceased. Fermentation must reach 9.5% ABV by law, but, if it continues to 15% ABV or more, the wine will likely remain unfortified. The minimum level of natural alcohol in fortified variants must be 15% to 20% ABV, and 15% ABV is the norm. Residual sugar in either type of Commandaria is generally 160 to 200 grams per liter. Fortified and unfortified Commandaria wines are typically vintage wines today, though nonvintage solera wines are also permitted. Maturation of either variant of Commandaria must occur in wood for at least two years. Blending is permitted across the villages once the base wine has completed its barrel aging.
Many of the Commandaria villages have their own cooperatives that mostly sell their wine, as well as their grapes, to the island’s three large cooperative wineries, LOEL, SODAP, and KEO, which are the only producers of fortified Commandaria. KEO is by far the biggest player, purchasing nearly 60% of the region’s base wines for fortification, maturation, and blending.
In recent years, producers have been experimenting with fermentation and maturation in the historically significant clay pitharia and amphorae and advocating for their inclusion in the regulations. Other innovations include a slow rollover of the drying berries and drying grapes under cover, open to air at the sides.
The fortified wines of Australia were once the country’s most important style of wine, accounting for 86% of total domestic and export wine sales in 1950. This percentage began to decrease in the 1960s, and today Australia’s fortified wines account for only 2% of its global sales. Rutherglen, in northeastern Victoria, is undoubtedly Australia’s most revered region for fortified wine production, winning internationally recognized wine awards since 1870. The first vineyards were planted in Rutherglen in 1851, though the region was somewhat overrun by the expansion that occurred in the following years.
Rutherglen has a warm, dry continental climate and a high average temperature of 23.7 degrees Celsius (74.7 degrees Fahrenheit). Just 550 millimeters (21.5 inches) of rain fall annually. The region’s over 780 hectares (1,930 acres) of vineyards are relatively flat, with a very gently rolling topography at 130 to 180 meters (430 to 590 feet) in elevation. Sandy loam is the main soil in the northern part of the area, with moisture-retaining red Rutherglen loam over clay in the center, and very free-draining shale and quartz elsewhere. In the area near the Murray River, the dominant soil is the well-draining Black Dog sandy loam. There are about 18 wineries in the region, many of them seventh- or eighth-generation family-owned boutiques.
Here, Muscat à Petits Grains Rouges, a mutation of Muscat Blanc, is known as Rutherglen Brown Muscat. Its clones are specific to the region. The grapes are allowed to become overripe on the vine until they shrivel. After the grapes are crushed, fermentation begins, usually with the grapes and juice macerated together. Some producers prefer not to ferment their musts at all, conducting an extended maceration of skins and juice for additional flavor. More commonly, though, musts are pressed off the skins at around 2% to 3% natural alcohol, fortified with 95% to 96% neutral grape spirit, and sent to barrel. This early fortification ensures a marked fruit character in the finished wines. The final alcohol of the wines is 17.5% to 18.5% ABV.
Aging occurs in wooden barrels of many sizes, ranging from tiny 60-liter casks up to those containing many tens of thousands of liters. Most wood is seasoned, and the ambient barrel-room temperature fluctuates seasonally. There is no single blending method for Rutherglen Muscat. Some wines are made in a type of solera and transferred from barrel to barrel during their time in wood. These wines lose about 3% by volume annually through evaporation, and the concentration of flavor and accumulation of sugars are staggering. The longer the wines are aged, the more oxidatively complex they become, with increasing viscosity, sweetness, and flavors of baked orange peel, toffee, fudge, caramel, and molasses. These qualities are most apparent in the longest-aged wines, termed Rare Rutherglen Muscat.
Rutherglen Topaque was once called Tokay in the mistaken belief that it was Hárslevelű, of Hungarian Tokaji fame. It is, rather, Muscadelle, and the wines are now known as Topaque. Although classified like Rutherglen Muscat, Topaque wines are lighter and more citrusy and honeyed. Unlike Rutherglen Muscat, some Topaque wines are fermented off their skins as must. Instead of the pungent grapiness and muscovado concentration of the Muscat wines, Rutherglen Topaque wines generally have aromas of tea leaf, toffee, and honey.
Apera is a Sherry-style fortified wine that is made in styles ranging from dry to sweet. These wines are produced in a solera system that uses a variety of vessels of different formats. The dry wines are made using the Palomino grape and can be aged under flor or matured oxidatively. When sweetened, the oxidatively made wines have Pedro Ximénez blended into them.
The term Tawny can be used to describe oxidatively made Port-style fortified wines produced from Touriga Nacional, Cabernet Sauvignon, Shiraz, Mourvèdre, and Grenache. The wines are classified in a manner similar to that of Rutherglen Muscat, and the additional terms of Classic (minimum 5 years of aging in wood), Grand (minimum 10 years of aging in wood), and Rare (minimum 15 years of aging in wood) can be used. One of the best-known producers of these styles of wine is Penfolds, founded in South Australia, with its Father, Grandfather, and Great Grandfather Tawny-style wines.
Another important name in fortified wine is Seppeltsfield, also established in South Australia. Founded in 1851, this Australian heritage producer is famed for its Sherry-style Apera and Tawny-style Para fortified wines. These latter wines, based almost entirely on Shiraz, are aged in small barrels for 10 years, 15 years, or longer, then added to a 2,000-liter solera prior to bottling. Seppeltsfield’s 21 Year Old Para Tawny wines are released as vintage wines.
The regions of McLaren Vale and Riverland, both in South Australia, as well as Riverina, in New South Wales, have historically made fortified wines that don’t fit into the categories above. Many producers are witnessing a resurgence of interest in these fortified wines.
