Italy Part II: Central Italy

Central Italy comprises the heart of the Italian Peninsula, both geographically and historically. Lazio, which houses the capital at Rome, roughly corresponds to the ancient Roman city, while Tuscany equates generally to the older Etruria. Millennia later, Tuscany grew to become a major economic power in Italy, first as the Republics of Florence and Siena and later as the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. Before the Risorgimento, much of the rest of centraI Italy was made up of the Papal States, under direct rule of the pope and the Vatican. This guide will consider five regions as central Italy: Tuscany, Umbria, Emilia-Romagna, the Marche, and Lazio. 

Central Italy begins south of the Po River basin, and, like much of the country, is defined by the Apennine Mountains at its center. Its climate is varied by not only latitude but, importantly, elevation, with many of the top wines coming from higher sites. With Tuscany, central Italy serves as a powerful driver of the Italian wine industry, home to many of the country’s largest and oldest winemaking families, such as the Antinoris and the Frescobaldis. The initial sparks of Italy’s 20th-century winemaking revolution were lit here, with the first bottling of Sassicaia in 1968 and the Super Tuscans that followed. 

Today, central Italy is no less dynamic. Italy’s most planted grape variety, Sangiovese, achieves its finest expressions in Chianti Classico and Montalcino. Nearby, in Umbria, Sagrantino has been reimagined for the production of dry red wines. Further north, Emilia-Romagna cultivates the best-known appellations worldwide for sparkling red wine with its various Lambruscos. White wine, too, finds prominence in central Italy, notably in the bottlings of Orvieto, the Malvasia blends of Lazio, and the Verdicchio wines of the Marche. In addition, winegrowers throughout central Italy continue to bottle cellar-worthy wines made from French varieties.

The Grapes & Grape Families of Central Italy

Malvasia: Perhaps the most complicated of the grape “families,” Malvasia refers to an extraordinarily broad range of varieties not only in Italy but across Europe. In France, there is Malvoisie; in Spain, various Malvasias; and in Portugal, Malmsey—an anglicization of one of Madeira’s noble varieties. Several theories have been used to debate the shared name. Ian D’Agata, for example, believes it relates to the Republic of Venice’s dominance of maritime trade, including that of wine. A number of sites in the Floating City continue to incorporate the name Malvasia, and, historically, wine bars were called malvasie. A second hypothesis suggests Malvasia is a bastardization of Monemvasia, the name of a Greek town that once served as a key port, eventually controlled by Venice, through which much wine traveled from the Greek to the Italian Peninsula. Though genetic testing suggests Malvasia varieties are not in fact Greek in origin, several wine styles across medieval Italy could have emulated the dried-grape wines made across the Adriatic.

Eighteen unique Malvasia varieties are registered in Italy, both red and white and offering a set of wines as diverse as any. In central Italy, four Malvasias, all white, are most important: Malvasia Bianca Lunga, Malvasia del Lazio (Malvasia Puntinata), Malvasia Bianca di Candia, and Malvasia di Candia Aromatica. Malvasia Bianca Lunga is most famously grown in Tuscany, where it historically has been an important component of the Chianti blend developed by Bettino Ricasoli in the 19th century. Top Chianti and all Chianti Classico wines today exclude white varieties, but Malvasia Bianca Lunga remains essential to the production of vin santo, typically a blend to which the variety contributes body and aroma. Malvasia del Lazio and Malvasia Bianca di Candia are often interplanted and mixed in the white wines of Lazio, most notably Frascati. Of the two, the former is considered the superior variety, identified by its piney, rich mouthfeel, while Malvasia Bianca di Candia is more neutral. Malvasia di Candia Aromatica is unrelated to Malvasia Bianca di Candia. Its wines are floral and spicy, with monovarietal examples found in a handful of Emilia-Romagna’s denominations. 

Grechetto di Orvieto: Numerous Italian varieties incorporate some version of Greco into their names, a vestige of the Italian Peninsula’s affinity for Greek wines in the Middle Ages. Perhaps unsurprisingly, what is often discussed as Grechetto generally refers to two separate grapes: Grechetto di Orvieto and Grechetto di Todi. The latter is identical to Pignoletto.

In spite of its name, Grechetto di Orvieto is likely native to Umbria and shows some genetic ties to Trebbiano Toscano. The thick-skinned Grechetto di Orvieto shows good disease resistance, a benefit in the fog-dense regions where it is commonly grown. While its wines can be indistinctive, the best examples come from the tufaceous soils of Orvieto, where it is blended with Pignoletto and Trebbiano Toscano. 

Pignoletto: Synonymous with both Grechetto di Todi and Rèbola, as it is sometimes called in Emilia-Romagna, Pignoletto, like Pinot Noir, derives its name from the pine cone shape of its clusters. A vigorous variety, Pignoletto is perceived as higher in quality than Grechetto di Orvieto and is planted in higher concentrations near the Todi and Colli Martani DOCs, though the two Grechettos are frequently blended in each of these and a number of Umbrian appellations. There are also significant plantings of Pignoletto in Emilia-Romagna, with successful examples found in the Colli Bolognesi Classico Pignoletto DOCG. Its expression varies widely between the two regions, in each case characterized by what Ian D’Agata describes as a chamomile character, though the wines from Umbria have a stronger thiol-driven grapefruit quality.

