Spain

Home to the world’s largest vineyard area, Spain boasts a winegrowing history that is ancient and discontinuous. Several events throughout its three millennia of viticulture have threatened the industry, including the Moorish conquest of Iberia, the phylloxera crisis, a devastating Civil War, and several decades under a fascist regime, during which winemaking customs lost favor to bulk production and cooperatives. Today, Spain’s languages, cultures, and food and wine traditions remain distinct—long after the country's unification in the late 15^th and early 16^th centuries.

Spain’s heritage styles—its deep-hued rosados, nutty rancios, and slowly aged gran reservas—are now joined by more contemporary aesthetics. While some growers have adapted to a modern palate, others hold to tradition. Others still seek to reimagine classic Spanish wines for the 21^st century, reclaiming indigenous grape varieties and marrying innovation to ancestry. Born from these varied philosophical approaches is a Spanish wine industry equipped with the diversity and talent to capture new generations of consumers while safeguarding a long-cherished identity.

History of Spain

Ancient History

Anthropological studies have found trace evidence of Vitis vinifera in Spain dating as early as 3000 BCE. Fragments of vine wood and other vestiges of ancient grapes have been identified at three sites in Southern Spain. The introduction of viticulture to Iberia, however, is widely attributed to the Phoenicians, who arrived and established what would become Cádiz in today’s Andalucía approximately two millennia later, around 1100 or 800 BCE, depending on the account. A seafaring and mercantile people, the Phoenicians, whose borders corresponded roughly to modern-day Lebanon, traveled across the Mediterranean basin trading goods, among them wine. Examples of lagares (stone troughs used for crushing grapes) dating to the period have been found in several locations in southern Spain. Evidence also suggests that Jerez’s famed Macharnudo vineyard was planted soon after Phoenician colonization.

But the Phoenicians weren’t the first to settle Iberia. By the Bronze Age, two distinct cultures had been established—the Iberians, who had arrived from North Africa, and the Celts, who came from further north. The Greeks were next to arrive. Their first major outpost, however, was more northern, near the Pyrenees, a city they called Emporion (today Ampurias, or Empúries in Catalan). The Carthaginians descended from the Phoenician people and succeeded them in trade relations between the Eastern and Western Mediterranean. They clashed with the Romans, both in Iberia and beyond. Tensions escalated into the Second Punic War, where Greeks, Iberians, and Celts fought for both the Carthaginians (led by the general Hannibal) and the Romans. Ultimately, Rome prevailed, by 206 BCE driving the Carthaginians from what the Romans then called Hispania.

The Romans expanded upon the traditions of winegrowing already established on the Iberian Peninsula, bringing modern technologies and improved wine quality. They introduced various innovations, including the implementation of smaller amphorae constructed from finer, more durable, and less porous clays. The Romans also exported some Iberian wines back to Rome and the Italian Peninsula. Rome’s stronghold over Iberia began to crumble in the late fourth and early fifth centuries CE, less than 100 years before the Western Roman Empire’s fall. The Visigoths, after sacking Rome in 410, settled in Gaul and Spain. Other Germanic tribes, including the Vandals, Suevi, and Alans, also invaded Iberia. The Visigoths, who had already converted to Arian Christianity (not Catholicism, as the Franks had), triumphed over the other tribes and extended their reach throughout the peninsula, which they would rule for the next three centuries.

Medieval Times to Early Modern Period

In 711, Ṭāriq ibn Ziyād led a Muslim Berber army across the Strait of Gibraltar, and the following year, he defeated King Roderick, Spain’s last Visigoth monarch. This began the Moorish conquest of Spain, and within a half decade, nearly all of Iberia had fallen under Muslim rule, save some stretches in the north. The Moors offered some degree of religious tolerance toward the Jews and Christians they had conquered. While alcohol is strictly forbidden in Islamic scripture, viticulture and winemaking persisted in Iberia over the course of their leadership. In addition to wine, grapes were cultivated for raisins and distillation—a science mastered by the Moors, though its applications were for medicine, perfume, and other goods, never for consumption.

The Reconquista (reconquest) of Spain by Christian forces began almost immediately upon the Moors’ arrival. Though it would take almost eight centuries for the peninsula to completely come into Catholic reign, they slowly chipped away at Moorish territory over this timespan. Notably, Porto was reconquered in 868, a date typically given to the initial establishment of Portugal as separate from Spain. This piecemeal Reconquista of Iberia allowed for a series of autonomous kingdoms, which would only later unify and form what is now considered Spain. As Moorish reach waned, French monks crossed the Pyrenees to establish monasteries in these newly independent areas, bringing with them winemaking knowledge. Some of the earliest monasteries were in Galicia’s Ribeiro area, and their grapegrowing success led the English to import their wines across the Bay of Biscay.

In 1469, Isabella I of Castile married Ferdinand II of Aragon, both heirs to their respective kingdoms, representing the de facto unification of Spain once Ferdinand succeeded the throne in 1479. The joint rulers expelled the remaining Moors (as well as the Jews) from Granada in 1492, the same year Christopher Columbus set sail for the Americas in Ferdinand and Isabella’s name.

The Renaissance years also brought a renaissance for Spain’s wines. Despite the ongoing conflict with England, including its devastating defeat of Spain’s armada in 1588, the country became a critical export market for Iberian wines. English influence and investment in Sherry (as well as Port) remains clear today. England gained a palate for sack, considered a forerunner of Sherry, though important examples of Málaga sack and Canary sack are also well documented. Scholars debate exactly what sack was—particularly its degree of sweetness and whether or not the wines were fortified. It was likely an inexpensive imitation of the dried-grape wines that had reemerged in Italy and Greece in the Middle Ages (such as Tuscan vin santo). While the Italian and Greek examples were highly prized and incredibly expensive, the Spanish diluted the market and likely the wines themselves, blending raisinated grapes with fresh must to yield a poorer-quality product. The remarkable expansion of European wine stocks following the end of the Reconquista favored these less expensive sacks over their eastern counterparts. Those wines were primarily accessed by nobility, while sack achieved a wider audience, including England’s middle class.

Fortification likely came later, but by the time of the Age of Exploration, it was an important preservative, allowing Spain’s wines to cross the Atlantic. The high amounts of residual sugar in some wines, as well as intentionally oxidative rancio styles, also prevented spoilage on these long voyages. In its early years, Spain forbade its new colonies from producing their own wines, with the purpose of bolstering Spanish transatlantic exports (still, early wine industries were created in Argentina and Chile).

The Spanish achieved other technological advancements during this timeframe, such as the transition from animal skins and amphorae to wooden butts and casks as storage vessels. Toward the late 1700s, Manuel Esteban Quintano Quintano, a priest from Rioja, traveled to Bordeaux and observed the oenological practices there. Upon returning, he began to experiment with cask-aging, a completely foreign practice locally. He went on to export his wines to Cuba in barrel, receiving a positive response. Yet financial challenges—such as the cost of investment and aging before sale—and cultural pushback stopped barriques from catching on.

That would change in the mid-1800s, when two prominent Spaniards were exiled during the Carlist Wars, a series of civil wars throughout that century. Peruvian-born Luciano de Murrieta García-Lemoine, later the Marqués de Murrieta, spent part of his exile in Bordeaux studying the region’s wines. He would later adopt Bordeaux’s élevage techniques at his own Logroño property, with his first oaked vintage in 1852. Camilo Hurtado de Amézaga y Balmaseda, the Marqués de Riscal, similarly returned from exile in Bordeaux. Along with knowledge of Bordeaux winemaking, he brought cuttings of Cabernet Sauvignon, first harvesting the resulting vines in 1860.

Phylloxera to Franco

The great phylloxera crisis that ravaged vineyards worldwide throughout the mid- to late 19^th century initially proved beneficial to the Spanish wine industry. It wasn’t the first scourge to hit Europe; oidium arrived in France in the late 1840s, and during its devastation, the French relied on their southern neighbor to fill their wine deficit. The railway had not yet been constructed, so Spanish vineyard growth was concentrated around port cities such as Alicante. When phylloxera first took hold in France in the 1860s, the country needed replenishment once again but could look to the interior, using rail transport. Rioja was one of the chief beneficiaries, and its cultural and financial exchange with the French during the last decades of the 19^th century allowed for the evolution of Rioja wine as it is generally understood today. An 1877 trade deal between France and Spain reduced tariffs on the outgoing wines, further allowing Spain’s industry to boom. In all, Spain’s vineyard area rose 40% between 1860 and 1888.

This expansion, however, amplified the tremendous bust that followed once phylloxera entered Spain in the late 1880s. Trade agreements were lifted, and in 1892, tariffs were imposed on Spanish wines coming into France, whose own vineyards began to recover and who also found in Algeria a new source of wine. Spain had experienced a 32-fold increase in exports between 1850 and 1891. At the peak during the phylloxera crisis, Spain provided 80% of imports into France, a number that dwindled to 26% in the 1930s. By the time phylloxera arrived in Spain, its treatment was understood—grafting onto phylloxera-resistant American rootstock—though the country was left little time for recovery between its own epidemic and World War I. At the onset of the war, Spain had lost one-third of its national vineyard. The industry was further stifled as France recovered, no longer needing droves of Spanish imports.

The 20^th century offered little relief to Spain and its wines. The king went into exile in 1931 after local elections that gave a majority to republican parties, and the Second Republic was proclaimed. In 1936, Francisco Franco led the Nationalist uprising against the Republicans and became head of state. The Civil War lasted until 1939, and Franco would rule as dictator until his death in 1975. In the decades following the Spanish Civil War, Spain’s wine industry struggled to modernize. As poverty swept rural winegrowing areas, production was centralized under local cooperatives that emphasized quantity over quality. Other than Sherry and a few select wineries, including the iconic but elusive Vega Sicilia, Spanish wine was largely ignored by international audiences. Poorer-quality grapes like Palomino (vinified as a table wine) gained widespread plantings due to their vigor. Spain continues to suffer from the reputation established during this time, as well as the persistent bulk industry that dominates production.

Toward the end of Franco’s regime, there were signs of a new era for Spanish wine. In the 1960s, Miguel Torres introduced stainless steel and temperature-controlled fermentation to his family’s winery in Catalonia. In 1972, famed French enologist and winemaker Émile Peynaud, working as a consultant for the Marqués de Riscal, identified Rueda and its grape Verdejo for the possibility of creating a more contemporary style of non-oxidative white wine. He also suggested planting Sauvignon Blanc in the region.

Spain’s transition to democracy began in 1975. The first general election since 1936 was held in 1977, and the country started its return to greater economic prosperity with more potential international business. In 1986, Spain joined the European Union; in 1999, it adopted the euro, which began circulating in 2002. Its democratization opened opportunities for Spain’s aspiring winemakers to travel and study in France, California, and beyond, returning with contemporary practices. Fit with a global perspective, these younger generations also sparked a new passion for Spain’s heritage styles and indigenous varieties. As a result, Spanish wine today is more diverse and internationally accessible than ever.

Spanish Wine in Context

According to the International Organisation of Vine and Wine, in 2018, Spain harvested 969,000 hectares of vines, equal to 13% of the global vineyard surface and more than any other country. That also corresponds to roughly 2% of Spain’s total land being dedicated to viticulture. Spain, however, is not the world’s largest producer of wine. It comes in third, with 44.4 million hectoliters, trailing Italy and France. The discrepancy in these two rankings might be accounted for through low yields, the wide vineyard spacing of Spain’s plentiful old vine sites, and the distillation of grapes for brandy. Spain does eclipse all other nations as the world’s largest exporter of wine, shipping 21.1 million hectoliters outside its borders. Yet the total value of Spain’s exports is less than a third of France’s and less than half of Italy’s. This is due to Spain’s substantial bulk industry, comprising more than 50% of total output, a great deal of which is sold to France and bottled as Vin de France.

Land & Climate

The Land

Iberia represents the meeting of the Atlantic Ocean with the Mediterranean Sea through the Strait of Gibraltar, which halts the near convergence of Europe with Northern Africa. This has allowed the peninsula a cultural mixing unique in Western Europe and has significant implications on geological and climatic conditions.

Spain is separated from France by the Pyrenees Mountains, the small nation of Andorra nestled within that border as well. It shares the Iberian Peninsula with Portugal, which occupies the southwestern corner. Mainland Spain’s latitude is roughly between 36° and 44° N, placing it squarely within the range of 30° to 50° N considered standard for quality viticulture. It follows only Switzerland in having the highest average elevation in Europe, and this elevation proves essential to maintaining freshness for many regions. According to The World Atlas of Wine, “a good 90% of all Spanish vineyards are higher in altitude than any major French wine region.”

At the heart of Iberia, Spain sits atop the Meseta Central, a large plateau that includes the capital Madrid, which has an average elevation of 660 meters above sea level. The country is bisected by the Sistema Central, a mountain range that effectively separates the Meseta in two. The northern section is both higher and smaller than the southern portion. In addition to the Pyrenees and the Sistema Central, several mountain ranges cut through the Spanish countryside. The Cantabrian Mountains begin in Galicia and continue parallel to the northern coast. The Sistema Ibérico runs perpendicular to the Sistema Central, stretching from Castilla y León to Valencia. The Sierra Morena range borders the Meseta Central to the south, and the Sistema Penibético, which includes the Sierra Nevada range, lines the southeast of the peninsula.

Water surrounds Spain, with the Mediterranean to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and its gulf, the Bay of Biscay, forming a right triangle with northern Iberia, western France, and the British Isles. Several major rivers flow through Spain, and vineyards are cultivated on many of their banks. Some of the most important, from north to south, are the Miño, Ebro, Duero, Tagus, Guadiana, and Guadalquivir.

Legally, Spain is divided into 17 autonomous communities, or comunidades autónomas, further split into 50 provinces. Fifteen of Spain’s autonomous communities compose the mainland, while two involve a series of islands: the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean and the Canary Islands off the coast of Northern Africa. All but two, Cantabria and Asturias, have DO wine regions. Additionally, Spain has two autonomous cities, Melilla and Ceuta, both interrupting Morocco’s northern coastline.

Climate

Despite the common image of arid, windmill-dotted plains, the climate across Spain varies widely. Generalizations might specify some pockets as Mediterranean, continental, or maritime, but it is difficult to make broad assumptions.

The country generally grows warmer toward the south, with the Sistema Central providing a marked shift in temperatures. Exceptions exist, such as the warmer pockets of the Catalan coast and cold, high-elevation sites in Andalucía. Spain experiences seasonality, especially beyond the Mediterranean coastline, with both scorching summers and harsh winters in some regions. Diurnal swings can be wide, particularly at higher elevations. Several wind patterns also affect temperatures. The Poniente blows from the west, bringing cold air from the Atlantic, while the Leveche brings in hot, drying currents from the African desert. Another warm—but humid—wind, the Levante, comes in from the east, funnels through Gibraltar, and can be felt throughout southeast Spain.

The northern coast, extending through Galicia and narrowing to its end in Basque Country, encompasses what is often called Green Spain. Rainfall here is the highest in the country, with parts of Galicia receiving more than 2,000 millimeters per year. Precipitation drops dramatically just outside Green Spain’s boundaries, with much of the country receiving less than 500 millimeters annually. Dry-farming remains standard, though irrigation for viticulture was legalized in 1996 in certain circumstances.

Spanish Wine Law

Spain’s wines are organized under a quality pyramid similar to the Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée system in France, Denominazione di Origine Controllata in Italy, or Denominação de Origem Controlada in Portugal. The first Spanish Denominaciones de Origen (DOs) were awarded in 1932, four years before the codification of France’s first AOCs.

The lowest-quality tier of Spanish wine is Vino de Mesa (or VdM), translating to “table wine.” These wines can be blended from various areas of the country but by law will bear no region on the label, although they can list the address of the registered bottler or, if within an established DO, only the postal code. Since 2008, these wines have been allowed to state both vintage and variety. A step above, Vino de la Tierra (VdlT) will come from within a confined area of varying size, from a collection of villages to a whole autonomous community. The VdlT might also be used for quality wines made by experimental winemakers looking to operate outside the confines of higher-tier regulations. Both VdM and VdlT wines fall under the broader table wine umbrella within European Union law, while VdlT wines are also designated Protected Geographical Indication (PGI), which mandates that 85% of grapes derive from a given area.

The remaining tiers all qualify as PDOs (Protected Denominations of Origin) under the European Union. Spain continues to legislate several further sub-designations within that category: Vino de Calidad con Indicación Geográfica (VC or VCIG), Denominación de Origen (DO), Denominación de Origen Calificada (DOCa), and Vino de Pago (VP). The most basic PDO wine is VCIG. While still overseen by a governing body, or órgano de gestion, VCIGs adhere to less rigid regulations than higher tiers. The VCIG tier also operates as a stepping stone between VdlT areas aspiring for Denominación de Origen status. Regions must wait a minimum five years before applying for elevation to DO.

The DO rung encompasses most regions familiar to wine consumers. Rías Baixas, Sherry, Ribera del Duero, and more than 60 others are DO wines. In general, DO regions refer to a single, confined winegrowing area, but non-contiguous appellations can be designated as well (the widest-spanning example being Cava). Each DO is governed by a consejo regulador, to which wineries must submit samples of all of their wines to make sure they adhere to regional standards. It is also the role of the consejo to enforce the pliego de condiciones, the official document that dictates appellation regulations. The pliego de condiciones clarifies every aspect of winegrowing, including yields, vine training, viticultural practices, vinification techniques, and permitted varieties.

Spain's quality tier above DO is DOCa. While DOCa has no equivalent in France, it could be compared to Italy’s Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita classification. Unlike Italy’s DOCGs, however, Spain only has two DOCa regions. The first, Rioja, was granted DOCa status in 1991, three years after the category was established. Priorat followed and was recognized by Spain in 2009 (after elevation at the Catalan level in 2000). It usually features the Catalan translation Denominació d’Origen Qualificada (DOQ) on its labels.