The first Europeans to settle South Africa landed in 1652. These Dutch settlers, led by their first governor, Jan van Riebeeck, identified the area’s agricultural potential and planted vineyards. The earliest wines were made in 1659. No one is certain about when the first fortified wines were made, though the manufacture of these Port-style wines has been traced to the early 19th century.
In South Africa, the Cape Port Producers’ Association (CAPPA), founded in the early 1990s, is a membership organization that offers a label classification. Its members may use temperature-controlled stainless steel tanks with regular pumpovers, traditional open-top cement fermenters (called kuipe in Afrikaans) with vigorous punchdowns, or a combination of the two. As with Douro wines, after a vigorous extraction and the onset of fermentation, fortification is by mutage with a neutral grape spirit.
Today, CAPPA producers make these wines mainly from Portuguese varieties, though the grape selection is not regulated, and Shiraz and Pinotage are sometimes used. There are style parameters established for the following wines.
Cape White: Ranging from off-dry to sweet, Cape White wines are made from non-Muscat varieties, usually Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, or Verdelho. They must be matured in oak barrel for at least six months.
Cape Pink: A rosé fashioned from non-Muscat red and white varieties, Cape Pink wine must mature for at least six months in barrel or tank.
Cape Ruby: The most popular of the Cape Port-style fortified wines, Cape Ruby is made from red varieties, with at least 50% of the wine matured for six months to three years in oak barrels or tank. These wines are vibrantly ruby in color, ripe, and fruity.
Cape Tawny: Cape Tawny is made from red varieties, and a minimum of 80% of the wine must be matured in barrel for at least six years. These oxidative, nutty wines are ready to drink at bottling.
Cape LBV: A darkly colored wine made from red varieties, Cape LBV must be matured in oak barrels for at least two years, with a minimum requirement of bottle and barrel maturation of three years. At least 85% of the wine must come from the stated harvest year.
Cape Vintage: Made from red varieties from a single harvest year, Cape Vintage wines are matured in oak casks for a minimum of one year. They are sold only as vintage wines and in glass bottles. Generally, these wines are slightly drier in style than those of the other red categories.
Cape Vintage Reserve: Based on the best selection of Cape Vintage wines, Cape Vintage Reserve wines are designed to age in bottle for decades.
As possibly the oldest style of wine made in the United States, Angelica is named for the type of fortified wine made in the early 18th century by Spanish missionaries near Los Angeles. This wine traditionally relied on Mission (elsewhere known as Criolla Chica, País, and Listán Prieto), a relatively neutral and low-acid black grape brought from Spain and used by the priests of the many Spanish missions. Today, other grapes, including Muscat of Alexandria and Viognier, are also used.
Angelica is made in a range of styles. Very ripe or even slightly sun-dried grapes are crushed and macerated, with grape spirit as high as 90% ABV poured over the must, resulting in a fortified wine of varying levels of residual sugar and alcohol. In some versions, the grape must starts fermentation and may almost complete it before the spirit is added to arrest fermentation.
Fortified wines are a focal point of top-tier beverage programs and can be used throughout a meal, with, for example, bright and tart Manzanilla to start, savory and textured Verdelho for roasted courses, and rich Rutherglen Muscat for dessert. From a business perspective, these wines create opportunities to drive sales, and they produce less waste than other wines, as they last longer when stored properly.
Fortified wines are best offered to guests in by-the-glass formats or as pairings. The ideal way to encourage guests to enjoy them is by highlighting the stories behind the wines and their ability to pair with any cuisine, as their elevated alcohol and lower acidity provide a unique texture.
On a wine list, fortified wines can be included in various ways. A fortified wine section organizes everything on one page; it should be split by region of origin or dry and sweet styles. Alternatively, these wines can be integrated into the list, with the drier styles listed near sparkling wines and the sweet styles with dessert wines. When fortified wines are served, they should be at cellar temperature. Because of the higher ABV of fortified wines, an appropriate serving size is two to three ounces.
Knowledge of fortified wines provides beverage professionals with not only a deeper understanding of the history and trajectory of wine but also opportunities to drive experiences for clients and guests.
Compiled by Demetri Walters MW (December 2024)
Edited by Stacy Ladenburger
Barquín, Jesús, and Peter Liem. Sherry, Manzanilla, and Montilla: A Guide to the Traditional Wines of Andalucía. Mantius, 2012.
Jackson, Ronald. Wine Science. Academic Press, 1994.
Liddell, Alexander. Madeira: The Mid-Atlantic Wine. 1st ed. Faber & Faber, 1998.
Mayson, Richard. Port and the Douro. 5th ed. Infinite Ideas, 2024.
Rankine, Bryce. Making Good Wine: A Manual of Winemaking Practice for Australia and New Zealand. Sun Books, 1989.
Spence, Godfrey. The Port Companion: A Connoisseur’s Guide. Apple Press, 1997.
Many thanks to the following individuals for contributing their knowledge to this guide.
Francisco Albuquerque, Blandy’s Madeira
Dimitris Antoniou, KEO
Maryna Calow, Wines of South Africa
Savvas Constantinou, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Viticulture, Cyprus
Alexandra Curatolo, Curatolo Arini Marsala
Giorgos Ftenogiannis, UWC Samos
Laura Jewell MW, Wine Australia
Anna Loisel, Sopexa
Andrea Lucas, Comissão Vitivinícola Regional da Península de Setúbal
Carmen Patrícia de Abreu Santana, IVBAM
Anthony Symington, Symington Family Estates
Excellent, as always, Dimitri. Thank you!
Many thanks Gianluca. I hope you find it useful. Happy New Year. Rgs, Demetri