Vernaccia: The name Vernaccia is used for an abundance of grapes with seemingly no common genetic link as well as, confusingly, a selection of wines made from non-Vernaccia varieties. The term comes from the Latin word vernaculum (native), though some theorize it refers to the Ligurian town of Vernazza. Vernaccia di San Gimignano may have been brought south to Tuscany from Liguria, where a Vernaccia grape was known to be grown. Some scholars claim the variety is related to Spain’s Garnacha (Grenache), especially in light of Vernaccia’s synonym Granaccia. Yet despite the shared etymology, those assertions seem unfounded.

Vernaccia varieties are found in several pockets of Italy, including Sardinia, where Vernaccia di Oristano is vinified into a Sherry-like fortified wine. The two most important Vernaccias, however, are both cultivated in central Italy: Vernaccia di San Gimignano and Vernaccia Nera. The former is white and has its own DOCG, and the wines range from simple and crisp to richer, slightly oxidative styles aged in oak. Vernaccia Nera is red, as the name implies, and harvested primarily in the Marche. It is known for its flamboyant, violet quality.

Sagrantino: While Sagrantino is widely considered indigenous to Umbria, it remains debatable whether this is the grape Hirtiola, mentioned in ancient texts by Pliny the Elder and Martial, as some attest. Despite its superlative quality, Sagrantino neared extinction in the mid-20th century, before its resuscitation by such producers as Arnaldo Caprai in Montefalco, an area that continues to hold nearly all of Sagrantino’s global plantings. Commercial success has led to an exponential increase in plantings, which surged fivefold in Montefalco in the 2010s to more than 600 hectares as of 2020.

Sagrantino is late ripening and demonstrates exceedingly high polyphenolic content. The variety is robust in both pigment and tannin, leading to wines that are impenetrable in their youth. Top examples are long lived and celebrated among Italy’s finest red wines. Before producing dry wines, Sagrantino was traditionally used for sweet, red dried-grape wines.   

Lambrusco Grasparossa (Credit: Bryce Wiatrak)

Lambrusco: Lambrusco is not a single grape but, according to some counts, more than 60 varieties found throughout Italy. The best-known examples and the highest concentrations, however, are cultivated in Emilia-Romagna, where they are vinified into a range of sparkling red wines. Lambrusco varieties must not be mistaken for Vitis labrusca, a separate vine species native to North America, though the etymology is the same. Lambrusco translates to “wild grape,” and this series of varieties is said to be domesticated from wild vines. Accordingly, some Lambrusco varieties share characteristics with Vitis vinifera subsp. sativa, the subspecies for wild cultivars. Like wild vines, Lambrusco di Sorbara cannot self-pollinate. Though genetically hermaphroditic, its flowers display only female sex organs. To remedy its challenges with fruit set, the variety must be interplanted with a separate pollinator (often Lambrusco Salamino).

While a host of Lambrusco varieties have been identified, five are most important for quality and quantity. Lambrusco di Sorbara yields the lightest, most floral Lambrusco wines, while the thicker-skinned Lambrusco Grasparossa makes the most tannic and structured. Centered between the two is the most cultivated Lambrusco variety, Lambrusco Salamino, whose name refers to the salami shape of its bunches. These three are most associated with the province of Modena, while Lambrusco Marani is associated with Reggio Emilia and Lambrusco Maestri with Parma. Lambrusco Marani wines show both elevated tannin and acid, and Lambrusco Maestri wines are the most fruit driven and generous. 

Tuscany

The birthplace of the Renaissance, as it is often called, Tuscany has born some of the most influential thinkers and artists in the Western canon, among them Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Dante Alighieri, Donatello, and Sandro Botticelli. Its regional capital, Florence, ranks among the world’s most visited cities, while Siena, Pisa, Arezzo, Lucca, and Livorno also attract tourists. Standard Italian is founded on the dialect spoken by Tuscans.

Tuscany (or Toscana) is also the historic home of Italy’s most planted grape, Sangiovese. The variety reaches its highest expressions here, evidenced in the wines Chianti Classico, Brunello di Montalcino, and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano. Citing the region’s global market appeal and commercial aptitude, in their book Vino Italiano: The Regional Wines of Italy, Joseph Bastianich and David Lynch call Tuscany Italy’s Bordeaux. Indeed, Italy’s finest Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot wines are made in Tuscany. Yet Tuscany’s vinicultural diversity extends beyond Sangiovese and Bordeaux varieties, encompassing a host of whites, sweet wines, and other indigenous grapes across a landscape shaped by coastal plains, mountain slopes, and even islands. 

Chianti & Chianti Classico

The precise origins of the Chianti region remain vague, with the name referring loosely to various points north of Siena and south of the Arno River in early maps. The land that today composes Chianti Classico was fought over in the late Middle Ages by the Republics of Florence and Siena. In 1716, Cosimo III de’ Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, officially issued a bando, or “edict,” that drew the boundaries of the Chianti wine region, roughly corresponding to the modern Classico zone, as well as of Pomino, Carmignano, and Valdarno. Collectively, these four are considered the earliest examples of demarcated wine regions, predating those of the Douro and Tokaj by several decades. Challenges with fraudulent Chianti wine, however, are documented as early as the mid-18th century.