A final PDO category, Vino de Pago, was established in 2003. Vinos de Pago were first conceptualized in Castilla-La Mancha, which still has the highest concentration of these appellations. A Vino de Pago is a designation awarded to a single estate that may exist within or outside of a DO. Few Vinos de Pago are found within prestigious appellations. Vinos de Pago must be estate bottled and the vineyard owned by the winery operating in its bounds. The estate must be in production for a minimum of 10 years before applying for Vino de Pago status. Regulations within Vinos de Pago are very specific and often more stringent than those of DOs that surround them. For example, Vinos de Pago, in setting their own pliegos, might allow for the use of less-traditional varieties or methods, ­in contrast to nearby DOs. In theory, a Vino de Pago should transcend the quality of wines vinified in its broader DO, should there be one, or at least show distinction. In reality, many contest the effectiveness of the Vino de Pago scheme, debating the overall quality of these wines and how many cater to more international palates. Others point to the relatively large size of individual Pagos, the smallest being 1.5 hectares (Vallegarcía), and how some might use the category to skirt other restrictions under DO law, such as the prohibition against irrigation.

A hypothetical Vino de Pago Calificado category is also primed should an estate within Rioja or Priorat (or any future DOCas) apply for Pago status. As of 2025, 27 Vino de Pago estates are active. They should not be confused with Grandes Pagos de España, a separate non-governmental consortium of Spanish wineries who co-market their wines with minimal overlap.

Beyond appellations, Spain also conforms to a series of aging designations that are regulated on its bottles. Historically, Spanish wines have been associated with long-term aging in oak, particularly American, barrels. The aging classification scheme attempts to formalize the different styles of wine that emerged under that tradition, and each will require a minimum amount of time spent in barrel, as well as total time aging, before release to the market.

While these regulations exist for the whole of Spain, several regions, including Rioja and Ribera del Duero, have drafted their own, stricter minimums for aging requirements. Yet even in regions that still champion these terms, the aging classification has become less popular, as producers favor shorter aging in newer French oak vessels, or less oak influence altogether. They are particularly rare for white and especially rosado wines. Wineries that do continue to bottle age-designated wines might far exceed these minimum requirements by years or even decades, including at the crianza tier.

In recent years, Spanish winegrowers have shown interest in creating further regional breakdowns with the aim of communicating greater specificity of place on their labels, beyond often wide-reaching appellations. The movement takes inspiration from Burgundy and its pyramid of regional, village, premier cru, and grand cru wines. The first to make such strides was Priorat in 2009, with the creation of the Vi de Vila category, allowing for wines to be labeled by village. Bierzo and Rioja followed suit in 2017, as did Rueda in 2019. These village programs break with traditions of blending, long viewed as fundamental in many Spanish wine regions.

The Grapes of Spain

White Grapes

Airén: The fifth most planted wine grape globally, and second among white grapes (according to the International Organisation of Vine and Wine’s 2017 report), Airén is better recognized for its quantity than its potential quality. Suggested to be indigenous to Cuenca in Castilla-La Mancha, Airén is extremely vigorous, in addition to being both drought and disease resistant. As a result, the variety allows for extensive plantings, in 2017 covering more than 22% of Spain’s vineyard area. Airén is, however, on the decline, as vine-pull incentives have reduced its hectarage. Historically, it has been used as a blending component to soften Tempranillo in various appellations. When fermented on its own, Airén delivers inoffensive but indistinctive white wines. Today, it is widely distilled into brandy, drawing parallels to Cognac’s rather neutral Ugni Blanc.

Albariño: Considered one of Iberia’s finest white grapes, Albariño is most notably cultivated in Galicia and primarily Rías Baixas, whose appellation name was once simply Albariño. Just south of Galicia is the Portuguese region of Minho, where the grape—there referred to as Alvarinho—is often a key quality component in Vinho Verde production. Formerly misidentified as Savagnin, Albariño displays a degree of genetic diversity in northwestern Iberia that suggests it is quite ancient. Its offspring include Caíño Blanco, a crossing with Amaral. In the vineyard, Albariño is susceptible to mildew, but its thicker skins make it less prone to botrytis, allowing it to succeed in the damp climate of Rías Baixas. It proves particularly well adapted to granite soils and ripens early to mid-season. In Rías Baixas, some Albariño vines as old as 300 years remain in production.

Wines vinified from Albariño are often identified by their elevated acidity and saline, peachy flavors. Also typical are gentle floral aromatics and bitterness on the palate. Depending on style, Albariño can be crafted into lighter, crisp white wines intended for immediate consumption, as well as more structured renditions, with extended lees contact and capacity to age. A few producers ferment and mature in oak. While Albariño is most recognized in monovarietal bottlings, it was historically only blended. Today, the grape can still be used in blends, both in Rías Baixas and elsewhere in Galicia.

Godello: Though less well known than Albariño, Godello is Galicia’s other exemplary white variety and can yield wines of equal pedigree. While the grape faced the possibility of extinction in the 1970s, it soon after experienced a resurgence in Valdeorras, its most noted region. It is also found in all other Galician appellations, as well as Bierzo.

The early-ripening Godello offers small-berried, compact clusters with thick skins but is more vigorous than Albariño. It shows susceptibility to botrytis and powdery mildew. Godello is widely praised for its freshness and stony, savory character, which is matched with a medium-full body. The grape also has the potential for longevity.

Macabeo: Also known as Viura in Rioja and Macabeu in Catalonia, Macabeo is believed to originate near Penedès. Research has identified obscure varieties Hebén and Brustiano Faux as Macabeo’s parents and a possible genetic relationship to common blending partner Xarel·lo.

Producing large, compact, and late-ripening bunches, Macabeo can readily be infected by botrytis, especially in less-suitable, wetter environments. Macabeo’s adaptability to an array of winemaking techniques allows it to be grown in a number of appellations. However, when bottled as a simple white wine, either alone or in blends, it can lack distinction. In Rioja, it provides the backbone to traditional oak-aged, semi-oxidative white wines; though scarce, these are extremely long lived. There are also examples of fresher, more modern white Riojas crafted by a new generation. Macabeo is a traditional ingredient in the Cava blend, along with Xarel·lo and Parellada.

Palomino Fino: Palomino Fino, or simply Palomino, is most recognized for its contributions to Sherry. The ancient variety is native to Andalucía and has been documented in the Canary Islands, where it is called Listán Blanco (no relation to Listán Prieto), since the 15^th century. It purportedly earns its name from the knight Fernán Yáñez Palomino, who first brought the grape there. Palomino can also be found in France, albeit in declining hectarage, where it historically has been distilled into Armagnac.

Palomino is a vigorous variety, amassing high yields of large clusters with large, thin-skinned berries. The grape performs best in hot, dry climates, such as those found in the Jerez triangle, but can suffer from low acidity. As a still table wine, Palomino results in a rather flavorless white with diminished alcohol. Yet it can accomplish great complexity in dry generoso styles of Sherry and provides the core of blended sweet Sherry, mixed with Pedro Ximénez, Moscatel, or other grape-derived sweetening agents. Producers in Andalucía continue to experiment with unfortified styles, with or without the influence of flor. On the Canary Islands, Palomino can yield white table wines of higher quality.

Parellada: Though almost entirely confined to Catalonia, the vigorous, late-ripening Parellada is native to Aragon. It may be related to Albillo Real. Parellada is one of the three primary Cava varieties and is appreciated as a softening agent. Its more moderate acidity, as well as its apple flavors and delicate floral aromas, can add delicacy to the more muscular Xarel·lo and Macabeo. Parellada is also harvested for still wines intended for early consumption in several Catalan DOs, and small plantings are found in Mallorca, where it is permitted for still and sparkling wines.

Verdejo: While Albariño carries broader international recognition, Verdejo is one of the most popular white varieties in Spain, with plantings increasing tremendously over recent decades. It is believed to be indigenous to Rueda, its most famous appellation, and has been shown to share a sibling relationship with Godello. Verdejo’s name comes from verde, referencing its green hue. Verdejo should not be mistaken for Verdelho, the noble Madeira variety.

Verdejo yields small-to-medium clusters, and its berries are thin skinned. While it demonstrates resistance to drought, it is prone to powdery mildew. Its wines show a juicy mid-palate with flavors of ripe orchard fruits, complemented by an almond skin-like bitterness. Verdejo is often bottled on its own but can be blended with Sauvignon Blanc. Most Verdejo bottlings are made using stainless steel, selected yeast, and minimal time on lees, but some winemakers are incorporating new oak, skin contact, and more lees work to explore the grape’s range of expression. Verdejo is also vinified into sparkling wines and can still be found in its original incarnation as a fortified rancio-style wine. The variety was better associated with this historic product until more modern winemaking techniques introduced by Émile Peynaud gave way to a new dry table wine style that has become the preferred expression among consumers.

Xarel·lo: Thought to be indigenous to Catalonia, Xarel·lo is most widely utilized as a key grape in the production of Cava. It is employed to add structure and increase aging capacity, as well as for its persistent acidity. With richer fruit flavors, Xarel·lo can add body to Cava’s mid-palate. Such attributes are also enjoyed in Xarel·lo’s still wines; for these, it is generally considered one of the most distinguished white varieties of Catalonia. With thick-skinned berries, Xarel·lo is relatively botrytis resistant but prone to coulure and mildew. Xarel·lo Vermell is a pigmented mutation cultivated in Alella.

Other Varieties: Classic white varieties of other origins play a minor role in Spain, with Sauvignon Blanc among the most successful. It is planted in Castilla-La Mancha and Castilla y Léon, where it can be bottled monovarietally in Rueda or blended with Verdejo. Sauvignon Blanc is now authorized as a principle white grape in Rioja, as is Chardonnay. Somontano cultivates Chardonnay and Gewürztraminer. Both Muscat Blanc à Petit Grains, here called Moscatel de Grano Menudo, and Moscatel de Alejandría (Muscat of Alexandria) are grown in Spain. The latter produces the better-known wines, with exceptional sweet bottlings found in the Sherry region, particularly around Chipiona, and in Málaga.

Red Grapes

Bobal: Tied with Garnacha as Spain’s third most planted variety (behind Airén and Tempranillo), Bobal is slowly repairing a poor reputation of lower-quality wines. It is native to Utiel-Requena in Valencia, which leads in terms of top examples of the grape. Bobal is high yielding, has large clusters, and often ripens unevenly. It has long been consigned to cooperative and bulk wine production, especially for rosado, but at its best, particularly when harvested from old bush vines at higher-elevation sites, Bobal can offer deep wines with a firm tannic structure.

Cariñena: Cariñena, or Carignan in France and elsewhere, is known as Carinyena or Mazuelo in various Spanish regions and also has the less-often used regional names of Mazuela, Crujillón, and Samsó. Widespread plantings across Europe suggest it is an ancient variety. Ironically, in the Aragon DO Cariñena, Garnacha is the primary grape, although Cariñena is planted there. Cariñena can be found in various pockets throughout Spain but has gained traction in Catalonia, including in Priorat, where it can offer serious monovarietal wines and contribute to blends. It serves as a minor blending variety in Rioja.

Cariñena achieves high yields, elevated acidity, and elevated tannins. Accordingly, it has been used as a workhouse grape around the globe. Ripening late, Cariñena requires a warm climate. In cooler vintages or climates, it can struggle to ripen and result in overly acidic wines. Its best examples, harvested from old bush vines, show great depth and ability to age.

Garnacha: While the variety might be more recognized as Grenache in Mediterranean France and the New World, it appears to be indigenous to Spain (likely Aragon or Catalonia), where it is known as Garnacha. Though Italian researchers have argued for Sardinia as its origin (there, it is known as Cannonau), Spain contains the greatest degree of genetic diversity for the grape, which typically connotes the true source. Debate is also given to Garnacha’s etymology, with some believing it is a derivation of Vernaccia, a family of Italian varieties, while others contest it comes from garnaxa, the Catalan word for a historic red gown worn by legal officials.

Garnacha is the eighth most planted grape in the world. It is cultivated throughout Aragon and Catalonia, where it is called Garnatxa, and finds prestige in Priorat and Montsant, as well as such regions as Navarra, Galicia, and La Mancha. In Rioja, specifically Rioja Oriental, Garnacha is an important blending grape for Tempranillo, for which it supplies alcohol, body, and fruitiness. Across Spain, an abundance of old vine, head-trained material can be found.

Garnacha requires a long growing season, budding early and ripening late. It is prone to a number of diseases, as well as millerandage, but shows good resistance to wood diseases—one factor accounting for the longevity of many of its vines. By the time Garnacha reaches phenological ripeness, it will potentially have accumulated a significant amount of sugar, leading to elevated alcohol levels, though often reduced acidity. In the cellar, Garnacha is susceptible to oxidation.

Like Pinot Noir, Blanc, and Gris, Garnacha involves various color mutations (the red grape more precisely referred to as Garnacha Tinta), though technically all constitute a single variety. Garnacha Blanca (Grenache Blanc) is a significant contributor to Spanish whites and yields high-quality wines in Aragon and Catalonia. The pink-skinned variant, Garnacha Roja (Grenache Gris), is also grown, though it is less prevalent in Spain than in France. The red Garnacha Peluda (Garnatxa Peluda or Lladoner Pelut in Catalonia), another mutation of the same variety, features hairy undersides to its leaves and finds favor for its thicker skins and higher acidity as compared to Garnacha Tinta.

As a monovarietal red table wine, Garnacha tends to show a low to moderate level of tannins, as well as an array of fruit characters that can vary from crunchy to jammy depending on ripeness. It is also blended with a range of partners, both in Spain and abroad. Garnacha carries a long history of quality fortified sweet wines, in Catalonia and across the border in Roussillon and southern France. It is a common choice for rosado production.

Garnacha Tintorera: Garnacha Tintorera, also known as Alicante Bouschet, is the offspring of Garnacha and Petit Bouschet. It was first crossed by Henri Bouschet at Domaine de la Calmette, just north of Nîmes, between 1855 and 1865. Technically, plantings include two sibling varieties. Still grown in southern France, it has found tremendous success in Spain. Its most significant Spanish strongholds stretch from Valencia to Castilla-La Mancha to Galicia.

Garnacha Tintorera is a teinturier variety, meaning both its skins and flesh are red. As a result, its wines can be deeply pigmented, to the point of inkiness, and very tannic. Its yields are high; the best examples result from severe crop management or older, less-productive vines. With an early budbreak, the grape is vulnerable to spring frosts and a variety of maladies throughout the growing season, in particular bacterial threats.

Listán Negro: Though often mistakenly believed to be related to Listán Prieto (also known as País, Mission, and Criolla Chica) or to be a pigmented mutation of Listán Blanco, Listán Negro is not related to either, nor has a genetic relationship to any other variety been discovered. In contrast to both Listán Blanco and Prieto, Listán Negro is native to the Canary Islands, where it is the most planted red grape and produces its most noteworthy red wines. A highly productive variety, Listán Negro is vinified using a number of practices, including carbonic maceration and oak aging, and results in perfumed wines.

Mencía: Mencía has attracted recent attention for its medium-bodied red wines. The grape likely originates in Bierzo, the appellation in northwestern Castilla y León where it continues to be cultivated. Mencía is successful in all of Galicia’s DO regions and particularly in Ribeira Sacra, where it grows on steeply terraced vineyards. In Portugal, it is known as Jaen.

Mencía clusters are small, though the berries of average size. Finicky in the vineyard, Mencía faces challenges with wind, mildew, and botrytis. Its wines typically pair fresh, precise red fruit flavors with stonier, savory qualities. Although new oak is occasionally employed, several of Mencía’s most complex, longest-lived wines are aged in neutral barrels or other inert vessels. The most celebrated examples regularly come from century-old vineyards such as Las Lamas and Moncerbal in Bierzo and Pombeiras in Ribera Sacra.

Monastrell: Monastrell is believed to be indigenous to the Valencian town Sagunto. Its historic Catalan name Morvedre gave way to its more recognized French moniker, Mourvèdre. The Spanish name, however, derives from monasteriellu, Latin for “small monastery.” Genetic studies have shown a potential sibling relationship to Graciano, also a blending grape in Rioja. In Spain, Monastrell plantings are most concentrated to the southeast, in Valencia, Murcia, and Castilla-La Mancha. It finds particular success in the appellations Jumilla and Alicante, where many old vine plantings can be found.

Monastrell ripens quite late and features thick-skinned, small- to average-size berries, in compact bunches that are also small to average in size. While the grape resists botrytis, it is difficult to cultivate due to its need for heat later in the growing season and its susceptibility to drought. During vinification, Monastrell demonstrates strong reductive tendencies. When bottled alone, it can yield full-bodied, intense wines with elevated tannins, alcohol, ripe fruit flavors (both red and black), and, often, a spicy herbaceous character—one of its important contributions in blends. Monastrell is also used in Fondillón, the historic oxidative and off-dry late-harvest wine of Alicante.

Tempranillo: Tempranillo is generally regarded as Spain’s signature grape and it is the country's most planted grape. Globally, Tempranillo is the fourth most planted variety among wine grapes, trailing only Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot among reds. It can be found across Spain under many aliases, but it is believed to reach the apex of its expression in Rioja and Ribera del Duero.

Genetic profiling has suggested that Tempranillo shares a parent-offspring relationship with Albillo Mayor, a white variety cultivated in Ribera del Duero and sometimes blended with Tempranillo. It is believed to originate in either Rioja or Navarra. Tempranillo means “little early one,” likely a reference to its small berry size and its early budding and ripening. Across Spain, Tempranillo enjoys broad clonal diversity, with morphological differences adapted to specific locations. The variety is capable of average to higher yields but can be prone to various vine maladies, including Eutypa dieback and powdery mildew. Clusters are average to large in size, consisting of small, compact berries with thick skins. Tempranillo also has a white mutation, Tempranillo Blanco, which is authorized and harvested in Rioja.

Depending on style, Tempranillo can produce a broad array of red to black fruit notes, though its more savory flavors, including leather, earth, and dried herbs, are most often identified. It is responsive to a variety of winemaking techniques, and top-flight examples might be aged in century-old or new American or European oak barrels, among other vessels. Simpler, unoaked examples are abundant as well, as are traditions of carbonic maceration. Tempranillo can be bottled monovarietally but is sometimes blended with various French and Spanish grapes.

Other Varieties: A selection of non-native red grapes is also grown in Spain. Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Malbec are all blending partners for Tempranillo, most famously in Ribera del Duero. Cabernet can frequently be found in varietal bottlings as well. Spanish investment in Syrah grew exponentially in the 2000s, with most plantings concentrated in Castilla-La Mancha. Pinot Noir is poorly suited to Spain’s hotter climate, though some exists, especially for Cava production.

Atlantic Coast

Galicia juts out like a handle from the rest of Spain, occupying the country’s northwestern corner, just above Portugal. Its culture, like its wines, carries a strong regional identity, combining many Portuguese traditions with Celtic foundations derived from its first inhabitants. Celtic religions once largely coexisted with Catholicism, but today, Galicia might be best known as the end of the Camino de Santiago, a pilgrimage route to the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, where Saint James is said to be buried. Many of Galicia’s wines resemble those grown across the border, such as the Vinho Verdes of Portugal’s Minho region (also the name for the river separating the two countries). Galicia is often referred to as Green Spain for its vibrant landscape, a vast departure from the arid oranges and browns that define much of the rest of Iberia.

Rías Baixas

Many Galician wines have attracted recent attention, but Rías Baixas was the first to come to modern prominence. Its Albariño wines helped redefine the global perception of Spanish winemaking. While the country was primarily perceived as an incubator for big, oaked red wines, Rías Baixas delivered a snappy white, as refreshing as it could be serious.

While Albariño is believed to be indigenous to the general area (Galicia or northern Portugal), quality winemaking in Rías Baixas was initiated by the Cistercian monks, arriving from Burgundy either during their pilgrimage to Santiago or for the wedding of Queen Urraca of León to Raymond of Burgundy. The many monasteries that were subsequently set up in the area were dissolved starting in the early 1800s, leading to the privatization of Rías Baixas’ vineyard area. Pazos, as local estates are called, were established, many giving name to the producers who occupy their structures today. Each pazo was outfitted with an hórreo, a granary hoisted above ground by stone pillars. Palacio de Fefiñanes was Rías Baixas’ first commercial winery, founded in 1904, though the palace itself dates to the 17^th century. The DO was not created until the 1980s, first called Denominación Específica Albariño and later Rías Baixas DO upon Spain’s admission into the European Union, as varietal appellation names were forbidden by EU law. In 1987, just 14 wineries existed in the DO. Since that time, the region has received global attention and grown tremendously—it is now home to more than 180 producers. Significant investment has come from other major players in Spanish wine, namely those growing reds in other key regions who seek a quality white for their portfolios.

Rías Baixas takes its names from the “low estuaries” that flow through the region before eventually reaching the ocean. Lush and green, the area is very humid, with between 1,200 and 1,800 millimeters of precipitation annually. Disease pressure is lowered due to Albariño’s thick-skinned nature, and climate change has purportedly mitigated some of the appellation’s more extreme Atlantic influences in recent vintages. Much of the region is planted on decomposed granite, called xabre, with low water retention that serves the rainy environment well.

A non-contiguous region, Rías Baixas is separated into five subzones: Val do Salnés, Ribeira do Ulla, Soutomaior, O Rosal, and Condado do Tea. Val do Salnés is the most historic as well as the largest, containing more than half of the region’s planted hectarage and the majority of its most heralded estates. It is the coldest and wettest area of the appellation, situated on the Atlantic coast north of Pontevedra, and yields wines often identified by a marked salinity. Ribeira do Ulla sits northeast, between Val do Salnés and Santiago de Compostela along the Ulla River. Though it occupies a large swath of land, this is the youngest subzone and only a small contributor to Rías Baixas’ total output. Some, however, posit its northerly positioning may prove advantageous with the progression of climate change. Soutomaior is smallest in both production and size, lying just beneath the Verdugo River near the beginning of the wide Ría de Vigo. O Rosal and Condado do Tea both border Portugal, separated by the Miño River and settling its northern banks. O Rosal reaches the Atlantic Ocean, while Condado do Tea goes further inland. O Rosal is regarded for a broader, richer style of Albariño. Condado do Tea is the warmest and driest subzone, as well as the largest contributor to red wine production (though still minimal).

Rías Baixas, like much of Galicia, is a region of minifundios, small plots of vineyard, on average 0.6 hectares split into approximately four parcels, owned by independent growers. Largescale operations are challenging here, as stitching together substantial patches of land is difficult. Vines are historically trained to a parral, or “pergola,” system. Granite posts hold up the pergolas, and the overhead canopy provides grapes with shelter from the region’s marginal weather and the opportunity to cultivate other crops between vines. This training system also enables greater airflow to combat mildew and rot, encourages greater photosynthesis and ripening by maximizing leaf surface, and protects grapes from sunburn. Younger plantings, however, might be trellised instead. While Rías Baixas has seen a recent boom in development, several old vine Albariño parcels remain, some over 200 or 300 years in age and still in production.

Albariño accounts for more than 96% of Rías Baixas’ total plantings, with Loureira, Treixadura, Caíño Blanco, Torrontés, and Godello also cultivated. A wine must be composed exclusively of Albariño to be varietally labeled. While blended white wines are authorized and demonstrate high quality, the marketing advantages of listing Albariño on labels has inhibited the growth of white blends.

On its own, Albariño can produce varied wines. For an entry-level Albariño, Rías Baixas producers will typically employ exclusively stainless steel before bottling, usually the spring after harvest. These wines are crisp, fruity, and meant for early consumption. A step above will see a more textured Albariño with noted lees impact, from extended sur lie aging and possible bâtonnage. Top Albariños will likely come from older vines and experience lees aging. They may be barrel fermented or aged. These will be the most structured and longest lived Albariños. Some producers may also let their Albariño undergo full malolactic conversion.

Rías Baixas wines (with the exception of Soutomaior) can be labeled by subzone. Val do Salnés and Ribeira do Ulla wines must be composed of at minimum 70% Albariño, Loureira, Treixadura, and Caíño Blanco. Those labeled O Rosal must be at least 70% Albariño and Loureira, while Condado do Tea must contain a minimum 70% Albariño and Treixadura. An exceptionally small amount of sparkling and red wine is made from any combination of Caíño Tinto, Espadeiro, Loureira Tinta, Sousón, Mencía, and Brancellao.

Ribeiro

Ribeiro’s reputation for quality wines dates back to Roman rule and was later continued by the Benedictine and Cistercian monks who tended to its vines. The region’s focal point is the town of Ribadavia, where the rivers Miño and Avia converge, and the Arnoia joins just south. Heavily fragmented vineyard parcels, rooted mostly in decomposed granite, are harvested in these three rivers’ valleys at various elevations. With high humidity and elevated levels of precipitation, Ribeiro is also dangerously susceptible to spring frost; it lost nearly a third of its crop in 2017. Ribeiro’s southwestern border connects to Rías Baixas’ Condado do Tea.

Production in Ribeiro is almost entirely focused upon white wine, with 9 of 10 bottles being white. Though the region was largely replanted to Palomino in the years following the oidium and phylloxera crises, the best whites today come from various local grapes, most importantly the semi-aromatic Treixadura, but also Albariño, Loureiro, Godello, Caíño Blanco, Lado, and Torrontés (of no relation to the Argentine varieties), blended in various combinations. Most of the remaining output is dedicated to red wine from an array of native and Spanish varieties. A final single percent of Ribeiro’s wines is either sparkling or vino tostado.

Ribeira Sacra

Ribeira Sacra forms a crescent shape through the nexus of Galicia’s two major rivers, the Sil and the Miño. The region’s name translates to “sacred riverbanks,” an allusion to the many monasteries once housed here that established the region’s winegrowing traditions in the Middle Ages. The landscape is dramatic, with ancient terraces carved into the steeply descending hillside plantings, resulting in viticultural challenges on par with those of the Mosel, Douro, and Northern Rhône. A young appellation only officially recognized in 1996, Ribeira Sacra has also been responsible for much of Galicia’s recent attention, with producers such as Guímaro, Algueira, and Dominio do Bibei giving a face to the region’s red wine capabilities in addition to its long-admired whites.

Ribeira Sacra is further divided into five subzones: Chantada, Ribeiras do Miño, Amandi, Ribeiras do Sil, and Quiroga-Bibei. Amandi, which sits at the appellation’s center on the steep northern slopes of the Sil, is most historic and most often viewed as highest in quality. Chantada is located on the Miño’s right bank, opposite Ribeiras do Miño. Ribeiras do Sil lies on the left bank of the Sil until just after its confluence with the Miño around the town of Los Peares. Quiroga-Bibei occupies the region’s eastern sector and is carved in half by the Sil. Vineyards along the Sil and near its lower sections tend to be grounded in granitic soils, while the Upper Sil has more slate. The Sil Valley is drier and slightly cooler than the Miño.

Wines produced in Ribeira Sacra are predominately red, with Mencía as the most important grape, covering 90% of vineyards. Here, Mencía can achieve wines perceived as crunchier and lighter in body than those from Bierzo—but often just as complex. Many additional varieties are permitted and can yield exciting wines under the renewed enthusiasm of local producers. Bastardo, locally called Merenzao, has a few varietal examples, typically very floral. Sousón (Vinhão in Portugal) is more deeply pigmented and tannic, while Brancellao (Alvarelhão in Portugal) is more elegant. Caíño Tinto and Tempranillo are also recommended by the consejo, as are Galicia’s three great whites, Albariño, Godello, and Treixadura. The rare labeling term Summum identifies the use of at least 85% principal grapes for both whites and reds. Many are monovarietal, and there are no strict rules surrounding ripeness levels, oak aging, length of aging, or specific quality.

Valdeorras

Valdeorras, Galicia’s easternmost appellation, bridges Ribeira Sacra with Castilla y León’s Bierzo. While it concentrates its red production on Mencía like its neighbors, the region is most praised for its white wines made from Godello. Valdeorras’s name translates to “valley of Gigguri” a nod to the pre-latin tribe of the area. The Sil River flows through the appellation, but the region has a more continental climate than elsewhere in Galicia—less humid, and with drier, hotter summers. Valdeorras is composed of thousands of small vineyard plots, scattered at various elevations from high hillside plantings to lower parcels closer to the riverbanks. Yet it is home to relatively few wineries, which assemble fruit from the many growers operating here. Though various soils can be found in Valdeorras, the region is largely associated with slate, not only in terms of winegrowing but also for roof tiles, an important export.

Godello produces Valdeorras’s most heralded wines, which for some critics can compete with Rías Baixas as Galicia’s finest whites. Often described as mineral, for lack of a better term, Godello wines can achieve marked concentration and complexity both with and without barrel fermentation and aging. Godello might be blended with Doña Blanca (called Dona Branca in Galicia) and Palomino or bottled monovarietally. Reds from Mencía are also produced, as are wines from other Galician and Spanish varieties. Only Mencía (min. 85%) and Godello (min. 100%) can be varietally labeled. In addition to white and red wines, sparkling wine based on Godello and vino tostado (from Godello or red varieties) are also permitted, though the latter style is less associated with Valdeorras than with Ribeiro.

Monterrei

Monterrei lies south of Ribeira Sacra, hugging the Portuguese border. Its river, the Támega, runs south toward the Douro (as the Duero is called once it enters Portugal). Like Valdeorras, the appellation experiences both Atlantic and Continental influences, resulting in hot, dry summers and cold winters. The region contains diverse soils, but the best soil for white wines is granitic sand, and clay and slate are preferable for reds. Despite its ancient tradition of viticulture (Galicia’s oldest winemaking evidence is found here), only a very small number of wineries operate within Monterrei today. However, recent investment in the area suggests future growth for the DO. Monterrei exclusively makes white and red wines, its whites produced from Dona Branca, Godello, and Treixadura, among other regional varieties, and its reds primarily from Mencía and Bastardo, with blending grapes.

Tucked into the western Pyrenees and Iberia’s northern Atlantic Coast, the Basque Country was first inhabited by the Vascones during the Stone Age and remained relatively separate from Roman, Visigoth, and Moorish forces as they dominated the peninsula. The Basque Country remained independent throughout the Spanish Civil War, until Franco, with Hitler’s aid, bombed Guernica in 1937. The Basques maintain a strong sense of cultural identity, and their language, Basque (Euskara), bears no relation to any other. The Basque Country (País Vasco in Spanish and Euskadi in Basque) also holds one of Spain’s most admired culinary heritages. Particularly revered for their seafood, the Basques have made gastronomic destinations out of Michelin-heavy San Sebastián (Donostia) and Bilbao, while also enjoying more casual traditions, namely pintxos, skewered Basque snacks similar to tapas.

In addition to Rioja Alavesa DOCa, the Basque Country contains three DO regions that focus on Chacolí, here called Txakoli, all of them impacted by proximity to the Atlantic. The name translates to "farm wine," a reference to the home winemaking practices prevalent throughout the region’s history. Yet Txakoli, traditionally a fresh, sometimes spritzy white wine, has attracted more commercial interest in recent years. Hondarrabi Zuri (or Ondarrabi Zuri) dominates white plantings, though some have theorized that this name represents three different grape varieties. The DOs of Basque Country also employ various international white grapes for blending, including Folle Blanche, Petit Manseng, Gros Manseng, Riesling, Chardonnay, and Sauvignon Blanc, depending on the appellation. The indigenous red grape Hondarrabi Beltza (Ondarrabi Beltza, of no relation to Hondarrabi Zuri) is grown to a smaller extent, yielding fresh, light-bodied reds. Sparkling and rosado Txakoli also exist, though in the shadow of the region’s white wines.

While all share commonalities, there are distinguishing traits to the three Txakoli DOs: Txakoli de Bizkaia (Bizkaiko Txakolina), Txakoli de Getaria (Getariako Txakolina), and Txakoli de Álava (Arabako Txakolina). Getaria and Bizkaia are more humid, influenced heavily by the Bay of Biscay, requiring careful viticulture to avoid moisture-related disease and to achieve ripeness. Vineyards are planted on sandy, alluvial soils and lie at lower elevations, often close to sea level, though certain sites are planted on well-drained slopes. Getaria was the first established Txakoli DO and remains the most traditional. Bizkaia, centered to the west around Bilbao, has amassed a concentration of many of the Basque Country’s leading producers, benefiting from looser regulations and greater varietal diversity. Established in 2001, Txakoli de Álava is the newest and smallest appellation, its winegrowing area once nearing extinction despite historic significance. Further inland, the DO experiences less coastal influence and humidity pressure.

Duero River Valley

Castilla y León is still colloquially referred to as Old Castile, as it once comprised the heart of that powerful kingdom. While many of Castilla y León’s wine regions have ancient origins, most have only recently come to prominence as sources of fine wine. In fact, several appellations—Arlanza, Arribes, León, and Tierra del Vino de Zamora—only earned DO status in 2007. Castilla y León sits on the upper portion of the Meseta, a higher plateau than neighboring Castilla-La Mancha, from which it is separated by the mountains of the Sistema Central. Elevations are high (700 to 1,000 meters), and most regions are concentrated along the banks of the Duero River, before it crosses into Portugal. Much of Castilla y León is susceptible to a dramatic continental climate, matching scorching summers with frigid winters. Frost can be a challenge at both the beginning of the growing season and harvest, as can drought in the hotter months.

Bierzo

Bierzo DO has little resemblance to the rest of Castilla y León. Lying just opposite Valdeorras on the Galician border, Bierzo might be considered a transitional appellation into Castilla y León’s more continental climate, and the wines have much more in common with its neighbors to the west. Romans first settled in the area to mine for gold, and with them began the region’s longstanding history of winemaking. Both Pliny the Elder and Greek historian-geographer Strabo document the ancient wines grown here. The region continued as an important source of wine through the Middle Ages for pilgrims making their way to Santiago, and the habitation of the Cistercian order helped advance viticulture.

Mining continues in Bierzo, namely for coal and iron, though only recently has the region realized its capacity for excellence. The phylloxera crisis resulted in increased plantings of Palomino (here, as in many regions, innocuous in character), and cooperatives dominated for much of the 20^th century. The DO was officially established in 1989, largely due to the efforts of José Luis Prada, whose winery Prada a Tope was an early leader in the new quality wave. The movement gained traction in the 1990s with acclaimed winemaker Raúl Pérez, who later lent winery space to Álvaro Palacios (of Rioja and Priorat) and his nephew Ricardo Pérez Palacios for their first vintages of Descendientes de José Palacios. Today, Bierzo’s wines, primarily made from Mencía, help redefine the image of Spanish reds by providing a light-bodied foil to premium examples made from Tempranillo.

Climatically, Bierzo experiences a degree of the humidity and rainfall from Green Spain, as well as the continental conditions of the Duero River Valley, but is more moderate. The Sierra de los Ancares shields much of the Atlantic’s effects, but cold springs can still lead to challenges with frost. Running through the region is the Sil River, as well as several tributaries. The landscape of Bierzo forms an amphitheater, stretching from around 450 to 800 meters in elevation and dividing the region into two general unofficial zones: the low-lying, flatter Bajo Bierzo at the base and the mountainside plantings of Alto Bierzo. Quality winegrowing is favored in the latter’s higher, sloped sites, often composed of quartz and slate. Vines in Bajo Bierzo are typically planted in deeper, clay-alluvial soils. Old vines can be found throughout the region, though are mostly owned in small plots, requiring producers to piece together sources from many growers.