Efforts to improve quality and increase exports were formalized through the inception in 1753 of the Accademia dei Georgofili, a scholarly body focused on agriculture. Winegrowers looked to French practices to improve wine stability in an effort to expand Chianti’s foreign markets. The contemporary “formula” for Chianti wine is attributed to Bettino Ricasoli, whose family has owned the Castello di Brolio, in Gaiole, since the 12th century. Ricasoli, who later became prime minister of Italy, inverted the typical blend by vinifying Sangiovese as the dominant variety, using the then more popular Canaiolo instead as an accessory. For younger-drinking wines, he also suggested a small addition of the white grape Malvasia Bianca Lunga. His contributions, however, extended far beyond encépagement. Ricasoli toured Burgundy and Bordeaux and adopted several winemaking practices. He shortened post-fermentation maceration periods and switched from using open-top to sealed fermentation vessels. He also advocated for lower vine-training systems. Additionally, Ricasoli transitioned his wines, which garnered several awards in the 1870s, to Bordeaux-shaped bottles, preferring them to fiaschi, the squat-shaped, straw-wrapped bottles associated with Chianti since the Renaissance era.

Challenges with fraudulent Chianti wine are documented as early as the mid-18th century. By the late 1800s, amid the phylloxera crisis, fraudulent Chianti was traded globally. Tuscan producers outside the Chianti region began to label wines as vino tipo di Chianti (wine of the Chianti type), and copycat wines were produced as far away as California, where the Italian Swiss Colony sold Tipo Chianti in fiasco. In 1924, an Italian law legalized the labeling of a wine type rather than a specific region, a blow to Chianti producers determined to protect their exclusive right to market their region of origin. In response, Chianti winegrowers organized the Consorzio per la difesa del vino tipico del Chianti e della sua marca di origine (Consortium for the Defense of Typical Wine of Chianti and of Its Mark of Origin), a forerunner of today’s Consorzio Vino Chianti Classico. These producers also began to use a black rooster, or gallo nero, on their bottles, which is a mandatory symbol for Chianti Classico today. Over the following years, Chianti producers continued to battle neighboring winegrowers and the Italian government. Ultimately, the vino tipo concept was abandoned, but, despite that success, the Chianti region was officially enlarged in 1932 to include seven subzones: Chianti Classico, Rùfina, Montalbano, Colli Fiorentini, Colli Senesi, Colli Aretini, and Colline Pisane. (A final subzone, Montespertoli, has been included since 1997.)

Producers in Chianti Classico, the subzone that most closely adheres to Chianti’s historic boundaries, spent the remainder of the 20th century attempting to differentiate themselves from the broader Chianti both legally and on the market. In 1967, Chianti was granted DOC status, and its subzones were further codified into law. Chianti Classico producers traded their fiaschi, which were associated with cheap wine, for Bordeaux bottles, which were used for the majority of Chianti Classico wine by 1969. More troubling was that the Chianti regulations demanded that 10 to 30% of wines be composed of the white varieties Malvasia Bianca Lunga and Trebbiano Toscano, an addition that, many Chianti Classico producers argued, diluted the wines.

Inspired by the success of Sassicaia on the Tuscan Coast, which was labeled as Vino da Tavola, Chianti Classico producers began to declassify their wines in order to evade regulations. In 1971, Niccolò Antinori blended Cabernet Sauvignon into his Tignanello wine, defaulting to the Vino da Tavola label rather than Chianti Classico Riserva, as the wine was marked in former iterations. A series of Super Tuscans arrived in Chianti Classico, and while some were made from French varieties (the most important was Merlot), others were monovarietal Sangiovese wines, a style uncommon outside Montalcino. The first, in 1968, was San Felice’s Vigorello (which today is instead primarily a Cabernet Sauvignon–Merlot blend), followed in the subsequent decades by such icon Sangiovese wines as Isole e Olena’s Cepparello, Fontodi’s Flaccianello della Pieve, San Giusto a Rentennano’s Percarlo, Fèlsina’s Fontalloro, and Montevertine’s Le Pergole Torte. Despite changes in regulation, each of these wines continues to be bottled as IGT. 

In 1984, Chianti was upgraded to become a DOCG. Relenting to mounting pressure from the success of the Super Tuscans, the new disciplinare allowed for up to 10% French varieties. Chianti Classico, however, formally separated from Chianti to form its own DOCG in 1996. Regulations were made more strict, with increased minimum alcohol levels, delayed release dates, and changes to varietal breakdown to allow for 100% Sangiovese wines and the addition of 15% French varieties, raised to 20% in 2000. In 2005, white grape varieties were prohibited entirely in Chianti Classico. Since 2010, it has been forbidden to produce Chianti within the bounds of Chianti Classico.

The noncontiguous Chianti DOCG covers a vast swath of the Tuscan landscape, much of which overlaps with several other DOC and DOCG regions. Chianti is divided into seven specified subzones: Rùfina, Montalbano, Colli Fiorentini, Colli Senesi, Colli Aretini, Colline Pisane, and Montespertoli. Colli and colline refer to the series of hills that define the Tuscan countryside, while Fiorentini, Senesi, Aretini, and Pisane refer to the Florence, Siena, Arezzo, and Pisa provinces, respectively. While Chianti is widely thought of as being cheaper and lower in quality than Chianti Classico, exceptions can be found. The most significant come from Rùfina, where vineyards are cultivated east of Florence in proximity to the Sieve River, a tributary of the Arno, between 200 and 500 meters in elevation and closer to the Apennines than the rest of Chianti. The Chianti Rùfina subzone intersects with the cold Pomino DOC, where Sangiovese is difficult to ripen and Pinot Nero, Merlot, Pinot Bianco, Chardonnay, and Sauvignon Blanc are favored. Chianti Rùfina wines are regarded for their elegance and longevity, and the producers Selvapiana and Frescobaldi are the subzone’s most recognizable. Chianti Colli Senesi, which encompasses both Montalcino and Montepulciano, also bottles some wines of note. 