Bierzo announced its own village wine category in 2017 and created a full vineyard quality pyramid. Above the Vino de Villa (village wine) category, Vino de Paraje is seen as analogous to Burgundy’s lieux-dits, designated to specific parcels. Those parajes might further be deemed to produce either Vino de Viña Clasificada (essentially a classified cru wine) or Gran Vino de Viña Clasificada (or grand cru). It is not yet clear exactly how these schemes will play out.

Mencía fills roughly three-quarters of Bierzo’s planted area and here, along with Ribeira Sacra, finds its highest expression. The variety, along with Garnacha Tintorera, Estaldiña, and Merenzao, must contribute a minimum 85% to Bierzo’s red wines. Mencía must also compose at least half of any rosado. White wines of quality are also bottled in Bierzo, most successfully from Godello and Doña Blanca, though Malvasía and Palomino are permitted, too.

Rueda

Further west along the river from Ribera del Duero, Rueda DO has witnessed one of Spain’s most significant success stories for white wine. Today, the region boasts the most consumed white in Spain, though that was certainly not always the case. The Moors incinerated the area that is today Rueda upon their retreat, leading to a long fallow period. Once fertility was restored, in the 11^th century, King Alfonso VI issued an edict incentivizing a return to that land. Eventually, the region came to specialize in oxidative white wines, and following the phylloxera crisis, much of the vineyard area was replanted to the vigorous Palomino, further likening Rueda’s wines to Sherry.

By the 20^th century, Rueda’s dorado (literally “golden”) wines, fortified and sometimes flor-affected rancios aged in a solera system or demijohns, fell far out of fashion, and their lack of export market gave little hope for the region’s future. That changed in 1970, when Rioja bodega Marqués de Riscal and its director Francisco Hurtado de Amézaga y Dolagaray sought to add a white to its portfolio. Inexperienced and uninterested in the traditional white wines of Rioja, the estate enlisted Bordeaux professor and consultant Émile Peynaud to search for alternatives. Peynaud predicted the aptitude of Verdejo grown in Rueda for producing contemporary white wines of commercial appeal and also recommended the cultivation of Sauvignon Blanc. Peynaud’s instincts proved correct, bringing Rueda several decades of investment and expansion. Between 1996 and 2012 alone, vineyard hectarage grew nearly sixfold, and the proportion dedicated to Palomino dwindled, overtaken by more favorable varieties.

Rueda’s vineyards, though mainly flat, benefit from elevations around 600 to 700 meters. The Duero just runs through the very north of the region, but its tributaries extend throughout Rueda. The soil has a high portion of limestone and is famously gravelly, allowing for good drainage. Rueda has the same extreme continental climate as its neighbors, often requiring irrigation. Old vine material is available, though a large portion of the new plantings is mechanically harvested.

Rueda’s wines are most often juicy, boisterous white Verdejos, bountiful in orchard fruit flavor and a refreshing stoniness. White wines are bottled as Rueda, and may also include a mention of one or more varieties. They must be composed of a minimum 75% principal varieties with producers typically leaning on Verdejo and Sauvignon Blanc, the latter capable of adding acidity and an herbaceous quality. Palomino, Viura, Chardonnay, and Viognier are also authorized for blending. Sparkling wines of various sweetness levels, each requiring different percentages of Verdejo, are produced, and those aged 36 months or longer sur lie can be titled gran añada. Though rare, a few dorado wines can be found, from producers eager to reclaim that part of the region’s heritage. Pálido references a heritage style of biologically aged and fortified Rueda wine, only recently recognized again by the consejo. The region’s red wines, first permitted in 2001, are vinified from Tempranillo, alongside the permitted Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, and Garnacha. Rosado wines can also be bottled. As of the 2019 vintage, two additional categories of Rueda have been created: Gran vino de Rueda must come from vines at least 30 years old and adhering to stricter yields; Vino de Pueblo is a new village wine classification, where 85% of grapes must be harvested for nearly 70 permitted municipalities.

Ribera del Duero

Much more emblematic of wines from Castilla y Léon is Ribera del Duero. Evidence of viticulture in Ribera del Duero dates back to the Roman period, though there is reason to believe that earlier Celtic settlers grew vines as well. Ancient Roman and medieval wineries and lagares can still be visited throughout the region. For much of its history, Ribera del Duero was a winegrowing area of little prestige. Monasteries would tend to grapes, and locals would cultivate small patches of vineyard for home winemaking—making rustic, light-hued claretes of little semblance to the wines the appellation is known for today.

The first to recognize the potential of Ribera del Duero was Don Eloy Lecanda y Chaves, who founded in 1864 what would later be named Vega Sicilia, an estate many cite as the finest in Spain. In that year, he brought all the traditional red grapes of Bordeaux as well as Pinot Noir to be planted alongside Tempranillo. Carmenère and Pinot Noir are no longer cultivated at Vega Sicilia, though Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Malbec remain for various programs. Vega Sicilia did not achieve instant success, but under the stewardship of cellar master Domingo Garramiola Txomin, who conceived the winery’s flagship Único, the estate began to demonstrate excellence.

Still, Vega Sicilia remained an anomaly in what was an otherwise unremarkable region. Ribera del Duero did not enjoy the same bolster to its industry as Rioja did during the French phylloxera crisis. Once phylloxera reached Ribera del Duero, and following its recovery, only Vega Sicilia and the local cooperative (now the winery Protos) bottled wine until the Spanish Civil War. The number of cooperatives then exploded to more than 30 during the Franco regime. In 1972, Alejandro Fernández established Tinto Pesquera, where he helped return focus to Tempranillo and produced acclaimed monovarietal renditions. The region, however, wasn’t granted DO status until 1982. But beginning in that decade, Ribera del Duero began growing rapidly, expanding from 24 wineries in 1982 to more than 300 today. In addition to its growth in vineyard area and producers, the region gained global esteem, with projects like Peter Sisseck’s Pingus in 1995 solidifying a set of new top-shelf wines for Spain.

Ribera del Duero’s borders span four provinces: Soria, Segovia, Burgos, and Valladolid (from east to west). The Duero River runs west through the center of the roughly 110-kilometer-long region. Soils are heterogeneous, with more than 30 types identified. More limestone can be found in the eastern reaches of the appellation, with a significant portion on the opposite side as well, but less in middle zones. Ribera del Duero generally grows warmer moving west, and the western portion also finds denser clay, while the rest of the region has sandy or silty-sandy earth. The elevation is more uniform, with vineyards planted between 700 and 1,000 meters above sea level, with an average of 800 to 850 meters. This amplifies the region’s diurnal swing, allowing grapes to preserve freshness and acidity through the hottest months.

Ribera del Duero has one of the most extreme continental climates in Spain—its summers swelteringly hot, its winters icy cold. Grapegrowing can prove challenging, with the risk of frost both in spring and near harvest threatening grapes that demand a long growing season. Hail, too, is not uncommon. A small majority of Ribera del Duero is planted to bush vines, with trellising and mechanical harvesting more prevalent in flatter western areas.

Tempranillo covers approximately 95% of Ribera del Duero’s vineyards and locally is referred to as Tinto Fino or Tinta del País. Such names can also connote the genetic distinction between the selection of clones found here as compared to other parts of Spain. Following Vega Sicilia’s lead, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Malbec are also permitted and cultivated by many producers. Among additional Spanish red varieties, only Garnacha is authorized, though Bobal can still be found throughout the region. Albillo Mayor, genetically distinct from other Albillos, is the sole white grape permitted in Ribera del Duero. Only since 2019 has the consejo allowed white wine to carry the name Ribera del Duero. Previously, Albillo Mayor was only allowed in red wine blends, though many producers have long bottled Albillo Mayor wines. The grape is believed to share a parent-offspring relationship with Tempranillo (as well as with Doradilla, an esoteric grape from Málaga).

In addition to the new white wines, rosado and clarete wines can be made employing a minimum 50% of authorized red varieties. Red wines must be composed of a minimum of 95% authorized red grapes, with a minimum of 75% devoted to Tempranillo. Albillo must comprise a minimum 75% of whites. Ribera del Duero has enacted strict minimum requirements for its aging designations. Most wines, however, don't carry these aging designations, and many producers have adjusted their style to be less informed by extended maturation in oak.

Ribera del Duero often conjures comparisons to Rioja, as the two are the world’s most notable regions for Tempranillo. Organoleptically, Ribera del Duero tends to be considered darker fruited and more austerely tannic. This character is said to come not only from the land and the complementary Bordeaux varieties but also from the specific biotypes of Tinto Fino cultivated here. One exception might be near the province of Soria, where wines can often show a brighter, redder, and more acidic profile. Still, Ribera del Duero offers stylistic breadth, despite language often used to refer to “traditional” or “modern” winemaking. Both French and American oak have historically been used in the region, each long a part of Vega Sicilia’s formula, and many wines are amplified by a high dosage of new wood. More “modern” wineries might eschew the aging designations and veer toward monovarietal Tempranillo, but stereotyping proves difficult in this relatively young region.

Other DOs

Just north of Ribera del Duero, the Arlanza DO was only created in 2007, though its winemaking history originates with monastic traditions in the 12^th century, if not earlier. As with much of Spain, phylloxera devastated the region. Labor was lost in the 1950s as workers emigrated to larger industrial centers. The Arlanza River passes through the region of the same name, before joining the Arlanzón (which will later join the Pisuerga, and ultimately the Duero). Climatically, Arlanza shares the continental extremes of Ribera del Duero, and its soils are mostly sandy, with more of a clay structure near the center. White wines can be made from Albillo Mayor and Macabeo, while rosado and red wine must be composed of at least half Tempranillo. Other permitted red varieties include Garnacha, Mencía, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Petit Verdot.

Further down the Pisuerga River, before it meets the Duero, is the Cigales DO. Cigales’s wine origins are believed to be just as old as Ribera del Duero’s, though historically it has been most associated with rosados and claretes. Vineyards are high in elevation, between 700 and 800 meters, planted to soils that often have significant limestone content. As with Châteauneuf-du-Pape and its galets roulés, large rounded stones dot the vineyards here, reflecting heat and benefiting ripening. A vast network of underground cellars sits beneath the region, and visitors can spot the cellars' luceras, tall air vents that help light the facilities below.

Rosado remains an important product for Cigales, though the trend toward Provençal-style pale rosés has proven a challenge for these darker-hued pink wines, and some producers have moved toward lighter-colored wines. White, red, sparkling, and sweet wines are also permitted. Grapes include Verdejo, Sauvignon Blanc, Albillo Mayor, and Viura among whites, and for reds, Garnacha, Garnacha Gris, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, and, most importantly, Tempranillo.

The large León DO, roughly halfway between Cigales and Bierzo, held 14,000 hectares of vineyard as recently as the mid-1980s, but just over 1,400 remain. The vineyards sit around 800 to 900 meters in elevation, planted on brownish alluvial terraces with limestone influence. León, known as Tierra de León until 2019, is most distinguished for its cultivation of the indigenous red Prieto Picudo, which makes up roughly 70% of vineyards. The variety, recognized by its oval-shaped berries, produces lighter-colored, aromatic red wines with high acidity. Mencía is also recommended and Garnacha and Tempranillo authorized. For white grapes, Verdejo, Albarín Blanco (distinct from Albariño and all Albillos), Godello, Malvasía Castellana (also known as Síria or Doña Blanca, unrelated to Dona Branca), and Palomino (though not in new plantings) are authorized. Red, white, and rosado wines are all produced. 

Along the Duero, Toro sits adjacent to Rueda, with a small section overlapping at the town of Villafranca de Duero. Toro’s reputation of quality winegrowing precedes that of Ribera del Duero, its wines exported to both the Americas following colonization and France during the phylloxera epidemic. Until the end of the 20^th century, much of Toro’s wine was also sent elsewhere in Spain to give muscle to cheaper blends. A pivot in quality occurred in the 1980s, reflected in investment from top Spanish estates, including Vega Sicilia with its project Pintia, and the emergence of new bodegas.

Toro sits at around 620 to 840 meters above sea level, and its cold continental nights prove critical to preserving balance in the region’s ripe wines. Vines are usually bush-trained and widely spaced, in part due to the drought conditions common here. Soils are inconsistent, though brown limestone can frequently be found atop both sandy and clay structures. 

Tempranillo earns the local name Tinta de Toro, also a reference to the regional clonal types of the variety, which contribute to a full-throttle, rustic nature in the wines. Toro can be comparatively massive in flavor and alcohol when juxtaposed with Rioja or even Ribera del Duero, earning the moniker “bull’s blood” (toro translates to “bull”). Reds must contain at least 75% Tempranillo or 85% Garnacha, with the balance of the blend coming from those two grapes. Rosado and white wine also come from Toro, the latter from Verdejo, Malvasía Castellana, Albillo Real, and/or Muscat à Petit Grains. As of 2024, the DO also allows for quality sparkling wines vinified as red, white, or rosé. 

Tierra del Vino de Zamora DO forms an L-shape around Toro, just touching Rueda at its eastern edge. The Duero flows through the northern sector of the appellation, and many other rivers traverse the region. As with the rest of the area, vineyards are planted high at an average of 750 meters above sea level, and soils are predominately alluvial. Tempranillo is the most planted grape variety and must constitute 75% of all red wines, 60% of rosados, and 30% of claretes. Cabernet Sauvignon and Garnacha are also grown, as are Malvasía Castellana, Verdejo, Moscatel de Grano Menudo, Albillo Mayor, Palomino, and Godello. 

Arribes DO follows the path of the Duero River along the northeastern Portuguese border. The appellation is partially opposite the Douro Superior subzone of the Douro, an area of increasing significance in both Port and dry wine production. Vineyards range in elevation between 550 and 820 meters, and the soils are a mixture of sandy quartz and granite, as well as slate. The star grapes are reds Bruñal and its progeny Juan García. Bruñal yields ample-bodied wines with intense berry flavors, while Juan García veers more herbal and aromatic. Tempranillo, Rufete, Garnacha, and Mencía are permitted as well, along with Malvasía Castellana (a minimum 60% required for white wines), Verdejo, Albillo Mayor, and Albillo Real. Red, white, and rosado are bottled.

Ebro River Valley

Winegrowing in Rioja is believed to predate the Roman conquest. The Celtiberians (Celtic tribes settled in Iberia) likely had already established a viticultural tradition, one that proved attractive to the newly arrived Romans who would bring their own knowledge and improve upon the local industry. Some even postulate that the Romans came to Rioja a century before reaching Bordeaux, and it is from Riojano cuttings that Bordeaux was first planted.

The name, Rioja (or Rioxa, as it was originally written), didn’t appear until 1092. Many speculate that Rioja is a portmanteau of Río Oja, a river that joins with the Tirón and later the Ebro. Others believe it might come from the Basque erriotxa, “land of bread,” or arrioxa, “land of rocks.” Regardless, by the time the region’s name emerged, Rioja had gained monastic importance, allowing an ongoing commitment to its vineyards.

Winemaking, however, remained crude during this early history, and for much of the second millennium, white wines were prized over the reds and more widely grown. A pivot toward Tempranillo and Cariñena (called Mazuelo here) began in the 18^th century, at the end of which growers established the Real Sociedad Económica de Cosecheros de Rioja in 1787, an association that allowed them to jointly market the region and seek other advancements.

The disasters of oidium and phylloxera in France were the catalysts for change in Rioja. The devastation of French vineyards pushed its vignerons south, looking for sources of wine. Not only did the French bring barrels, their investment in the region also provided the financial capital for much-needed infrastructure. An inland area, Rioja had been quite inaccessible, isolated from larger economic centers by lack of major road access. In 1880, Rioja completed its railway, connecting Logroño to Haro and ultimately Bilbao, providing its wines a route out of the region and to France. Wineries were established around the train station in Haro. The town’s Barrio de la Estación (train station district) still serves as the brain center for the region, housing such centenary wineries as López de Heredia, Compañía Vinícola del Norte de España (CVNE), and La Rioja Alta. The wines, too, continued to modernize. The Spanish crown established Haro’s Estación Enológica in 1888, a wine research facility that continues in operation. In 1890, Haro became only the second electrified city in Spain, following Jerez.

Yet Rioja’s reign was short lived. Bordeaux’s vineyards began to recover by the end of the century, replanted onto American rootstocks. Exports reached a record nine million liters in 1891, but just three years later receded to two million. And while it was better armed with the antidote, Rioja also suffered from phylloxera beginning in 1899, losing more than two-thirds of its vine area. The region had begun to experience fraud as well, prompting the application of wire cages (or mallas) to bottles to guarantee authenticity. In 1925, Rioja established its consejo regulador, the first in Spain, to govern and protect the region’s wine industry. 

Following the hardships of the Civil War and World War II, Rioja formed a second consejo to more success than the first. The region recovered its markets during the 1950s and 1960s, and by the 1970s, France’s wines became prohibitively expensive for many. Rioja provided a popular alternative and one that was ready to drink upon release (after many years of cellaring at the winery), in contrast to many French counterparts. The latter half of the 20^th century would also bring about several new wine styles in Rioja. In the 1960s, Enrique Forner of Marqués de Cáceres had hired Émile Peynaud, who advocated for the use of new French oak in Rioja. Michel Rolland arrived in 1987, hired by Bodegas Palacio, where he created a new flagship, Cosme Palacio y Hermanos Reserva Especial, matured for a shorter duration in new French barrels. Several producers would go on to craft similar vinos de autor, wines more internationally styled to the palate of critics like Robert Parker. In short, the image of a “typical” Rioja diversified. Following Spain’s entrance into the European Union, Rioja was declared the country’s first DOCa region in 1991.

While Rioja takes its name from La Rioja, the DOCa in fact traverses four autonomous communities: La Rioja, Basque Country, Navarra, and Castilla y Léon. (The inclusion of territory from Castilla y Léon results from the fact that two small areas within La Rioja belong to Castilla y Léon; a single estate sits in the DOCa.) Across its expanse, approximately 100 kilometers long and 40 wide, the appellation is rather heterogeneous. The Sierra de Cantabria range barricades the northern areas of Rioja from Atlantic winds, while the Ebro River splits the region. Vintages are often described as Atlantic or Mediterranean, the former years being cooler and wetter and the latter warmer and drier. The climate can vary dramatically across the region, with eastern areas experiencing more continental conditions with Mediterranean influences and the west a more maritime effect.