Chianti Classico stretches between Florence and Siena, drawing ample tourists from these two highly trafficked cities. The terrain is winding, with vertiginous hillsides and verdant forests. The hills help blockadethe region from some of the harsher eastern winds, while the southern end of the DOCG is flatter and more exposed. The dynamism of the landscape provides for the incredible diversity of Chianti Classico wines, creating a series of distinct mesoclimates with varying exposures, elevations, and slopes. Two important soil types are noted in Chianti Classico: galestro and alberese. Galestro consists of a friable schistic clay, while alberese is a harder marlstone analogous to limestone. A third soil, macigno, is a grayish-blue sandstone, and another, calcareous tufa, is found in the south. Top Chianti Classico vineyards will usually consist of some combination of galestro and alberese.

Chianti Classico in Autumn (Credit: Bryce Wiatrak for “Vinous”)

Although not yet official, there is a strong push from winegrowers in Chianti Classico to enact subzones. Chianti Classico is grown is nine communes. Greve in Chianti, Barberino Val d’Elsa, San Casciano Val di Pesa, and Tavarnelle Val di Pesa are located in the province of Florence, while Radda in Chianti, Gaiole in Chianti, Castellina in Chianti, Castelnuovo Berardenga, and Poggibonsi are found just south in the province of Siena. Potential subzones generally follow commune borders, though Tavarnelle Val di Pesa, Poggibonsi, and Barberino Val d’Elsa can be grouped together to form the potential subzone of San Donato. Further fragmentation has also been proposed, and Chiantigiani will often attest to the specific character of Chianti Classico wines from different areas.

Radda, for example, is home to the highest-elevation vineyards in Chianti Classico, at above 650 meters. Its wines are characterized by elegance, and, with the advent of climate change, vineyard land there has become increasingly desirable. Castellina, too, contains several high-elevation sites exceeding 500 meters, especially in its western sector. The area shows high concentrations of alberese and, overall, takes the shape of a sweeping amphitheater. In Chianti Classico’s northwestern corner, San Casciano Val di Pesa presents a north-south valley. Few icon wines are grown here, and examples are generally light and approachable. Quality is variable across San Donato, but one of Chianti Classico’s most pedigreed pockets is found in the area’s south, bordering Castellina, yielding powerful, deep expressions of Sangiovese. Greve features the noted hamlets of Lamole, Montefioralle, and Panzano. The latter has formed its own winegrowers association and is recognized for its Conca d’Oro, a galestro-rich, south-facing concave slope. Gaiole, like Greve, is heterogeneous in style and terroir. Wines grown in the Gaiole village of Monti are well renowned. Castelnuovo Berardenga lies furthest south. Generally warmer, Castelnuovo wines are recognized for their breadth and firm tannins. Some critics consider these wines to be a transition between Chianti Classico and Montalcino, though lighter examples are found in Castelnuovo’s western flank. 

While Sangiovese has provided the core of Chianti and Chianti Classico since Ricasoli’s innovations, modern clones present important distinctions compared with those used prior to the late 20^th century. Historically, the most planted clones of Sangiovese, such as R10, R24, and F9, were favored for their high vigor and ability to produce large quantities of wine, rather than for their quality. These clones yield large berries and big bunches, resulting in somewhat anemic wines. In 1988, the Consorzio Vino Chianti Classico launched the Chianti Classico 2000 initiative, in search of superior clonal material that would provide thicker skins and smaller berries to increase the skin-to-juice ratio; produce looser clusters to minimize disease pressure; and ripen earlier. They commissioned 14 experimental vineyards under the guidance of the famous winemaker Carlo Ferrini and ultimately isolated seven new Sangiovese clones, widely used both in Chianti Classico and outside the region. Since the late 1990s, more than 60% of Chianti Classico vineyards have undergone replanting. The project also provided critical research into ideal rootstocks to reduce vigor while increasing sugar production, increased vine density (5,000 to 7,000 vines per hectare is now considered ideal), and vine training, with a move toward Guyot systems rather than the more historic bush vine or alberello training. 

Chianti mandates a minimum 70% Sangiovese, while Chianti Classico requires 80%. Canaiolo remains an important complement to Sangiovese in Chianti and Chianti Classico wines. A midweight variety, Canaiolo enhances Sangiovese-based wines through greater finesse and precision. Canaiolo’s effect is opposite that of Bordeaux varieties, whose firmness and power can overwhelm Sangiovese. Malvasia Nera’s impact can be similar to Canaiolo's, but with heightened floral aromatics. A debate continues, however, over the exact identity of Malvasia Nera, as a handful of distinct varieties under that name are cultivated in Italy. (The one cultivated in Tuscany is likely Malvasia Nera di Brindisi.) As its name suggests, Colorino is often employed to add pigment to Chianti and Chianti Classico wines, darkening the otherwise light-red Sangiovese. Colorino is actually a group of anthocyanin-rich grapes, and its role is similar to that of Petit Verdot in Bordeaux. Ciliegiolo likely shares a parent-offspring relationship with Sangiovese, for which it has often been mistaken. Its name derives from the Italian word for cherry, an apt descriptor for this elegant, fruity variety. Mammolo, enjoyed for its aromatic intensity, refers to the Italian word for violet. More esoteric Italian varieties and, more prominently, Bordeaux varieties are also used in Chianti and Chianti Classico blends. Though entirely forbidden in Chianti Classico, white grapes may account for up to 10% of the blend in Chianti wines. 

Maintaining the forward-thinking spirit that helped propel the Super Tuscan movement, many Chianti Classico producers continue to experiment in the cellar today. Wines produced in the most traditional style are fermented and aged in large Slavonian oak botti, though stainless steel fermenters and élevage in barriques are widely practiced as well. Several producers are experimenting with cement vessels as well as amphorae made of terra cotta, a material that has a long manufacturing history in the area. Conversely, in Chianti DOCG, producers are still permitted to use the governo technique, so long as Governo all’uso Toscano is noted on the label. In this centuries-old practice, partially dried grapes (or potentially fresh grapes or must) are added midway through fermentation, particularly if it is stuck. With the introduction of temperature control and modern enology, stuck fermentation is rarely an issue today, and the practice has been widely abandoned. Historically, governo winemaking would provide the wines with a unique raisiny richness and structure as well as a distinctive fizziness. 

Both Chianti and Chianti Classico have instated a quality pyramid, primarily determined by required aging prior to release. Aging requirements are as follows:

In 2013, the Consorzio Vino Chianti Classico introduced a new highest designation, Gran Selezione, which took effect the following year retroactively for the 2010 vintage. In addition to undergoing a 30-month period ofmaturation, Gran Selezione wines must use fruit that is exclusively estate grown or acquired through long-term contracts, and harvested from a single vineyard or a selection of top parcels. The wines must also pass a tasting panel. While market reception has yet to fully embrace the Gran Selezione category, the hope is to allow producers to both take an initial step in communicating specificity of place and develop a portfolio of wines that can compete in price with Brunello di Montalcino and top IGT wines.

Chianti & Chianti Classico’s wine quality pyramids (Credit: Brandon Lee Wise)

Montalcino

Compared with Chianti and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano, Brunello di Montalcino could be considered a recent chapter in Tuscany’s history of winegrowing. The commune of Montalcino earned early praise, documented since the late Renaissance, for its white Moscadello wines, both sparkling and sweet. Francesco Redi, in his 1685 work Bacco in Toscana, described Moscadello di Montalcino as “divine.” Brunello, whose name means “small dark one”—a reference to the Sangiovese berries (CHECK)—did not come to fruition until the mid-19th century. Pharmacist and natural historian Clemente Santi is credited with inventing the category. Though he would win an honorable mention for Moscadello from his Il Greppo estate at the Exposition Universelle of 1867 in Paris, Santi began bottling experimental red wines as early as the 1850s. In 1854, at the Exhibition of Natural and Industrial Products of Tuscany, in Florence, he presented what was likely a wine blended exclusively from red grapes—uncustomary at the time for Tuscan winemaking, which, like that of Chianti, classically relied on the inclusion of white grapes. An astute agriculturalist, Santi pioneered several vineyard practices that made quality red winegrowing possible in Montalcino, such as delaying harvest to increase ripeness. His 1865 red wine, at this point labeled as “brunello,” won two silver medals at the 1869 agricultural fair in Montepulciano.

Clemente was succeeded by his grandson Ferruccio Biondi Santi, who further modernized Montalcino’s wine industry in the face of oidium and phylloxera and isolated the Sangiovese Grosso biotype. Biondi Santi dedicated himself to producing red wines with long aging potential, bottling his “riserva” wines after several years of maturation in botti. He set aside bottles of the outstanding 1888 and 1891 vintages, a handful of which remain in the Biondi Santi cellar. Futher, it was Ferruccio’s work that solidified monovarietal Sangiovese, an unprecedented approach, as a defining characteristic of Brunello wines.

By the dawn of the 20th century, only a few producers were bottling Brunello, and the ravages of World War I further stunted Montalcino’s nascent industry. Though surviving producers, such as Fattoria dei Barbi, Fattoria di Argiano, and Fattoria di Sant’Angelo in Colle (now divided into Il Poggione and Col d’Orcia), had joined by the 1930s, production remained small through the mid-century, despite a strong reputation for quality. Brunello di Montalcino was granted early DOC status in 1966, elevated to Italy’s first DOCG in 1980; its regulations have changed minimally since they were drafted. In 1967, Montalcino producers banded together to form their Consorzio for the promotion of the region’s wines. Several went on to hire Giulio Gambelli as a consulting winemaker, and his palate for Sangiovese has permanently shaped winemaking not only in Montalcino but also throughout Tuscany.

Various wood fermentation and maturation vessels (Credit: Brandon Lee Wise)

In the 1980s, Montalcino began a dynamic period of vineyard expansion. In 1967, there were only 12 producers of Brunello, a number that rose to 74 in 1987, and 208 in 2008. Similarly, planted hectarage grew tenfold between 1968 and 1988, from 80 to 875. The founding of Villa Banfi (now Castello Banfi) in 1978 by American Italian brothers John and Harry Mariani brought additional attention to the appellation and increased demand for its wines, serving as only one example of large-scale investment in Montalcino. In the late 20th century, a series of winemaking culture wars began throughout Italy—the arrival of many Super Tuscans and, in Piedmont, the traditional and modern divide in Barolo and Barbaresco—and Montalcino similarly split into camps of producers, some maintaining more established methods of Brunello vinification, and others leveraging practices to yield more opulent wines that would appeal to international audiences. Often, such wineries turned to smaller maturation vessels, commonly made from new French oak, and sought exaggerated ripeness and extraction.