In part based on these climatic differences, Rioja is divided into three subzones: Rioja Alta, Rioja Alavesa, and Rioja Oriental. Rioja Alta sits the furthest west, with its two production hubs, Haro and Logroño, nearly bookending the area. The largest subzone in terms of area planted (over 40% of Rioja’s vineyards, with more than 27,000 hectares), Rioja Alta is also home to many of Rioja’s most well-recognized names, including López de Heredia, Muga, CVNE, and La Rioja Alta S.A. The Oja and Najerilla Rivers, both tributaries of the Ebro, form valleys where many of Rioja Alta’s grapes are harvested. Vineyards in the Oja Valley feature a higher concentration of chalky, alluvial soils, while those further east in the Najerilla Valley lie on iron-rich clay.

A non-contiguous subzone, Rioja Alavesa sandwiches a small section of Rioja Alta north of the Ebro River, surrounding the town of San Vicente de la Sonsierra. Rioja Alavesa is located entirely along the northern bank of the Ebro, as well as within Basque Country, and the subzones’ differences are as much cultural as they are geographical. Rioja Alavesa has more limestone in its soils and is also home to Rioja’s highest elevation vineyards, found near Labastida. The subzone relies most heavily on Tempranillo, with lower production of its blending partners. While bottling some of Rioja’s most expensive wines, Rioja Alavesa also has a tradition for carbonic-macerated Tempranillo that predates the introduction of Bordelais techniques.

The most easterly subzone, Rioja Oriental, has long been associated with Garnacha, which achieves more consistent ripeness in its warmer climes. Both drier and hotter than Rioja Alta and Alavesa, Rioja Oriental, renamed from Rioja Baja in 2018, will typically be the first subzone to harvest grapes. Stretching into the autonomous community of Navarra, many of Rioja Oriental’s vineyards sit at higher elevations in the Yerga Mountains.

Tempranillo is Rioja’s dominant grape variety, and here, along with Ribera del Duero, it accomplishes its most recognized expressions. While increasingly vinified into monovarietal wines, Tempranillo was traditionally blended with several other varieties. In 1973, Garnacha was more widely planted in Rioja than Tempranillo; the varieties covered 39% and 31% of the landscape, respectively. Producers in Rioja Alta will still source Garnacha—used to add alcohol, body, and fruitiness—from Rioja Oriental as a sort of insurance policy should Tempranillo not ripen correctly. Today, it is also admired for its contributions to quality, with several Garnacha-dominant Rioja wines being bottled. A grape that once neared extinction, Graciano has found champions in recent decades as well. It supplies acidity, tannin, and exotic spice flavors, and in a select few cellars, it is bottled on its own into characterful yet serious wines. Mazuelo (Cariñena) is similarly employed in small quantities for acid and tannin, while Maturana Tinta (Jura's Trousseau) is also allowed. 

Rioja might best be known for Tempranillo, but the appellation allows for other varietal red wines, as well as rosados, whites, and traditional method espumosos (which must be aged a minimum 15 months sur lie). Viura (Macabeo) is most prevalent among white varieties and can achieve tremendous structure balanced by acidity. It is commonly blended with Malvasía for its floral aromas, and together these yield the great, traditional white Riojas, of which only a couple stewards remain. Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Verdejo, Garnacha Blanca, Maturana Blanca, Tempranillo Blanco, and Turruntés are also permitted.

The wines of Rioja have long been typified by aging in American oak barrels, partly due to Spain’s longstanding trade ties with North America, but also because these could be sourced more cheaply than expensive French barrels. Several Rioja wineries, particularly those in Haro, house cooperages on-site to either fashion new barrels or to repair their ancient casks, often nearing a century in age. The wines tend to be distinguished less by the flavors of American oak than they are with the oxidative effects of long-term aging in barrel. According to Rioja regulations, barrels must hold approximately 225 liters, the same as Bordeaux barriques. Many producers today have shifted toward newer European oaks and blends of French and American oak.

Rioja’s minimum requirements for its age-designated wines are stricter than those of general Spain. Top producers might far exceed these minimums, on occasion longer than an additional decade. Further, many producers, particularly those favoring new French oak, have abandoned the labeling of these aging terms outright, in favor of simple cosecha or genérico classification. This allows them the freedom to use larger wooden vessels, and occasionally amphorae, further expanding Rioja’s stylistic diversity.

Rioja’s consejo regulador passed new regulations in 2017 allowing village names to appear on its bottles, a concept first pioneered in Spain by Priorat in 2009. Rioja features 144 different villages, but only the village of the vineyard and cellar can be written on the bottle, meaning that wineries cannot feature a full portfolio of different village wines unless they have production facilities in each. The consejo regulador also created a Viñedo Singular, or “single vineyard,” category for wines coming from hand-harvested individual sites where vines are at least 35 years old. These wines must achieve nearly 30% lower yields, with whites dropping from 63 to 45 hectoliters per hectare and reds moving from 45.5 to 32.5 hectoliters per hectare. They must also pass approval by the consejo tasting committee. Such efforts have been lauded by the global wine community, though many producers question if they go far enough to ensure quality. 

In 2017, the consejo authorized the production of Vino Espumoso de Calidad de Rioja, a new Rioja DOCa category for traditional method sparkling wines. The designation applies to both white wines and rosados, and grapes must be manually harvested. Those wines labeled crianza must age a minimum 15 months sur lie prior to disgorgement, reserva must age 24 months, and gran añada, 36 months. Dosage levels must be consistent with brut, extra brut, and brut nature styles. Yet even with the addition of this new category, there are still authorized villages that instead choose to produce Cava.

As with Ribera del Duero, Rioja wines are often generalized as either “traditional” or “modern” in style. Wineries considered traditional will typically adhere to practices made popular in the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries, with a high concentration located in Haro’s Barrio de la Estación. Modernist-leaning wineries can be found throughout the Rioja region (including Haro). Yet the schism between traditional and modern wineries has grown more blurred in recent years, and certain wineries bottle both wines seen as traditional and others deemed modern. Practices often considered traditional include blending from multiple subregions (often dominated by Tempranillo from Rioja Alta), varietal blending, adherence to the aging classification system, open-top fermentation, and, most significantly, the reliance on older 225-liter American oak casks for long, semi-oxidative maturation. Modernist techniques might refer to monovarietal Tempranillo wines, single-subregion and single-vineyard wines, avoidance of the aging classification system, cold soaking, temperature-controlled fermentation in stainless steel, and shorter élevage in newer, often European oak vessels.

Winegrowing in Navarra is first documented in Roman history, though its early inhabitants, the Vascones, also provided the area with cultural Basque influence. The region has a long tradition of bullfighting, and for nine days each July, in celebration of San Fermín, a daily encierro, or running of the bulls, takes place in Pamplona. Residents and tourists, dressed in white clothing and red scarves, sprint through the streets in front of the bulls to be fought that evening.

Navarra existed as an independent kingdom until 1512, when it joined with King Ferdinand and his dominion. Its wines had already found commercial success, popular with annual pilgrims traveling to Santiago de Compostela. The region later gained an export market, both in France and the New World. It fell under French rule in 1791, in the early years of France’s long revolution, and French kings enjoyed the title of King of France and Navarre. Such a relationship proved beneficial upon the arrival of oidium and phylloxera in France, and like Rioja, Navarra flourished in the mid- to late 1800s when selling vast quantities of its wines across the Pyrenees. When phylloxera finally reached Navarra at the end of that century, its vineyards were decimated as well, falling to less than 2% of pre-phylloxera plantings in just a half decade. 

The 20^th century saw some recovery of Navarra’s vineyard area, though the World Wars and Civil War led to an association with cooperative and bulk wine production during the Franco era. Continued plantings of Tempranillo, an attempt to bank on Rioja’s success despite less suitable conditions, only resulted in less impressive wines and poor comparisons to its neighbor. The 1970s and ’80s observed heavy investment in French varieties, especially Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Chardonnay, often at the expense of old vine Garnacha—a decision many lament today. The shift pitted Navarra’s modern, internationally styled wines against New World countries working with the same varieties, and interest accelerated for the region. More recently, a young generation has begun to revive Navarra’s local varieties and styles. However, the international rosé boom of the 2000s in favor of pale Provençal styles has threatened consumer interest in Navarra’s long tradition of rosado, a deeply pigmented pink wine.

With the exception of its small share of DOCa Rioja, Navarra only holds one appellation, DO Navarra. The large and heterogeneous DO is divided into five distinct zones: Baja Montaña, Tierra Estella, Valdizarbe, Ribera Alta, and Ribera Baja. Ribera Alta and Baja comprise nearly two-thirds of Navarra’s grapegrowing area. The region grows drier toward the south, while the Ebro River bisects Ribera Baja. In the northwestern corner of the appellation, the hilly Tierra Estella cultivates vines at elevations around 560 meters, as does the adjacent Valdizarbe subzone, which lies just beneath Pamplona. Baja Montaña, in the northeast, concentrates almost entirely on red wine production, with treasured old vine Garnacha vineyards. 

Navarra permits red, white, rosado, and sweet wine production. White wine constitutes the smallest percentage, vinified from Garnacha Blanca, Macabeo, and Malvasía, as well as Moscatel de Grano Menudo, Chardonnay, and Sauvignon Blanc. Moscatel de Grano Menudo is also utilized for sweet and fortified wines, notably from Ribera Baja. The appellation’s most distinct product is its deeply colored rosados, a centuries-old delicacy best fermented from Garnacha. The DO mandates that rosados are produced using the saignée method and forbids direct pressing, arguing that it reduces complexity.

Serious red wines are also bottled in Navarra, also most successfully from old vine Garnacha, though Tempranillo, Cariñena, Graciano, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, and Pinot Noir are all authorized as well. While the rest of Navarra’s minimum aging requirements match those of Spain overall, its red crianzas must be aged for at least two years, with a minimum nine months in barrel.

Aragon (in Spanish, Aragón) was first declared its own kingdom in 1035 and absorbed Navarra later that century. It ascended as a political powerhouse in 1469, upon the marriage of its Prince Ferdinand to Isabella of Castile. Aragon’s early political advantages helped establish export markets for its wines from Renaissance times. By the time phylloxera struck France, however, the area had not adapted to more contemporary styles, and the wines lost favor to those of nearby areas, namely Rioja and Navarra. During the 20^th century, the region experienced further decline in quality, as production was largely relegated to cooperatives. Recent years have brought new energy to Aragon, including revitalized attention to its old vine Garnacha.

Four DOs are housed within Aragon: Calatayud, Cariñena, Campo de Borja, and Somontano. The first three are located south and west of Zaragoza, Aragon’s capital. Calatayud is largest, split by the Jalón River that flows north to meet the Ebro. The river does little to alleviate the region’s arid climate, but vineyards are usually planted at higher elevations, above 500 meters, on a variety of soils. Garnacha occupies nearly two-thirds of the vineyard area, followed by Tempranillo and Syrah. Numerous other French and Spanish red grapes are permitted, as are Macabeo, Malvasía, Garnacha Blanca, and international white varieties. While 92% of plantings are dedicated to red grapes, white, red, sparkling, semi-sparkling, sweet, and fortified wines are all permitted. Calatayud also necessitates a minimum 35 years for wines designated Viñas Viejas, or “old vines.” Those deemed Calatayud Superior must be composed of at least 85% Garnacha from vines that surpass 50 years in age.

East of Calatayud, Cariñena’s landscape is divided by the Huerva River, which also joins the Ebro. This is perhaps Aragon’s most historic appellation, established in 1932, the first year of DOs, and with winegrowing standards enacted as early as 1696. It is also the namesake for Cariñena, and while that grape is still cultivated within its bounds, there is far more production of Garnacha (at 27%) and Tempranillo (at 22%). The rest of the vineyard area is dedicated to mostly typical white and red grapes, both Spanish and foreign. Red, white, rosado, sparkling, semi-sparkling, sweet, and fortified are permitted.

Due west of Zaragoza, Campo de Borja shares its name with the Italian Borgias; Alfonso de Borgia, named pope in 1455, is the namesake for both. The appellation extends from southern Navarra, sitting in the Ebro River Valley, before scaling to the foothills of the Moncayo Massif. Garnacha reigns supreme, planted in approximately three-quarters of the vine space, as do cooperatives, nearly monopolizing all production. Tempranillo and Macabeo see sizeable cultivation, while a number of white and red accessory varieties are also allowed. The appellation has recently built a reputation for quality, good-value young reds. Rosado, white, sparkling, fortified Moscatel, and late-harvest wines can also be crafted.

Somontano has the least in common with Aragon’s other DOs. Far removed in the north of the autonomous community, located between the Ebro River Valley and the Pyrenees, Somontano housed a cluster of monasteries in the Middle Ages, allowing winegrowing to prosper. Proximity to France offered preferential trade opportunities as well as stylistic influence. The appellation is less arid than the rest of Aragon, but well-drained soils help balance the increased rainfall. The youngest of Aragon’s DOs, Somontano is also the least bound to Garnacha, although the grape does grow here in both red and white forms. Instead, some of Somontano’s most successful wines come from Gewürztraminer, Riesling, and Chardonnay, as well as Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot. Several additional French and Spanish grapes are cultivated, including the local white Alcañón, and reds Parraleta (not to be confused with the white Parellada) and Moristel. The consejo allows white, red, sparkling, fortified, and sweet wines.

Mediterranean Coast

Catalonia’s history has often diverged from that of the rest of Spain. Upon being relinquished from Moorish rule by Charlemagne, the region was joined to the Frankish Kingdom, and it still shares many similarities with neighboring Roussillon. In 1137, the Kingdom of Aragon was created as Catalonia was joined with Aragon through the marriage of Count Berenguer IV of Barcelona to Petronilla, future Queen of Aragon. (Spain's formation would come later, with the marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon.) Catalan separatist movements have continued throughout the centuries, the most recent uprising in 2017.

The spirit of independence extends into many Catalan institutions. The local Catalan language is spoken by many in favor of Spanish, and several hallmarks of national culture are either not present or, as is the case with bullfighting, forbidden by law. With Barcelona as its capital, Catalonia is a popular tourist destination, with visitors flocking to Gaudí’s modernist architecture and the beaches of the Costa Brava and Costa Daurada. In addition to its local cuisine, Catalonia has been at the forefront of the global molecular gastronomy movement, with Michelin-starred restaurants such as El Celler de Can Roca and El Bulli (now closed) leading the charge. Such cultural distinctiveness extends to Catalonia’s winemaking traditions, which are often different from those of the rest of Spain and more influenced by France.

Cava, Penedès, & Catalan Sparkling Wines

Catalonia crafts a wide assortment of wines, but its most globally significant is Cava. Spain’s history of sparkling wine production began in 1851, when Antoni Galí Comas entered his bottle of sparkling to a competition in Madrid. Luis Justo I Villanueva, a laboratory director at Catalonia’s Agricultural Institute of Sant Isidre, taught the first generation of sparkling winemakers, three of whom entered a Barcelona wine competition in 1872. In that same year, Josep Raventós i Fatjó of Codorníu Raventós, upon returning from France, made the first traditional method sparkling wine using Macabeo, Xarel·lo, and Parellada, widely considered to be the forerunner of all Cava. He made his wine in Sant Sadurní d’Anoia, the town that continues to serve as the industrial center of Spain’s sparkling wine industry.

Cava is Spain’s answer to Champagne and in its earlier iterations would even bear the name Champán or Xampany (in Catalan). Champaña briefly benefited from France’s phylloxera crisis, before the louse reached the young category’s soils in the 1880s. Much later, this terminology was forbidden on labels, at French insistence and as part of global efforts to recognize designations of origin. Instead, the wines were redubbed in 1970 as Cava, which simply translates to “cellar,” more specifically one below ground. As is true with the crayères beneath Reims, the Spanish recognized the advantages of an underground environment and its consistent temperatures for the maturation of sparkling wines experiencing extended lees contact. All Cava is made in the traditional method, and disgorgement is widely carried out via a gyropalette, or girasol. A mechanized riddling system that Catalonia was first to use in the 1970s, the gyropalette can perform remuage in as fast as three days, a task that would take hand-riddlers six weeks.

To call Cava a Catalan wine requires some annotation, as the DO is administered at the Spanish, not Catalan, level. Approximately 95% of Cava originates within Catalonia, and roughly three-quarters of Catalonia’s Cava near Sant Sadurní d’Anoia, where many of the larger production houses—including the largest, Freixenet and Codorníu Raventós—can be found. The identity of Cava has been significantly shaped by such houses. Yet Cava can be vinified in various patches across Spain and in seven of its autonomous communities: Catalonia, Valencia, Aragon, Basque Country, La Rioja, Navarra, and Extremadura. The typical varietal composition of Cava might also change depending on region: Monastrell, for example, is used in Valencia, and Chardonnay and Pinot Noir have been widely adopted by many. The traditional Cava blend, however, is comprised of Macabeu (Macabeo), Xarel·lo, and Parellada. Macabeo is the most planted and typically serves as Cava’s foundation and its largest component, contributing fruity breadth and structure. Xarel·lo will further strengthen the wine, adding earthy flavors, broadening the mid-palate, and extending its aging potential. Parellada is used to soften a Cava with its more moderate acidity, favored for its floral finesse. Though styles of Cava will differ, the bubbles are generally considered angular and savory in character. Cava can sell at very low prices, though more premium examples are also available.