At the turn of the millennium, many wine critics had taken note of increasingly darker-colored Brunello wines—suspicious for wines that should be entirely Sangiovese. It was unsurprising to some when scandal erupted in 2008, after several of Montalcino’s largest producers came under investigation for the potential inclusion of other grape varieties in their 2003 wines. Rumors spread about tanks of Nero d’Avola and bulk Spanish wine entering the region by night. The press termed the scandal Brunellogate or Brunellopoli. On top of meticulous government oversight and the forced declassification of more than one million liters of Brunello and Rosso wine, the circumstances temporarily damaged Montalcino’s reputation in many of its international markets. Some producers surmise that Brunellogate actually encouraged many of their colleagues to retreat to more restrained and traditional practices. Today, Brunello di Montalcino remains Italy’s most expensive wine, as of 2019 costing €1,085 per hectoliter in bulk, compared with €665 for Barolo and €272.50 for Chianti Classico.

Approximately 3,500 hectares of Montalcino are planted to vineyards, or 15% of the commune. A UNESCO World Heritage Site, Montalcino has reached its maximum allotted vineyard hectarage. Montalcino winegrowers must obtain rights to vinify Brunello or Rosso wines, the total of which have also been doled out by the Consorzio. A new producer wishing to bottle Brunello would need to purchase both the land and rights from another winery, which would then forfeit its production of Brunello.

Montalcino is a single commune, with the town of the same name sitting on a hill near the square-shaped appellation’s center. The landscape gently undulates, more open and less forested than Chianti Classico, as well as warmer and more exposed to the moderating effects of the Mediterranean Sea. While many producers doubt that subzones will ever be formalized, as many as eight have been proposed to the Consorzio. In general, the side north of the Montalcino hill, whose town reaches above 550 meters in elevation, is susceptible to frost and has proven more challenging for viticulture. Some producers, however, anticipating the effects of climate change, have recently shown greater enthusiasm for northern vineyards. Wines grown nearer to Montalcino itself, in the DOCG’s oldest soils, are praised for their elegance, while wines from the warm, southern end of the appellation can achieve the most ripeness and power.

Brunello is famously taught to be harvested from Sangiovese Grosso, a larger-berried, thick-skinned set of Sangiovese biotypes. Such clones—for example the B-BS11, isolated at Biondi Santi—have historically provided the backbone for Brunello wines. However, the disciplinare authorizes all Sangiovese clones, and contemporary Montalcino vineyards make use of an assortment of them, including the CCL 2000 suite. By law, Brunello di Montalcino, as well as Rosso di Montalcino, must be composed entirely of Sangiovese.

Montalcino lays claim to mandating the longest minimum maturation periods of any dry, (CHECK) nonfortified wine in the world, including such famously long-aged wines as Rioja Gran Reserva. The requirements are as follows:

Producers working in the most traditional style will age their wines in large Slavonian-oak botti, but those taking a contemporary approach might choose French, often new, barriques. While Riserva wines are undoubtedly more expensive than their Annata (annata meaning “year” and referencing basic Brunello di Montalcino) counterparts, some criticize the category of being overly oxidative and not necessarily higher in quality than regular Brunello. Several winegrowers have become increasingly conscientious of oxidation for both Brunello and Riserva wines, taking measures to improve longevity, such as harvesting earlier to preserve acidity and practicing more reductive handling throughout vinification.

A separate DOC exists for Rosso di Montalcino, which provides producers an opportunity to bottle younger Sangiovese wines. Wines can be released as early as September 1 of the year following harvest, allowing for a more vibrant, fresher wine intended for earlier consumption. Many producers will relegate their youngest or lowest-performing vines to their Rosso programs, but others are more stalwart in pursuing a distinctive character for quality Rosso wines. While Rosso is considered the entry-level wine in a Montalcino winery’s portfolio, the volume of Rosso production is actually lower than that of Brunello. Approximately 4.5 million bottles of Rosso di Montalcino are bottled annually, compared with 8 million bottles of Brunello and 1 million of Riserva.

In addition to Rosso and Brunello, Montalcino also forms a portion of Chianti Colli Senesi, while two separate DOCs, Moscadello di Montalcino and Sant’Antimo, follow the same boundaries as Brunello. Moscadello di Montalcino offers the present-day incarnation of the wine that brought Montalcino its initial renown, before being supplanted by Sangiovese. Moscadello is vinified from a clone of Moscato Bianco (Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains), believed to be autochthonous to the area, though some continue to debate if what is grown today is the same as what was cultivated in the 19th century. Although the historic Moscadello di Montalcino wines were sparkling, today’s Moscadello wines can also be late harvest (or often made using appassimento techniques) as well as still (CHECK- and dry?). Only Il Poggione currently makes a sparkling Moscadello, produced using the Charmat method. Production of Moscadello di Montalcino remains small, and Biondi Santi, whose Moscadellos were once prized, harvested its final vintage in 1969. 

Montalcino’s wine quality pyramid (Credit: Brandon Lee Wise)

Sant’Antimo was created in 1996 as a reaction to the success of Super Tuscan wines. It takes its name from the Benedictine monastery in the southern end of the appellation. Sant’Antimo offers much looser regulations than Brunello di Montalcino, allowing, most consequentially, the inclusion of French grape varieties. The DOC has achieved little market recognition, and hectarage deeded to Sant’Antimo dwindled from 900 to 450 between 2008 and 2011 alone. Producers who wish to make more internationally styled wines from French varieties are more likely to label them as Toscana IGT, seeking to harness the greater brand power of Tuscany. 

Montepulciano

As the name of its top wine, Vino Nobile, suggests, Montepulciano has a winegrowing history that is illustrious as well as ancient. In his History of Rome, Livy cites Gallic interest in the Etruscan settlement that is today Montepulciano. Eight centuries later, in 789 CE, documentation specifies vineyards in the area, while a source dating back to 1350 details the trade and export of Montepulciano wine. Precisely when the town’s wine was granted the epithet Vino Nobile is unspecified, but, in the 16th century, Sante Lancerio, wine steward to Pope Paul III, wrote of the Roman bishop’s favor toward Montepulciano. In 1685, Francesco Redi, in his Bacchus in Tuscany, further dubbed Montepulciano’s output the “the king of all wines.”

Despite admiration for Montepulciano’s wines during medieval and Renaissance times, by the early 20th century, the area’s brand recognition had faded, and its reputation suffered in the shadows of Chianti and Montalcino. In the 1920s, wineries such as Fanetti pushed to modernize Montepulciano’s industry, but the ensuing decades were dominated by cooperative winemaking, with most local production dedicated to Chianti rather than Vino Nobile. It was not until the 1980s, with the efforts of such producers as Avignonesi and Poliziano, names that continue to lead the appellation, that a revival of Vino Nobile began. Investment followed from major Italian names, including Ruffino and Antinori, while a series of quality-driven small producers harvested their first vintages around the same time. Planted hectarage dedicated to Vino Nobile has more than doubled, from 615 hectares in 1980 to 1,300 hectares in 2013. Vino Nobile di Montepulciano was granted early DOC status in 1966 and elevated to DOCG in 1980.

Like Montalcino, Montepulciano occupies a single commune of the same name in the province of Siena. It lies just northeast of Montalcino, near Tuscany’s border with Umbria. The production zone is noncontiguous, with the Val di Chiana separating the largest vineyard area and the town of Montepulciano with a smaller eastern sector. The DOCG reaches its highest elevations, above 500 meters, toward its western extreme, though plantings are most concentrated near the center of the denomination. The temperature in Montepulciano is slightly lower than it is in Montalcino, and there is less of a maritime influence, though the commune does receive higher rainfall.

Montepulciano also fits within the boundaries of the Chianti Colli Senesi subzone, and its wine quality ladder is structured similarly to that of Montalcino. The youngest wines are bottled as Rosso di Montepulciano, itself a separate DOC. Aging requirements in Montepulciano are as follows:

Rosso, Vino Nobile, and Riserva each demand a minimum 70% Sangiovese, given the local moniker Prugnolo Gentile. As in Chianti and Chianti Classico, authorized Tuscan grapes account for the remainder. Although white varieties, such as Malvasia Bianca Lunga and Trebbiano Toscano, are permitted for up to 5% of a blend, quality producers will rarely include them. (White varieties do, however, have a dominant role in Montepulciano’s revered vin santo wines.) While often disregarded as the more rustic sibling to Chianti Classico and Brunello, top Vino Nobile merits consideration among the finest expressions of Sangiovese. Stylistically, Vino Nobile is often riper and less acidic than Chianti Classico, and a bit more angular than Brunello di Montalcino, especially in blended wines, but less oxidative.

Vin Santo

In addition to their red wines, Chianti, Chianti Classico, and Montepulciano, as well as Carmignano, each have separate DOCs for vin santo. Furthermore, vin santo is mentioned as a permitted wine style within a great deal of other Tuscan and Italian denominations. With the potential exception of Marsala, vin santo is Italy’s most famous dessert wine. Its origins lie in the Middle Ages with the flood of passito-style wines on the Italian Peninsula that followed the technique’s rediscovery during the Crusades. The etymology of vin santo has been cause for debate. Translated from Italian, it means “holy wine,” a potential reference to the wine’s role during Communion. It is more likely, however, that the name derives from Vino Santorini, a reference to the Greek vinsanto, crafted using similar methods.

Tuscan vin santo spent centuries outside commercial production. Sharecroppers were traditionally allowed to produce a small amount of vin santo each vintage, which they would store in the attics of their homes in an estate’s outbuildings. Vin santo was poured at special occasions or as a gesture to welcome guests. It was not until the latter half of the 20^th century that Tuscan wineries bottled any meaningful amount of vin santo for sale. In 2006, production of Vin Santo del Chianti Classico almost doubled, as a result of white grapes being banned from the Chianti Classico blend. While many of those white vines have inevitably been uprooted or grafted over to Sangiovese, some producers have seized the opportunity as a means to bolster their vin santo program.

Tuscan vin santo is most traditionally a blend of Trebbiano Toscano and Malvasia Bianca Lunga. WhereasTrebbiano is more acidic, Malvasia provides richness to the vin santo blend, as well as aromatic complexity. Sangiovese, which might also be blended into some vin santo wines, is the predominant grape in occhio di pernice, which means “eye of the partridge,” a reference to the reddish hue of this rare subcategory. 