All three of Cava’s classic grapes are white, and so most Cava is as well. However, some rosado (or rosat in Catalan) is produced employing the region’s red grapes, Garnacha Tinta, Monastrell, Pinot Noir, and Trepat, with these red grapes comprising a minimum of 25% of the blend. Rosado Cava can be produced through brief maceration of red skins, saignée, or blending red and white base wines. Though the color spectrum varies, rosado Cava is often darker hued and more tannic in style than most rosé Champagne.

Basic Cava must age a minimum of nine months from the date of tirage until disgorgement, a requirement that echoes that of French Crémant sur lie aging. Reserva Cava extends that period to a minimum 18 months, while gran reserva requires at least 30 months of aging. As a result, autolytic character becomes more prevalent moving up Cava’s quality pyramid. In 2014, the consejo regulador introduced a new category, Cava de Paraje Calificado, with its first crop of wines arriving in 2017 on the market. Cava de Paraje must originate from a single parcel whose vines are at least 10 years old. Wines must be vintage dated, unacidified, and aged in bottle for a minimum 36 months before being disgorged. They must also adhere to stricter yields, hand-harvesting, and quality control. The Cava de Paraje category applies exclusively to brut, extra brut, and brut nature wines.

Despite the addition of this higher-quality tier, Cava has long come under scrutiny for its largescale production. In 2013, a number of high-profile producers abandoned the Cava DO to bottle their wines under Penedès DO, where sparkling wine is now also permitted under the label Clàssic Penedès. This subclassification was authorized shortly after Raventós i Blanc departed in 2012, stating its intention to establish a DO (as yet unrealized) for the small Conca del Riu Anoia subzone of Penedès. An additional exodus of top wineries occurred in 2019 through the Corpinnat association, its name a portmanteau that roughly translates to “heart of Penedès.” This abandonment of the Cava label has meant the loss of nearly half of the existing Cavas de Paraje Calificado. Corpinnat wines adhere to more stringent regulations than those of Cava, vinified from hand-harvested, organically grown grapes, of which at least 90% are indigenous, within a delineated zone. Minimum bottle aging is 18 months prior to disgorgement.

The center of Cava production lies within the Penedès DO, established in 1960. Its landscape is extraordinarily diverse in microclimates, yielding an equally varied portfolio of wines. The region can be divided into three narrower areas. Penedès Marítim, also referred to as Baix- (low) Penedès, rises from sea level to 250 meters. Monastrell, Garnacha, and Cariñena perform well, moderated by the proximity to the Mediterranean, while Macabeo, Xarel·lo, and Parellada will often produce simpler white wines. In the transitional sector of Penedès Central, or Mitja- (middle) Penedès, Cava’s trio of grapes, as well as Tempranillo and red Bordeaux varieties, are successful. Here, vineyards lie between 250 and 500 meters. The highest elevation plots are found in Penedès Superior, or Alt- (high) Penedès, between 500 and 850 meters as the vineyards ascend into the Montserrat mountain range. With increased precipitation and a more dramatic diurnal swing, Penedès Superior grows an assortment of cooler-climate international grapes, including Pinot Noir, Cabernet Franc, Chardonnay, Riesling, and Gewürztraminer. Also permitted are a number of other grape varieties, such as Chenin Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc, Garnacha Blanca, and Moscatel de Alejandría and de Grano Menudo—though examples are few. Many wine styles are produced: white, red, rosado, sparkling, semi-sparkling, late harvest, and fortified wines.

Priorat

Priorat, or the rarely seen Priorato in Spanish, derives its name from priory, a reference to the monastery founded there in the 12^th century. A Provençal Carthusian order migrated to the region, purportedly after word reached them of a young local shepherd’s vision of a ladder used by angels to ascend to heaven. The monks settled at the supposed site of the Scala Dei, or “Stairway of God,” and there made wine. Wine is still produced near the site of the original monastery, at Cellers de Scala Dei. The vineyards were purchased by four families in the 19^th century, a union that was known as the Societat Agrícola la Unió; the Codorníu Raventós group acquired a 25% share in 2000.

The region at large has continually produced wine since the Middle Ages. Yet while approximately 10,000 hectares were harvested before phylloxera, only about 500 remained in use by the end of the 1970s. The region’s steep slopes demanded skilled and expensive labor, making revival appear unlikely. But a group of vintners committed to Priorat’s survival and optimistic about the region’s quality achieved just that. René Barbier (Clos Mogador) and his recruits Álvaro Palacios (Clos Dofí, now Finca Dofí), Daphne Glorian (Clos Erasmus), José Luis Pérez (Clos Martinet, now Mas Martinet), and Carlos Pastrana and Mariona Jarque (Clos de l’Obac) produced a set of red wines that were structured, modern, and ultimately unrecognizable from the more oxidatively oaked prestige bottlings typically identified with Spain. This group of five, who beginning in 1989 shared a facility in the town of Gratallops, worked to refurbish esteemed sites and very quickly received high marks from critics, placing Priorat back on the world map.

After the 1991 vintage, the original Gratallops producers moved into separate facilities, and following their lead, Priorat received an influx of both local and foreign investment, with younger winemakers devoting themselves to the region. In 2000, the Catalan government upgraded Priorat to the status of Denominació d'Origen Qualificada. The Spanish government recognized the region in 2009, making it the country’s second DOQ or DOCa after Rioja, a title the two regions still exclusively share. Priorat’s reds firmly count among Spain’s most expensive, and bottlings such as Álvaro Palacios' L’Ermita can regularly fetch four digits. 

Even beyond its Carthusian monastic origins, Priorat has been influenced by French winemaking. The use of terminology such as clos serves as a clear nod to Burgundy (despite no analogous walls separating vineyard sites), and Palacios and Barbier, along with other pioneering winemakers, have long championed specificity of site as a key component to Priorat’s future. In 2009, the consejo introduced the Vi de Vila, or “village wine” category, comparable to the various villages in Burgundy whose names can be featured on labels. Currently, 12 villages are recognized: La Morera de Montsant, Gratallops, Bellmunt del Priorat, Escaladei, Porrera, Poboleda, La Vilella Baixa, La Vilella Alta, El Lloar, Masos del Terme de Falset, Solanes del Terme de El Molar, and Torroja del Priorat. Though the concept might be considered decidedly un-Spanish in philosophy (assemblage across large swaths of land has been fundamental to many of Spain’s most successful regions), Bierzo, Rioja, and Rueda have all followed in Priorat’s path with their own village classifications.

Priorat’s vineyards are planted on steep hillsides, carved with narrow terraces that typically fit only a row or two. The region is bordered to its northwest by the taller Serra de Montsant, protecting this inland Mediterranean area from fierce winds. The appellation experiences wide diurnal swings and low annual rainfall. The Siurana River cuts diagonally through the landscape before meeting the Ebro, though it mostly runs dry, as water is redirected to a nearby reservoir—to many growers’ dismay. Priorat’s distinctive llicorella soil, composed of schistose mica and quartzite, allows roots to stretch deep to find water, and its reflective black-red surface radiates heat back onto the vines, similar to the Mosel’s blue slate. Yields are very low, leading to incredibly concentrated wines.

Garnacha (Garnatxa) arguably performs best in this part of Spain, and Cariñena (here Carinyena) also occupies significant hectarage. There are old vine examples of both grapes, and the two are often blended together, with Garnacha offering body, alcohol, and complexity and Cariñena amplifying brightness and acidity. Tempranillo, Syrah, and Bordeaux varieties, among others, are also permitted, though grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon are being regrafted to Garnacha. Vi de Vila wines must hold 60% Garnacha and Cariñena, or 50% if only one is included in the blend.

In 2019, Priorat announced a new vineyard classification pyramid. This is in addition to the Vi de Finca scheme that already exists for Catalonia more broadly. Established in 2002, Vi de Finca recognizes specific growing zones and single vineyards. (Priorat's first two Vi de Finca wines were Clos Mogador and Vall Llach’s Mas de la Rosa.) Similar to Burgundy’s lieux-dits, Vi de Paratge refers to wines from 459 named delimited zones. Additional Vi de Vinya categories, yet to be enacted, refer primarily to age and will essentially replicate Burgundian premier cru and grand cru tiers. Vi de Vinya Classificada will recognize single vineyards with minimum 20-year-old vines, and Vi de Gran Vinya Classificada will identify minimum 35-year-old vines. Priorat has also defined the term velles vinyes, or “old vines,” to mean those planted before 1945 or vines at least 75 years of age. 

White wines of complexity can also be achieved in Priorat, particularly those grounded in Garnacha Blanca. Macabeo, Pedro Ximénez, and a variety of Spanish and French whites are also permitted. Rosado wines are also bottled, as are the typical fortified vi dolç natural (usually sweet reds with added grape spirit), rancio, and mistela wines.

Monstant

Montsant DO forms a near-complete ring around Priorat. The region is frequently, if unfairly, acknowledged as a source for high-quality but cheaper wines made in the same style as those found to its interior. Montsant has seen investment from high-profile Priorat producers seeking land at reduced costs. But while Montsant can present value comparatively to Priorat, the region deserves recognition on its own merits. Formerly the Falset subzone of Tarragona, Montsant was awarded its separate appellation in 2001. It is shaped by a series of adjoining mountain ranges, with the one named Montsant at the north of the circle. The southwestern corridor descends nearly to the Ebro River Valley and enjoys the warmest temperatures of the region, with portions planted in the same llicorella soils as Priorat. The northern areas have cooler conditions, as well as more limestone, while vineyards in the south around Falset, the appellation’s main town, are sandier. Like Priorat, Montsant is largely identified for its Garnacha and Cariñena blends. Other Spanish and French red grapes are vinified, as are whites with increasing promise. Montsant bottles an array of fortified sweet wines, in both oxidative and reductive styles.

Other DOs

Tarragona lies south of Penedès, surrounding the ancient Roman port city of the same name. It is divided into the Camp de Tarragona and Comarca Ribera d’Ebre subzones. The Camp de Tarragona subzone sits along the Mediterranean, in the plains and at lower elevations. Ribera d’Ebre surrounds the Ebro River near its mouth. Here, there is more continental influence, and vineyards are planted at various elevations from the river’s banks to higher up the hillsides. Tarragona enjoys just as wide a set of grapes to work with as Penedès, and similarly is not associated with a single style or variety (though many grapes are shipped north to Sant Sadurní for Cava production). Additionally, Tarragona bottles a number of sweet wines. These include mistelas; rancio-style wines; Moscatel de Tarragona, a fortified wine from Moscatel de Grano Menudo or de Alejandría; Garnatxa de Tarragona, a fortified Garnacha (white or red); and Vimblanc, a non-fortified wine made from overripe berries.

North of Tarragona, though inland from Penedès, Conca de Barberà historically earned praise for the quality of its grapes destined for Cava. Today, roughly two-thirds of its plantings are white grapes—predominately Macabeo and Parellada, along with Chardonnay, among others. Likewise, among red varieties, there is a similar mix of Spanish and French, though pride is taken in the local Trepat, used for Cava, rosados, and lighter-bodied, slightly spicy reds. The region rests on mainly calcareous, alluvial soils alongside the Francolí River and its tributary, the Anguera, and is surrounded by a series of mountains. Red, white, rosado, and various sweet and sparkling styles are permitted.

To Conca de Barberà’s northwest continues one section of the non-contiguous Costers del Segre DO, which is scattered across much of Catalonia’s central western reaches. It contains seven subzones: Urgell, Garrigues, Pallars Jussà, Raimat, Artesa de Segre, Segrià, and Vall del Riucorb. Raimat is most historic. In 1914, Manuel Raventós of Codorníu purchased a 2,245-hectare estate, what would become Raimat, and launched the region’s industry by way of advanced viticultural technologies that rehabilitated the landscape as well as identifying grapes best suited for quality winegrowing. Here, these were Tempranillo and international grapes, as opposed to those native to Catalonia. Raimat sits at the foot of the Pyrenees, not far from the Segre River, which feeds into the Ebro River to the south. Soils are generally sandy limestone, while elevations extend between 200 and 1,000 meters. Many grapes are authorized within Costers del Segre, made into all major styles.

At Tarragona DO’s western boundary, along the Aragon border and nearly touching Valencia at Catalonia’s bottom corner, Terra Alta is an exciting area for Garnacha Blanca. Cooperatives still play an important role in the local industry, as do traditional styles of sweet and fortified wines, such as rancios and mistelas. But in recent years, there has been renewed interest in Terra Alta’s dry whites, some of exceptional quality, as well as Garnacha’s other shades. Terra Alta’s soils are rich in limestone and have good drainage; as the name suggests, elevations are relatively high, between 350 and 800 meters above sea level. Many varieties are allowed, as are essentially all wine styles.

Just northeast of Barcelona on the coast, the small Alella DO, once a fairly established winegrowing region, has steadily succumbed to the encroachment of suburban development. Despite its size, the appellation contains diverse winegrowing conditions and can be considered in three subareas. From east to west, and ascending in elevation as the vineyards approach the Sierra de Montseny, they are comprised of a coastal sector, favored for Garnacha Blanca; a transitional zone, where Xarel·lo (known locally as Pansa Blanca), Garnacha, and Tempranillo perform well; and the schistose limestone-rich Vallés area, coolest of the three and revered for Xarel·lo as well as non-Spanish varieties. Historically, Alella was associated with a style of semi-sweet white wines, but today, while still a prominently white-wine appellation, its wines are most often fermented dry. The region is known for its sauló soils, a sandy granite topsoil.

The vineyards of Pla de Bages DO, located northwest and further inland, are predominately alongside the Llobregat River and in the surrounding area. Experiencing a wider diurnal swing than regions closer to the coast, Pla de Bages is most known for Macabeo and Picapoll Blanco, often mistaken for but distinct from Piquepoul Blanc. Picapoll Blanco does, however, show close genetic ties to Clairette, another variety from southern France. Its wines are often soft, floral, and slightly herbal. Beyond these whites, a selection of additional foreign and local grapes (such as the red Sumoll) can also be grown for a wide variety of wine styles.

Empordà DO occupies Catalonia’s northeast, flanked on one side by the Mediterranean and on another by the Pyrenees and the French border. The appellation is deeply impacted by the fierce and cold Tramontana wind coming from the Massif Central. Empordà is sliced into two non-contiguous halves: the windswept Alt Empordà, along the Albera and Rodes ranges, and Baix Empordà, along the coast, more tranquil, and denser with clay. Just opposite the DO is Roussillon, specifically the overlapping Banyuls and Collioure AOPs; Empordà shares much of its winemaking ethos with these regions. For one, vi de licor, from Garnacha (Blanca, Negra, or Roja) or Moscatel, resembles the vins doux naturels of Banyuls and Rivesaltes. Old vines, too, abound here, though the total vineyard area is less than one-tenth its pre-phylloxera size (roughly 2,000 hectares today). Among still wines, Cariñena (here Carinyena) and Garnacha can produce quality reds, as can Garnacha Blanca, Macabeo, and Cariñena Blanca (here Carinyena Blanca), among whites. Several additional varieties are permitted, as are most wine styles.

The Catalunya DO (as Catalonia is spelled in Catalan) also serves as a catch-all region both for Catalan vineyards existing outside of established appellations and wines from existing DOs whose practices diverge from consejo requirements. The concept is similar to the Sicilia DOC in Italy but remained unique within Spain until the recent arrival of the Islas Canarias DO. Regulations in the Catalunya DO are rather loose, allowing for a wide array of Spanish and foreign grape varieties and a degree of experimentation. Red, white, rosado, fortified, and semi-sparkling wines are permitted, though fully espumoso wines are not. Several Cava producers use the Catalunya DO designation for their still wines.

South of Catalonia is Valencia. Key elements of Spain’s gastronomic image derive from this region, with the famed paella originating here. Three DOs can be found within Valencia’s boundaries: Valencia, Alicante, and Utiel-Requena.

Valencia

The Valencia DO surrounds the city of the same name, the third largest city in Spain. The appellation can be further divided into four distinct subzones, forming the shape of a diamond. The northern tip, Alto Turia, cultivates predominately white varieties, namely Merseguera and Macabeo, at elevations between 700 and 1,100 meters. To the south, the Moscatel subregion takes its name from the family of grapes it utilizes for the production of sweet mistelas and fortified wines (Moscatel de Alejandría being the most significant). Merseguera and Macabeo similarly find success closer to the coast in the Valentino subzone, as do Sémillon, Chardonnay, Garnacha Tintorera, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Tempranillo. Clariano, the unattached most southerly winegrowing area, sees diverse styles and varieties. Garnacha Tintorera, Monastrell, and Tempranillo offer noteworthy wines, as can international grapes.

Alicante

Alicante is Valencia’s most southerly appellation. As in Andalucía, the Phoenicians likely introduced viticulture to Alicante sometime within the first millennium BCE. The region achieved commercial success shortly after the end of the Spanish Reconquista, with a 1510 decree by King Ferdinand forbidding the importation of other wines into the region. Such privileges for the local wine industry were not fully rescinded until 1834, and Alicante’s wines earned acclaim throughout the Renaissance era. Phylloxera came late to Valencia, allowing wine production to flourish in the latter half of the 19^th century. With France’s vineyards decimated, large quantities of Alicante wine were shipped north across the Pyrenees, and plantings grew to 93,000 hectares. Phylloxera eventually arrived in the early 20^th century, leaving Alicante little time to recover before Spain and Europe’s tumultuous decades. Today, there are just 10,000 planted hectares left. While the region spent much of the 1900s associated with the production of bulk wine, recent years have seen the rise of a new generation of winemakers that has redrawn attention to the area.

Alicante faces a more arid, continental climate in its western winegrowing areas. Alicante has eight distinct subregions. Most wineries are concentrated in the inland subzone of Vinalopó, which is further divided into the Medio, Alto, and Baja areas. Vines grown closer to the coast, in the La Marina subzone north of the city of Alicante, face higher humidity. La Marina is divided into two more specific subregions, Alta and Baja. El Comtat and L’Alcoia are home to mountains that scale to elevations of over 1,500 meters, the highest in the province, though vineyards are planted in the valleys. Alicante is most often associated with full-bodied red wines made from Monastrell, accounting for roughly 75% of the vineyard area. The wide availability of old vine material allows for concentrated, deeply colored red wines with marked complexity when in the right hands.

The region does, however, yield a variety of other wines. Red wines vinified from Garnacha, Garnacha Tintorera, and Tempranillo can all be found, as can examples from mainstream international varieties. Alicante also produces white wines from Airén, Moscatel de Alejandría, Macabeo, and the local grape Merseguera, among others. Beyond table wines, the coastal sector of La Marina specializes in sweet Moscatel wines.

The region’s most unique wine is Fondillón, which France’s King Louis XIV is said to have requested, soaked into cakes, on his deathbed. Its production declined drastically upon the arrival of phylloxera in France, when large quantities of red wine were demanded from Alicante, leaving the long-aged Fondillón a less viable product. Today, only a handful of producers continue the tradition, centered around the town of Monóvar at the most inland area of the DO. Monastrell grapes for Fondillón are harvested in early to mid-November, by which point the berries will naturally experience significant dehydration (although no botrytis or additional post-harvest drying will inform the wine’s character). Fermentation naturally halts off-dry, with roughly 20 to 50 grams per liter of residual sugar. Similar to Sherry production, but without fortification, the wines will eventually enter a modified solera system in large oak barrels, wherein wines are fractionally blended and bottled over time but lack an orderly criadera system. With barrel age, Fondillón develops a distinctive rancio character due to the long wood maturation. The wines are bottled with a minimum a­verage age of 10 years (the name Fondillón likely originates with al fondo, or “at the bottom,” a reference to drawing out the wines at the end of this fractional blending system). Yet bodegas might keep wines much longer, with the historic producer Primitivo Quiles maintaining a solera founded in the late 19^th century. Fondillón demonstrates a marked Oloroso-like character, although with faint sweetness and without the heft of fortification.

Utiel-Requena

At approximately 72%, Bobal dominates plantings in Utiel-Requena, a DO adjacent to the northern subzones of Valencia DO and the Castilla-La Mancha border. With plentiful old vineyards (the average age being 40 years), Bobal can produce full-bodied red wines with a rustic, earthy tannic structure complemented by a bright acidity. The DO is split between the towns of Utiel and Requena. Requena produces the higher volume of wine and also contains a portion of the Cava DO. In addition to Bobal, Garnacha and Tempranillo are grown, as are several international varieties.

Small in comparison to its neighbors Valencia, Castilla-La Mancha, and Andalucía, Murcia can be seen as a transitional autonomous community between the Catalan-influenced Mediterranean Coast and Southern Spain. Murcia has long enjoyed a rich agricultural heritage. The Moors, who settled there in the ninth century, grew not only grapes for table and raisin consumption but also a variety of fruits, vegetables, and rice. A strong fruit industry continues in the area today, and almonds, olives, and flowers are also important crops.

There are three DOs within Murcia’s boundaries: Yecla, Jumilla, and Bullas. Yecla and Jumilla are adjacent to Alicante’s western edge and share similar winegrowing cultures. Yecla, named for the city at its center, is the smaller of the two. Vines are planted at relatively high elevation, between 400 and 800 meters above sea level, and the loamy, well-drained soil sits atop limestone bedrock. As with the general area, red wine is the major focus and Monastrell the most prominent grape. Regulations additionally permit Garnacha, Garnacha Tintorera, Tempranillo, and a selection of international varieties, in addition to Macabeo, Airén, and Merseguera, among others. White wine, rosado, sparkling, and fortified sweet wines are also allowed.

Jumilla surrounds Yecla to the west, with similar elevations, 400 to 800 meters, albeit sandier soils above limestone. Phylloxera didn’t infect Jumilla until extremely late, arriving in the late 1980s and decimating the local industry to one-third its previous vineyard size. The consejo regulador, along with a few ambitious producers, saw replanting as an opportunity to modernize the appellation, too long associated with bulk and cooperative wine production. Vines were replaced with material uninfected by virus, and new technologies were installed. Winemakers also enacted strategies such as carbonic maceration, earlier harvests, and longer bottle aging to craft more contemporary wines.

Monastrell is by far Jumilla’s most important grape, and varietally labeled reds and rosados are permitted when Monastrell comprises a minimum 85%. Monastrell is the sole grape used to make the appellation’s vinos de licor. Jumilla also authorizes numerous other red and white grape varieties, both Spanish and international, to make red, white, and rosado wines, as well as sweet wines of all three shades.

The youngest of Murcia’s DOs, Bullas is also principally known for Monastrell. The appellation is divided into three subzones—northeast, central, and western—that decrease in elevation, 600 to 900 meters, moving east. Plantings are most heavily concentrated in the higher vineyards in Bullas’s western sector, and wines grown here are generally of better quality. While once associated with cheaper rosados, Bullas has set an example for other Monastrell appellations of how to create more acid-driven, fresh red wines. Monastrell must still compose at least 60% of Bullas’s rosado and red wines, though Tempranillo, Garnacha, Syrah, and Bordeaux varieties are also permitted. Macabeo is the only recommended white grape, but others are authorized. Sparkling and fortified sweet wines are also produced.

Central Plateau

Madrid gives its name not only to the autonomous community that surrounds the nation’s capital, but also to the area’s sole DO, Vinos de Madrid. Vines can be found as close as 11 kilometers to the city proper, and the appellation has skyrocketed in quality, quantity, and global recognition in recent years. Madrid’s documented viticultural history begins in the 1200s, and within two centuries, its wines had become well regarded. The phylloxera crisis arrived around the onset of World War I. Just as Madrid’s vineyards began to recover, focus shifted under Franco’s regime toward grapes that would provide quantity and high alcohol, namely Garnacha and Airén, over quality and over grapes more historically associated with the area. The Vinos de Madrid DO was officially established in 1990, and since that time, innovative producers have shifted the region’s reputation. 

Vinos de Madrid is comprised of four subzones: Arganda, Navalcarnero, San Martín de Valdeiglesias, and El Molar. Arganda is the largest in terms of both size and plantings, with just over 50% of the region’s vineyards and 60% of total production. Here, Tempranillo is suggested over Garnacha. The subzone lies southeast of the city, and its landscape features varied soils and a few coveted limestone plateaus. To the southwest, Navalcarnero is flat and loamy, while further west, San Martín is more granitic. San Martín is protected from cold northern winds by the Sierra de Gredos range and has a less arid climate and more verdant landscape than the rest of the appellation. El Molar is the newest subzone, designated in 2019. 

While Garnacha’s origins in Madrid may not have focused on quality, today the appellation yields some of Spain’s most exciting examples. The Albillos y Garnachas de Gredos association imposes stricter standards than appellation regulations, and its members have become leaders for the variety, and for the white Albillo Real, in the area. Among reds, Tempranillo, Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Syrah are also cultivated; Malvar, Airén, Viura, Torrontés, Parellada, and Moscatel de Grano Menudo are other whites. White, red, rosado, and sparkling wines are all produced, as are sobremadre wines—a traditional style for both red and effectively orange wines, where skin contact is permitted without racking for up to 180 days.

Castilla-La Mancha takes its name from manxa, an epithet given to its land by the Moors, meaning “parched earth.” It’s an appropriate descriptor for the region’s dramatic continental climate, as summers can reach excruciatingly high temperatures, with an extreme lack of rainfall. Winters, in contrast, can be freezing. As a result, disease pressure is very low. Castilla-La Mancha’s vines sit atop the Meseta Central. Cervantes set Spain’s most canonical literary masterwork Don Quixote in this region, and the novel’s fabled windmills still dot the landscape. In addition to abundant viticulture, sheep farming is the largest industry in Castilla-La Mancha, with Manchego cheese an important product. 

Though Castilla-La Mancha’s wines have only recently earned praise for their rising quality, the autonomous community has long been a considerable contributor to Spain’s wine production. Eight DO appellations are located here: La Mancha, Almansa, Ribera del Júcar, Manchuela, Méntrida, Mondéjar, Uclés, and Valdepeñas. La Mancha DO is one of the largest continuous winegrowing areas in the world, with more than 160,000 hectares under vine. A large portion of its wine, however, is ultimately distilled into spirits for either brandy or use as fortifying agents. Over the course of the past half-century, several efforts have been made to further partition the vast La Mancha DO. It was, in fact, once larger; Almansa, Méntrida, and Ribera del Júcar are all carved from territory formerly belonging to the appellation. Vines are mostly head trained and planted in the traditional system called marco real, where each vine is spaced 2.5 meters from the next to reduce competition for water. La Mancha has achieved commercial success through its supply of affordable, consistent, basic-quality wines. Airén is its most prevalent white, and while not the most complex grape, it can be fashioned into enjoyable, fruity wines meant for immediate consumption. Tempranillo, here called Cencibel, is most important among reds and will be vinified into supermarket wines without the influence of oak, as well as more serious examples. A laundry list of permitted varieties, both foreign and Spanish, can also be used to make DO wine in every style.

Ribera del Júcar was created from land at La Mancha’s eastern edge in the early 21^st century, decades after Méntrida and Almansa were established. It experiences more Mediterranean influence than its western neighbor and approximately 20% higher rainfall. Tempranillo makes the appellation’s most notable wines, though Syrah and Bordeaux grapes are also permitted for reds and rosados. Only Sauvignon Blanc and Moscatel de Grano Menudo are utilized for white wine production. 

To the east, on the opposite side of the Júcar River, Manchuela also borders Utiel-Requena, with which it shares Bobal as a dominant variety. Sitting between the Júcar and Cabriel river valleys, Manchuela has a more Mediterranean climate, with greater humidity and rain than both La Mancha and Ribera del Júcar. While Bobal dominates vineyard plantings at more than two-thirds, Macabeo can also yield quality whites, while a collection of additional grapes is permitted for white, red, rosado, and sparkling wines.

Further east, Almansa similarly offers a middle ground between the Meseta and the Levant. Almansa is semi-arid, with limestone soils, and spans a series of hills at an average of 700 meters elevation. Its primary variety is Monastrell, followed by Garnacha Tintorera. Tempranillo and Cabernet Sauvignon are also grown, among others, and production is heavily weighted toward red wine over white and rosado.

Tucked within a southern enclave of La Mancha DO, Valdepeñas achieved explosive growth in the 1800s due to the construction of a railway linking the region to Madrid and the French phylloxera crisis. During recovery from phylloxera, which reached Valdepeñas in the early 20^th century, winegrowers placed a heavy emphasis on Airén due to its productivity. But the region is best associated with its easy-drinking Tempranillo-based wines. Historically, the variety was vinified into aloques or claretes, light-bodied reds in line with traditional clairet from Bordeaux, and frequently blended with both white and red varieties. Today, more robust Tempranillo takes precedence, though white, rosado, and sparkling wines are also bottled and a number of French and Spanish grapes harvested. The region itself occupies a plain and its surrounding mountains, with the finest grapes said to derive from the Los Llanos (literally “the flats”) western sector, or in the north on the sloped plantings of Las Aberturas (meaning “the passes”). 

To La Mancha DO’s northwest, Méntrida has long suffered a poor reputation for its bulk Garnacha. However, there are promising wines now emerging from the region, particularly from the area near the Gredos range, to the northwest. The appellation, dominated by sandy granitic soils, experiences extreme continental conditions, though the Gredos Mountains will guard from colder winds. While Garnacha remains the face of the region, Tempranillo and international varieties are also permitted for both red and rosado wines, and as of 2000, several white grapes are approved. 

Established in 2005, the Uclés DO sits within a crevice of La Mancha DO’s northern edge. The region is separated in half by the Sierra de Altomira range, with the western sector, which surpasses 1,000 meters, higher in elevation than the east. Tempranillo is most important to production, though Bordeaux varieties have also found success. Garnacha, Syrah, and staple white varieties are grown as well, collectively allowing for white, red, rosado, and sparkling production. With the Tagus River flowing through, Mondéjar rests between Uclés to its south and Vinos de Madrid to its west, though it has never achieved the prestige of the latter. Like Uclés, Mondéjar is most associated with Tempranillo, but Malvar, Macabeo, Sauvignon Blanc, and Torrontés have yielded successful whites. A handful of additional varieties, including Cabernet Sauvignon, are permitted for white, red, and rosado wines.

As its name implies, Extremadura is a place of extremes—a hard, punishing climate with resilient inhabitants, including the conquistadors who sailed to the New World. Also facing economic challenges, it is less famous for winegrowing than the other autonomous communities. It does, however, boast a rich agricultural heritage. Much land is also dedicated to sheep grazing, as well as black-legged pigs, whose jamón serrano is one of Spain’s gastronomic treasures. The area is also home to most of Spain’s cork production. The name Extremadura translates to “extreme limit of the land beyond the Duero,” and the region sits south of the Duero’s greater river valley. The Guadiana River cuts through Extremadura and gives its name to the sole DO, Ribera del Guadiana. To the west lies Portugal’s Alentejo, another important hub for cork production.

Ribera del Guadiana DO comprises six former Vino de la Tierra winegrowing areas, now subzones united and elevated under a single umbrella appellation. Tierra de Barros is located in the middle of the region, south of the Guadiana, and is the largest subzone with approximately four-fifths of all vineyard space. It has dry conditions and sits at high elevations—though not as high as Montánchez and Cañamero, the most elevated subzones and the only two north of the river. The Ribera Baja and Ribera Alta subzones line the appellation south of the Guadiana to the west and east, respectively, while Matanegra sits furthest south.

Red, white, and rosado wines are all crafted in Ribera del Guadiana. The appellation grows classic Spanish varieties, such as Macabeo, Verdejo, Parellada, Tempranillo, Bobal, Garnacha, Monastrell, and Alicante, as well as Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Syrah, Cabernet Sauvignon, and other French staples. Several indigenous grapes grow within the DO, including whites Alarije, Eva, and Montúa, among Portuguese and other more regional varieties. Ribera del Guadiana permits a diversity of wines and styles, but an Extremadura Vino de la Tierra designation allows for more experimental practices. Beyond commercial wine, Extremadura has long been a source of base wines to be distilled into brandy.

Andalucía

Iberia’s winegrowing origins lie in Andalucía, with the arrival of the Phoenicians and the founding of Gadir (today Cádiz) in 1100 BCE. The wines were already celebrated in ancient times, as was the region’s distinctive albariza (chalk soil). Due to Islamic conquest in 711 CE, Andalucía demonstrates Spain’s Moorish influence at its most opulent, visible today in the grandiose architecture of Seville, Córdoba, and Granada. After the Reconquista, it was also here that Spain revitalized its wine industry, as the sack from Jerez and Málaga reached global markets. The distinctive fortified wine styles of the Jerez triangle still dominate Andalucía, despite their dramatic fall from popularity in the late 20^th century. (This guide will not cover Sherry and Montilla-Moriles, extensive topics on their own.)

Andalucía (often Anglicized to Andalusia) occupies the bottom tip of the Iberian Peninsula, the southern extreme of Western Europe. It is only separated from Morocco by the Strait of Gibraltar (though technically Gibraltar itself is a British overseas territory). Andalucía finds a variety of climatic influences, merging the Mediterranean’s warmth with the colder winds from the Atlantic. Moving inland, Andalucía transitions to more continental conditions, especially as it scales in elevation to its various mountainous zones.

Condado de Huelva

Beyond Jerez-Xérès-Sherry and Montilla-Moriles, Andalucía has four additional DO regions. Condado de Huelva DO sits just northwest of the Jerez triangle along the Atlantic coastline. Its history is intertwined with that of Sherry, and wines from the two regions were frequently blended together in the soleras of Jerez before appellation boundaries were drawn and the practice forbidden. Yet Condado de Huelva profited from the global demand for sack in the 16^th and 17^th centuries. Even earlier, Christopher Columbus is said to have stocked his ships with Condado wines before setting sail for the Americas. More recent times, however, have brought little attention to Condado de Huelva, and any decline that devastates Sherry is only amplified in this region that lacks name recognition and healthy export markets.

The name condado translates to “county,” and the wines here come from the municipality of Huelva. Vineyards are hardly above sea level and mostly planted on sand and clay, though the best grapes are harvested from the albariza soils so prized for Sherry.

The traditional wines resemble Sherry as well. There are two major styles of Condado: pálido and viejo. Condado Pálido (or “pale”) is the lighter of the two, aged biologically under flor like a Fino Sherry, and similarly fortified to approximately 15.5% alcohol. Condado Viejo (or “old”) is the more distinctive. Fortified between 17 and 22% alcohol, the wines are aged oxidatively and better resemble Oloroso Sherry at their finest. Sweetened versions, such as “cream” and “medium,” analogous to those in Jerez are also bottled. These styles, too, are aged in American oak butts (up to 650 liters in capacity) for at least two years, though the best far exceed the required minimum.

Palomino is cultivated for Condado de Huelva, as are Moscatel de Alejandría and Pedro Ximénez. But the most prominent grape for generoso wines is the local Zalema, a white variety that, like Palomino, is rather neutral when vinified as an unfortified wine. Condado de Huelva nonetheless has proceeded to experiment with dry table winemaking. Both white and red wines are permitted, and among them, international varieties such as Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, Syrah, Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, and Merlot are authorized, as is Tempranillo.

Málaga & Sierras de Málaga

On the opposite side of the Strait of Gibraltar, Málaga DO, a non-contiguous appellation, stands between the Mediterranean and Montilla-Moriles. Málaga DO is designated for sweet wines, while Sierras de Málaga DO refers to dry table white, rosado, and red wines made in the same area. Málaga’s fortified wines once competed with those of Jerez in terms of prestige—prized during the Renaissance era as Málaga sack. The region benefited from declining Sherry sales in the 18^th century, at which time Málaga’s greatest wines were called mountain, named for the terrain surrounding the town of Cuevas de San Marcos, from which the most pedigreed wines were born. Phylloxera first reached Spain by way of Málaga in 1876. The damage was catastrophic, wiping out nearly all of the region’s vineyard area. By the time Málaga established its DO in 1933, many of its export markets had been lost, including the once-important Russia. Málaga has yet to recover its former glory, especially as resorts and development prevail, but a handful of stalwart producers and new arrivals maintain its traditions.