Following harvest, clusters are left to desiccate in a drying room, or appassitoio. Typically, these rooms are on the upper story or in the attic of an outbuilding, with open windows on opposite walls to maximize ventilation. As with a Sherry bodega, the terroir of the appossitoio and the character of the extended drying season are said to contribute to the expression of any given vin santo. While indoors, grapes remain vulnerable to rot during the post-harvest period. Winemakers have various options for the specific mechanism used to dry the grapes. For top-quality vin santo production, the most common tactic is either hanging garlands of the clusters vertically or laying them on bamboo shelves. Hypothetically, stringing the bunches is preferential, as it allows for 360 degrees of exposure. Bamboo shelves, however, avoid the toll of gravity on the bunches and permit some aeration from beneath through the spacing of the reeds.  

The duration of drying is a key indicator of vin santo style. While minimum requirements vary based on the appellation—Vin Santo di Montepulciano, for example, necessitates that clusters remain in the appassitoio until December 1 for standard vin santo, and January 1 for Riserva and Occhio di Pernice—some producers will exceed regulations by several months, leaving the grapes to dry until as late as early spring. Heavily shriveled by this time, the grapes are traditionally pressed using small basket presses. 

The must is then transferred into caratelli, small barrels historically 50 liters in size. The type of wood varies broadly and can include acacia, cherry, peach, mulberry, or mixed-stave barrels, but the most traditional is chestnut. Juniper has been widely abandoned due to the astringency it can impart on the wines. Wineries take pride in the age of their caratelli, some approaching a century in age. As these vessels deteriorate, they are often replaced by oak barrels. The preferred cooperage for caratelli is Renzi Francesco, better known for the manufacture of similar barrels used for Modena balsamic vinegar.

In another parallel to balsamic production, each caratello holds a madre (mother). This sludgy mass of yeast and old wine is employed to induce fermentation and remains at the bottom of the caratello between fills. Some wineries can trace the origins of their madre back several generations. Once filled with the new must, caratelli are traditionally sealed with wax for the duration of the vin santo’s maturation. Winemaking then remains almost entirely hands off until bottling, and vin santo producers will cite dramatic differences in character between adjacent caratelli as well as high evaporation, enhancing the category’s oxidative profile. The duration spent in wood will vary based on producer and appellation requirements. Vin Santo di Montepulciano demands three years of wood maturation, increased to five for Riserva and six for Occhio di Pernice. Many producers will far exceed the minimums presented by their denominations.

Vin santo production (Credit: Brandon Lee Wise)

Vin santo can demonstrate a tremendous degree of diversity. Wines that undergo a longer period of drying and maturation will show more richness and viscosity, while vin santi that are made according to the minimum requirements taste fresher. Volatile acidity is often high, and the wines will display oxidative, sometimes Sherry-like characters. Occhio di pernice wines might appear a couple shades darker than white vin santi, and will express nuanced herbaceous, tobacco-like flavors. Sweetness levels vary widely, from relatively dry examples to those that can easily exceed 250 grams per liter of residual sugar. Vin santo is traditionally enjoyed with cantucci, small biscotti-like cookies that can be dunked into the wine. 

San Gimignano

Just west of Chianti Classico, the township of San Gimignano, whose medieval skyline is recognized for its gravity-defying tower houses, and its surroundings are home to Tuscany’s most famous white wine: Vernaccia di San Gimignano DOCG. A staple in the royal courts of Europe during the Middle Ages, San Gimignano’s historic liqueur-like wine has purportedly included such illustrious fans as Dante, Giovanni Boccaccio, and Franco Sacchetti (though the occasionally nebulous documentation of simply Vernaccia obscures the precise wines they exalted). Vernaccia’s cultivation in the vicinity is well documented from the 13th century through the late Renaissance, with vineyards planted at most of the noble estates, and the variety reaching its peak of popularity in the 1600s. The following two centuries, however, brought a period of decline, as consumers were drawn toward new, foreign beverages, such as coffee, tea, and other options for alcohol. Revival first began in the 1930s, when agricultural professor Carlo Fregola sought to repopulate the area with Vernaccia, though his efforts were halted with the onset of World War II. Vernaccia di San Gimignano was awarded Italy’s first DOC in 1966, elevated to DOCG in 1993.

San Gimignano’s vineyards are planted between 200 and 400 meters in elevation, on a series of hills. Soils consist mostly of sandy-clay yellow tuff, loose in structure and with high drainage. As mentioned, the variety Vernaccia di San Gimignano is unrelated to the other grapes with Vernaccia in their names, and today it is made into a dry wine, in contrast to its historical use in sweet wine production. It must account for a minimumof 85% of the DOCG blend, with the remainder coming from nonaromatic accessory varieties. Vernaccia di San Gimignano is typically a somewhat neutral wine, with orchard fruit flavors and a subtly bitter marzipan character. Critics have long decried the wine as less interesting than the town that grows it, but fine examples can be found, with higher quality consistently achieved within the past several years. Vernaccia di San Gimignano can exhibit a semioxidative quality, more prominent in the Riserva wines that often spend time in oak. Vernaccia shows an affinity for wood, taking well to a fuller body and nuanced barrel flavors, though heavy-handed use of oak can dull many Vernaccia wines. San Gimignano DOC allows for Sangiovese-based red and rosato wines as well as vin santo.