Málaga’s bodegas are concentrated in the city itself, which is nestled right against the beach. The vineyards, however, can be divided into several subareas. Closest to the city proper is Montes de Málaga, while the vines surrounding Estepona, a seaside town closer to Gibraltar than to Málaga, are predominately Moscatel in the Manilva subzone. Axarquía, a coastal sector between Málaga and the town of Nerja reaching inland toward Granada, also dedicates itself to Moscatel. The so-called mountain vineyards, including those of Cuevas de San Marcos, lie north of the city, a subzone simply called Norte, and have more limestone. This area is best known for the cultivation of Pedro Ximénez, unsurprising given the proximity to Montilla. Finally, north of Estepona, Serranía de Ronda is the primary source for Sierras de Málaga DO wines, dry wines of less than 12 grams per liter residual sugar aged for a minimum of two years (six months in oak). These vineyards sit at the highest elevations, at 750 meters above sea level. Soils throughout the region are diverse, though Norte has more limestone content and Axarquía gravelly chalk. The climate, too, shifts from Mediterranean nearer the water to continental at higher sites, where there is a wider diurnal shift. 

Many varieties thrive in Málaga. Its most traditional sweet wines are harvested from Pedro Ximénez, but both Moscatel de Alejandría and Moscatel Morisco (Moscatel de Grano Menudo) can produce high-quality wines as well. For example, Telmo Rodríguez and US importer Jorge Ordóñez, in a collaboration with Austrian sweet wine producer Kracher, bottle Málaga wines from Moscatel de Alejandría. Rare local varieties Lairén, Doradilla, and the sole red Romé are also permitted. Sierras de Málaga DO adds a number of major French and Spanish grapes to the mix, including Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Macabeo, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah, and Tempranillo.

While Sierras de Málaga yields a dynamic portfolio of red, white, and rosado styles, traditional Málaga DO wines are more complicated. The most famous sweet wines are made via the soleo process from sun-dried grapes, with clusters left to raisinate outdoors on grass mats, or espartos. These highly concentrated wines can either be unfortified, as is the case with vino de uvas pasificadas dulce, or fortified, as with vino de licor, made in both dry and sweet styles. Of the sweet vinos de licor, those made with sun-dried grapes can be labeled vino tierno, while those fortified before fermentation (mistelas) from fresh grapes can be called vino maestro and those from partially fermented fresh grapes, vino dulce natural. The latter should not be confused with vino naturalmente dulce, which comes from overripe Pedro Ximénez or the Moscatels and is unfortified. More broadly, late harvest wine, vino de uvas sobremaduradas, can also be made from overripe grapes left to dehydrate on the vine. Dry white wines can also be produced under the Málaga DO, so long as they are comprised of 70% Pedro Ximénez, Moscatel de Alejandría, or Moscatel de Grano Menudo.

For vinos de licor, Málaga DO has a set of additional aging designations. All wines must spend a minimum six months in cask unless labeled pálido (a separate style from that of the same name for Condado de Huelva with no aging requirement); noble must be aged two to three years; añejo, three to five years; and transañejo, five years or longer. The wines will grow more oxidative in barrel, but a full solera system is only in place for the oldest of Málaga wines. A variety of additional terms for sugar level and color indications are given to sweetened or blended Málaga wines, such as those that see the addition of arrope, syrupy boiled-down must; pantomima, further concentrated arrope; and vino borracho, or “drunk wine,” a fortifying agent consisting of both wine and spirit.

Granada

Granada was promoted from VCIG to DO in 2021. The delimited area encompasses the entire province of Granada, which is located just east of Málàga. Granada produces white, rosé, and red wines, and may be still or sparkling, and dry or sweet. A single subregion, Contraviesa-Alpujarra, is located along the Mediterranean Coast. Sparkling wine from the subregion must include at least 70% of the white grape Vijiriego.

The Islands

The Balearics (or Baleares) are a group of islands forming an archipelago off the coast of Valencia in the western Mediterranean Sea. The four primary islands, from west to east, are Ibiza, Formentera, Mallorca, and Menorca. Culturally, the Balearic Islands most identify with Catalonia, and they speak a Balearic dialect of Catalan that originated in Empordà. Historically, however, the Kingdom of Mallorca (often Anglicized as Majorca) paid fealty to the Kingdom of Aragon, despite a brief period of independence at its inception during the Reconquista, at which time it was tied to Montpellier and Roussillon.

While larger Vino de la Tierra zones grow grapes across the islands, DO production is limited to Mallorca. Two appellations exist there, Binissalem and Pla i Llevant. Both enjoy a Mediterranean climate, though with generally cooler summers than mainland Spain. Binissalem was the first DO to be established, in 1991, and houses the oldest winery on the island, Hereus de Ribas, founded in 1711. Mallorca, at that time, had already cemented a reputation of quality wine for those traveling through but struggled to find an export market. Binissalem’s vineyards are confined to the center of the island, northeast of the capital, Palma de Mallorca. The Serra de Tramuntana range shields Binissalem’s vines from cold northerly winds.

Red, white, rosado, and sparkling wines are made from a series of classic Spanish and international varieties. Most prized, however, are the indigenous red Manto Negro and white Moll (also called Prensal Blanc) and, to a lesser extent, red grapes Gorgollosa and Callet. Manto Negro must constitute at least 30% of a red wine’s blend. Its wines are often low in pigment and high in alcohol, inviting the addition of more structured varieties. White wines must be comprised of a minimum 50% Moll or 50% Moscatel (either de Grano Menudo or de Alejandría). Moll’s naturally low acidity similarly mandates the contributions of other grapes.

Pla i Llevant covers a larger area, roughly the entire southeastern half of Mallorca, though plantings are fewer. The landscape is rather flat (pla translates to “plain”), and elevations hardly rise above sea level. In comparison to Binissalem, Pla i Llevant’s soils are more fertile and its vines more exposed to wind and frost damage. French grapes, such as Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Chardonnay, dominate the appellation, though Moll, Manto Negro, Callet, and the red native Fogoneu are also authorized. Like Binissalem, Pla i Llevant can produce red, white, rosado, and sparkling wines, as well as sweet fortifieds. While challenging to find outside the area, Mallorcan wine can command relatively high prices in its local market.

Both physically and stylistically, the Canary Islands are an outlier in the tradition of Spanish wine. Though politically European, the Canary Islands are much closer to Northern Africa, just 100 kilometers west of Morocco. They’re also due south of Madeira, making the Canaries one of the most southerly major winegrowing region in the Northern Hemisphere. European discovery of the Canaries can be documented from the second century CE, when, according to legend, Romans found packs of wild dogs inhabiting the island of Fuerteventura. Accordingly, one translation of Islas Canarias is “islands of dogs.” Visitors occasionally passed through the archipelago in the following millennium, but it wasn’t until 1402 that French explorer Jean de Béthencourt claimed the area for Castile. The conquest over the Canaries’ native people, the Guanches, lasted until 1496, and winegrowing here began around this time. The Canary Islands provided a valuable stopping point during the triangular trade, en route from Western Africa or Europe to the American colonies or elsewhere. Ships passing through were stocked with sweet wine styles that were able to withstand long sea travel. Canary sack, as the British called the islands’ fortified Malvasía, achieved popularity, particularly in Northern Europe.

Traversing the 28^th parallel, the Canary Islands fall just outside the range considered optimal for quality viticulture, making elevation an important asset (some vineyards are as high as 1,500 meters). Such positioning also allows for less seasonal variation, as well as narrower oscillation in daylight hours throughout the year. As the islands were created by a series of volcanoes, several still active, much of the area is covered in volcanic-derived soils. Mostly, these are very fertile, leading to many additional crops and a lush topography. Seven major islands comprise the Canary Islands, each carrying its own DO or DOs, with the exception of Fuerteventura. The overarching Islas Canarias DO spreads across the autonomous community.

On the Canary Islands, Listán Blanco (Palomino) achieves unfortified, fresh wines of complexity—rare for the grape on the Spanish mainland. Its history in the Canaries began in the late 1400s and, unsurprisingly, it was first recommended for the production of sack, to be made in the image of Sherry. Today, it is the Canary Islands’ most planted variety and yields semi-aromatic dry whites of medium body, with a subtle nutty, savory profile. Marmajuelo, also called Bermejuela, is likely native to the region and offers richer, more tropical-leaning whites. 

Several grapes called Malvasía have found their way to the Canaries. The one simply referred to as Malvasía is identical to Malvasia di Lipari, named after the Sicilian islands, where it is also cultivated. The grape also served as the original “Malmsey” of Madeira, though it is nearly extinct there in favor of Malvasia Branca de São Jorge. It is similarly revered for sweet wines in the Canary Islands, as well as dry styles, and favored for its exuberant fragrance and stone fruit and citrus aromas. A pink-skinned mutation of Malvasía, Malvasía Rosada, is also grown across the Canaries. In addition, Malvasía Volcánica (or Malvasía de Lanzarote) is an autochthonous cross of Malvasia di Lipari and Marmajuelo. It’s less floral than its parent Malvasia di Lipari. Other Canary white varieties include Moscatel de Alejandría, Albillo Real, Gual (Madeira’s Bual), Verdello (Madeira’s Verdelho), Forastera Blanca, and Vijariego Blanco (called Diego on Lanzarote), a high-acid grape first introduced around the 15^th or 16^th century and used for both still and sparkling wines.

Listán Negro is native to the Canary Islands and covers the most vineyard area of all reds. It is unrelated to Listán Prieto, a highly vigorous variety that also grows in the Canaries, arriving from the Spanish mainland later than it did in the Americas. Listán Prieto produces wines that are often rather humble and rustic. Negramoll, native to Andalucía, is the same as Madeira’s Tinta Negra. Its wines are light, fruity, aromatic, and slightly herbal. The Canaries also cultivate the red varieties Bastardo (Trousseau, and also called Tintilla on the Canary Islands), Baboso Negro (the same as Bruñal in Arribes and Alfrocheiro in Portugal), Vijariego Negro (Sumoll), and Castella Negra.

The Canary Islands yield a diversity of wine styles, including red, white, and rosé table wines, as well as sparkling. Due to the area’s long tradition of sweet winemaking, with wines vinified from sun-dried grapes and bottled in both fortified and unfortified expressions, most Canary DOs permit the majority of these options, although some regional specialties are noted.

Tenerife

The largest of the Canary Islands is Tenerife, which rests in the middle of the archipelago. Mount Teide stands at the island’s center, an active volcano and Spain’s tallest peak at 3,718 meters. Teide and its foothills have proven critical to Tenerife’s quality winegrowing, allowing for high-elevation, slope-side plantings at cooler sites. Wind patterns usually blow from north to south, creating a sort of rain shadow effect on the island. Teide traps the humid air on the north side of the island, leaving hotter, more arid conditions to the south. Rather than owning large swaths of land, most wineries source from numerous small family growers, whose tiny plots, called suertes, were historically cultivated for home winemaking and today risk abandonment from less-invested younger generations.

Tenerife is also the only Canary Island to hold multiple DOs. It has five: Tacoronte-Acentejo, Valle de la Orotava, and Ycoden-Daute-Isora in the north, and Abona and Valle de Güímar in the south. Tacoronte-Acentejo DO is Tenerife’s oldest and largest DO, occupying the northeastern stretch of the island. Vines are cultivated up to 1,000 meters, with the layer of reddish, loamy topsoil thinning with increased elevation and exposing more of the volcanic subsoil. Reds are heavily favored, with particular attention to Listán Negro and Negramoll, among other staples. To the southwest, Valle de la Orotava DO’s vineyards rise between 200 and 800 meters. Here, vines are historically trained in the dramatic trenzado or cordón system. The method involves braiding vines for several meters—often more than 10—and raising the cordons at regular intervals with small sticks so that grape clusters don’t touch the earth. Several of these vines exceed one or two centuries in age. During dormancy, the braided vines can be moved to the side to allow for additional crops. Most planted in Valle de la Orotava are Listán Blanco and Listán Negro; here, soils have higher proportions of clay. The Ycoden-Daute-Isora DO also gives preference to Listán Blanco, which covers approximately 70% of the DO. Elevations can reach 1,000 meters, though the appellation is overall hotter, wetter, and sandier, especially vineyards near the coast.

The Valle de Güímar DO, which follows the coastline south of Tacoronte-Acentejo, experiences much drier conditions than vineyards on the opposite side of Teide. Elevation proves vital for quality viticulture, with the top sites ranging between 800 and 1,400 meters. White wine dominates, with Listán Blanco as the most planted variety. The Abona DO creates a u-shape on the southern half of Tenerife. Europe’s highest vineyards are here, scaling beyond 1,600 meters. White wine and Listán Blanco are again most important, though Listán Negro enjoys significant plantings as well.

Lanzarote

The furthest east of the Canary Islands, Lanzarote is also perhaps the most distinctive. The entire landscape is blanketed in striking black volcanic topsoil, or ceniza, a sandy substance derived from the ash and lava of a six-year eruption from the 1730s. The catastrophic event marks the commencement of Lanzarote’s viticultural heritage; previously, its topography largely resembled the rest of the Canaries and yielded other crops—grapes not among them. Today, however, the island is inhospitable to almost all plants other than grapes, save a few pockets where fig or palm trees might be grown. There are over 30 active volcanoes.

Winegrowers have developed creative practices for cultivating grapes on Lanzarote’s otherwise barren grounds. Vines are rooted in hoyos, pits deep enough to penetrate a layer of subsoil that can carry sufficient moisture for the plants. The hoyos are quite wide, measuring as large as 10 meters in diameter to 5 meters in depth, and each hoyo houses just one or two vines. The shallow basins also help shelter the vines from fiercely hot and humid winds from the west that would shrivel their berries and coat them in the ash. To amplify protection, each hoyo is outlined by a semi-circular cairn. Younger vineyards might opt instead for the linear zanjas, a series of trenches similarly protected by rows of stone mounds. Lanzarote’s surreal vineyard is frequently likened to a moonscape.

The Timanfaya National Park occupies the center west of Lanzarote, while its winegrowing area can be divided into three subzones. La Geria is furthest south, bordering Masdache, which is split between Tinajo and Masdache proper. Ye-Lajares is unconnected to the other winegrowing areas at the far north of the island. Hoyos are most often found in La Geria, which also sees the widest spacing and lowest densities. Zanjas can be observed in the other zones. Lanzarote is known for its historic sweet wines, both fortified and unfortified, but it also produces a full palette of Canary grapes as dry wines, most notably from Listán Blanco, Malvasía, Listán Negro (Negro Común), and Negramoll.

Other DOs

El Hierro DO is the westernmost of the Canary Islands. Its landscape emerges as the above-surface fragment of a much larger subaquatic volcanic rim. Unsurprisingly, soils are volcanic of various consistencies. Vineyards are carved into terraces, reaching up to 700 meters in elevation. Historically, El Hierro’s sweet wines were celebrated during the Renaissance era, its first vines purportedly planted by Englishman John Hill in 1526. Today, the island still enjoys an important export market in Central and South America, particularly Venezuela. Of its many grapes, Listán Blanco, both red and white Verijadiego, Listán Negro, and Baboso Negro are most important.

To El Hierro’s north is the La Palma DO, referred to as La Isla Bonita or “the beautiful island” due to its lush topography. Vines are said to have been first planted in 1505; today, La Palma’s other major crop is bananas. Many producers will not accept grapes grown at banana farms, as the banana palms cause nearby vines to suffer and yield poor fruit. The island is still actively volcanic, with its last major eruption in 2021. Three subzones comprise La Palma. Fuencaliente, in the south and center east, is home to some of the island’s best whites, especially Malvasía Volcánica. Hoyo de Mazo in the center west is better known for reds, and Norte de la Palma is located in the north. Vineyards here can reach as high as 1,100 meters. La Palma’s most distinctive product is vino de tea, a rancio style in any hue aged in 500-liter pine casks. Botrytized wines are also bottled on La Palma, and the island’s most widely planted grapes are Listán Blanco and Negramoll, among whites and reds, respectively. Other varieties, beyond the local specialty Malvasía, include Sabro, a grape used for sweet wines and believed to be harvested nowhere else in the world. 

La Gomera DO follows to La Palma’s east. The mountainous landscape, with plunging cliffs and deep ravines, renders viticulture challenging, and the island’s output remains small. It is best recognized for Forastera Blanca, La Gomera’s most cultivated grape variety and an indigenous specialty (unrelated to what is called Forastera in Italy’s Campania). Listán Blanco, Marmajuelo, Listán Negro, Tintilla, Tempranillo, and Negramoll are also well represented, along with many other varieties grown in limited quantities.

Gran Canaria DO was established in 2005, after absorbing the former DO Monte Lentiscal, which existed only for a handful of years around the town of Santa Brígada. As in Tenerife, a central volcano effectively divides the island in two, with poorer-quality wines coming from the hotter southern half and better examples coming from the more northern vineyards, particularly at higher elevations. As with each of the islands, myriad styles and varieties abound on Gran Canaria. Among reds, Listán Negro, here called Negro Común, remains the dominant variety, where it is used to make what is locally called tinto del monte, or “mountain wine.” Negramoll, Tintilla, and Malvasía Rosada also see significant plantings. Listán Blanco is the most important of white varieties, with contributions from Malvasía, Moscatel de Alejandría, Albillo, Marmajuelo, and Vijariego. Gran Canaria is also recognized for its sweet and often fortified wines, predominately from Malvasía and Moscatel.

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Special thanks to Sarah Jane Evans and Miquel Hudin for their help in reviewing this guide.

Compiled by Bryce Wiatrak (June 2020)

Edited by Stacy Ladenburger